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THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

AMERICANA 


In  Thirty  Volumes 


1918 

THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  AMERICANA 

CORPORAnON 

NEWYORR  CHICAGO 


l>^8»?«>^i<>^3»«OiS<>{S&;50^«>i!S^^ 


Copyright,  1918 

DV 

Tbe  Encyclopedia  Auekicana  Cokpokation 


doyGeiogIc 


127054 
IG  '2  i9l9 


ARTIAL  LIST  OF 


TRIBUTORS  TO  VOLUME  V 


IlTRBS,  HASR7  MORGAN,  PIU>. 

Aadstant  Profesjor  of  English,  Columbia  Oniveraity 

CANTERBURY  TALES,  THE 
BURT.  P.  A.,  S.TX^  I.L3. 

AuthcK  of  "  Church  and  State  is  Uu  UoiMd  Stales 
of    Anusrim "    "  The    Roman    Court."       L»«h1 
Tenure   of  Church   Propertj'  in 


[y  Trading  Corapamca  of  Nn 


BREWSBR,  WILUAM  T.,  AM. 

Pnfeaaor  of  Engiish.  Columbia  Vm\ 

CALEB  WILLIAMS 
CASLYLE,  THOMAS 

BRTCE,  OTORGE,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Meober  of  Coniervatian  Commiaai 
Ri/al  Commi«uon  on  Teobni 
(1110-13).  and  of  Royal  Society 
Roearch  (1916) 

CANADA— TECHNICAL    EDUCATION 
CANADA  —HUDSON'S  BAY  COMPANY 


COCHRANE,  CHARLES  H 

Author  of  "  Modem  Indu>trial  Progren  " 

CABLE,  SUBMARINE 
CANNING     AND     PRESERVING     IN- 
DUSTRY 
CAR  BDILDING  INDUSTRY 
CARRIAGE 

COLBY,  CHARLES  W.,  Ph.D. 

Fonnerly  Professor  of  History,  McC5iIl  Dniveraity 

CANADA  — UNDER     FRENCH     RULE 

(1632-1755) 
CANADA  —  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE  TO 

CONFEDERATION  (1760-1864) 
CANADA  —  JESUIT  ESTATES  ACT 

COI^MAN,  ARTHUR  P.,  PhJ>. 

Profewor  of  (^sokigy,  Univenity  of  Toronto 

CANADA  —  MINERALS 
CORHYM,  JOHB  HUBERT,  B.A.,  LL3. 

Editorial  Staff  of  The  Americana 

CAMPOAMOR    Y    CAMPOOSORIO. 

RAMON  DE 
CARDUCCI,  GIOSUE 

COUMBE,  CLEMENT  W. 


CALDEE6n  DE  LA  BARCA,  PEDRO 


CANADjI  —  LITERATURE 
CAIRNS,  WnUAM  B.,  PI1.D. 

AantUut  Ptofwaot  of  American  Litenture.  Uai- 
venilyof  Wiacoiuin 

BUNKER  HILL  ORATIONS 
CALLAHAN,  JiMSS  M.,  Ph.D. 

Profeaiar  gf  Hiitcrry  and  Political  SdeoM,  Wett 

CANADA  -  DIPLOMATIC  RELATIONS 
OF    UNITED    STATES   WITH 

CARIBBEAN— AMERICAN  INTERESTS 
AND  DIPLOMATIC  RELATIONS  IN 

CAHFIBLD,  ARmUR  G.,  A.M. 

Prof  aBtor   of  Ilonu 
Michigan 

CANDIDE 


COWIE,  JOHN  J. 

Department  t*  Marine  and  Pidierica,  Ottawa 

CANADA  —  FISHERIES 
CREIGHTOK,  JAMES  E.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Proteaaor  of  Logic  and  MetajAriJcs.  Cornell  Uni- 


CARVER,  THOMAS  N.,  PhJD.,  LL.D. 

Profe««or    of   Mitieal    Econcaiy,    Harvard    Dai- 
CAPITAL 

COATS,  H.  H. 

Dominion  Statiitidan  and  Controller  of  Ccniui 

CANADA  —  POPULATION 
CANADA  —  MANUFACTURES 
CANADA— WATER  POWERS 
CANADA  — THE  LABOR  MOVEMENT 


BUTLER,  JOSEPH 
CAMBRIDGE  PLATONISTS 
CABTESIANISM 


,  PhJ). 

Profesior  of  Engliib,  Vale  Univenity 

BULWER-LYTTON,  EDWARD  GEORGE 
EARLB 

DAKE,  CHARLES  LAWRENCE,  A.M. 

of  Mini 


DE  l£ON,  EDWIN  W.,  LL3. 

Preaident  of  The  Ouiulty  Company  of  Anurks 

BURGLARY  INSURANCE 
DERRY,  JOSEPH  T., 

Author  of  "  History  of  Georgia  " 

CALHOUN,  JOHN  CALDWELL 
DICKINSON,  THOMAS  H.,  Ph.B.,  Ph.D. 

AMoeiate  Profewor  of  En^i«h.  Univenity  of  Wia- 


d=,  Google 


Contributors  to  Volume  V — Continued 


DOnGHTT,  ASTHOR  G.,  LittD. 

Doniinko  Archivut;  Author  of  "  Tha  B 


DUITCAIC,  DAVm  H. 

Antbor  of  "  The  Slory  of  the  C_ 
Co11c«iaU  InnHutc  manicag 

CANADA  — THE  CANADIAN  WEST 


FERIUS,  RICHASD,  C^,  D.Sc. 


ColumbiB 


HAULIH,  ALFRED  D.  F.,  A.H. 

Profoaor  of  the  Hiitwy  of  Arcli 
Univenitir 

BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 
HARRY,  JOSEPH  B.,  FliJ>. 

Author  oi  "  The  Oreek  Tnoie  Poeti."  ate 

BYZANTINE  EMPIRE 
BYZANTINE  LITERATURE 

Hm>RICE,  EABLB  RATHOHD,  PbJ>. 

Profeaior  of  Uatbenutic*.  Univenitv  of  MJMOori 

CALCULUS  OF  VARIATIONS 
mOERSOU.,  ERHBST 

NMurolitt  knd  Author 

BUTTERFLY 

CARIBOU 

CASSOWARY 


CARMEN  (OPERA) 

EBLLOOO.  VERAON  L^  A^  M.S. 

PnfeaoT  of  Bnwaiokisy,  Lduid  Sunfonl  Jt^ 
UnhrBTBty 

BURBANK,  LUTHER 
JEHHETT,  F.  G. 


CARBIDE 

CARBOHYDRATE 

CARBOLIC  ACID 

CARBOLINEUM 

CARBON 

CARBON  COMPOUNDS 

CARBON  DISULPHIDE 

CARBON  DIOXIDE 

FODRSBT,  A.,  S.S.,*ud  HEVEU,  J.R.,  S.S.,  D  J). 

Lav>]  UmvcnJty.  MontnaU 

CANADA  — CATHOLIC  CHUROI  IN 
GfiRIN,  leON,  LL3. 

Member  de  U  SociiU  IntenutioiuilB  de  Science 
SoaBle 

CANADA  — THE  FRENCH  CANADUN 
GODFREY,  BRJNBST  H.,  P.S.S. 

Editor.  Ccnnic  end  Statistica  Office.  Ottam 

CANADA  —  AGRICULTURE 
CANADA  — THE  GRAIN  TRADE 

HAGUE,  DTSOH,  DJ>. 

Vicar  of  the  Church  of  tha  Bnphanjr,  Tonmto; 
Profeaior  of  Litmvica.  WycliOe  CoU^e.  Toroato 

CANADA  —  RELIGIOUS  CONDITIONS 
HAHILTOn,  C.  P.,  Ueat-CoL 

DepertiDent  of  Militia  and  Delenae.  Ottawa 

CANADA  —  MILITARY  SYSTEM 
LMJ}. 


CANADA  —  BANKING  SYSTEM 
CANADA— CURRENCY,  COINAS*ND 

LEGAL  TENDER  ^ 

KENHEY,  JAHBS  F. 

Public  Archivia  of  Canada,  OtUwa      > 

CANADA  —  CATHOLIC  EDUCTION 
KERK,  WILLIAM  A.  R.,  PhD.        j' 

Dean  of  the  Uoivmity  of  Albarta    , 

CALGARY,  CANADA 
KLEIH,  HEHBJ  F. 

Ij-bniriao  •■  LoaOoa  Timea,"  IsmJW;  GditmaJ 
Staff  "  London  Standard,"  190S-(  »™1  Stall  o( 
The  Americana  I 

BULGARIA  '  _„ 

BULGARIAN  LANGUAGE  iD  LITER- 
ATURE I 


LAMONT,  HAMMOHD 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


^'j^»" 


CANADA  —  OEOGRAPHM 
LAnOWORTHY,  (SARUS  fJ>.Sc.  PIU>. 

Unitad  Statea  Departmant  of  pwolture 

CALORIMETER  ' 

LEACOCK,  STEPHEN,  Ph.D.iittJ>. 

ProfMoro<  Sconamict  and  pjical  Soiam,  MeOBl 
Ummnitr 

CANADA  —  CLERGY  bSERVES 
CANADA  —  LOCAL  GOpRNMENT 
CANADA  —  IMPERIAlf  EDERATION 
CANADA  —  PUBLIC  ^CATION 
CANADA  —  THE  ASHHRTON  TREATY 
CANADA  — WASHINOON  TREATY 
CANADA  —  GRANGES  MOVEMENT 

LEHHOX,  PATRICK  JOSE^,  B.A.,  UttD. 

ProfemiT    of    Enaliib    L^uwe    and    Litnl 

The  Catholic  Univertii«(  Araanca 

CARLETON.  WILLUi 
LDCKIBSH,  M. 

NeU  Reiearch  Laborator)CIanland 

CAMOUFLAGE 
LOMMIS,  CHARLES  FL^CHER,  UttD. 

Pounder    EmerihK    of  (he    Southwert    Muaenm. 
Founder  and  Preiidi^  of  L— ' <-  '^'■■*- 

CALIPORNIA 


Ly  Google 


Contributors  to  Volume  V— Concluded 


LEOHASD^TDAHT,  CHAKLES,  BJL 

Bditmuil  3mS  of  The  Amnicuw 
BURMA 

UOBTHAIX,  WnXIAH  DOTJW,  H.A. 

Autlw   of   "  Tlu    Palae   Cluvalier";    Founder  of 
Chatun  da  Ramuy  HiKoricil  Hiuenm.  etc. 

CANADA  —  THE  ACADIAN  REFUGEES 
LOISEAUZ,  LOUIS  A.,  B.S. 

AiBKwU    ProCamr  of    Rothukm  Iahsuuh  *ad 
Litentuna,    Bunud    CoUcse,    Columtu    Uni- 

CARMEN 
MACHECHAN,  ARCHIBALD,  Ph.D. 

pToUartr    at    Bngliih    LaBguua    uid 
DalhDon  Colksa,  K>li(a> 

CANADA  —  THE      MARITIME     PROV- 
INCES TO  CONFEDERATION 

HAOIB,  WnXUH  FRANaS,  PbJ). 

lyottuQt  of  Phytts,  Prioeeton  Uoivertitr 

CAPILLARITY 


SCHMIDT,  NATHAlflEL,  A.H. 

Pnifenor  of  Samitic    LuvuBgei 
CorncU  Uoivereity 

CANTICLES 
SCOTT,  W.  D. 

Saperiuteailnit  of  Immiflratioa,  OttoWB 

CANADA  —  IMMIGRATION 
SBATH,  JOHN 

Superintendent  □(  Bdjotion.  Ontario 

CANADA  —  SECONDARY    EDUCATION 
SHORTT,  ADAM,  LLJ>. 

Chairman  of  Board  oC  RistDricaJ  PubUcatkna, 
Public  Archivn  of  Canada 

CANADA—  WAR  ECONOMICS 
CANADA— COMMERCE,  TARIFFS  and 

TRANSPORTATION 
CANADA  —  PUBLIC  FINANCE 

SMITH,  GOLDWIN,  LLJ).* 

Ponner-ly  Regnu  Profoior  ot  Modern  Hiatory  of 
the  Univenty  of  Oiford.  and  Bmeritut  Prcfeaor 
of  Cornell  Univenity 

CANADA  —  CONFEDERATION 
CANADA  — THE  CONSTITUTION 


CANADA  —  PRIMARY  EDUCATION 
MplDBITKE,  RICHARD,  E.H.,  PliJ3. 

specialise  on  Metallurgy  of  Cut  Iron  and  Eiit 

in  Malleable  Caitingi 

CAST  IRON,  MALLEABLE 


nmLSOIt,  WILLIAM  A.,  Ph.D. 

ProfeiKiT  of  Bngliah.  Harvard  Uni' 

BURNS,  ROBERT 
PAnAROHl,  ALFRED  O^  B.S. 


CALCULUS.  THE  INFINITESIMAL 


CARRIAGE  AND  WAGON  INDUSTRY 


BYRON,  GEORGE  GORDON 
UnDEBHILL,  JOEK  GARBETT,  PIlD. 

Repreaentative  of  the  Sociedad  de  Autorea ' 
in  the  United  Statea  and  Canada 

CARTAS  OF  FEIJOO 
WmiFOSD,  NOBLE  B.,  A3. 

Author  of  "  Hiitory  of  New  York  Canal 

CANALS 


CALVIN,  JOHN 
BIKBS,  IRVZHG  B. 

Author  of  "  Hiatory  of  United  Statea  " 

CABINET    AND    CABINET    GOVERN- 
MENT 


WOOD,  FRAiraS  CARTER,  MJ>. 

Dinclor  ot  Cancer  Reaearch,  Columbia  Univtnity 

CANCER 
WROHO,  OSOROE  H.,  HJL 

Profnior  of  Hiatory,  Uniyenity  of  Toroato 

CANADA  —  OUTLINE  HISTORY  AND 
POLITICAL  DEVELOPMENT 

CANADA  —  CANADA  AND  THE  EURO- 
PEAN WAR 

CANADA  —  SINCE  CONFEDERATION 

CARTIER,  SIR  GEORGE  ETIENNE 


d=vGe^ogIc 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 


far,    father 
fate,  hate 
r  i     at,  fat 

ado,  sofa 

all.  fall 

choose,  diiirdi 

eel,  we 

r  i      bed,  end 

her,  over:  also  Fr.  e  as  in  de; 
M,  as  in  tieitf;  and  oeu,  as  in 
boeuf,  coeur;  Ger.  5  (or  ot), 
as  in' okonomie. 

befall,  elope 

agent,  trident 

oft,  trou^ 

gas,  get 

anguish,  guava 

hat.  hot 

r  H    Ger.  eh,  as  in  nicht.  vackt 

what    • 

file.  Ice 

I       him,  it 

between  e  and  i,  mostly  in 
Oriental  final  syllables,  as, 
Ferid-ud-din 

gem,  genius 

quaint,  quite 


mingle,  ^n( 
bank,  ink 


not,  0 


com,  nor 

atom,  symbol 

book,   look: 

oil,  soil ;  also  Ger.  e 
>    fool,  rule 
V  allow,  bow^rit 

satisfy,  sauce 

show,  sure 

thick,  thin 

father,  diither 

mute,  use 

but,  US 

pull,  put 


1  Fr.  , 


(consonantal)   yes,  young 
pleasant,   rose 
azure,   pleasure 

a  indicate 


d=,  Google 


W^k  Balkan  I^eninsula  (q.vT),  southeastern 
•^^  Europe.  Bulgaria  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  E^ube  and  Rumania; 
on  the  east  by  the  Black  Sea ;  on  the 
south  by  Turkey  and  the  £gean  Sea ;  and  on 
the  west  by  Serbia  and  Greece.  Before  the 
Balkan  Wars  (q.v.)  in  1912-13  the  estimated 
area  of  the  countt?  was  24,380  square  miles, 
and  of  South  Bulgaria  ( formerly  Eastern 
Rumelia)  13,700  square  miles,  total  38^000 
square  miles.  According  to  tile  census  of  1900 
the  total  population  was  3,744,283;  In  1906, 
4.028i60;  in  1910,  4,337,516.  By  the  Treaty  of 
London  {30  May  1913)  Bulgaria  had  gained  a 
large  amount  of  territory  from  Turkey,  but 
being  discontented  with  her  share,  she  turned 
against  her  former  allies  (29  June  1913)  and 
was  severely  defeated  in  the  second  Balkan 
War  and  in  consequence  lost  much  of  what  she 
had  won,  Rumania  intervened  and  acQuired 
about  2,900  square  miles  of  territory.  Bulgaria 
finally  secured  only  about  10,000  square  miles 
from  Turkey,  while  she  lost  nearly  3,000  square 
miles  of  her  own  territory  to  Rumania, 
with  a  population  of  about  273,000,  Balkan 
statistics,  nowever,  should  be  accepted  with 
considerable  reserve,  as  it  is  rare  to  find  any 
two  authorities  in  agreement.  The  most  re- 
cent fibres  obtainable  ove  the  kingdom  of 
Bulgaria  an  area  of  43,320  square  miles,  and  a 
total  population  of  4,467,000,  made  up  of  Bul- 

gtrians,  Turks,  Rumanians,  Greeks,  Serbs, 
ypsies.  Tews,  Russians,  Germans  and  other 
nationalities.  Before  1913  Bulgaria  was  divided 
into  12  districts  Saint  Zagora,  Bourgas,  Vidin, 
Fhilippopolis,  Vama,  Rustchuk,  Tirnovo,  Chou- 
men,  Pleven,  Sofia,  Kustendil  and  Vratia.  The 
capital  is  Sofia  (q.v.),  with  a  population  of 
103,000;  other  chief  towns  are  Philippopolis, 
Vama.  Rustchulc,  Slivno,  Shumla  and  Plevna. 

Soil,  Climate,  Industry.— The  surface  of 
Old  Bulgaria  is  a  graduallj^  sloping  plain, 
broken  by  occasional  mountains,  which  give 
rise  lo  rapid  tributaries  of  the  Danube.  The 
Balkan  Mountains  or  Stara  Planina  are  describ- 
ed under  Balkan  Peninsula  and  Balkan  Moun- 
tains. There  is  little  mining,  although  the 
mountains  are  rich  in  minerals  iron,  gold, 
silver,  manganese  and  copper.  Ttie  soil  is  ex- 
cellent and  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  are 
richly  wooded.  The  climate  is  healthy,  and  the 
country  enjoys  the  reputation  of  possessing 
more  centenarians  than  any  other  in  Europe. 
People  stated  to  be  105  to  125  years  of  age  are 


to  unreliable  records  and  memories  than  to  any 
virtues  of  climate.  Over  70  per  cent  of  the 
people  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  most  of 
them  own  freehold  plots  on  which  they  pay  a 
small  land  tax,  while  they  enjoy  free  rights 
over  communal  grazing  and  timber  lands.  A 
considerable  quantity  ot  grain,  chiefly  wheat,  is 
exported;  fruit  and  vegetables  are  raised  in 
abundance;  roses  are  largely  cultivated  for  the 
production  of  the  attar,  which  is  exported  to 
the  value  of  $1,500,000  per  annum.  Wine  is 
plentiful  and  cheap ;  sincworms  are  bred  in 
some  re^ons  and  tobacco  forms  an  important 
crop.  Stone  quarries  and  government  coal 
mines  are  in  operation ;  domestic  industries  are 
chiefly  carpets,  hosiery,  woolen  and  cotton 
eoods  and  ribbons.  The  highways  arc  sUlI  in  a 
Backward  condition ;  most  of  the  traffic  is  car- 
ried on  by  the  rivers,  and  export  trade  by  the 
Black  Sea  ports  of  Vara  and  Bourgas ;  pas- 
senger and  merchant  steamers  run  between 
Varna  and  Constantinople  (150  miles).  Rust- 
chuk, Vidin  andtgls^S^  are  the  chief  pamibft 
ports.  There  is  a  rallroaj  systcnT  oi  nearly 
1,500  miles  in  the  kingdom;  Sofia  is  connected 
with  the  general  European  system,  and  several 
new  lines  are  projected  or  are  in  course  of  con- 
struction one  to  run  from  the  Danube  lo  the 
.£gean  Sea.  The  National  Bank  of  Bulgaria 
(capital,  84,000,000)  has  over  60  brancVs; 
there  is  also  a  State  Agricultural  Bank,  and 
a  French,  a  German  and  an  Austrian  bank. 
On  1  April  1916  Bulgaria  abolished  the  Julian 
calendar  (old  style),  which  is  13  days  behind 
ours,  and  adopted  the  Gregorian  calendar.  Sta- 
tistics of  1914  showed  the  Bulgarian  revenue 
as  $S1J99,000;  in  1915,  $55,135,975;  expenditure, 
1914,  $51,352,520;  in  1915,  $55,073,240;  national 
debt,  1915,  $231,496,540.  Imports,  1914,  $44,586,- 
860;  exports,  1914,  $28,813,372. 

Government.— Bulgaria  is  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  Legislative  authority  is  vested  In 
the  Sobranje,  a  national  assembly  consisting 
of  only  one  chamber,  to  which  members  are 
eleclea  at  the  rate  of  one  representative  to 
every  20,000  of  the  population.  The  members 
are  paid  for  their  services;  elections  arc  held 
every  four  years  unless  the  Sobranje  is  dis- 
solved by  the  King  before  the  expiration  of  its 
term.  With  certain  exceptions,  every  man  over 
30  is  eligible.  For  decisions  concerning  highly 
important  matters  of  state  the  Sobranje  is 
doubled  by  special  election  and  resolved  into  a 
"Grand  Sobranje."    The  catnnet  is  composed  of 


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Religion. —  The  national  religion  of  Bui' 
Karia  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  orthodox  Greek 
Chnrch,  but  it  is  independent  of  that  body. 
Over  75  per  cent  of  the  population  beloi^  to 
that  faith;  the  remainder  are  Uohamineaans, 
Jews,  Roman  Catholics,  Protestants  and  Grego- 
rian Armenians,  whose  ancestors  seceded  from 
the  Greek  Church  in  the  5th  century.  The 
University  of  Sofia  is  open  to  women  as  wdl 
as  men ;  the  state  subsidizes  education,  which 
is  obligatory  and  free  to  those  who  cannot  p&y 
for  it.  There  are  also  Greek,  Turkish,  Ameri- 
can, Jewish,  French,  Armenian  and  German 
schools,  and  education  is  further  promoted  by 
free  libraries,  rousetuns  and  technical  schools. 

MiUtsry  Service.— Despite  its  small  popu- 
lation, Bulgaria  possesses  a  large  and  efficient 
army.  It  gave  a  good  account  of  ilseH  in  the 
Serbian  War  of  1885,  and  a  still  better  one  in 
the  Balkan  Wars.  Recruiting  is  by  conscrip- 
tion ;  Moslems  are  exempt  on  payment  of  a 
tax  of  SlOO  each.  Every  other  Bulgarian  sub- 
ject is  liable  to  26  years  service,  and  the  army 
IS  consequently  composed  of  many  different 
races.  Besides  the  pure-bred  Bulgars,  there 
are  Turks,  who  cannot  pay  the  tax,  Poraakes 
(settlers  and  nomads),  Jews  (•Spanioles*  and 
Poles),  Serbs,  Greeks,  Rumanians,  Armenians, 
Gypsies,  Circassians,  and  naturaliied  Russians, 
Germans  and  Levantines.  The  army  actually 
dates  from  January  1878.  From  1389,  when 
the  Turks  defeated  the  Slav  allies,  till  1878, 
the  Bulgarians,  as  Christian  subjects  of  Turkey, 
had  been  exempt  from  military  service.  The 
soldiers  are  well-treated,  thou^  hard-worked, 
and  very  particular  attention  is  paid  to  their 
spiritual  welfare.  Should  a  regiment  contain 
but  one  Jew  and  one  Mohammedan,  a  rabbi 
and  a  dervish  arc  provided.  The  barracks  are 
comfortably  built  and  equipped  with  appliances 
calculated  to  promote  the  health  of  the  troops. 
Large  mirrors  and  framed  pictures  adorn  me 
walls;  drunkenness  is  practically  unknown,  and 
little  smoking  is  indulged  in.  The  Bulgarian 
oflker  takes  his  profession  seriously,  working 
and  studying  hard  with  do^ed  pertinacity  and 
living  withm  his  income.  The  basis  of  the 
arrays  theoretical  teaching  and  science  is  Ger- 
man; drill,  ranks  and  names  are  Russian.  The 
corps  of  reserve  officers  —  about  3,000  ^  is  com- 
posed of  merchants,  lawyers,  teachers,  etc. 
There  is  a  military  academy  at  Sofia.  The 
war  strength  of  the  army  is  considerably  over 
300,000.     A  few  gunboats  and  about  a  doien 


make    up    Bulgaria's   floating 


Hiatory.— The  Bulgarians  were  originally 
a  Tartar  nation,  which  in  the  4lh  century  set- 
tl^_on^^the  Volga.  The  ruins  of  their  former 
capital  may  still  be  seen  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Kazan.  Their  kingdom,  which  occupied  a 
part  of  the  Asiatic  Sarmatia  of  the  Greeks,  was 
called  Great  Bulgaria,  and  is  now  comprehended 
in  the  Russian  government  of  Orenburg.  They 
afterward  removed  to  the  countries  between  the 


Bog  and  the  Danube  and  called  their  territories 
Second  Bulgaria.  The  first  Bulgarian  kingdom 
south  of  the  Danube  was  founded  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  7th  century,  but  the  Bulgarians  who 
established  it  were  comparatively  few  In  num- 


ber, and  after  their  adoption  of  Christiani^  in 
the  9th  centuty  they  became  completely  mixed 
up  with  the  Slavonic  inhabitants,  though  the 
woole  became  known  as  Bu^rians.  The  great- 
est ruler  of  this  kingdom  was  Symeon  <888- 
927),  who  subjugated  the  greater  part  of  the 
peninsula  and  raised  the  Archbishop  of  Bul- 
garia to  a  position  independent  of  the  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople.  Under  the  son  of 
Symeon  this  empire  fell  to  pieces.  The  weitem 
half  broke  oS  and  formed  a  separate  kingdom, 
with  Ochrida  in  Macedonia  for  its  capital ;  and 
the  eastern  portion  was  subdued  by  the  Byzan- 
tine Emperor,  John  Zimiscea,  who  reincorpo- 
rated it  with  the  empire.  The  western  Bulganan 
kingdom  existed  only  till  about  1018,  when  it 
also  was  subdued  by  Basil  II,  «the  slayer  of  the 
Bulgarians.*  Toward  the  end  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, however,  the  Bul^rians  revolted  and  man- 
aged to  establish  a  third  kingdom  between  the 
Balkan  range  and  the  Danube,  which,  some- 


ruler  of  this  kingdom  was  conquered  by  Bajai... 
I  about  1390,  and  for  neai^  500  years  the 
Turks  mled  supreme.  In  1876i  on  a.ccount  of 
the  atrocities  of  the  Turkish  soldiers,  an  insur- 
rection broke  out.  Russia  took  the  part  of  Bul- 
garia against  Turkey,  and  the  war  of  1877-78 
followed.  (Sec  Batak),  By  the  first  article  of 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  13  July  1878,  the  princi- 
pality of  Bulgaria  was  constituted,  made  tribu- 
tary to  Turkey  and  placed  under  the  suzerainty 
of  the  Sultan.  In  1879,  Alexander  of  Batten- 
berg,  a  German  prince,  was  chosen  sovereign 
of  part  of  Bulgaria,  the  rest  being  made  a  sepa- 
rate province,  called  Eastern  Rumelia,  to  pre- 
vent Bulgaria  from  becoming  a  strong  state. 
In  1885  there  was  a  revolution  in  Eastern  Ru- 
melia, which  annexed  itself  to  Bulgaria. 

The  annexation  of  Eastern  Rumelia  led  to 
a  (luarrel  with  Russia;  Tsar  Alexander  III 
withdrew  all  Russian  officers  who  had  been 
training  the  Bulgarian  army  and  were  still  serv- 
ing in  It  King  Milan  of  Serbia  considered  the 
moment  ripe  to  realize  the  territorial  aspira- 
tions of  his  country  and  declared  war  on  Bul- 
garia. 14  Nov.  1885,  (See  Serbs- Bulgarian 
Was_)  .  After  a  short  sharp  campaign  the 
Serbians  were  defeated  but  saved  from  extinc- 
tion by  the  intervention  of  Austria.  Russian 
and  Bulgarian  conspirators  abducted  Prince 
Alexander  and  set  up  a  government  under 
Russian  tutelage.  A  counter- revolution,  headed 
by  Slambuloff  (qv.),  succeeded  in  restoring 
the  Prince  within  a  few  days.  Unfortunately 
Alexander  made  a  false  move  when  he  tele- 
graphed to  the  Tsar  and  offered  to  resign  his 
crown  into  Russian  hands.  This  step  turned 
Bulgarian  opinion  against  him;  he  was  com- 
pelled to  abdicate  and  leave  the  country  on  9 
Sept.  1886.  For  II  months  Bulgaria  remained 
without  a  ruler,  its  affairs  being  managed  W 
a  regency  under  the  leadership  of  Stanibulolf. 
This  statesman,  an  innkeeper's  son,  was  a  rude, 
violent  man,  of  uncouth  manners  but  sincere 
patriotism.  He  had  been  largely  responsible 
for  throwing  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  now 
fought  strenuously  to  resist  the  aggression  of 
Russia.  The  Russian  candidate  for  the  throne 
was  rejected  and  Prince  Valdemar  of  Denmark, 
to  whom  it  was  offered,  refused  the  honor. 
Stambubff  sent  a  commissioD  round  the  Euro- 


Digit  zed 


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pean  capitals  to  finil  a  prince  for  the  vacant 
Mst.  Their  choice  eventually  fell  upon  Prince 
Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  son  of  Prince 
Augustus  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  and  Princess 
Cl^entine,  dauehler  of  King  Louis  Philippe 
of  France.  At  the  time  of  his  election  (7  July 
1887),  Prince  Ferdinand  was  26  and  an  officer 
in  the  Austrian  Hussars.  The  task  that  lay 
before  hint  was  difficult  and  the  enterprise  most 
precarious.  Though  he  never  achieved  the  ^p- 
ularity  of  his  predecessor,  the  new  Pnnce 
broufpbt  his  undoubted  ability  and  ambition  to 
the  regeneration  of  Bulgaria.  Aided  by  Stam- 
buloS,  who,  like  Bismarck,  was  the  master  of 
his  sovereign,  Ferdinand  produced  order  from 
chaos  with  an  iron  hand.  None  of  the  Powers 
would  recognize  him,  and  it  took  nine  years 
before  he  succeeded  in  wearing  down  the  an- 
tagonism of  those  within  and  without  his  do- 
main. Me  cultivated  the  friendship  of  Turkey 
and  Rumania  and  ccunbated  the  Russian  influ- 
ence permeating  Bulgaria.  It  would  perhaps 
be  more  correct  to  ascribe  the  strong  anti- 
Russian  policy  to  Stambuloff  rather  than  to  the 
Prince;  me  former  was  the  fortiter  in  rt  to  the 
suaviter  in  modo  of  the  latter.  With  but  one 
passion  —  love  of  his  country  —  StambulofE 
labored  ruthlessly  and  merciless^  for  a  master 
whom  he  despised,  whom  he  would  neither 
flatter  nor  betray.  Stambuloff  cared  nothing 
for  the  man;  only  for  the  nationality  he  rep- 
resented. With  fiery,  self -sacrificing  energy 
Stambulof!  developed  the  resources  of  his  coun- 
try—  railways  financial  reform,  education  — 
creating  an  efficient  army  and  fostering  every 
type  of  commerce  and  industry.  Dunng  the 
seven    years    that   Prince    Ferdinand   and   his 


into  fierce  hatred.  By  describing  his  conduct 
in  an  official  communication  as  'infamous,* 
Prince  Ferdinand  goaded  Stambulofl  into  res- 
ignation in  1%M.  Stambuloff's  request  that  he 
be  permitted  to  visit  a  foreign  healdi  resort 
was  refused.  He  made  a  public  declaration 
that  he  would  be. murdered,  and  on  15  July 
1695  his  prognostication  was  fulfilled;  he  was 
murdered  and  mutilated  l^  four  men  in  the 
streets  of  Sofia  in  the  presence  of  the  police. 
One  of  his  hands,  which  was  cut  off  in  the 
struggle,  is  said  to  be  still  preserved  in  his 
home,  to  tie  buried  on  the  day  when  bis  murder 
is  avenged. 

From  the  moment  of  StambulofTs  resigna- 
tion Prince  Ferdinand  took  the  reins  into  his 
own  hands.  For  the  next  10  years  a  succession 
of  premiers  wrestled  with  the  chaotic  finances 
of  the  country  and  the  thorny  question  of 
Macedonia.  Efforts  were  made  to  establish 
friendly  rebtions  with  Russia  and  Austria, 
Prince  Ferdinand's  eldest  son,  Boris  <b.  30 
Jan.  1894)  had  been  baptized  a  Roman  Catholic, 
the  religion  of  his  parents^  at  the  age  of  two 
he  was  rebaptized  and  received  into  Uie  Ortho- 
dox Greek  Church,  the  Tsar  standing  as  his 
sponsor.  Rus^  ften  recognized  Prince  Fer<U- 
nand,  and  the  other  Powers  followed  suit. 
The  Jdinister  for  Public  Works  in  Stambuloffs 
last  cabinet  (1892-94)  was  a  Bulgarian  jour- 
nalist, M.  Petkoft,  who  had  previously  been 
mayor  of  Sofia.  He  was  walking  with  Stam- 
bnloS  at  the  time  the  latter  was  murdered. 
In  1903  General  Petroff  became  Premier,  and 
Pctlrofi  joined  the  cabinet  as  Minister  of  the 

'1  Li 


Interior.  On  the  reswnation  of  General  Pet- 
roff (5  Nov.  1906),  M.  PetkoS  was  called  to 
the  helm  of  Bulgarian  affairs.  He  belonged 
to  the  party  known  as  the  Slambuloff  section 
of  the  Liberals,  distinguished  by  its  irrecon- 
cilable hostility  to  Russian  influence  in  the 
Balkans.  Less  than  five  months  (11  March 
1907)  later,  Petkof!  was  ^ot  dead  on  the 
street  by  a  dismissed  employee  of  the  Agri- 
cultural Bank.  The  accession  of  Count  von 
Aehrenthal  (qjO  as  Austrian  Foreign  Minister 
in  October  190o  was  destined  profoundly  to 
influence  Balkan  affairs,  and  especially  those 
of  Bulgaria.  For  many  years  Bulgaria  had 
been  begging  the  Powers  to  relieve  het  of  the 
burden  of  the  'Capitulations,'  a  relic  of  Turk- 
ish rule.  According  to  these  rules,  a  foreign 
subject  could  not  be  arrested  except  in  uie 
presence  of  a  kavass,  dragoman  or  some  other 
consular  official,  or  tried  without  similar  super- 
vision. Practically  all  the  other  Powers  had 
signified  their  readiness  to  abolish  the  Capitu- 
lations if  consent  thereto  could  be  obtained 
from  every  one  of  them.  Austria-Hungary, 
however,  had  hitherto  always  objected  to  any 
change.  Within  a  month  of  taking  office.  Count 
von  Aehrenthal  rendered  this  service  to  Bul- 
garia, which  cost  Austria  nothing  and  yet  laid 
the  principality  under  a  great  obligation.  By 
this  simple  stroke  the  dual  monarchy  assured 
to  itself  the  warm  sympathy  of  Bulgaria  to  an 
extent  long  absent  from  their  relations.  For 
10  years  it  had  been  the  policy  of  Count  Golu- 
chowsl^  (Aehrenttial's  predecessor)  to  play 
ofi  the  Slav  against  the  non-Slav  Balkan 
States,  e.g.,  Greece  and  Rumania  against  Bul- 
garia and  Serbia,  inclining  toward  the  foTm.er 
and  treating  the  latter  in  a  magisterial  manner 
that  aroused  bitter  resentment.  Austria's 
'graceful  concession*  paved  the  way  for  two 
important    events    profitable    to    both    parties. 


was  able,  in  19&,  to  annex  Bosnia-J  _  _ 
govin^  despite  the  fierce  opposition  of  Serbia. 
To  Pnnce  Ferdinand,  the  removal  of  the  Capit- 
ulations was  the  first  step  toward  the  realiza- 
tion of  his  larger  policy  —  complete  independ- 
ence from  Turkish  suzerainty,  and  a  royal 
crown.  In  September  1908,  Pnnce  Ferdinand 
was  received  with  royal  honors  at  Budapest; 
12  days  later  fS  October^  Bulgarian  independ- 
ence was  proclaimed  ana  the  Prince  took  the 
title  of  Tsar  of  Bulgaria;  two  days  later  Em- 
peror Francis  Joseph  issued  a  proclamation 
that  Austro-Hungarian  sovereignty  was  ex- 
tended to  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  The  mo- 
ment was  well  chosen ;  the  Young  Turk  revolu- 
tion had  just  achieved  its  object;  the  Committee 
of  Union  and  Progress  ruled  in  Constantinople, 
and  there  seemed  every  prospect  of  Turlrey 
becoming  a  united  and  enlightened  nation, 
strong  to  reassert  her  claims  on  Bosnia-Herze- 
govina and  suzerainty  over  Bulgaria.  Shadowy 
indeed  those  claims  were,  for  public  opinion 
in  western  Europe  had  long  ceased  to  consider 
them  valid.  The  fact  that  Timovo  (Tmovo) 
was  chosen 'as  the  scene  of  the  proclamation 
of  the  re-establishment  of  the  Bulgarian  king- 
dom added  to  the  dramatic  interest  of  the 
situation,  for  no  ponion  of  the  Bulgarian  soil 
is  so  intimately  associated  with  the  most  stir- 
ring events  of  the  national  history.  The 
church  of  the  Forty  Martyrs,  wheron  the 
Prince  read  the  procumatioB,  wai  built  in  1230 


:,  Google 


by  John  Asen-  'Tsar  and  Autocrat  of  the 
Bulgariatis,*  wnose  inscription  on  one  of  the 
pillars  reads :  'I  smote  the  Greek  army  .  .  . 
and  all  lands  have  I  conquered,  from  Adrian- 
ople  to  Durazzo,  the  Greek,  Ihe  Albanian,  and 
the  Servian  land.  .  .  .■  Here  the  Bulgarian 
Tsars  were  crowned  and  buried,  and  many 
inscriptions  of  those  times  still  adorn  the  walls. 
Turke};  claimed  $24,000,000  as  compensation; 
Bulgaria  offered  $7,600,0(X1.  An  agreement  was 
arrived  at  through  the  intermediary  of  Russia, 
who  advanced  most  of  the  money;  in  April 
1909,  the  Powers  recognized  Bulgaria  as  an 
independent,  sovereign  s' 


fhe 


foi 


Bulgaria  was  the  formation  of  the  Balkan 
League  (q.v.)  and  the  Balkan  Wars  in  1912  and 
1913.  However  much  Bulgaria  was  to  Jilame 
for  the  second  war,  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest 
(10  Aug.  1913),  imposed  upon  her  ty  Sertia, 
Montenegro,  Rumania  and  Greece,  was  a  colo9< 
sal  blunder  on  the  part  of  those  who  dictated 
It  left  Bulgaria  sullen  and  dissatisfied,'  and 


of  Macedonia  inhabited  chiefly  by  Bulgars. 
SeAia  and  Greece  had  obtained  most  of  the 
spoils,  and  Rumania  had  rectified  her -frontier 
at  Bulgaria's  expense.  This  legitimate  griev- 
ance was  destined  to  affect  the  course  of  the 
great  European  War  (q.v.)  that  broke  out  a 
year  later.  The  sympathies  of  Rumania  were 
with  the  Allies,  but  she  could  not  enter  the 
war  without  an  understanding  with  Bulgaria. 
On  behalf  of  Greece,  M.  Ventzelos  had  prom- 
ised the  support  of  his  country  to  Great  Britain 
and  France  if  the  necessity  should  arise.  In 
a  communication  to  Kmg  Constantine  (11  Jan. 
1915)  he  pointed  out  that,  if  Greece  allowed 
Serbia  'to  be  crushed  to-day.  ...  we  should 
have  to  submit  to  the  disturbance  of  the  Balkan 
equilibrium  in  favor  of  Bulgaria,  who,  thus 
strengthened,  would  either  now  or  some  time 
hence  be  in  a  position  to  attack  us,  when  we 
should  be  entirely  without  either  a  friend  or  an 
ally.'  He  proposed  to  make  'adequate  con- 
cessions' to  Bulgaria;  but  he  confessed,  *on 
account  of  Bulgaria's  greed,  it  is  not  at  all 
certain,  whatever  concessions  we  make,  that 
we  shall  be  able  to  satisfy  her  .  .  .  .»  There 
was  every  indication  that  Bulgaria  mi^ht  have 
beer  won  for  the  Allies  had  her  price  been 
paid,  as  her  most  distinguished  generals 
favored  a  Russian  alliance;  but  nothing  was 
done  to  conciliate  her.  The  Bulgarian  Premier, 
M.  Radoslavoff,  declared  in  July  and  again 
in  August  that  Bulgaria  was  prepared  to  enter 
the  war  as  soon  as  she  received  the  necessary 
gi^rantees.  _  But  the  Russian  disaster  in  d>e 
Carpathians  and  the  failure  of  the  Dardanelles 
campaign  persuaded  King  Ferdinand  that  by 
joinmg  Germany  and  Austria  he  would  be  on 
the  wmning  side.  A  secret  treaty  was  signed 
about  17  Jmy  1915  between  Bulgaria,  Germany, 
Austria  and  Turkey.  Bulgaria  was  promised 
lier  price.  In  the  shape  of  Serbian  Macedonia, 
with  Salonica  and  Epinis  thrown  in.  During 
September  began  the  Austro- German  ■  advance 
that  was  to  deal  the  final  blow  to  Serbia.  On 
the  21st  M,  Veniielos  asked  the  Allies  tor 
150,000  men;  they  were  promised  on  the  24th, 
and  Greece  began  mobilizing.  Btdgaria  w^s 
also '  mobilizing ;  a  depiitation  of  ex-ministers 
-waited  on  the  King  and  warned  tini  agMnit 


joining  the  Central  Powers.  Serlna  proposed 
on  the  27th  to  attack  Bulgaria,  as  the  presence 
of  German  and  Austrian  officers  in  Sofia  looked 
suspicious,  but  Great  Britain  opposed  the  plan, 
apparently  still  harboring  belief  in  the  Bul- 
garian declaration  of  *armed  neutrality.*  Had 
(he  Serbians  not  counted  till  the  last  moment 
on  Greece  fulfilling  her  treaty  obli^tions,  it 
is  probable  that  they  would  have  disregarded 
the  British  advice.  On  the  3d  of  October  the 
Russian  government  addressed  a  note  to  Bul- 
garia declaring  that  there  was  no  longer  any 
doubt  'as  to  tne  object  of  die  present  military 
preparations,*  and  Uie  Russian  Minister  was 
instructed  to  leave  Sofia  if  the  Bulgarian  gov- 
crtmient  did  not  *open!y  break  with  the  enemies 
of  the  Slav  cause  and  of  Russia  within  24 
hours  by  sending  away  the  officers  belonging 
to  the  armies  of  states  who  are  at  war  with  the 
Powers  of  the  Entente.'  An  unsatisfactory 
reply  led  to  a  rupture  of  diplomatic  relations, 
and  Bulgaria  formally  entered  the  conflict  on 
5  Oct.  1915.  On  the  19th  an  imperial  mani- 
festo issued  in  Petrograd  stated  that  "the  Bul- 
garian troops  have  attacked  our  loyal  ally 
Serbia,  already  bleeding  in  a  struggle  against 
a  stronger  enemy,'    See  Wab,  Europeaw. 

Bibliography.— AbadjielT,  C,  'Die  Han- 
delspolitik  Bul^riens'  (Munich  1910)  ;  An- 
drassy,  J.,  'La  Bulgarie  et  la  guerre  generate* 
(Budapest  1916);  Anon,  'Ferdinand  of  Bul- 
garia: the  amazing  career  of  (London  1916)  ; 
Anon,  'Nationalism  and  War  in  the  Near  East' 
(Oxford  1915);  Baker,  Valentine  (Pasha), 
'War  in  Bulgaria'  (London  1879)  ;  'Balkani- 
cus'  (pseud.),  'The  Aspirations  of  Bulgaria,* 
translated  from  the  Serbian  (London  1915); 
Barkley,  H.  C,  'Between  the  Danube  and  the 
Black  Sea:  or.  Five  Years  in  Bulgaria'  (Lon- 
don 1876),  and  'Bulgaria  before  the  War' 
(London  1877)  ;  Beaman,  H.,  <M.  Stambalofl> 
(London  1895)  ;  Blanqui,  J.  A.,  "Voyage  en  ' 
Bulgarie  pendant  Tannic  1841'  (Paris  1843): 
Bousquet,  G.,  'Histoire  du  peuple  Bulgare' 
(Paris  1909) ;  Brailsford,  H.  N.,  'Macedonia: 
its  races  and  their  future*  (London  1906)  ; 
Buelens,  F.,  'La  Btilgarie  contemporaine' 
(Brussels  1905);  Bulgaria  of  To- Day:  official 
edition  of  the  Bulgarian  ministry  of  commerce 
and  agriculture  (London  1907) ;  Calarv  de  La- 
mariire,  R.,  'Les  Caintulations  en  Bulgarie' 
(Paris  1905)  ;  Caleb,  A.,  'La  Bulgarie  et  Ic 
traiti  de  Berlin'  (Geneva  1909)  ;  &mbon,  V., 
'Antour  des  Balkans'  (Paris  1890);  Chaunler, 
A,  'La Bulgarie;  ^ude  d'histoire  (Uplomatique* 
(Paris  1909) ;  Cholet,  Count  A.  P.  de,  'Etude 
sur  la  guerre  Bulgaro-Serbe'  (Paris  1891); 
Curtis,  W.  E.,  'The  Lost  Provinces  of  Turkw' 
(Chicago  1903)  ;  Dicey,  E.,  'The  Peasant  State: 
Bulgaria  in  1894'  (London  1894);  Drander, 
A.  G.,  'Evfinements  politiques  en  Bulgarie' 
■(Paris  1896),  and  'Cinq  ans  de  rigne:  le  prince 
Alexandre  de  Battenberg  en  Bul^rie'  (Paris 
1884);  Dupuy-Peyou,  L.  L..  'La  Bulgarie  agx 
Bulgares'  (Paris  1896) ;  Eliot,  Sir  C,  'Turkey 
in  Europe*  (London  1908) ;  Falkenpgg,  Baron 
von,  'Butgaricn,  Vergangenhrit  una  Gegen- 
wart'  (Berlin  1900) ;  Floericke,  K.,  'Geschichte 
der  Bu\garen'  (Stuttgart  1913)  ;  Forbes,  Toyn- 


:F.,  'Bulgaria'  (London  1915);  Gladstone,  W. 
'E.,  /Lessons  in  massacre :  or,  the  conduct  of, 
'^♦Ke  'Turkish  government  iti  vndabotit  Bulgaria' 


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BULGARIAN  LANOUA(»  AHD  UTERATURS 


since  May,  1876»  (London  187?)  ;  Gubernati*. 
Comte  de,  *Lc  Balgarie  et  !es  Bulgares'  (Flor- 
ence 1899) ;  Guechoff,  J.  E.,  'The  Politics  of  the 
Balkan  League*  (London  1915);  Guirin  Son- 
gcon,  R.  P.,  'Hiatoire  de  la  Bolgarie'  (Paris 
1913) ;  Herbert,  W.  V,  tBy-Palhs  in  the  Bal- 
kans* (London  1906)  ;  and  •The  Chronicles  of 
a  Virgin  Fortress,  being  some  unrecorded 
chapters  of  Taridsh  and  Bulgarian  history' 
(London  1896) ;  Hilferding  A.  F.,  'Geschichte 
dcr  Serben  und  Bulgaren'  (BautEen  1864) ; 
Huhn,  Maj.  A.  von,  'The  Struggle  of  tlie 
Balkans  for  National  Ind^endence  under 
Prince  Alexander'  (London  1886) ;  Huyshe, 
W.,  'The  Liberation  of  Bulgaria:  war  notes 
in  1877'  (London  1894) ;  HreCck,  C  J^  'Ge- 
schichte  ocr.  Btilgaren'  (Piagfue  1876),  and 
<I>u  Fuerstenthnm  Buteanen*  (Prague  1B91) ; 
KantU,  F.  P.,  'Donau-Bu^rien  und  der  Bal- 
kan' (Leipzig  1882)  ;  Kazezes,  N.,  'Greeks  and 
Bulgarians  in  the  19th  and  20th  Centuries' 
(London  1907) ;  Koch,  A,  *Prince  Alexander 
of  Battei^rf;:  reminiscences  of  his  reign  in 
Bulgaria*  (London  1887)  ;  Lamouche,  L.,  <La 
Bnlgarie  dans  le  passi  et  le  pr^ent*  (Paris 
1892);  Landemont,  Comte  A.,  'L'ilan  d'un 
peuple:  la  Bulgarie  iusqu'au  traiti  de  Londres 
1861-1913*  (Paris  1914);  Leger,  L,  <La  Bnl- 
garie' (Pans  1885) ;  Launay,  L.  de,  "La  Bul- 
garie  d'hier  et  de  demain'  (Parts  1912) ;  Uac- 
donald,  J.,  'Czar  Ferdinand  and  his  People' 
(New  York  1913)  ;  Macfie,  R.  A,  'With  gypsies 
in  Bulgaria*  (Liverpool  1916);  MacGahan,  J. 
A^  'The  TuHash  Atrocities  in  Bulgaria'  (Loo- 
don  1876)  ;  Mach,  R.  von,  'The  Bulgarian  Ex- 
archate' (London  1907);  Mahoney,  P.  C. 
'Bulgaria  and  the  Powers*  (Dublin  1915) ; 
Uildoaitch,  F.,  'Vergleichende  Grammatik  der 
bulgarischen  Sprache'  (Vienna  1879)  ;  Miller. 
W.,  'Travels  and  Politics  in  the  Near  East' 
(London  1898),  and  'The  Balkans'  (New 
York  1896)  ;  Moeller,  R.,  'Der  Serbisch-Bul- 
gariscbe  Krieg  1885'  (Hanover  1891)  ;  Moltke, 
'The  Russians  in  Bulgaria  and  Rumelia  in 
1828  and  1829'  (London  1854)  ;  Monroe,  W.  S, 
"Bulgaria  and  ber  People'  (Boston  1914) ; 
Moore,  F..  "The  Balkan  Trail'  (New  York 
1906);  MorfiU,  W.  R.,  "Grammar  of  the  Bul- 


don  1912);  Muzet,  A.,  'Aux  pays  Balkaniques* 
(Paris  1912)  ;  Pears,  Sir  E.,  'Forty  years  in 
Constantinople'  (London  1916)  ;  Pnce,  W.  H. 
C,  'Li^t  on  the  Balkan  Darkness'  (London 
1915);  Pypin  and  Spasovitch,  'History  of  the 
Slavonic  Literature*  (Paris  1881);  Report  of 
the  International  Cotnmi^sion  to  inqture  into 
the  causes  and  conduct  of  the  Balkan  War' 
(Washington  1914)  ;  Ruland,  W.,  'Auszug  der 
bulgarischen  Gescbichte'  (Berlin  1912);  St. 
Gair,  S.  G.,  and  Brophy,  C.  A,  'A  Residence  in 
Bul^ria*  (London  1869)  ;  Samueison,  J.,  "Bul- 
tpna  past  and  present'  (London  1888)  ;  Scelle, 
G.,  "La  situation  diplomatique  de  la  Bulgarie 
avant  la  proclamation  de  son  ind^ndence* 
(Revue  g«i.  de  droit  intemationa],  Paris  1906)  ; 
Schuiman,  'The  Balkan  Wars'  (Princeton 
1915) ;  Stambler,  B.,  'Los  Roumains  et  les 
Bulgares:  k  iraitd  de  Bucarest'  (Paris  1914); 
StoyanofF,  Z.,  'Autobiography  of  a  Bulgarian 
Insurgent'  (London  1913) ;  Strausz,  A.,  'Die 
Bulgaren*  (Leipzig  1898);  Toub,  F..  'Reisen 
und  gc^giscfae  IJntetsachungen  in  Bulgarien* 


(\^enna  1890) ;  Vymazal,  F.,  "I^  Bnlgarische 
Sprache  schnell  und  leicht  zu  erlemea* 
(Vienna  1888) ;  Ward,  Capt  M.  C.  'Handbook 
of  the  Armies  of  the  Balkan  States'  (War 
Office,  London  1900)  ;  Wiesner,  A.  IC,  'Ans 
Serbien  und  Bulgarien*  (Leipzig)  ;  Woods,  H. 
C,  'The  Danger  Zone  of  nurope*  (London 
1911);  also,  'Washed  by  Four  Seas'  (London 
1906).  See  also  bibliography  under  Balkan 
Peninsula  and  Bauun  Wabs. 

Heuri  F.  Klmn. 
Editonat  Staff  of  The  AmtricoHa. 
BULGARIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LIT- 
SRATURB.  Bulgaria  and  the  adjacent  dis- 
tricts of  Macedonia  are  considered  to  have  been 
the  cradle  of  the  old  Slavic  languages.  The 
ancient  Bulgarian  language  was  ihe  richest  of 
them  all,  and  was  the  scriptural  language  of 
the  Greek-Slavic  Church  and  the  great  medium 
of  ecclesiastical  literature  in  the  ancient  Slavic 
lands.     The  Russian  language  is  said  to  have 


tury,  while  the  future  empire  was  still  i 
state  of  semi-barbarism.  The  Russian  tot  _ 
has  preserved  many  inflections  which  the  Bul- 
^rian  has  lost  After  the  overthrow  of  the 
Bulgarian  kingdom  at  the  close  of  the  14tli 
century,  the  grammatical  structure  and  JiuriV 
of  the  lanfpiage  became  impaired  by  mucture 
with  the  'A'allachian,  AltKinian,  Rumanian, 
Turco-Tartar  and  Greek  vernaculars;  and  the 
modern  Bulgarian  language  has  only  the  nom- 
inative and  vocative  of  the  seven  Slavic  cases, 
all  the  rest  being  sup^Ued  by  prepositions.  It 
Bas~an  article,~wldch  is -put  arter  the  wor'd  it 
qualifies,  like  that  of  the  Albanians  and  Wal- 
lachians.  Among  ancient  Bulgarian  ecclesias- 
tical literature  must  be  mentioned  the  transla- 
tions of  the  Bible  by  Cyril  and  Methodius,  and 
the  writings  of  John  of  Bulgary  in  the  10th 
century.  Grammars  of  the  Bulgarian  language 
have  been  published  by  Neofyt  in  1835  and  by 
Christiald  in  the  following  year.  Venelin,  a 
youn^  Russian  scholar,  sent  to  Bulgaria  by  the 
Russian  archxographical  commission,  published 
in  1837  a  grammar  and  two  volumes  of  a  his- 
tory of  the  Bulgarians,  but  died  white  he  was 
engaged  in  preparing  a  third  volume.  A  new 
grammar  was  given  to  the  public  by  Bogojev 
in  1845  and  finally,  in  1849,  by  the  Rev.  E. 
Riggs,  an  American  missionary  stationed  at 
Smyrna,  who  also  sent  a  Bulgarian  translation 
of  Gallaudet's  'Child's  Book  on  the  Soul'  to 
New  York.  I^ctionaries  of  the  Bulgarian  lan- 
guage have  been  compiled  by  Neofyt  RilskL 
who  also  published  a  work  on  education,  and 
Stojanowicz.  A  Bulgarian  version  of  the  New 
Testament  was  printed  at  Smyrna  in  1840  for 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The 
Bulgarian  national  songs  are  niunerous,  and  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  Serbians.  C^elakowsky'a 
collection  of  Slavic  songs  contains  a  number 
of  Bulgarian  songs.  Bobojev  has  published 
several  nistoricalooems.  Among  more  recent 
writers  the  poet  (Thrislo  BoteS  (d.  1876),  who 
exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  the  national 
^irit,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  poets 
Bulgaria  has  prodticed;  while  the  poet-novelist 


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BULGAKIN  —  BULKBLRY 


Russia,  and  Rumania.  Many  are  translated  into 
Engli^  and  other  languagea.  Ivan  Vlaikofi 
depicts  peasant  life  and  writes  fisycho logical 
romances ;  Michailovski  is  a  brilliant  political 
journalist,  a  mystical  poet  and  a  satirist  of 
French  education;  Aleko  Constantinov  was  a 
lawyer,  literary  critic  and  translator  of  French 
and  Russian  masterpieces,  and  a  humorist  of 
a  high  order.  Perhaps  the  greatest  literary 
artist  of  all  was  Fencho  Slaveikov,  philosopher, 
poet  and  revolutionist,  who  died  in  1912  by 
the  hand  of  an  assassin.  Competent  critics 
have  designated  him  'the  Bulgarian  Shakes- 
peare" on  account  of  his  bEautiful  language 
and  deep  insight  into  the  mysteries  of  the  soul. 
His  mantle  fell  on  the  shoulders  of  Petko 
TodorofI,  dramatist,  poet  and  philosopher. 
Velitchlcov  translated  from  Shakespeare,  Mo- 
liere  and  Dante;  he  fought  against  the  Turks 
in  his  younger  days  and  later  held  a  govern- 
ment position.  Tserkovsky  is  to  Bulgaria  what 
Bums  was  to  Scotland,  the  bard  of  the  peas- 
antry. Among  the  younger  poets  there  are 
P.  YavorofL  K.  Christof^  C.  BotefF  and  A. 
Strashimiroft,  all  intensely  national  in  the  spirit 
of  their  works.  Bulgaria  can  also  boast  of  a 
number  of  writers  in  other  spheres.  In  his- 
tory, taw,  philosophy  and  economics,  V.  Zla- 
tarsky,  M.  DanefF,  the  well-known  statesman, 
S.  RadeS  and  Stepan  Bobtcheff.  D.  IvanofI 
is  the  Tolstoy  of  the  Bulgarian  short  story  and 
has  all  the  grim  realism  of  the  Russian  mas- 
ter. In  the  scientific  field  are  Ivan  GeorgoS, 
D.  MichaltchieflF,  P.  Neukoff,  G.  Bontcheff  and 
Stepan  Petkoff.  Literary  cnticism  has  its  rep- 
resentatives in  B.  Penncff,  Balabanoff,  Krstieff 
and  Iv.an  Shishmanofl.  There  are  several  lit- 
erary societies  and  important  reviews  dealing 
with  all  aspects  of  human  culture. 

Bibliography. —  See  also  under  Bulgaria. 
—  Constantinofi^  A.,  <Bai  Ganio>  (Paris  1911)  ; 
Dozon,  L.,  'Chansons  bulgares>  (Paris  187S)  ; 
Leskien,  A„  'Handbuch  der  altbulgarischen 
Sprache>  (Weimar  1886)  ;  Miklositch,  F.,  <Ver- 
Kleichende  Grammatik  der  Bulgarischen 
5prache>  (Vienna  1879)  ;  Miladinoff  Brothers, 
'Folk-Songs  and  Proverbs'  (Agram  1861); 
Miletitch,  L.,  '  Staroblmrska  Grammatika' 
(Sofia  1896);  Monroe,  W.  S.,  'Bulgaria  and 
Her  People'  (Boston  1914  — an  excellent, 
cotnprehensive  _work)  ;  Morfill,  W.  R.,   'Gram- 


of  the  Bulgarian  Language'  (London 
;  Pypin  and  Spasovitch,  'History  of  the 
nic  Literature'    (Paris   1881);   SlavcikofT, 


1897);  P: 

Slavonic  , ,,   

P.,  'The  Shade  of  the  Balkans'  (London  1904)  ■ 
Strausi,  A.,  *Bulgarische  Volksdichtungen' 
(Vienna  1895)  ;  Teodorofl,  'BIgarska  Litera- 
tura'  (Philippopolis  1912);  VaiofTand  Velitth- 
kov,  'Bufganan  Chrestomathie'  (Philip- 
popolis 1884);  VaiofT,  I.,  'Under  the  Yoke' 
(London  1912) ;  Vvmaial,  F.,  'Bulgarisch* 
(Hartleben's  Bibliothek  der  Sprachenkunde, 
Vienna  1888)  ;  Winlow,  Gara,  'Our  Little  Bui- 

C Irian  Cousin'   (Boston  1913) ;  'World's  Best 
iterature,>  Vol.  24   (New  York  1897). 

HErriu  P.  Klein, 
Editorial  Staff  of  The  Americana. 
BULGARIN,  bool'gar-In,  FaddCI  Vena- 
diktovich,  Russian  audior:  b.  Minsk  1789; 
d.  13  Sept  1859.  He  served  in  the  Russian 
army,  but,  findit^  himself  neglected,  in  1810 
joined  Napoleon.  In  1319  he  returned  to  Saint 
Petersburg  wher«   hia   writings   attracted   no- 


tice t^  their  inttn&e  satire  and  servility.  In 
1825  he  started  the  Severnaia  Pckeli  (_Nortk~ 
em  Bee),  a  daily  paper,  wnich  for  long  was 
alone  permitted  to  discuss  political  questions. 
A  lealous  su|q>orter  of  reaction  and  of  abso- 
lutism,  he  enjoyed,  through  relations  with  the 
secret  policy  an  unlimited  power.  He  was  a 
witty  and  versatile  writer,  and.  published  travels, 
histories,  novels  and  statistical  works,  even 
signing  his  own  name  to  the  work  of  N.  A. 
Ivanoir,  professor  at  Dorpat. 

BULGARIS,  bool-ga'rei,  Demetrius.  Greek 
statesman:  b.  Hydra  1803;  d.  Athras,  11  Jan. 
1878.  While  a  young  man  he  held  office  in  his 
native  dty  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Grecian  war  for  independence.  In  1831,  after 
the  downfall  of  Cape  d'Istria,  he  had  charge  of 
the  administration  of  the  Department  of  Ma- 
rine, but  on  the  accession  of  King  Otho  he 
retired  from  office.  After  the  revolution  of 
1843  he  was  a  member  of  the  Senate,  and  from 
1848  to  1849  was  Minister  of  Finance  ia  the 
cabinet  of  Canaris.  During  the  Crimean  War 
he  was  at  the  bead  of  the  cabinet  and  as  Min- 
ister of  the  Interior  put  an  end  to  internal  dis- 
order and  conciliated  the  Powers.  In  1857  he 
resigned  and  entered  the  Senate  as  a  leader  of 
the  opposition.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  1862  he  was  made  regent  and  chose 
(^naris  and  Rufos  as  his  colleagues,  but  was 
deposed  by  the  former.  In  1865,  1872  and 
1874-75  he  was  again  at  the  head  of  the  cabinet 

BULGASUS,  Italian  jurist:  b.  Bologna 
in  the  llth  century;  d.  1166.  He  lived  to  a 
great  age  and  was  one  of  the  trusted  advisers 
of  Emperor  Frederick  I.  He  was  one  of  the 
famous  group  of  writers  known  as  the  "Four 
Doctors*  of  Bologna,  and  his  most  noted  work 
is  a  legal  commentary,  'De  ReguUs  Juris.'  It 
was  edited  at  Bonn  ( 1656)  by  F.  G.  C.  Bechhaus. 

BULGURLU,  Moont,  on  the  Astatic 
side  of  the  Bosporus,  rises  over  Skutari  to  a 
height  of  850  feet.  From  the  summit  a  mag- 
nificent view  may  be  obtained  of  Constanti- 
nople, the  Bosporus,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the 
valleys  of  Thrace  and  the  valleys  and  moun- 
tains of  central  Asia  Minor.  Most  of  the  ascent 
can  be  made  in  an  hour  bj;  carriage.  An  im- 
perial kiosk  near  the  summit  was  built  in  1660 
by  Muhammad  IV. 

BULIMIA,  a  disease  characterized  by 
insatiable  hunger.  Persons  suffering  from  this 
disorder  are  never  satisfied.  When  the  stomach 
is  surfeited  they  throw  off  the  food  they  have 
taken,  half- digested,  and  with  violent  pain.  It 
frequently  occurs  in  the  insane,  in  cases  of  pare- 
sis, and  usually  appears  as  a  concomitant  of 
other  diseases,  as  certain  intermittent  fevers 
and  diseases  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  par- 
ticularly such  as  are  produced  by  the  tapeworm. 

BULIMUS,  a  genus  of  land-snails  of  the 
i^ioily  Helicida,  the  species  of  which  are  mainly 
restricted  to  South  America,  especially  Peru, 
Ecuador  and  Bolivia.  Some  of  the  species  are 
very  large,  as  are  also  their  eggs,  those  of  B. 
oblangus  being  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow's. 
There  is  an  egg  of  another  species  in  the  British 
Museum  which  measures  exactly  one  and  three- 
fourths  inches  in  length. 

BULKBLEY,  Morgao  Gardner,  Ameri- 
can politician:  b.  East  Haddam,  Conn.,  26  Dec. 
1837.    At  the  age  of  15  be  entered  a  mercantile 


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BULKELE  Y  —  BULL 


broke  out  he  went  to  the  front  as  a.  private  ir. 
the  13lb  New  York  re^raent  and  served  dur- 
ing the  McClellan-Pemnsula  campaign  under 
General  Mansfield  at  Sugolk,  Va.  In  1872  be 
came  to  Hartford,  organized  and  becanit  pres- 
ident of  tbe  United  States  Bank  In  that  dty,  and 
later  (1S79)  was  elected  president  of  the  v£tiia 
Life  Insurance  Company,  a  position  he  has 
long    held.      For    30    years    he    has    been    a 

fiamineDt  figure  in  local  and  State  politics. 
e  was  four  times  elected  mayor  of  Hartford 
(1880-8S),  and  in  1889  was  elected  governor. 
At  the  Slate  election  in  November  1890,  the 
first  gubernatorial  election  imder  the  new  secret 
ballot  law,  the  Democratic  ticket  received  a 
considerable  plurality  over  the  Republican,  but 
a  majority  being  necessary  to  elect,  there  was 
some  doubt  whether  there  had  been  a  choice 
by  the  people  for  governor  or  treasurer.  Ac- 
cordinefy  the  matter  went  before  the  general 
assembly,  which  met  in  Januaijr  18?1,  and  in 
which  the  Republicans  had  a  majority  of  four 
on  joint  ballot,  the  senate  being  Democratic 
A  long  contest  ensued  between  the  two  houses, 
the  senate  claiming  the  election  of  the  recent 
Democratic  candioales  and  refuung  to  reco^- 
r  Governor  Bulkeleyand 


Stale  Supreme  Court,  in  the  Qvo  wammto  suit 
brou^t  against  Governor  Bulkeiey  by  the  Dem- 
ocratic candidate  for  governor,  found  'Morgan 
G.  Bulkeiey  to  be  governor,  both  de  facto  and 
de  yurf,*  and  his  right  to  hold  over  till  both 
houses  of  the  general  assembly  should  unite 
in  declaring  tbe  election  of  his  successor  was 
affirmed.  As  the  two  houses  could  not  agree, 
the  governor  remained  in  office  for  another  full 
term.  In  November  1892  the  Democratic  ticket 
swept  the  Stale.  He  was  United  States  Senator 
from   190S  to    1911,     Governor   Bulkeiey  has 


s  the  I 


BULKELSY,    Peter,    American    colonut 
and  clergyman:  b.  Bedfordshire,  England,  31 

Sn.  1583;  d.  Concord,  Mass.,  9  March  1659. 
e  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  for  21 
years  was  rector  of  a  Bedfordshire  parish. 
Being  removed  from  this  by  Archbishop  Laud, 
for  non-conformity,  he  left  England  and  be- 
came tbe  first  minister  at  Concord,  in  the  col- 
ony of  Massachusetts,  of  which  famous  town 
he  was  the  chief  founder.  He  was  the  author 
of  some  Latin  poems,  which  are  contained  in 
Cotton  Mather's  'History  of  New  England' ; 
also  of  some  English  verse  and  of  a  tfaeoiogical 
treatis^  'The  Gospel  Covenant  Opened,'  pub- 
lished in  London  in  1646.  He  was  as  remark- 
able for  his  benevolence  and  land  deaKngs  as 
for  the  strictness  of  his  virtues.  Consult  Tyler, 
'History  of  American  Literature'  (New  York 
1878)';  Mather's  'MagnaHa'  (London  1702), 
and  an  article,  'Life  and  Times  of  Rev.  Peter 
BuOceley,'  in  the  'New  England  Historical  and 
Genealogical  Register'  (Vol.  XXXI,  Boston 
1877). 


bulkhead  is  a  wait  or  partition  extending  acrou 
tbe  ship  for  the  purpose  of  dividing  the  hold 
into  compartments,  for  separating  classes  of 
merchandise,  for  strengthening  the  vessel,  or 
more  especially  for  con&ning  water  which  may 
leak  in  to  tbe  compartment  in  which  the  breaui 
occurs.  In  large  vessels  longitudinal  bulkheads 
are  emploved,  as  well  as  those  running  athwart- 
ships,  and  communications  between  the  com- 
partments are  maintained  by  means  of  doors 
which  can  be  instantly  closed  In  case  of  acci- 
dent and  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  forced 
draught.  One  of  me  most  important  bulk- 
heads in  a  ship  is  the  one  farthest  forward, 
which  is  built  with  great  strength,  being  de- 
signed to  withstand  the  shock  of  ramming  and 
confining  the  damaae  to  a  small  portion  of  the 
vessel  It  is  boice  imown  as  the  collision  bulk- 
head. Another  form  of  bulkhead  is  a  strong 
framework  used  in  the  construction  of  tunnels, 
to  prevent  the  irruption  of  water,  quicksand, 
etc.,  into  the  workings.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  facing  (generally  of  timber)  that 
supports  the  sea-wall  of  a  harbor,  and  s 


cellar.    See  SKip-BUiunna 

BULKLKY,  Ludni  Dnncvi,  American 
irfiysician  and  author:  b.  New  Yorl^  12  Jan. 
1845.  He  studied  at  Yale  University  and  at 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and 
took  courses  in  dermatology  in  Europe.  He 
became  attending  and  later  consulting  physician 
and  dermatologist  in  various  New  York  dty 
hospitals.  Among  his  works  are  'Acne  and  Its 
Treatment>  (1885);  'Syphilis  in  the  Innocent' 
(1889);  'Manual  of  Diseases  of  the  Skin> 
(1898);  'Eciema  and  Its  Treatment'   (1901); 


BULL,  ChMriM  Stedman,  American  phy- 
sician: b.  New  York  1846;  d.  there,  17  April 
1911.  He  was  graduated  from  Columbia  Col- 
lege in  186^  and  at  the  College  of  Physii ' 


York,  and  later  studied  in  Vienna,  Heidelberg, 
Berlin,  Utrecht,  I'^ris  and  London,  and  was  a 
pupil  o£  Von  Arl^  Graefe  and  Donders.  He 
was  surgeon  to  the  New  York  Eye  and  Ear 
Infirmary,  consulting  ophthalmic  surgeon  to 
Saint  Luke's  and  Presbyterian  hospitals,  and 
Saint  Mary's  Hospital  for  Children.  He  was 
professor  of  ophthalmoIoEy  in  Cornell  Univer- 
sity and  ranked  among  the  greatest  oculists  of 
his  time.  He  became  president  of  the  American 
Opbtbalmological  Society  in  1903-07.  He  wrote 
'Eye  Defects  Which  May  Cause  Ajinarent 
Mental  Dulness  and  DefiuenCT  in  Children' 
(1901):  'Tuberculosis  of  the  Eye'  (1900); 
both  in  the  'Transactions'  of  the  New  York 
Academy  of  Medicine;  'Vascular  Tumors  of 
the  OrWt>  (1900),  and  other  articles  on  his 
spccialtv  in  the  'Transactions'  of  the  American 
Ophthalmological  Society,  the  Medical  News 
and  MedUal  Record. 

BULL,  George  Joseph,  Canadian  ophthal- 
mic surgeon:  b.  Hamilton,  Ontario,  16  Feb, 
1848;  d.  1911.  He  graduated  at  McGill  Univcr- 
si^  in  1869,  studied  In  Paris,  and  began  the 


.Google 


BULL  — BULL  AND  COW 


practice  of  medicine  in  Montreal,  devoting 
himself  especially  to  diseases  of  the  eye.  He 
made  his  residence  in  Paris  in  1886,  and  won 
celebrity  as  an  expert  in  tnthdiahnic  subjects. 
He  wrote  'Ophthalmia  and  Optometiy,*  and 
many  similar  works. 

BULL,  John,  English  tnusidan:  b.  Somer- 
setshire, about  1563;  d.  Antwerp,  12  Mardi 
1628.  He  was  appointed  organist  in  the  Queen's 
Chapel  in  1591 ;  first  music  lecturer  at  Gresham 
College  in  1596:  and  organist  to  James  I  in 
1607,  A  Catholic,  he  fled  beyond  the  seas  in 
1613,  and  at  Brussels  entered  the  archdnke'3 
service.  In  1617  he  became  organist  at  Ant- 
werp Cathedral.  Little  of  his  music  Jias  been 
printed.  The  claim  advanced  for  his  audior- 
^p  of  'God  Save  the  King,'  is  unfounded. 

BULL,  Jolm,  the  popular  personification 
for  the  ^glish  nation.  Its  origin  is  obscure. 
Its  first  literary  use  appears  to  .have  been  in 
-  Arbuthnot's  famous  'History  of  John  BiilL' 
written  in  ridicule  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
The  name  is  also  used  for  an  Englishman. 

BULL,  Ole  Bomemann,  Norwegian  vio- 
linist: b.  Bergen,  5  Feb.  1810;  d.  near  there, 
17  Aug.  1880.  He  went  to  Cassel  in  1829,  where 
for  a  short  time  he  studied  under  Spohr,  re- 
turning later  to  Bergen.  He  went  to  Paris 
in  1831,  where  at  first  he  met  with  little  su^ 
ces^  being  robbed  of  his  few  belongings,  in- 
cluding his  violin.  His  attempt  at  suicide  at 
this  time  secured  him  a  patroness,  Mme.  VtUe- 
minot,  who  provided  him  with  a  Guameri  in- 
strument He  secured  great  triumphs  both 
throughout  Europe  and  in  America  by  his 
remarkable  paying,  which  won  for  hirii  a  dis- 
tinct and  unique  position  in  the  musical  world 
as  a  virtuoso  of  extraordinary  talent  and  a 
master  of  the  violin.  He  overcame  serious  dis- 
couragements in  preparing  for  his  career, 
throu^out  which  public  interest  and  admira- 
tion were  no  less  awakened  by  his  manliness 
and  grace  of  bearing  than  by  his  ^11  as  a 
musimn.  At  his  dSbot  (Paris  1833)  he  was 
honored  by  the  presence  of  Paganini,  and  that 
master  was  witness  to  the  young  aspirant's 
triumph.  Bull  afterward  studied  and  turned  to 
good  account  the  method  of  Paginini.  In  busi- 
ness life  he  met  with  various  successes  and 
reverses.  He  lost  all  his  money  in  a  scheme 
to  found  a  colony  of  his  countrymen  in  Penn- 
sylvania, and  had  to  take  to  his  violin  to  repair 
his  broken  fortunes.  He  afterward  married  in 
this  country,  settled  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and 
retained  a  summer  residence  in  Norwav.  He 
built  a  national  theatre  in  Bergen  and  soon 
became  involved  in  quarrels  with  the  authori- 
ties. Consult  'Ole  Bull :  A  Memoir'  by  Sara 
C.  Bull  (Boston  1883),  and  the  Norwegian 
biography  by  0.  Vik  (Bergen  1890). 

BULL  (Lat.  btUla,  a  knob,  boss),  a  b<^, 
usually  of  lea'd,  appended  to  state  documents 
to  prove  their  authenticity.  Such  seals  were 
used  by  the  Roman  Emperors,  and  by  various 
mouarchs  during  the  Middle  Ages.  They  liitally 
went  out  of  use  in  the  northern  countries,  but 
were  retained  in  southern  Europe  where  wax 
seals  did  not  keep  well.  In  form,  the  bull 
resembled  a  coin,  being  round  with  an  inscrip- 
tion on  each  face.  The  best  known  seal  of 
(his  type  is  the  papal  bull  (q.v.). 


BULL,  a  ludicrous  siteech  in  which  the 
ideas  combined  are  totally  incongruous  or  con- 
tradictory. A  good  example  is  Artemus  Ward's 
saying  of  Jefferson  Davis  that  *It  would  havt 
been  'money  in  Jefferson  Davis's  pocket  if  he 
had  never  been  bprn.* 

BULL,  Golden.    See  GousH  Buu. 

BULL,  Papal,  an  authoritative  letter  is- 
sued by  the  Roman  pontiff  acting  in  his  official 
ca^adt^  as  head  of  the  Chui^  A  Pa[>at 
Bnef  is  also  an  official  letter  of  the  pontiff 
of  a  less  formal  and  weighty  character,  and 
differs  in  sundry  particulars  from  the  .Bull, 
especially  in  its  seal.  The  seal  of  the  Bull. 
from  which  comes  the  name  of  the  instrument, 
is  a  bulla  or  globular  mass  of  lead  on  which 
is  impressed  the  name  of  the  reigning  Pope, 
also  those  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul,  abbrevi- 
ated,- S.  Pe,  S.  Pa.  The  material  ot  the  Bull 
is  parchment,  but  of  the  Brief,  white  paper; 
and  the  seal  of  the  Brief  is  of  red  wax,  stamped 
with  the  Fisherman's  Ring,  which  gives  (he 
impress  of  Saint  Peter  in  a  boat,  fishing.  There 
are  other  jjeculiariiies  in  matter  and  manner 
distinguishing  the  Bull  from  the  Brief,  but  it 
suffices  to  note  the  foregoing.  Of  Papal  Bulls 
that  have  played  a  signal  part  in  history,  eccle- 
siastical or  civil,  especially  worthy  of  mention 
are  [he  Bull  Clericis  laicos  (1296)  of  Boniface 
VIII  by  which  the  French  clergy  were  forbid- 
den to  pay  taxes  to  King  Philip  the  Fair  unless 
these  were  approved  by  the  Pope:  the  Bull 
Exsttrge  Domine  of  Leo  X  against  Martin  Lu- 
ther p520)  ;  the  Bull  In  Coena  Domini  against 
heretics  and  fautors  of  heresy,  dating  from  the 
15th  century,  but  re-enforced  by  Pius  V  in 
1571  and  ordered  to  be  publicly  read  in  all 
parish  churches  yearly  on  Holy  Thursday;  the 
Bull  Unigenitus  (1713)  against  quietism  and 
Jansenism;  the  Bull  Dominm  ac  Rcdetnptor, 
of  Clement  XIV,  abolishing  the  Jesuit  order 
(1773),  and  the  Bull  Pastor  aiemus  (1870), 
which  defined  papal  infallibility.  The  most 
complete  collection  of  papal  bulls  is  that  by 
Cosquelines,  Barberi  and  Gaude  (28  folio  vols., 
1739-44  «t  seq.).  TTiere  are  several  general  or 
special  collections.  Consult  Giry,  'Manael  de 
diplomatique'   (Paris  1894). 

BULL  AND  COW,  the  names  ^ven  by 
English  speaking  races  from  time  immemorial 
to  the  male  and  female  respectively  ot  bovine 
cattle.  The  words  are  probably  imitative,  the 
root-^dea  of  ■bull'  being  a  su^estion  of  its 
-bellowing;  while  'cow" — whidi  in  early 
English,  as  still  in  Scotch  and  some  pro- 
vincial dialects,  is  pronounced  c09— is  imi- 
tative of  the  lowing  call  to  the  calf. 
Since  these  animals  have  become  domesti- 
cated, and  most  of  the  males  have  been 
castrated,    the   term   has   come   to   mean   more 

Ertici^arly  an  umnutilaled  ox.  On  the  oUier 
nd,  the  large  sixe  and  robust  qualities  of  the 
bull  have  led  to  a  transference  ot  the  term  to 
the  males  of  various  other  animals  having  no 
zoological  resemblance,  or  veiy  little,  to  the 
cattle.  Thus  we  speak  of  'bull  and  cow»  ele- 
phants, moose,  wapiti,  seals,  whales  and  evMi 
alligators;  while  various  animals,  as  the  bull- 
snake,  lake  the  name  as  expressive  of  some  buU- 
like  quality,  as  a  habit  of  snorting,  or  because 
of  horn- like  appendages  (for  example,  bullhead 
catfish). 


d=y  Google 


BULL-BAITIHO  — BULL  RUN 


__„_  n  a  bull,  which 
torn  to  d«alh  for  the  amuseUeot  of  the  q>ec- 
tators.  In  this  case  the  dogs,  which  were  set 
upon  the  bull  singly,  were  (rained  h)  seue  the 
bull  by  the  tnuizle,  technically,  *to  pin*  ibe  bull ; 
but  they  were  very  frequently  tossed  on  the 
horns  of  ^e  aoimal.  Sometimes  also  the  bull 
was  allowed  to  run  loose  in  the  ^rena,  and  then' 
several  dogs  were  set  upon  him  at^ncc.  BuU- 
baiting  was  a  favorite  spoft 
about  the  time  of  George  IV. 

BULL-DOG,  a  dog  of  moderate  size,  de- 
rived prerious  to  the  13th  cmtnty,  from  a"  cross" 
between  the  old  British  mastiff  and  the  large 
pt^  of  extreme  southeast  Asia.  Both  its  an- 
cestors still  exist  as  separate  breeds,  ^:aver- 
age  mature  ^ecimen  will  wei^  40  to  50  pounds. 
THey  are  squat  and  muscular  in  build,  with 
short  legs,  rather  hif^r  behind  than  in  the. 
frdnt,  especially  if  the  front  legs  are  very  much 
bowed.  Their' dKSts  and  beads  are  abnbrmally 
br«ad  for  tiieir  size.  The  lower  jaw  9verl:^s 
th*  upper  and  is  of  extraordinary  strength. 
The  teeth  are  large,  especialfy  the  two  qanines, 
and  very  stronety  bxei  in  the  jawbone,  giving 
the  dog  a  bolcBng  power 'beyond  that  4f  any 
Other  bread.  The  ciliat  is.  close,  and  short.'  The 
indst  vari^Ie  feature  is  the  color,  which  Ranges 
fr6m  all  tilack  to  all  white  among  dogi  bred' 
for  show 'purposes,  but  a  brindle  is '.more 
natural.  For  many  centuries  this  doe  was 
used  lor  'fiaitins,*  or. biting  at,  the  bull,  as  a. 
popular  recreation;  and  up  to  ^ore  recent. 
tinjes  men  of  brutal  disposition  used  it'  for 
pu1>lic  dog-^gbts.  It  was  th)-ough  thtise  exhihi- 
tiops  that  the  bull-dog  gotjhis  Dad  nanfe-for 
teinper,  but  now  he  is  main^  kept  as  a  watch- 
doe.  In  that  capaclt:^  fe  >i  invaluable,  and  so 
gentle  is  his  disposition  that  he  is  fhe  safest 
camine    companion    for '  childrjen^      Ahout   the 

y^-     ttWi    «     «»..11     ....»^k.    ^£    «!...    l».ll.  .!...«*' ..^a. 


'   1900  a  small  t 


.t  was  first  shown  in  Paris  it  has  'alwa^ 

be4n  known  as  the  *French'  bull-dog.  It  is  m 
the  main  a  miniature  of  the  EnsAish  .bull-dog. 
The  most,  notable  difference,  odt'er'thBh  that  of 
size,  being  that  the  ears  are  ^aped  lice  those 
of '.  a  bat,  and  arc  carried  erect,  or  "pricked,* 
giving  the  animal  a  very  alert,  sharp  lodk. 

.BULL-FIGHT,  a  contest  between  nien  and 
bulls,  conducted  as  a  public  spectacle.  '  Once 
popular  in  Greflce  and  Rome,  this'  form  of  en- 
tertainment was  introduced  by  the  Moors  into 
Spfain  and  universally  adopted  in  the  cities  of 
th^  kingdom,  where,  as  well  as  in  Mexico  and 
some  other  uartS'  of  the  world,  it  is  still  much 
in  favor.  The  bull-fi^ht  is  held  in  an  arena  o£ 
greater  or  less  magniGcence,  called  in  Spanish 
the  Plata  de  loros.  The  bulls  are  turned  out 
one  by  one,  with  many  forms  of  pomp  and 
solemn  ceremonial,  into  the  open  space,  where 
they  are  assailed,  first  by  horsemen,  called  piea- 
dores,  who  atladt  them  with  the  lance;  then, 
when  one  or  more  horses  have  tieen  wounded 
and  one  or  more  men  have  met  with  injury  or 
perilous  mishap — in  which  case  a  crowd  of 
active  footmen,  called  ehulos,  provided  with 
crimson  banners,  take  off  the  attention  oi  tile 
bull  —  the  banderiUeroi,  armed  with  sharp- 
barbed  darts  with  fireworks  and  flags  attached 
to  them,  worry  the  bull  until  he  is  covered  with 
sl}»ftE,  bleeding  and  scorched  and  his  glossy 


hide  become!  UddCand  crisp'froai  the  exrio- 
^ion  of  the  fire-works.  Then  comes  the  last 
act  of  the  tragedy,  wben  the  skilful  matador 
enters  the  arena  slowly  and  alone,  clothed  in 
plain  black  and  armed  with  a  lon^,  strai^t 
sword  and  a  stick,  called  a  muUla,  with  a  piece 
of  red  silk  fastened  to  it  With  his  sword  he 
seldom  fails  to  give  the  covp  de  grace  to  the 
tortured  bull,  sheathing  the  blade,  with  oite 
sure  thrust,  up  to  the  hilt  in  his  body  just  at 
the  juncture  of  the  neck  and  spines  Mules 
drag  out  the  slaugjiteTed  carcass,  amid  the 
sound  of   trumpets   and   acclamations  of   the 

-spectators;  the  dead  or  dying  horses  are  te- 
moved,  the  arena  is  strewed  with  fresh  saw- 
dust, another  bull  Is  introduced,  and  so  goes  on 
.Ac  combat,  until  perhaps  a  dozen  bulls  and  a 
.  larger  number  of  norses  have  been  slaughtered 
to  delight  the  spectators.    About  1,300  bulls  and 

•'  6,000  horses  are  sacrificed  annual^  in  Spain  to 
this  sport.  The  Spanish  settlers  of  Mexico  and 
South  Ai^erica  introdtKed  bull-fighting  to  the 
New  Worjd.  Consult  Sancho,  'Machaquito  y 
el  renadtmento  del  toreo'  (Madrid  1906.). 

BULL-PROG,  a  widely  distributed,  edible 
North  American  frog  (Rana  catesbyatia)  found 
in  sluggish  waters  throughout  the  eastern  half 

.,  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  so  called 
^because  of  its  loud,  bass  voice.    It  is  from  five 

'i,  to.ei^t  inches  long,  and  of  various  shades  of 

,>  green,  with  the  legs  spotted.  It  lays  its  eggs  in 
strings  and  the  tadpole  does  not  reach  maturity 
tintil  two  years  olo.    The  same  name  is  given 


th«  *buU-frog*  of  Siam  and  Malaya  (Cii//«fa 
i^lchra).    See  Fbog. 

,  BULL  UOOSE,  a  name  iqiplied  <m  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt  in  1912  and  arising  from  his 
Remark,  «I  feel  as  fit  as  a  buil  moose.*  Through 
constant  use  of  this  animal's  figure  1^  the  car- 
toonists in  connection  with  Roosevelt  s  political 
campaign  as  the  presidential  nominee  of  the 
Progressive  party,  he  bfecame  known  as  tpe 
'Bull  Moose  candidate* 'and  the  party  as  die 
*Bull  Moose  party.*     See  Progressive  FARfY. 

BULL  RUN,  I^rst  Battle  of.    The  first 

treat  battle  of  the  Civil  War  occurred  Sunday, 
1  July  1861  in  the  vlcmity  of  Manassas,  Va. 
The  Union  forces  were  .commanded  by  B'ri^-  ' 
dier- General  Irvin  McDowell,  the  ConfederalKs 
bv  General  Joseph  £.  Johnston,  who  had  ar- 
jived  from  Winchester  at  noon  of  the  20th 
with  nine  rMiments  of  his  army  and  assumed 
command.  -Tlie  battlefield  was  west  of  B«II 
Run  and  near  the  crossing  of  that  stream  by 
the  turnpike  TWming  near^  west  trOtti  Alex- 
andria to  Warrenton.  This  road,  a  mile  and  a 
half  west  of  the  Stone  Bridge  by  which  it 
crossed  Bull  Run,  unexpectedly  to  the  Confed- 
erates, became  the  axis  of  the  battle.  Bull  Run 
ia  a  narrow,  winding  stream  with  rugged  and 
,  mainly  precipitous  banks,  but  with  immerons 
fords,  flowing  'southeastwardly,  bdng  about  25 
tniles  west  of  Alexandria  and  from  three  to 
five  miles  -west  of  Manassas. 

McDowell  marched  from  his  camps  in  front 
oi  Arlington  and  Alexandria  on  the  afternoon 
of  the  16th  of  July,  with  five  divisions,  com- 
manded respectively  by  Brigadier- General  Dan- 
iel Tvler,  four  brigades ;  Colonel  E>avid  Hunter, 
two  bfigadea;  Colonel  S.  P.  HeirUKlman,  four 


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brigades;  Brigadier-General  Theodore  Rumnon, 
two  bri^des,  and  Colonel  Dixon  S.  WIes, 
three  brigades.  The  Fourth  Division  was  left 
as  a  reserve  in  the  region  of  Fairfax,  guarding 
the  lines  of  communication.  The  advance  divi- 
sion, Tyler's,  reached  Cenlreville  the  morning 
of  the  18th  and  sent  a  brigade  to  Blackburn's 
Ford  in  reconnoissance.  After  a  sharp  skirmish 
in  which  both  sides  lost  about  60  men,  it  with' 
drew  toward  Centreville,  to  which  point  Mc- 
Dowell hearing  of  the  operations  at  Black- 
bum's  Ford,  concentrated  four  divisions. 


Ford.  Longstreet's  at  BladEbom's  Ford,  Bon- 
ham's  between  Mitchell's  and  Ball's  fords, 
Cocke's  at  Lewis'  Ford,  and  Evans'  demi- 
brigade  at  the  Stone  Bridge  forming  the  Con- 
federate left.  Of  Johnston's  Army  of  the 
Shenandoah,  Jackson  s  brigade  supported  Bon- 
ham,  and  Bee  and  Bartow  supported  Cocke, 

From  each  of  these  fords  fair  roads  led  to 
Centreville,  General  Beauregard  had  planned 
an  attack  upon  Centreville  which  involved  an 

This  V 


■niMtre  of  Piiwt 


TTie  Confederate  "Army  of  the  Potomac" 
had  been  concentrated  at  Manassas  under  Gen- 
eral Beauregard,  In  expectation  of  a  Union 
advance  it  occupied  the  south  bank  of  Bull  Run  . 
(or  eigbt  miles  from  Union  Mills  Ford,  at  the 
crossing  of  the  railroad  to  Alexandria,  to  the 
Stone  Bridge,  at  the  Warrenton  turnpike,  three 
brigades  bang  thrown  forward  of  that  posi- 
tion, one  of  them  to  Fairfax  Court  House, 
These  brigades  fell  back  before  the  Union  ad- 
vance, skirmishing  slightly.  E well's  brigade, 
the  right  of  the  lintL  was  at  Union  Mills,  with 
Holmes  in  support,  Jones'  brigade  at  McLean's 


ston  before  dayli^t  of  the  21st,  but  at  sunrise 
it  was  rendered  impossible  by  McDowell's  ini- 
tiative. The  plan  was  then  changed  to  an 
attack  on  the  Union  left  from  Blackburn's  Ford, 
This  also  was  abandoned  from  the  same  cause, 
McDowell,  who  had  first  intended  to  attack 
the  enemy's  right,  after  the  affair  at  Blackburn's 
Ford,  finding  the  ford  at  Sudley  Spring  two 
miles  beyond  the  Confederate  left,  decided  to 
attack  from  (hat  direction.  While  Tyler  feinted 
before  the  Stone  Bridge,  Hunter  and  Heiotze!- 
man,  by  a  long  detour,  crossed  at  Sudley  Spring 
and  moved  south  toward  the  Warrenton  tnm- 


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pike  ia  the  enemy's  rear.  Evans;  at  the  bridge, 
discovering  the  movement,  withdrew  11  com- 
panies and  formed  them  on  a  rii^e  half  a  mile 
north  of  the  road  as  the  head  of  Hunter's  col- 
umn entered  the  open  iields  which  extended  a 
mite  north  of  the  Warrenton  road.  Evans  made 
stubborn  resistance  and  was  soon  supported  by 
Bee's  brigade  and  Imboden's  battery.  While 
the  position  was  hotly  contested,  the  Confeder- 
ates were  pressed  back  down  the  hill,  across  the 
valley  oC  Young's  branch,  a  tributarv  of  BuU 
Run,  to  the  plateau  south  of  it  upon  which  were 
the  Robinson  and  Henry  houses.  Two  of  Ty- 
ler's brigades  crossed  above  the  Stone  Bridge 
and  joined  Hunter  and  Hetntzelman  in  their 
advance.  The  fighting  continued  desperate 
until  noon,  and  for  new  troops  was,  for  both 
sides,  most  remarkable,  but  the  Confederate 
line,  thou^  stubbornly  contesting  the  ground, 
began  to  disintegrate,  and  the  road  to  Manassas 
was  crowded  with  retiring  soldiers. 

General  Johnston  describes  the  Confederate 
situation  at  two  o'clock  as  ^critical" ;  General 
Beauregard  terms  it  a  "pressing  exigency*  and 
speaks  of  the  retirement  of  "our  shattered  bat- 
talions,* and  of  the  fighting  line  as  having  'lost 
its  cohesion.*  Dr.  Jones,  Jackson's  distin- 
guished biographer,  records  that  *the  retreat 
became  every  moment  more  disordered,"  that 
Bee's  quick  eye  "now  told  him  that  all  was  lost* 
and  that  *he  could  not  reform  his  tine." 

At  that  hour  a  Union  victory  seemed  assured. 
Johnston  and  Beauregard  reached  the  position 
together.  The  troops  on  the  line  of  Bult  Run 
that  had  been  held  there  by  the  demonstrations 
of  two  Union  brigades  designed  to  mask  Mc- 
Dowell's turning  movement  were  ordered  in 
haste  to  the  new  line  which  was  at  right  angles 
to '  the  first.  Jackson  soon  arrived  with  five 
repments  and  two  batteries.  Hampton's  Legion 
jomed  him  and  the  Union  advance  was  chected. 
Other  arrivals  strengthened  the  line.  Kirby 
Smith's  brigade  of  Johnstoii's  army  appeared 
about  three  o'clock,  having  just  arrived  on  the 
field  from  Manasses,  and  pu^ed  its  three  ra- 
iments toward  the  right  of  the  Union  Une. 
Early's  bri^de  of  Bcfuireg&rd's  force,  from  the 
extreme  right  of  his  line,  hastened  beyond 
Smith's  brigade,  now  commanded  by  Colonel 
Ehey,  and,  sut^rted  by  Stuart's  cavalry,  ap- 
peared directly  on  the  Union  right  flank.  Two 
regiments  from  Bonham  and  two  from  Cocke 
also  arrived  upon  the  Union  right.  These  also 
were  of  Beauregard's  army.  This  tnmed  the 
check  which  that  portion  of  the  Union  line  had 
re<;eived,  first  into  retreat  and  then  into  a  dis- 
organized withdrawal,  except  that  the  rear 
guards  maintained  fair  order  till  the  columns 
were  well  off  the  field,  the  right  retracing  its 
long  detour  by  Sudley  Spring.  At  Cub  Run, 
half-way  to  Centreville,  the  batteries  of  a  pur- 
suing column  broke  up  the  wagons  and  batteries 
on  the  bridge,  compelling  the  abandonment  of  13 
guns.  From  this  point  the  movement  to  the  rear 
was  still  farther  disorganiied,  to  which  condition 
the  vehicles  of  many  visitors,  congressmen,  cor- 
respondents and  offictalg  largly  contributed. 
The  attempt  to  rally  the  troops  at  Centreville 
failed,  though  General  Johnston  reported  that 
the  "apparent  firmness'  of  the  Union  reserves 
at  that  point  checked  the  pursuit.  The  army, 
in  great  part  disorganized,  streamed  on  to 
Washington. 


.  RUN  11 

After  the  severe  stress  under  which  the  Con- 
federate leaders  found  themselves  from  11 
o'clock  until  about  3,  the  sudden  change  on  the 
Union  side,  first  from  assaulting  to  cessation 
of  lighting;  next,  to  a  general  retreat,  and  later 
to  widespread  panic,  was  as  much  a  surprise  to 
the  enemy  as  to  the  Union  commanders.  It 
was  not  until  the  second  day  after  the  battle 
that  the  Confederates  ascertained  the  full  ex- 
tent of  the  Union  stampede.  Upon  this  point 
President  Davis  wrote  General  Beauregard: 
'Vou  will  not  fail  to  remember  that,  so  far 
from  knowing  that  the  enemy  was  routed,  a 
large  part  of  our  forces  was  moved  by  you  in 
the  night  of  the  21st  to  repel  a  supposed  attadc 
upon  our  right,  and  the  next  day's  operations 
did  not  fully  reveal  what  has  since  been  re- 
ported of  the  enemy's  panic* 

McDowell's  strength  at  Centreville  appears 
to  have  been  about  28,000  men  and  49  guns. 
His  report  says  he  crossed  Bull  Run  with  18,000 
men.      A    very    careful    estimate    made    from 


the  number  actually  engaged  as  17,676. 

General  Beauregard  reported  his  strength  on 
the  field  when  the  battle  opened  as  27333  and 
49  guns;  and  after  Johnston's  delayed  troops 
and  Holmes'  brigade  bad  arrived  in  the  after- 
noon as  31,972  and  57  guns,  A  very  careful 
estimate  by  Gen.  Thomas  Jordan,  his  adjutant- 
general,  fixed  the  number  actually  engaged  at 
18,053,  thus  showng  the  two  sides  to  have  been 
about  equal  on  the  firing  line. 

The  Union  loss  as  reported  was :  killed,  460; 
wounded,  1,124;  missing  1,312;  total,  2,896. 
Union  guns  captured  or  abandoned,  29. 

The  Confederate  loss  reported  was :  killed, 
387;  wounded,  1.582;  missing,  13;  total,  1,982 

It  was  called  the  "Battle  of  Manassas*  by 
the  Confederates.  Consult  Johnson  and  Bucl, 
'Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War*  (4  vols.. 
New  York  1887)  ;  Nicoiay  and  Hay.  'Abraham 
Lincoln'  (10  vols..  New  York  1890);  Ropes, 
•Story  of  the  Civil  War'  (2  vols..  New  York 
1898);  and  'Officii  Records>  (Vol.  II,  Wash- 
ington 1880). 

H.   V.   BOYNTOIT. 

BULL  RUN,  Second  BatUe  of,  30  Aug. 
1862.  When  McGellan  on  the  peninsula  had 
reached  the  vicinity  of  Richraotid,  Lee,  to  pre- 
vent McDowell's  corps  at  Fredericksburg  from 
reinforcing  McClellan,  ordered  Jackson  in  the 
Shenandoah  to  make  a  demonstration  that 
should  detain  all  available  troops  for  the  defense 
of  Washington.  Jackson  advanced,  and  in  a 
brilliant  campaign  drove  Banks  out  of  the 
valley  and  forced  him  across  the  Potomac.  By 
a  masterly  retreat,  he  regained  the  upper  valley 
in  spite  of  McDowell  and  Fremont,  and  soon 
after  appeared  on  MeOellan's  flank  at  Merfian- 
icsville  and  participated  in  the  seven  days' 
battles. 

On  27  June  the  Union  authorities  united  the 
three  corps  of  McDowell,  Fremont  and  Banks 
into  the  Army  of  Virginia  under  the  command 
of  Maj.-Gen.  John  Pope.  He  had  concentrated 
his  forces  between  Sperryville  and  Warrenton, 
and  began  to  operate  with  his  cavalry  against 
Lee's  railroad  lines  about  (Jordonsville.  His 
mission  also  was  to  prevent  Lee  from  concen- 
trating upon  McClellan,  when  he  should  with- 
draw from  the  peninsula.     Lee  promptly  sent 


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6,  Google 


18  *  BULL 

racIaon'E  Divisiot^  followed  t^  Ewell's  and  A. 
F.  Hill's,  to  Gordonsville.  On  1  August  these 
moved  from  Gordonsville  toward  Pope's  posi- 
tion  at  Culpepper,  and  9  August  encountered 
Banks  at  Cedar  or  Slaughter  Mountain.  Banks 
attacked,  instead  of  holding  his  ftosition  as 
Pope's  plan  conteoipiated,  and  while  at  first 
brilliantly  successful,  he  was  at  last  defeated. 
Jackson,  however,  retreated  on  the  11th  across 
the  Rapidan. 

On  the  13th  Lee  ordered  Longstteet,  with 
his  own  and  Hood's  divisions,  to  Gordonsville. 
R.  H.  Anderson's  division  was  ordered  to  foU 
low.  Upon  their  arrival  Pope  was  largely  out- 
numbered   Lee  plaimed  a  move  for  the  18th 


and  Manassas  with  its  immense  supplies  on  the 
night  of  26  August  Pope  moved  to  attack  him 
at  Manassas.  On  the  n^t  of  the  27th  and 
ear^  on  Uie  28tfa,  Jackson's  three  divisions 
withdrew  by  different  roads,  and  soon  after 
noon  of  the  28th  assembled  on  the  battlefield  of 
the  first  Bull  Run. 

On  the  night  of  the  2Sth  Pope's  headquar- 
ters were  at  Warrentpn  Junction.  Rqmolds' 
Division  bad  joined  him  on  the  23d.  On  the 
25th  the  advance  of  Heintzelman's  corps  ar- 
rived from  the  Army  of  the  Potomac^  Hooker's 
and  Kearny's  divisions,  and  Fiti-John  Porter, 
with  the  divisions  of  Sykes  and  Uorell  of  his 
corps.    These  two  corps  with  Reynolds'  Dtvi- 


ThMtn  at  Swond  Boll  Ron  Butk. 


against  Pope's  left  but  this  oflicer  learned  of 
the  plan  through  the  capture  of  Stuart's  adju- 
tant-general, recrossed  the  Rappahannock,  and 
took  position  behind  it  on  the  20th.  Lee  next 
arranged  to  cross  at  Sulphur  Springs,  turn 
Pope's  nehti  and  move  upon  his  communica- 
tions, litis  failed.  Pope,  at  the  same  time, 
had  planned  to  cross  the  river  and  attack  Lee's 
right  and  rear,  but  a  sudden  flood  prevented 
the  movement.  Lee  then  sent  Jackson's  corps 
far  beyond  Pope's  right  by  way  of  Salem  and 
Thoroughfare  Gap  to  cut  Pope's  railroad  line 
at  '  Manassas.  Jackson  succeeded,  lossing 
around  Pope's  right,  captuting  Bristoe  Station 


sion  were  the  only  reinforcements  that  Pope 
received  from  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  until 
after  the  battle  of  Manassas. 

On  the  ni^t  of  the  27th  Pope,  supposing 
Jackson  at  Manassas,  ordered  general  concen- 
tration in  that  direction.  Porter's  failure  to 
move  promptly  under  this  order  constituted  one 
of  the  charges  under  which  he  was  subsequentljr 
court-martialed  and  cashiered.  Rickelts'  Divi- 
sion, the  rear  of  McDowell's  corps,  upon  the 
information  from  the  cavalry  that  Longstreet's 
forces  were  entering  Thoroughfare  Gap,  moved 
to  the  gap  and  held  Longstreet  back  during  the 
day,  and  into  the  evening  of  the  28th.    In  the 


d=y  Google 


aiterooon  of  the  28tfa,  Pope,  wtposiog  Jackson 
east  of  Bull  Rud,  ordered  tus  army  to  Centre- 
villc,  Heintsebiian  and  Rcao  by  uie  fords  of 
Bull  Run,  UcDoweU,  Sigel  and  Reynolds  by 
the  Warrenton  turnpike.  The  advance  ajang 
the  turnpike  was  begua  without  the  knowledge 
that  Jadcson  wasjust  north  of  it  on  the  first 
Bull  Run  field.  The  Union  approach  led  Jack- 
son to  attack,  thus  revealing  his  position,  which 
Pope  had  been  vainly  seeMng.  This  was  the 
battle  of  Gainesville,  being  a  very  bitter  fight 
between  Taliaferro's  IH  vis  ion  and  two  brigades 
of  Ewrfl,  and  King  of  McDowell's  advance. 

After  the  close  of  the  fight,  in  the  absence 
of  McDowell,  his  two  divisions  retreated,  Rick- 
ett's  to  Bristoe  Station  and  King's  to  Manassas. 
At  dayli^t  of  the  29tn  the  Union  forces  were 
again  put  in  motion  to  pursue  Jackson.  His 
line  was  mainly  along  an  unfinished  railroad, 
the  left  near  Sudley  Spring,  and  his  rif^t  on 
Bigh  ground  north  of  Warrenton  road  over- 
looking  Groveton.  The  Union  forces  attacked 
throu^out  the  day,  with  brief  intermissions. 
The  contest  was  desperate,  and  Jackson's  line, 
though  hard  pressetf  at  various  points  main- 
tained its  Drganization.  Porters  failure  to 
here  attack  the  Confederate  right  was  another 
of  the  charges  under  which  he  was  tried.  Sub- 
sequently, however,  he  was  exonerated  by  the 
findings  of  an  army  board,  and  restored  to  his 
rank  hy  act  of  Congress.  McDowell  arrived 
late,  with  King's  Division.  As  it  moved  into 
action  it  encountered  the  head  of  Longstreet's 
column,  which  had  achieved  its  junction  with 
Jackson.  In  less  than  an  hour,  in  a  bloody 
contest.  Hood's  Kvision  of  Longstreet's  force 
had  ended  the  battle  of  Groveton.  Such  were 
die  preliminaries  of  the  Second  Bull  Run. 

The   battle   of    Manassas,   the   Second   Bull 


the  ground  of  McDowell's  and  Johnston's 
battle  of  the  ^eaJr  before.  Jackson's  Kne  occu- 
pied the  position  from  Sudley  Spring  to  the 
'  heights  overlooking  Groveton.  Lee,  whose 
forces  were  now  all  up,  fonned  Longstreet's 
line  across  the  Warrenton  turnpike  on  hl^h 
ground  about  a  mile  west  of  Groveton.  On  tlus 
ridge  he  established  a  number  of  batteries  un- 
der Stephen  D.  Lee  and  Walton.  The  line 
then  turned  east  south  of  the  turnpike,  and  ex- 
tended toward  the  Sudley  Spring  road  The 
Confederate  position  south  of  the  Warrenton 
road  seemed  not  to  be  suspected  by  Pope.  The 
fact  that  after  the  action  of  the  afternoon,  be- 
fore Jackson's  troops  had  retired  to  their 
noniing  position,  Lee  had  withdrawn  Long- 
street's  advance  to  form  on  better  gtoun^ 
misled  Pope  and  caused  him  to  insist  uoat  the 
enemy  was  retreating.  At  noon,  after  recon- 
noissances  north  of  the  road,  he  therefore 
ordered  vigorous  pursuit.  Porter  was  to  push 
west  on  the  Warrenton  pike  followed  by  Kmg'i 
Division  on  his  right  and  Reynoli^'  on  bis  left 
Ricketts'  Division,  followed  by  Heintzelman's 
corp^  was  to,  pursue  on  the  Hayi^rket  road. 
Sigel  s  and  Reno's  corps  were  the  reserves. 

About  four  o'clock  Porter  advanced' with  hia 
own  corps  and  King's  Division  pu^d  in  on 
Jackson's  line  with  great  vi^r,  and  assault  fol- 
lowed assault,  each  made  with  grat  pertinacitT. 
Lee  seemed  wwiog  to  let  than  continue  iaorder 
to  exhaust  his  oroonents.     At  length  Jackscm 


sent  for  help  and  Longstneet  was  ordered  to 
his  assistance.  This  officer  had,  however,  posted 
his  batteries  so  as  to  enfilade  Jackson's  front, 
and  instead  of  sending  troops,  opened  with  a 
terrific  flanking  fire  of  artillery.  The  Union 
lines  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  Nearly 
all  of  Pope's  forces  had  been  put  in  north  of 
the  turnpike  and  had  been  seriQusly  repulsed 
All  Union  support  was  now  directed  to  defend 
the  position  against  Longstreet's  forces  sonth 
of  the  Warrenton  pike.  The  whole  of  Lone- 
street's  line  went  forward  toward  the  road  wiOi 
a  rush.  There  were  five  divisions— Wilcox 
on  the  left,  then  Evans  (Hood),  AndersMi, 
Kemper  and  Jones.  Aa  toon  as  Jackson,  nortfa 
of  the  roMl,  saw  the  advance  of  Longstreet,  he 
ordered  his  own  line  forward.  The  corps  of 
Heintielman  and  Reno  resisted  this  attack,  but 
were  gradually  forced  back  The  mpremie 
ttrug^  of  the  Union  forces  was  to  bold  two 
elevated  positions  near  the  Henry  and  Chinn 
houses,  liie  latter,  known  as  Bald  Hill^  was 
carried  b^f  the  Confederates  after  persistent 
and  sanguinary  filling.  The  Henry  bouse  hill 
was  held  tif;ainst  repeated  assaults.  The  Union 
army  was  m  retreat  across  Bull  Runj  and  the 
possession  of  the  hill  was  necessary  to  main- 
tain an  orderly  retreat. 

The  Union  troops  remained  in  posseteion 
until  eight  o'clock,  when  the  last  of  Pope's 
aimv  moved  unmolested  toward  the  Stone 
Brioe^  crossing  Bull  Run  about  midnight. 
The  bridge  was  then  destroyed  and  the  Union 
army  concentrated  at  Centreville.  It  was  a 
Union  defeat,  but  not  a  rout  While  there 
was  much  straggling  the  main  army  had  re- 
treated in  good  order,  and  Lee  did  not  pursues 
In  the  management  of  the  battle  Lee  had  dis- 
played his  eminent  generalship  in  a  striking 
manner.  Pope's  chief  error  had  been  in  per- 
sisting, before  his  attack  was  delivered,  that  the 
enemy  was  in  retreat 

Pope  was  reinforced  at  Centreville  by  the 
strong  corps  of  Sumner  and  FranUin  from  the 
Army  of  tiie  Potomac  Here  also  he  found  sup- 
plies. His  army  had  fought  for  two  days  al- 
most entirely  without  food  or  forage.  Lee  began 
Eursuit  the  afternoon  of  the  day  after  the 
kttle,  Jackson  leading  from  Sudley  Ford  and 
marching  hgr  a  drcuitous  route  toward  Fairfax 
Court  House,  seven  miles  in  rear  of  Centreville 
Passing  Cbantilly,  he  turned  toward  the  War- 
renton turnpike  and  formed  in  front  of  Ox 
Hill,  his  right  extending  toward  the,  pike.  He 
advance  of  Longstreet,  and  wholly 


without  support.  He  was  attacked  by  the  t.. . 
divisions  of  Reno  under  Stevens,  and  later  by 
Kearny.    Stevens  and  Kearny  were  killed  snd 


Jackson  was  repulsed. 

Longstreet  came  up  at  ni^t,  and  at  noon 
the  next  day  (2  September) ,  Pope's  army  was 
ordered  by  the  authorities  at  Washington  to 
withdraw  within  the  defenses  of  the  city. 
Pope's  losses  throughout  the  campaign  from  16 
Auf^t  to  2  September  were:  Army  of  Vir- 
ginia, killed  and  wounded  5,318,.  missing  2,787: 
Army  of  the  Potcttnac,  killed  and  wounded 
3,613,  missine  1.115;  9th  Army  corps,  killed 
and  wounded  1,204,  missing  319;  Kanawha 
divisioii.  killed  and  wounded  64,  missing  42; 
total  killed  and  wounded  10.199;  captured  or 
missing  4,263.  The  Confederate  losses  were 
not    fully    reported    but    die    best    estimatca 


[ig 


v  Google 


BULLJ3NAKE -DULLES 


placed  them  M  abont  8,500.  Thete  are  no  offi- 
cial returns  wliich  enable  a  presentation  of  the 
exact  strength  of  dther  army  dnrinK  the  cam- 
paifrn  up  to  30  August,  but  the  b«st  estunate 
places  OK  Union  forces  at  about  65,000  to  70,'- 
000,  and  the  Confederate  at  54,000. 

KeforeacHE  'Official  Record  of  the  War  of 
the  Rebellion,'  Vol.  11;  Gordon,  George  H., 
'History  of  the  Campnisn  of  the  Aimy  of  Vrr- 
einia' ;  Nicolay,  John  G_  <Otrtbrealt  of  the  Re- 
beHidn'  r  Ropes,  John  C.,  'The  Army  Under 
Pope'  (New  York  1881)  ;  'Battles  and  Leaders 
of  the  Civil  War'  (+  vols.,  ib.  1887) ;  Long, 
A.  L,  'Memoirs  of  Robert  E.  Lee' ;  Coc^, 
J.  £.,  'Stonewall  Jackson';  Lee,  Fitdltigh, 
'Life  of  Gen.  Robert  E,  Lee' ;  Johnston,^  Joseph 
E.,  'Johnston's  Narnuive'j  Allen,  William, 
'The  Army  of  Norlheni  Virginia  in  1862^; 
Henderson,  G.  F.  R.,  'StonewaO  J'ackson  and 
the  American  Civil  War' ;  Reman.  Alfred, 
'The  Military  Operations  of  General  Beaure- 
gard in  thie  War  between  the  States' ;  the 
Count  of  Paris,  'History  of  the  Civtl  War  in 


H.  V.  BOYVTDR. 

BULt-SHAKB,     See  Piux  Snake. 

BULL-TERRIER.    See  TrauoL 
■     BULL-TKOUT.     (1)  A  sahnon-like  trout 
of  Morth  America.     See  Salmon-tdovT.     (2) 
The- Dolly  Vardeu  trout  (q.v.). 

BULLA,  a  genus  of  moUusks  called,  from 
'the  thinness  of  their  shells,  bubble- shells.  Tbe 
shel)  is  oval,  ventricose,  convoluted  externally, 
or  only  partially  invested  by  the  animal.  The 
animal  has  a  large  cephalic  disc  bi-!obcd  be- 
hind; the  lateral  lobe  is  much  developed.  It 
occurs  in  temperate  and  tropical  seas  from  2S 
to  30  fathoms.  Over  SO  recent  species  are  known 
and  70  fossil,  the  latter  from  the  Oolite  onward. 

BULLACE,  a  small  tree  or  shrub  of  the 
genus  Prvntu,  prunes.'  It  is  a  kind  of  plum, 
related  to  the  sloe.  In  England  its  fruit  is  used 
for  making  jam.  The  tree  is  seldoa  found  in 
America. 

.  BULL.S,  miniatutv  blisters,  or  blebs.  They 
arc  larger  than  vesicles,  with  a  large  portion  of 
buticle  detached  from  the  ddn  and  a  watery 
transparent  fluid  between.  The  skin  beneath  is 
red  and  inflamed. 

BULLANT,  bd-lan,  Jean,  French  archi- 
tect: b.  probaWy  in  Ecouen  about  1515;  d. 
Paris,  10  Oct.  1578.  He  studied  at  Rome  and 
after  his  return  to  France  became  supervisor  of 
the  royal  buildings.  He  was  connect^  with 
the  erection  of  the  Tuilerigs  and  built  the  pavil- 

1  named  for  him.    He  was  also  the  arcnitect 


ceded  Primaticcio  at  Fon- 
tainebleau. 

fiULLBAT,  a  name  in  the  Southern  States 
for  the  niehthawk  (q.v.),  a  bird  which  flies  tn 
tbe  dusk  like  a  bat,  and  makes  a  booming  sound. 

BULLS,  bul-tt,  Koastantin,  German  histo- 
rian: b.  Minden,  30  Mardi  1B44.  He  studied 
^hitoEoirfiy  and  '  history  at  Jena  and  Bonn, 
tauf^t  in  the  high  school  at  Bonn  and  became 
director  of  the  gyrfanasium  there  in  1879.  In 
1887-90  he  was  a  member  of  the  Reitfhstag. 
After  somi  philoBophical  studies  he  devoted 
himself  to  historical  wotkand  wrote  'History 


of  Recent  Times  181S-71';  'history  of  'Ae 
Years  1871-77'  and  'History  of  the  Second 
Empire  and  Oib  Italian  Kin^om.'  The  6rst 
two  were  comUned  and  pubhshed  as  'Histoid 
of  Recsm  Times'  in  1866. 

BULLBN,  Fnuifc  Tbotnas,.  English  author 
and  lecturer:  b.  Paddington,  London,  5  April 
1857;  d.  .Madeira,  36, Feb.  191S.  He  received 
but  scanty  schooling,  and  after  a  few  years' 
experience  as  errand  boy,  etc,  went  to  sea  ae 
ordinary  seaman  in  1S69,  becoming  qhief  mate 
after  several  years.  He  left  the  sea  in  1883  and 
was  junior  clerk  in  the  English  meteorological 
office,  1883-99.  His  contributions  to  nautical 
literature  have  attracted  widespread  attention, 
the  earliest  of  these,  'The  Cruise  of  the  Cacha- 
lot' (1898)  being  the  most  noted.  Hb  other 
books  include  'Idylls  of  the  Sea' ;  'TTie  Log 
of  a  Sea  Waif  (1899) ;  'The  Men  of  the  Mer- 
chant Service' ;  'With  Christ  at  Sea' ;  'A  Sack 
of  Shakings'  (1901);  'The  Apostles  of  the 
Southeast':  "Deep  Sea  Plunderings'  (1901); 
'A  Whaleman's  Wife'  (1902);  'Sea  Wrack'; 
'Sea  Puritans',  'Our  Heritage,  the  Sea'  (1906) : 
'The  Call  of  the  Deep'  (1907).  A  volume  oil 
'Recollections'  was  puUished  posthumously.  ' 

BULLER,  Su  Sedvara  Henry,  Englifih 
general:  b.  Devonshire  1839;  d. London, 2  June 
190B.  He  joined  tbe  eOtJi  RiSes  as  ensign  ia 
1858;   in    1862  was  promoted   lieutenant,   and 


i  majoi 


ind  major-general  in 


the  Ashanlee  war  he  acted  as  quartermaster- 
general  and  head  of  the  intelligence  department, 
and  gained  special  mention  for  his  behavior  in 
several  engagements.  He  also  served  with  dis- 
tinction during  the  Kaffir  War  of  1878.  and  the 
Victoria  Cross  was  conferred  on  him  in  1879 
for  his  gallant  conduct  in  saving  the  lives  of 
two  officers  and  a  trooper  of  the  Frontier  Light 
Horse,  during  the  retreat  at  Inhlobane  in  the. 
Zulu  campaign.  He  was  chief  of  the  staff  to 
Sir  Evelyn  Wood  in  the  war  against  the  Boers 
in  1881  and  in  Egypt  in  the  following  year, 
gaining  special  distinction  tor  his  services  at 
Kassassin,  Tel-el-Kebir  and  elsewhere.  In  the 
Sudan  campaigti  of  1884-85  he  was  chief  of  the 
staff  to  Lord  Wolsclcy,  and  was  in  command  at 
the  battle  of  Abu-klea  after  Sir  Herbert  StewT 
art  had  tieen  wounded.  Froiu  1887  til)  1890 
he  held  the  post  of  nu a rterm'aster- general  of  the 
army,  and  from  .1890  till  1897  he  acted  as 
adjutant-general  to  the  Forces.  In  1886-87  he 
was  ijnder- secretary  to  the  lord- lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  and  in  1891  was  promoted  to  the  ranlc 
of  lieutenant-general.  He  was  created  K.CM.G. 
In  1882,  K.C3.  in  1885  and  G.C.B,  in  1894.  In 
1899  he  went  to  .Natal  as  commander  in  the 
with  the  Boer  republics,  atid  succeeded  i 


event  caused  him  to  be  superseded  by  General 
Roberts,  and  on  his  return  to  England  he  was 
placed  on  the  retired  list  in  consequence  of  an 
unwise  speech.  The  publication  of  official  docu- 
ments, still  later,  practically  destroyed  his  repu- 
tation as  a  commander,  it  being  shown  by  these 
that  he  had  advised  Gpneral  Whiter  the  defender 
of  Lad;^sfT!ith,  to  give  np  the  defepse  and  stir^ 
ren^r.'to  the  Boers. 


=,  Google 


BULUESB  or  BUCHAN~KIU.ET 


16 


BULLBR8  OP  BUCHAN,  a  larse  oval 
OBvity  IB  die-  rocki  on  tfae  east  coast  of  Aierv 
'  e,  about  six  miln  to  the  UMth  of  Pet«b- 


feet  deep,  open  to  the 
eating  with  the  8«a  below  liy  a  nMntal  arch  or 
horizontal  passage;  into  wwh  the  wares  often 
nish  with  a  trcmendons  nsise. 

BULLET.  A  projectile  discharged  frotn  a 
musket,  fowling-piece,  pistol  or  similar  weapon. 
\Vhcn  the  smoatn-bore  arms  alone  were  used, 
die  bullets  were  made  by  casting.  Ublttn  lead 
was  poured  into  molds  and  the  motdi  were 
diwed  in  cold  water,  to  hastea  the  lolidification 
of  the  lead.  The  molds  were  cooled  after  asing 
a  few  times,  and  the  lead  was  heated  only  iust 
to  the  degree  for  maintaining  fluidity.  Bullets 
are  now,  however,  made  more  expe^itioUBly, 
and  more  truly  sirfierical  hi  form,  b^  compress- 
ing machines,  Tne  lead  is  first  fa^oned  into  a 
rod  about  a  yard  long  by  five-  »r  six-eighths  of 
an  inch  thick;  this  rod  is  passed  between  rollers 
to  condense  it;  then  between  other  rollers  to 
press  it  into  a  row  of  nearly  globular  pieces ; 
then  a  s^Jiericai  die  gives  the.  proper  form  to 
each  of  these  [ueces;  and, .  lastly,  a  treadle- 
worlud  punch  separates  them  into  bullets.  With 
one  of  these  machines  and  two  dies,  nine  boys 
can  make  40,000  bullets  in  a  day.  . 

Kinds  and  Sizes.^ —  Spherical  bullets  for  the 
old  muskets,  carbines  and  pistols  varied  froih 
14  to  20  to  the  pound,  and  from  ^60  to  .68  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  There  is  a  particular  ratio, 
dcftending  on  the  specific  gravi^  of  lead,  by 
which  the  number  to  the  pound  will  give  the 
diameter,  or  vice-versa.  Such  bullets  are,  how- 
ever, becomins  every  year  less  and  less  used, 
being  superseded  by  other  forms  better  suited 
for  rifles.  RoUna'  bullet  was  egg-shaped,  with 
the  centre  of  gravity  at  the  lai^er  end;  BeaU' 
foy's  was  ovoid,  with  a  heraisidierical  cavity  at 
one  end;  Manton's  was  a  spherical  ball' put  into 
a  wooden  cup,  with  projections  on  the  exterior- 


Greener's    was    ,    „  f-f    --    

metal  driven  intq^  a  hole  barely^  huge  enough 


with  a  plug  of  mixed 
rely  hir_ 
(or  it;  Norton's,  Delvigne's,  Minim's,  and  others 
of  various  elongated  shapes^  mostly  with  SQme 
kind  of  plug,  wnieh,  driven  into  the  lead  bj  the 
force  of  the  explosion,  causes  It  to  fill  ap'  the 
grooves  in  the  nfliug  of  the  Garret. 

Since  the  advent  of  powder  and'  ball,  there 
have  been  thousands  of  varieties  of  all  iiin 
and  imaEinaMe  shapes,  round  and  long^  with 
points  of  every  conceivable  curve  that  can  be 
geometrically  figured,  some  with  a  flat  base, 
others  with  depressions  of  all  depths  and  shapes, 
some  to  be  patched  with  paper,  of  covered  with 
steel,  copper  or  nickel,  others  with  grooves,'  the 
-width,  d^th  and  number  of  them  vailing  ac- 
cording to  the  theories  of  many  scientific  men. 
The  manufacturers  of  the  varioHS  arms  havB  by 
a  long  series  of  experimenting  decided  uoon  a 
standard  size  of  bullet  to  be  used  ifl  their  oilfei^ 
ent  caKbres,  and  the  manufacturers  of  ammuni- 
tion make  the  bullets  to  that  standard  and  they 
will  not  vary  .001  of  an  inch  as  they  come  from 
the  factorv.  There  arc,  however,  'some  who  dif- 
fer  in  thnr  otntikinK  as  to  what  Aantler  of  a 
ballet  should  be  for  their  rifles ;  they  will  imsh 
a  ballet  threugh  the  barrel,  and  if  the  nnpres- 
sions  of  tfie  nRhig  on  it  are  not  deep  enough 
to  suit  their  ideas,  they  decide  tint  a  buHst  of 
the  standard  ^d)is  not  fargC' enougkahd  mwy 


oondcMn  tfae  mokL  Others  tiure  are  who  de^ 
sire  to  have  tbetr  bullets  smaller  than  the 
standard  size  and  point  to  their  fine  records  te 
.prove  that  theiy  are  correct  Of  cotnsc,  a  bullet 
should  fit  so  as  absolutely  to  prevent  the  eseapc 
of  the  gas  Eq'  the  side  of  Ae  bullet;  all  pres- 
sure genenned  by  the  ignition  of  the  powder 
Aould  be  kept  at  the  base  of  the  bullet  to 
expel  it  if  gaA  escape  through  the  barrel  past 
tfae  bullet,  so  much  force  is  lost,  and  if  the 
escttpement  is  greater  on  one  side  than  on 
tlte  other,  ifwfll  deflect  the  bullet  add  make  the 
flif^t  irregular,  and  accuracy  under  such  con- 
ditions is  out  of  the  question,  A  bullet  when 
seated  in  die  barrel  by  hand  shotild  fit  to  th« 
bottom  of  the  rifling  so  as  to  shtit  off  all  gas 
before  the  ■  powder  is  ignited  As  to  how  ft 
bullet  of  the  standard  size  will  fit  a  barrel  de- 
pends wholly  upon  fhe  bore  and  the  depdi  of 
the  rifling.  Variations  in  both  of  these  points 
are  found,  as  well  as  in  everything  els^;  there 
art  no  two  rifle  barrels  alike  tiny  more  than 
there  art  two  human  beings ;  each  haS  its  ovm 
Indj-viduafity  and  must  tre  humored  in  accc>rd=- 
arce  with  its  peculiarities.  TTic  bore  ftf  a  rifle 
is  the.dze  of  the  smooth  hole  in  the  barrel  be- 
fore it  is  rifle^  which'  is  common^  called  die 
calibre;  this,  however,  is  not  the  size  of  the 
bullet.  The  diameter  of  the  bullet  is  deter- 
mined by  the  depth  of  the  rifling  and  should 
be  targe  encmgh  to  shut  off  the  gas.    The  depth 


ideas  of  the'\ 

be  itmeihbered  that  it  is  the  barrel,  not  the 
shells,  that  the  bullet  should  fit  properly  to  get 
good  results.  A  reloading  tool  should  have  a 
bollet  sizcr  as  well  as  a  bullet  mold  combined 
with  the  loatGns  chamber  in  a  convenient  and 
handy  form.  Tne  molds  thus  can  be  made  so 
as  to  cast  die  buQets  a  trifle  above  the  standard 
siie,  allowing  the  use  of  any  mixture  of  metal 
that  the  shooter  desires;  and,  after  the  lubrica- 
tion is  in  the  grooves,  they  can  be  forced 
through  the  sizing  die,  this  will  press  the  lubri- 
cation tofidly  into  tibe  grooves,  #ipe  off  all 
.Burtthis  greaseand  at  the  same  time  make  the 
bulkt  perfectly  round. 

Batlets  'to  b«  patdicd  wiA  paper  are  smooth, 
without  gitKives.  They  are  from  three-  to  si*- 
;thousandths  of  an  inch  Smaller  than  the  stamj- 
erd  Site.  The  diameter  is  increased  to  the  size 
desired  t^  having  a  thin  paper  patch  rolled 
around  them,  covering  about  two-thirds  of  the 
bullets  from  the  bpse  up.  This  paper  is  of  fine, 
strong  texture,  similar  to  bank-note  paper.  It 
-is  spectallj'  prepared  for  this  purpose,  and  is 
nuitt  in  different  thicknesses,  which  are  known 


the  manufacturers  of  ammunition  s 
thin,  dnn,  medium  and  ttuck.  The  extra-thin 
is  about  one  and  ona-half  diousaudths  of  an 
inch  thidr  and  there  is  an  increase 'of  about  ona- 
half  thousandth  in  each  smxesding  tilt;  thus 
shooters  Wishing  to  tacrease  or  decrease  the 

.diameter  of  theit'  bullets  nan  do  so  by  select- 
ing the  proper  dtickness  o^  paper.  There  is  a 
difference  of  c^tiMon  relarive  to  tfae  superiority 
of  patched  btiUets  over  grooved,  yet  Eor  hunt- 
ing or  military  purposes  the  groovbl  hall  is 
gencrxUy  pref ertrd,  -  as  so^  latnmnAiban  -can 

'be  carried  aAd'Cxp^scd  to  wet  vtbathn-  wStllotit 
injury,  while  a  part  «f  tfae  pftidi  beilig  exposed 
■S'liaUe-lo  gctwet  and  iiijvred'so  as  <o  Imii^ 


Coogic 


la 


.  SUU^ET-TRBB-^BVLUOH 


iti  aDOWacy.  S^,  for  fine  farset-ihootii^  tbe 
pUched  bullet  proiMrly  tdiuued  is,  without 
doubt,  preferable. 

Bxpanrive  Bullets. —  Exoansive  bullets, 
more  appropriately  called  defomtativt  bnllcli, 
alter  their  shape  apon  impact  wUh  the  tissuei 
of  the  body.  All  unsheathed  lead  bullets  are  of 
this  class,  and  sheathed  bullets  are  often  made 
dcformattve  by  various  devices.  Among  these 
Are  the  split-nosed,  hollow-nosed  and  soft- 
nosed  bullets.  Thiyr  arc  often  erroneously 
called  *dum-dum,*  from  the  fact  that  the  ori^- 
nal  deformative  bullets  were  made  at  Dum- 
Dum,  the  fact  that  principally^  hard-nosed  bul- 
lets are  made  a.t  that  place  bung  overlooked- 

^plosive  BnlletB.— Explosive  bullets  con- 
tain a  charge  of  explosive  which  is  detonated 
on  impact,  and,  exploding,  cause  gic^t  wounds, 
instantly  fatal.  They  are  used  only  in  big-game 
hunting.  Stories  of  their  use  iu  warfare  are 
misstatements,  due  to  iniorance  of  what  con- 
stitutes such  a  bullet  The  njodem  Spitz-Ge- 
tchoss  bulM  of  the  Germans  produces  less 
dangerous  wounds  than  the  Mauser  of  1888. 
It  has  a  remaricablv  flat  tiajectoiy,  its  height 
being  only  11.75  incAes  at  a  ranee  of  400.yards, 
as  compared  with  28  inches  for  the  Lee-Metfora 
of  the  English. 

Bullets  are  now  ai^de  with  extraordinary 
speed,  by  machinery  of  beautiful  constrnction. 
The  maoiine  draws  in  a  coil  of  leaden  rod,  un- 
winds it,  cuts  it  to  the  required  length,  samps 
out  the  bullets  with  steel  dies,  drops  them  into 
boxes  and  conveys  them  away.  Each  machine, 
with  four  dies,  makes  ^,000  bullets  per  hour; 
and  four  such  machines,  in  an  easy  day's  work, 
turn  out  300,000  bullets.  So  neady  are  the 
machines  automatic  that  one  man  can  attend 
them  all.  Modem  rifle  bullets  have  a  pressed 
leaden  or  steel  core,  and  a  ttun  covering  of 
■teel,  copper  or  nickel  A  combination  of  copper 
and  nickel,  knovrn  as  cupro-nickel,  is  very  gen- 
erally employed,  as  it  is  without  the  poisonotu 
qualities  of  copper  used  alone.  See  Akmuki- 
tion;  GutTKisGES;  Pbojectiles;  Suau.  Asms. 

BULLET-TREB,  or  BXTLLY-TRSE 
(Mimnsopi  balaia),  a  forest  tree  of  Guiana 
and  nd^bortng  regions  family  tapotacta, 
yielding  an  excefleiit  guin  known  as  btdata,  hav- 


india-mbber,  and  making  it  for  certain  industrial 
purposes  more  useful  than  cither.  The  timber 
of  the  tree  also  is  valuable. 

BULLFINCH,  a  European  finch  (Pyrr- 
kula  Ewopaa),  of  plump  form,  and  a  favorite 
cage-bird  It  is  a  soft  gra^  afaove^  with  duD- 
ing  Uack  cap,  wings  ana  tail,  and,  in  the  male, 
has  a  rich  rose  breast  (gra^  in  the  female).  Its 
native  call  is  a  clear  piping;  and  birds  in 
captivity  are  trained,  to  whistle  simple  tunes 
and  bring  a  high  price  in  the  bird  mancet. 

BULLHEADS,  or  •homed-ponts,»  are 
small,  dark-colored  catfish,  abundant  every- 
where east  of  the  plains,  and  by  introduction, 
in  California  and  Oregon,  lliey  are  mwd-lov- 
ing  fishes,  remaining  on  the  bottom  and  feetlns 
for  food  with  the  ^bets,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  month  and  two  under  the  chin.  The  "com- 
mon buHhead*  (^Amtiunu  nebutontt)  varitis  in 
length,  at  full  age,  from  18  to  24  mches  and 
occasionally  weighs  five  pounds.  It  is  brown- 
ish-black in  color,  with  a  fine,  scUeleos,  Tubber- 


is  a  gluttonous  biter,  gorging  the  [nit,  so  that 
the  hook  must  often  be  cut  out  of  its  interior. 
AsmaUer  species,  tbe  black  bullhead  (A.  nteiai), 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  smaller  anal  fin 
and  its  n^ariy  white  rays.  The  southern  "fhit- 
headed  cat*  (A.  platyctpkaliu)  has  an  eel-like 
form  and  a  ^eeiuEfa  brown  hue,  end  is  almoat 
cntireb'  herbivorous.  Several  of  the  large  'cat- 
fish' (<i>.)  of  the  western  lafces  belong  to  this 
genus. 

BULLIBR  ADVERTISING  AOENCT, 
the  most  noted  coBcem  for  the  handHng  of  ad- 
vertising in  Fraaoe.  In  1356  it  entered  into  a 
worldng  agreement  with  the  Havas  agency  for 
the  mutuaJ  selling  of  news  and  advertising  to- 
gether. This  i^reement  strengtheiKd  both 
compasses  and  made  of  them  the  strongest  in- 
stitution of  the  kind  in  Europe.     See  Puss 

ASBOOATOHS. 

BULLIHOBR,  HeinrlCh,  Swiss  reformer: 
b.  Bremmrten,  18  Aug.  1504;  d  Ziirich,  17  Sept. 
1S7S.  He  studied  first  at  'Emmeridi,  in  the 
duch;)^'  of  Cleves,  and  afterward  at  Cologne. 
His  intention  was  to  become  a  Carthusian 
monk,  but  after  pemsing  the  writings  of  Me- 
landithon  and  other  reformers  he  changed  his 
views,  formed  a  dose  connection  with  Zuing- 
lus,  became  one  of  4e  most  strenuous  sup- 
porters of  his  views  and  ultimately  succeeded 
him  in  his  charge  of  Zurich.  He  was  one  of 
the  authors  of  the  first  Helvetic  Confession. 
drew  up  in  concert  with  Calvin  the  formulary 
of  1549,  by  which  the  differences  between  the 
churches  of  Zurich  and  Geneva  on  the  subject 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  were  happily  terminated, 
and  kept  up  a  close  correspondence  with  the 
principal  'English  reformers.  The  Ziirich  Let- 
ters lately  published  by  the  Parker  Society  eon- 
tain  part  of  this  correspondence,  and,  among 
others,  letters  addressed  to  him  by  I-ady  jane 
Grey.  The  most  important  ,of  his  many  writ- 
ings is  a  ■'History  of  the  Reformation.'  See 
lives  by  Hess  (IS^^) ;  Pestalozri  (1858); 
also  Heinrich,  'Bullinger  und  seine  Gatrin* 
(1875);  Zimmermann,  'Die  Zflricher  Kirche 
und  ihre  Antistes>  (1877). 

,  BULLION,  uncoined  ^Id  or  silver  in 
bars,  plate  or  other  masses,  which  has  been  re- 
duced to  the  standard  fineness  of  the  coinage 
of  a  couiitry,  but  is  sometimes  used  to  designate 
the  metals  generally,  whMher  coined  or  un- 
coined. United  States  standard  bullion  con- 
tains 900  parts  of  pure  gold  or  pure  silver,  and 
100  parts  of  copper  alloy.  The  coining  value 
.of  an  ounce  of  pure  gold  is  *2a67l83,  and  the 
coining  value  of  an  ounce  of  standard  gold  is 
$18.60465.  Thecoining  value  in  standard  silver 
dollars  of  an  ounce  of  pure  silver  is  $1.2929, 
and  thevcoining  value  of  an  ounce  of  standard 
silver  is  $1.1636.  The  word  bullion  was  of  fre- 
queat  use  in  the  proceedings  respecting  the 
Bank -of  England  from  1797,  when  the  order  of 
council  was  issued  that  the  bank  should  discon- 
tinue the  redemption  of  its  notes  by  the 'pay- 
ment of  spede  to  1823,  when  specie  payments 
were  resMmcd;  for,  I^  a  previous  law,  the 
bank'  was  authoriied  to  pay  its  notes  in  un- 
coined silver  or  Rold,  according  to  iis  weight 
and  fineness.  The  invesli^tions  of  the  bul- 
lion committee,  and  the  various  speculations  on 
tbe  subjoM  of  buttion,  related  to  the  supply  of 


.Google 


BULLIOm — BULLOGE 


IT 


grfd  and  silver,  whetlier  coined  or  not,  as  ihe 
basis  d(  the  circulating  medium.  The  discovery 
of  the  mines  in  America  did  not  at  &rst  add 
materially  to  the  stock  of  bullion  in  Europe. 
Tbe  total  addition  for  the  first  54  years  was 
about  $85,000,000;  not  quite  so  great  an  amotint 
of  value  (in  sold  at  least)  as  Russia  has  otn 
lained  from  Oie  Ural  mines  in  less  than  half 
the  time.  The  average  annual  supply  from  all 
the  American  sources  during  the  54  years  from 
1546  to  the  end  of  the  16th  century  was  rather 
mot*  than  ?10,00a000.  During  the  17th  cen- 
tury tbe  annual  average  was  about  $16,250,000: 
in  the  next  half  century  it  was  $27,500,000;  and 
in  the  years  1750  to  1803  it  was  $36,000,000.  In 
the  decade  1901-10,  imports  of  gold,  chiefly  bul- 
lion, into  the  United  States  ranged  from  a 
minimmn  of  $43,339,905  in  1910  to  a  maximum 
of  $148337,321  in  1908.  The  extremes  of  ex- 
ports were  £38,57^891  in  1906  and  $118,563,215 
in  1910. 

BULLIONS,  Peter,  American  philol^t: 
b.  Moss  Side,  Scotland,  December  1791 ;  d.  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  13  Feb.  1864.  Educated  at  Edinbur^ 
University,  where  he  studied  theology,  he  came 
to  America  in  1817.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Pres- 
byterian church  at  Argyle,  N.  Y.,  for  six  years, 
and  from  1S24  to  1848  taught  languages  m  the 
Albany  Acadony  and  was,  from  1832  to  his 
death,  pastor  olthe  United  Presbyterian  con- 
gregation at  Troy,  N.  Y.  His  published  work* 
include  'Life  of  Alexander  Bullions,'  (1840); 
'Prindples  of  English  Grammar'  (1834); 
'Principles  of  Greek  Grammar';  'Analytical 
and  Practical  English  Grammar'  (1853^ ; 
'Principles  of  Latin  Grammar'  (1853);  'Latin 
and  English  Dictionary>    (1862). 

BULLOCK,  Charles  JesM,  American 
economist:  b.  Boston,  21  May  1869.  He  was 
^duated  at  Boston  University  in  1889,. tau^ 
m  secondary  schools  for  four  years  and  then 
pursued  graduate  studies  in  political  economy 
and  political  science,  receiving  the  degree  of 
Ph.D.  in  1895  from  the  University  of  Wi»- 
consin.  After  holding  an  instruclorship  in 
political  economy  at  Comeli  University  from 
1895  to  1899,  he  was  appointed  assistant  pro- 
fessor, and  later  professor,  of  political  economy 
at  Williams  College,  where  he  tauf^t  from 
1899  to  1903.  In  1903  he  became  assistant  l»ro- 
fessor,  and  in  1908  professor,  of  political 
economy  at  Harvard  University.  He  served 
as  a  member  of  tbe  commission  appmnted  to 
codify  and  revise  the  taxation  laws  of  Massar 
cfausetts  in  1907,  and  of  the  comoaitsion  ap- 
pointed in  1913  to  draft  a  forest  tax  law,  which 
was  enacted  in  1914.  In  1916  he  was  elected 
vice-president  of  the  National  Tax  Association. 
.  Hb  best  writing  is  in  the  field  of  financial  his- 
tory and  theoryv  especially  the  finances  of  the 
United  States  between  1775  and  1789  (Unitier- 
silv  of  iViiconiin  BuUeHn,  1895).  He  is  the 
author  of  'The  Finances  of  the  United  Slates 
1775^1789'  (1895);  'Introduction  to  die  Study 
of  Economics'  (1897);  'Essays  on  the  Mone- 
iMv  History  of  the  United  Sutes'  (1900); 
'The  Finances  and  Financial  Policy  of  Massa- 
chusetts' (19071  ;  and  has  edited  'Currencies  of 
the  British  Plantations  in  North  America' 
(1897);  'Selected  Readings  in  Public  Finance' 
(1906) ;  'Selected  Reamiigs  in  Elconomics' 
(1907). 

VOL.  S  — 2 


BULLOCK,     Rafiu     Brown,     American 

statesman:  b.  Bethleheni,  Albany  County,  N.  Y., 
28  March  1834;  d.  Atlanta,  Ga,  27  April  1907. 
He  was  graduated  at  Albion  Academy  in  1850, 
and,  after  various  pursuits,  was  sent  during 
1859-60  to  organize  the  business  of  the  Adams 
Express  Company  in  the  South  Atlantic  States.- 
His  headouarters  were  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  where 
he  formed  the  Southern  Express  Company  and 
became  one  of  its  active  managers.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  continued  this  occupation  luider 
the  direction  of  the  Confederate  Kovemment 
establishing  railroad  and  telegraph  lines  on 
interior  routes.  Later  he  was  placed  in  charge 
of  contributions  for  the  officers  and  men  of  the 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  and  at  Appomat- 
tox he  gave  his  parole  as  acting  assistant  quar- 
termaster-general.  After  the  cessation  of  hos- 
tilities he  resumed  the  general  management  of 
express  affairs  and  was  elected  one  of  the 
trustees  and  secretary  of  the  Southern  Express 
Company.  He  was  also  associated  in  the  organ- 
ization of  the  First  National  BarUc  of  Georgia 
and  was  elected  president  of  the  Macon  and 
Augusta  Railroad.  In  1867  he  wu  chosen  a 
delegate  to  the  convention  called  to  frame  a 
constitution  under  the  reconstruction  laws  then 
recent^  passed.  His  course  at  that  convention 
met  with  the  approval  of  its  progressive  mem- 
bers  and  he  was  their  unanimous  chmce  as 
candidate  for  governor.  After  a  bitter  canvass 
in  the  spring  of  1863  the  new  constitution  was 
ratified  and  Bullock  was  declared  elected.  But 
the  reactionists  obtained  a  majority  in  the  leg- 
islature and  expelled  the  colored  men  who  had 
been  elected  and  seated.  Against  this  action  the 
governor  protested,  and  after  its  accomplish- 
ment brought  the  matter  to  the  attention  of  ■ 
Congress,  by  which  he  was  empowered  to  re- 
assemble the  old  legislature,  including  the  ex- 
pelled colored  members.  This  struggle  for  the 
ri^ls  of  negroes  to  hold  office  rendered  him 
very  unpopular  in  his  State,  and  he  was  over- 
whelmed with  abuse.  At  the  next  regular  elec- 
tion the  apposition  seated  a  large  majority  of 
the  general  assembly,  and  just  prior  to  Its  con- 
vening in  November  1870  (jovemor  Bullock 
resiened  his  office.  Charges  of  corruption  were 
made  against  him,  and,  after  a  hcanng  in  the 
State  courts  at  Atlanta,  he  was  acquitted  and 
thorou^ty  vindicated.  He  continued  his  resi- 
dence in  Georgia  and  became  president  of  one 
of  the  largest  cotton  mills  in  Atlanta.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  was  prominent  in  public  service; 
as  a  trustee  of  Atlanta  University,  president  of 
the  Atlanta  Chamber  of  Commerce,  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Cotton  Slates  Exposition  and  gov- 
ernment director  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 

BULLOCK,  Shan  P.,  Irish  novelist:  b. 
Crom,  Fermanagh,  Ireland,  17  May  1865,  He 
has  written  a  number  of  popular  works. 
Among  ihem  are  'The  Awkward  Squads* 
(1893);  'By  Thrasna  River'  (1895);  'Rinao' 
Rushes*  (1896)  ;  'The  Charmer'  (1897)  ;  'The 
Barrys'  (1899);  and  'Irish  Pastorals'  (1901); 
'The  Squireen'  (1903) ;  'Dan  the  Dollar* 
(1905) ;  <A  Laughing  Matter*  (19(B) ; 
'Thomas  Andrews.  Shipbuilder.*  His  work  is 
remarkably  individual  and  his  studies  of  life 
in  the  north  of  Ireland  are  faithful  reflections 
of  Irish  life  and  character. 

BULLOCK,  WilUun  A.,  American  in- 
ventor: b.  Greenville,  Greene  County,  N.  Y, 


d=,  Google 


BULLS  AND  BEARS  — BULOW 


1813;  d.  Philadelphia,  U  Aprif  1867.  He 
learned  the  trade  of  machinist,  and  having 
started  »  periodical.  The  Banner  of  ihi  Union, 
he  invented  a  printing-press  in  connection  with 
that  enterprise.  He  removed  to  New  York 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  construction  and 
sraduaJ  development  of  a  'planetary  press," 
ftnally  producing  the  Web  perfecting  press  that 
delivers  30,000  papers  per  hour,  printed,  cut  and 
folded.  While  handling  one  of  his  presses  he 
met  with  an  injury  that  proved  fatal. 

BULLS  AND  BEARS,  a  popular  phrase 
used  in  connection  with  the  stock  market.  The 
term  "[julls*  is  applied  to  the  operators  at- 
tempting to  force  up  prices,  and  the  term 
■bears*  to  those  seeking  to  lower  them. 

BULL'S  HORN  CORALINE  (so  named 
because  the  shape  of  the  cells  is  like  a  bull's 
horn),  a  loophytc  of  the  family  Crllariadct. 
It  is  the  Eucratia  ioricala.  It  is  branched  sub- 
alternate,  and  has  the  cells  conical,  with  a 
raised  ori&ce,  beneath  which  is  a  spinous 
process. 

BULNES,  bool-nas,  Hannel,  Chilean 
soldier  and  statesman :  b.  Concepdon,  25  Dec. 
1799;  d.  Santiagov  18  Oct.  1866.  He  served  in 
most  of  the  battles  of  the  Chilean  revolution. 
In  1838  he  commanded  the  Chilean  army  of 
5,000  men  against  Santa  Cruz,  in  Peru,  and  was 
finally  instrumental  in  drivini;  Santa  Cruz  from 
the  country  and  breaking  up  the  Peru-Bolivian 
confederation.  In  1841  he  was  elected  Presi-- 
dent  of  Oiile  and  served  for  four  years.  He 
was  afterward  senator  and  councillor  of  state. 

BULOW,  bii'lo,  Berahard,  Punce  von, 
German  statesman :  b.  Klein- Flotlbeck,  Hol- 
stein  3  May  1849.  He  came  of  a  distinguished 
family,  and  was,  on  the  mother's  side,  of  Danish 
ancestry.  He  was  educated  at  Lausanne,  Leip- 
zig and  Berlin,  studied  law  and  served  in  the 
Franco- German  War,  where  he  rose  to  the 
grade  of  Heu tenant  After  being  secretary 
of  legation  at  Rome,  Saint  Petersburg  and 
Vienna,  he  became  charge  d'aff^res  at  Athens 
during  the  RussO'Turkish  War,  and  later  was 
secretary  o.f  the  Berlin  Congress.  In  1888  he 
was  appointed  Minister  to  Rumania,  and  in 
1693  Ambassador  to  Italy.  He  was  called  home 
to  become  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  His 
skilful  treatment  of  the  Samoan  difficulty  won 
him  popular  favor  in  his  own  country.  Dur~ 
ing  the  Chinese  complications  in  1900  he  fully 
supported  the  Emperor's  foreign  policy.  When 
Prince  Hohenlohe  resigned,  16  Oct.  19O0,  Von 
Billow  was  called  to  succeed  him  as  Chancellor 
of  the  empire.  His  diplomacy  was  shaped  on 
the  whole  in  accordance  with  ideas  of  his 
Imperial  master.  In  1905  he  set  in  motion  a 
campaign  against  the  ambitions  of  France  in 
Morocco  which  led  to  the  fall  of  the  French 
Foreign  Minister  Delcasse  and  the  meeting  of 
the  Algcciras  conference  in  1906.  He  was 
laised  to  the  princely  rank  in  1905.  He  was 
especially  skilful  in  controlling  a  majority  in 
the  Reichstag  among  the  different  factions  until 
the  failure  of  his  oudeet  proposals  which  led 
to  his  resignation  in  1909,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Von  Bcthmann-Hollweg,  He  has 
opposed  many  of  the  tatter's  policies  and  criti- 
cized as  inimical  to  the  empire  his  utterances 
in  the  Reichstag  on  the  German  conditions  of 
peace. 


BULOW,  Dietrich  Adam  Hdnrich  vod. 

Gennan  military  writer :  b.  Falkcnbcrg  in 
Altmark,  about  1757;  d.  Riga,  Russia,  1607.  He 
studied  in  the  military  academy  at  Berlin,  and 
afterward  entered  the  Prussian  service.  But  be 
soon  retired,  and  occupied  himself  with  the 
study  of  Polybius,  Tacitus  and  J.  J.  Rousseau, 
and  then  served  for  a  short  period  in  the  Neth- 
erlauds.  He  afterward  undertook  to  establish 
a  theatre,  but  immediately  abandoned  his  proj- 
ect, and  visited  the  United  States,  whence  he 
returned  poor  in  purse  but  rich  in  experience, 
and  became  an  author.  His  first  work  was  on 
the  'Art  of  War,'  in  which  he  displayed  un- 
common talents.  He  wrote  a  book  on  'Money,' 
translated  the  'Travels  of  Mungo  Park,'  and 
published,  in  1801,  his  'History  of  the  Cam- 
paign of  1800.'  He  lived  a  time  in  London. 
was  there  itnprisoned  for  debt,  and  afterward 
removed  to  Paris,  whence  he  was  banished  in 
1804.  In  1804  he  wrote  'Lehrsatze  des  neuem 
Krieges'  ('Theory  of  Modern  Warfare'^  and 
several  other  military  works,  among  which  is 
his  'Tactics  of  the  Moderns  as  They  Should 
Be.'  In  the  former  he  points  out  the  distinc- 
tion between  strategy  and  tactics,  and  makes 
the  triangle  the  basis  of  all  military  operations. 
This  principle  of  his  was  opposed  by  Jomini 
and  other  French  writers.  His  history  of  the 
war  of  1805  occasioned  his  imprisonment  in 
Prussia,  at  the  request  of  the  Russian  and 
Austrian  courts.  He  died  in  the  prison  o{ 
Riga.  He  was  a  follower  of  Swedenborg. 
Consult  Cammerer,  'Development  of  Strate- 
gical Science'    (London  1905). 

BULOW,  Fricdrich  Wilhelm  (Count 
VON  DENNEwrrz)  Prussian  general:  b.  Falken- 
berg,  16  Feb.  17SS ;  d.  Konigsberg^  25  Feb,  1816. 
In  his  14lh  year  he  entered  the  Prussian  army. 
In  the  war  of  1806  he  was  a  lieutenant-colonel 
at  the  siege  of  Thorn,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  various  battles.  In  1808  he  was  made  major-' 
general  and  general  of  brigade.  When  the  war 
against  France  broke  out  m  1813  he  fought  the 
first  successful  battle  at  Mockem,  5  April ;  2 
May  took  Halle,  and  protected  Berlin  from  the 
danger  which  threatened  it,  by  his  victory  at 
Ludcau  4  June.  He  saved  Berlin  a  second 
time  by  the  memorable  victory  over  Oudinot 
of  Grosbeeren.  23  August,  and  relieved  the 
same  dty  a  tnird  time  by  the  great  victory 
over  Ney  at  Dennewitz.  For  this  service  the 
King  made  him  one  of  the  few  grand  knights 
of  the  Iron  Cross,  and  after  the  end  of  the  cam- 
paign bestowed  on  him  the  title  (^unt  Bulow 
of  Dennewitz,  and  made  the  same  hereditary  in 
his  family.  At  the  storming  of  Leipzig,  19  Oc- 
tober, he  took  an  important  part.  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  campaign  of  1815  he  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  fourth  division  of  the  > 
army,  with  which  he  contributed  so  essentially 
to  the  victory  of  Waterloo,  that  the  King  gave 
him  the  command  of  the  15th  regiment  of  the 
line,  which  was  to  bear  in  future  the  name  of 
the  Regiment  of  Biilow  von  Dennewitz.  Con- 
sult Bulow,  ' General feldmarschall  Graf  Biilow 
v.  Dennewitz'    (Vienna  1910). 

BULOW,  Hans  Qnido  von,  Gennan 
pianist  and  composer:  b.  Dresden,  8  Jan.  1830; 
d.  Cairo,  Egypt,  12  Feb,  1894,  He  studied  the 
piano  under  Liszt,  and  made  his  first  public 
appearance  in  1852,  In  1855  he  f>ecame  leading 
professor   in    the    Conservatory   at    Berlin;    in 


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BUXX>W— BtTLWXR 


1^  wu  aitpointed  court  piBniat ;  itnd  in  1%7 
btcame  musical  director  to  the  Kin^  of  Bavaria, 
foBowed  by  a  leries  of  concerts  in  Germany, 
Italjr,  Russia,  England  and  the  United  Slates, 
wbidi  he  first  totlred  in  1875-76.  In  1878  be 
btame  musical  director  at  Court  Theatre; 
fraoi  1880-85  was  Hofmusikintendant  to  the 
Duke  of  Ueiningen.  From  1886  till  bis  death 
he  was  conductor  of  the  Philhannonic  Society, 
Hamburg.  His  compositions  include  overture 
and  music  to  Mulins  Canar,'  'The  Minstrel's 
Curse'  and  'Nirvana';  songs,  cboroses  and 
foanoforte  pieces.  He  was  considered  one  of 
the  fiist  of^  pianists  and  orchestral  condnctors 
remarkable  for  the  range  of  his  repertoire  and 
for  his  retentive  memory,  playing  and  conduct- 
ing without  bo<^  He  was  die  greatest  living 
autboiity  on  Beethoven,  and  edited  an  edition 
of  his  works.  His  'Letters,'  edited  by  his 
widow,  appeared  1895-97;  and  'Lives'  by  Rau- 
maon  (Berlin  1906)  and  La  Mara  (Leipzig 
1911). 

BULOW,  Karl  Ednard  von,  German 
author:  b.  Bere  vor  Eilenburg,  Saxony,  17 
Nov.  1803;  d.  Oltishausen,  16  5^,  1853.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  and  be- 
came the  friend  and  imitator  of  Ludwig  Tieck. 
Hit  literary  fame  rests  mainly  on  his  'Boole  of 
Tales,'  after  andent  Italian,  Spanish,  Frendi, 
English,  Latin  and  German  ori^nals  (4  vols., 
1834-36),  which  was  followed  by  a  supple- 
mentary volume  (1841),  Of  his. own  original 
compositions,  the  'Springtide  Wandering 
AmoRK  the  Hartz  Mountains*  is  one  of  the 
best.  He  wrote  also  the  very  interesting  story 
of  'The  Vooth  of  a  Poor  Man  of  TogRenburp,* 
founded  on  the  autobi^raphy  of  Ulnch 
Bfikcr,  a  Swiss  weaver.  He  published  the 
origiaal  later. 

BULOW,  Margarete  von,  German  Novel- 
ist: b.  Berlin  1860;  d.  near  there,  2  Jan.  188S. 
Her  early  years  were  spent  partly  in  Thuringia 
ud  iKirtly  in  Smyrna,  where  her  father  was 
Prussian  consul.  Her  published  works  in- 
dude  "Stories'  (1885)  ;  'Jonas  Briccius' 
(1886);  'Herr  im  Haose*  (1886);  'Chronicle 
of  the  Riffelshausen  Folks'  (1887) ;  'New 
Stories'  (1890).  She  delineated  character  with 
ercat  precision,  and  displayed  true  insight  into 
the  human  heart.  She  lost  her  life  in  an  at- 
tempt to  rescue  a  boy  from  drowning  in  the 
Rummelsburger  Lake, 

BULOZ,  bu-1&,  Frantoit,  French  publicist: 
b.  Vulbens,  Savoy,  20  Sept.  1803;  d,  Paris,  12 
Jan.  1877.  In  1831  he  became  editor  of  the 
Rnve  des  Deux  Mondts,  the  celebrated  French 
fartni^tly  literary  magazine,  which,  under  his 
direction,  increased  its  subscription  list  from 
350  to  18,000.  It  published  the  works  of  de 
Vigny,  de  Musset,  George  Sand,  and  rendered 
remarkable  service  to  the  encouraKOient  of 
contemporary  literature.  From  1835-45  he  also 
edited  the  Revut  de  Paris.  For  10  _years  ( 1838- 
4S)  he  was  director  of  the  Copi6die  Fran^aise. 
BITLRAMPUR,  bool-riim-poor',  a  town  of 
India,  in  the  Fyzabad  division  of  Oudh,  the 
residence  of  the  Maharaja  of  Bulrampur.  It 
bas  a  trade  in  rice,  etc,  besides  manufactures 
of  cotton  and  other  articles, 

BULRUSH,  a  popttlar  name  for  tall,  reed- 
like  plants  wliich  grow  in  marshy  places,  and 
wWch  for  the  most  part  belong  to  the  genus 


throughout  Europe,  as  well  as  in  North  Amer- 
ica and  New  South  Wales,  The  roots  are  thick 
and  stout,  creeping  under  water  in  the  deep 
mud;  the  stems  arc  of  a  dark-Rrecu  color,  and 
four  or  five  feet  or  more  in  height,  and  are 
naked,  smooth,  rouuc^  tough,  i^iant  and  spongy 
within.  Their  base  is  covered  with  several 
sheathing  scales,  partly  ending  in  leaf);  points. 
They  are  useful  for  paddng  and  thatchings  and 
especially  for  plaiting  into  the  bottom  of  chain. 

BULTHAUPT,  boolllioupt,  Heinrich  Al- 
fred, (jerman  poet  and  dramatist:  b.  Bremen, 
26  Oct,  1849;  A  1905.  On  quitting  the  univer- 
sity he  was  for  a  while  a  private  tutor;  then 
traveled  in  the  East,  Greece  and  in  Italy.  He 
was  a  law^r  in  his  native  town  for  some  years, 
and  in  1879  became  custodian  of  the  city  libraty. 
Of  his  dramatic  compositions  the  list  is  very 
long,  comprising  tragedies,  'Saul'  (1870)  ;  'A 
Corsican  Tragedy'  (1871);  plays  dealine  with 
the  questioas  oi  the  tim^  'The  Workmen' 
(1876)  ;  comedies,  comic  operas,  including  'Die 
KopUten'  (1875) ;  'Lebende  Biider'  (1875); 
'Ahasver'  (1904),  He  wrote  the  text  for 
oratorios  by  Bmcb  and  Vieriing,  adaptations  of 
Shakespearean  dramas  ( 'CymbeUne'  1885 ; 
'Timon  von  Athen'  1894) ;  he  also  wrote 
'Durch  Frost  und  Gluten'  (1892,  new  ed, 
1904),  and  several  works  of  criticism,  especially* 
'Shucespeare  und  der  Naturalismus,'  His 
special  distinction,  however,  is  as  author  of 
'Dramaturgy  of  the  Theatre';  'Dramaturgie 
der  Klassiker'  (1882  et  seq,),  a  work  of  exceed- 
ing value  which  has  been  reprinted  frequently 
under  the  title  'Dramaturgic  des  Schauspiels' ; 
also  'Dramaturgy  of  the  Opera'  (2  vols^,  1887). 
Consult  Kraeger,  H,  'Litterarische  Vortrage 
aus  dem  Nachlass  ausgewiihlt  und  durcbge- 
schen>    (Oldenburg   1912). 

BULWER,  John,  English  phyncian  and 
author.  He  flourished  in  the  17tn  century  and 
a^ears  to  be  entitled  to  the  honor  of  luving 
first  ptunted  out  a  method  of  inslructins  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  His  works  include  'Pbiloso- 
phus,  or  the  Deafe  and  Dumbe  Man's  Friend' 
(1648);  'Cfaironomia,  or  the  Art  of  Manual 
Rhetoric';  'Chirologia,  or  the  Natural  Lan- 
guage of  the  Hand'  and  'Anthropometamor- 
phoiis.) 

BULWER,  William  Henry  Lytton  Earl« 
(Barok  Dalling  and  Bulweb)  English  author 
and  diplomat,  brother  of  Sir  Edward  Bulwer- 
Lytton  (q.v,):  b,  London,  13  Feb.  1801;  d. 
Naples  23  May  1872,  He  was  educated  at  Sun- 
burn;, Harrow  and  C^ambridge.  He  became 
agent  for  the  London  Oeek  Committee  in  1824, 
and  made  a  journey  to  the  Morea,  which  he 
later  described  in  'A  Journey  to  Greece.'  He 
entered  the  army,  but  resigned  to  enter  the 
diplomatic  service,  and  after  1827  was  succes- 
sively in  Berlin,  Brussels  and  The  Hague,  In 
1830  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  an  ad- 
vanced Liberal  and  in  1837  was  made  secretary 
of  the  embassy  at  Constantinople,  where  he 
concluded  an  important  commercial  treaty  with 
Turkey.  He  was  Minister  to  Madrid  in  1643, 
and  concluded  the  peace  between  Spain  and 
Morocco  in  1844,  Disliked  by  Narvaez,  the 
soldier- dictator,  Bulwer  was  ordered  to  leave 
Spain.    Parliament  approved  of  his  condnct  and 


d=,  Google 


BULWBR-CLAYTOH  TRSATT-'BULWER-LYTTOH 


be  was  awarded  the  highest  decoration  of  the 
Order  of  the  Bath;  in  1849  had  a  diplomatic 
mission  to  Washington,  and  was  one  of  the 
negotiators  of  the  Bulwer-Claylon  Treaty 
(q.v,).  Jn  1852  he  wai  erivoy  extraordinary 
to  Tuscany  and  in  1856  was  sent  to  Bucharoit 
to  investigate  the  conditions  of  the  Danubian 
principalities,  and  was  Ambassador  to  Turkey 
in  1858-65.  He  was  created  Baron  Dalling  and 
Bulwer  in  1871,  His  works  include  <An 
Autumn  in  Greece'  (1826);  'France,  Social, 
Literary  and  Political'  (1834-36);  'Life  of 
Byron'  (183S)  ;  'Historical  Characters'  {1868- 
70);    "Life  of  Palmerston'    (1870-74). 

BULWEH-CLAYTON  TREATY,  a 
treaty  negotiated  at  Washington,  D.  C,  in 
April  1850,  by  John  M.  Clayton,  Secretary  of 
State  under  President  Taylor,  and  Sir  Henry 
Bulwer,  Britidi  Minister  to  the  United  States. 
It  provided  that  neither  the  United  States  nor 
Great  Britain  should  attempt  to  control  a  pro- 
posed canal  across  Nicaragua.  The  treaty 
provided  further  for  the  neutrality  of  the  cansd' 
and  it  guaranteed  enconragement  to  all  lines 
of  interoceanic  communication.  The  terms  of 
the  treaty  were  afterward  much  disputed.  In 
1882  the  United  States  government  intimated 
to  Great  Britain  that  the  canal  having  become 
impracticable  because  o£  reasons  for  which 
Great  Britain  aJone  was  responsible,  the  United 
States  considered  the  treaty  as  no  longer  bind- 
ing, but  (jTeat  Britain  continued  to  hold  it  as 
in  force.  On  3  March  1899,  Congress  passed 
a  bill  providing  for  the  construction  of  a  canal 
on  the  Nicaragna  route,  which  also  authoHied 
the  President  to  open  negotiations  with  Great 
Britain  for  the  abrogation  of  the  Bulwer-Clay- 
ton  Treaty,  and  under  the  last  clause  a  conven- 
tion betvKen  the  two  countries,  idirogating  por- 
tions of  the  treaty  doetned  to  be  against  the 
interests  of  the  United  States,  was  signed  in 
Washington,  5  Feb.  1900. .  For  a  cosqtlele  ac- 
count see  CLAXTON-BuLWDt  Treaty. 

BULWBR-LYTTON.  Edward  Qtot^ 
Barle  (1st  Lord  Lytton),  English  politician 
and  novelist:  b.  London,  25  Hay  1803;  d.  Tor- 
quay, Devonshire,  18  'an.  1873,  The  Bulwers, 
long  settled  at  Heydon  Hall,  Norfolk,  claimed 
descent  from  the  Normans  and  Vikings,  per- 
haps as  a  ready  explanation  of  their  bold  and 
turbulent  spirit.  The  novelist's  father,  William 
Earle  Bulwer,  was  colonel  of  the  I06di  r^ment 
or  Norfolk  rangers.  His  mother,  Elicabetb 
Barbara,  was  the  only  daughter  of  Richard 
Warburton  Lytton  of  Knebworth  in  Hertford- 
shire, the  fatnily  seat  since  the  time  of  Henry 
VIL  From  her  and  her  father,  who  was  a 
learned  scholar,  Bulwer  claimed  to  have  derived 
his  love  for  letters.  As  a  boy  he  lived  much 
among  his  grandfather's  books  and  read 
througjl  three  circulating  libraries.  He  wrote 
volumes  of  Byronic  verse,  some  of  which  was 
published  at  the  age  of  17.  Prepared  for 
the  university  at  various  private  schools,  he 
entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  at  Eas-. 
ter  in  1822;  but  soon  migrated  to  Trinity  Hall, 
where  it  was  not  necessary  to  attend  lectures. 
At  Cambridge  he  was  a  consfMcuous  member 
of  the  Union;  he  won  the  Chancellor's  medal 
in  1825,  and  sketched  two  novels.  At  this  time 
he  also  read  enormously  in  history  and  began 
the  practice  of  keepiug  those  huge  comiDon- 


place  books  which  afterward  liecame  useful 
in  preparing  his  historical  novels.  Before 
receiving  hii  bachelor's  degree  in  1826,  be 
pnblished  more  Byronic  verse,  fell  desperately 
ID  love,  made  a  tour  of  Scotland  and  the  Ejag~ 
iish  lakes,  and  passed  a  season  in  Paris,  wiiere 
he  was  received  into  the  most  brilliant  talons. 
Returning  to  London  ^  finished  dandy^"  he 
married  on  29  Aug,  1827,  Rosina  Doyle 
Wheeler,  a  beautiful  Irish  girl  of  some  accom- 
{dishments.  The  marriage  led  to  an  estrange- 
ment from  his  mother  and  the  young  man  was 
consequently  thrown  upon  his  own  resources. 
He  settled  with  his  wife  at  Woodcot  House  in 


fropi  what  he  could  earn  with  his  pen.      

marriage  proving  uncomfortable,  a  legal  sepa- 
ration was  obtained  in  1836  after  years  of  a 
Ufe  apart  On  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1843 
he  inherited  Knebworth  and  assumed  the  sur- 
name of  Lytton. 

To  pass  by  Bulwer's  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  annuals  and  periodicab,  be  published 
in  1827,  'Falkland,'  a  sentimental  navel  in  imi- 
tation of  Rousseau's  'Nouvelle  Hdloise:'  After 
a  quick  passage  throu^  the  sentimental  stage, 
he  came  out  with  'Pelham'  in  1828^  a  brilliant 
novel  founded  upon  what  he  had  seen  of  high 
life  in  London  and  Paris.  It  was  likewise  Bul- 
wer's first  excursion  into  politics  and  crime.  ' 
Late  in  the  same  year  followed  'The  Dig- 
owned,'  a  curious  novel  which  the  author 
called  'metaphysical*  inasmuch  as  the  charac- 
ters are  intended  to  stand  for  'certain  disposi- 
tions influential  upon  conduct.*  After  *Devcf- 
eux>  (1829),  an  experiment  in  historical  ro- 
mance, Bulwer  took  up  the  criminal  novel, 
publishing  'Paul  Clitford'  <1830)  and  'Eugene 
Aram'  (1832),  which  are  among  his  most  char- 
acteristic books.  By  this  time  a  popular  nov- 
elist, he  displayed  during  the  coming  years 
extraordinary  versatility.  With  'The  Pilgrims 
of  the  Rhine'  (1834)  he  began  a  series  of  fan- 
tastic tales  which  he  called  ideal  and  poetic, 
announcing  that  they  should  be  judged  *by  the 
rules  rather  of  poetry  than  prose.*  The  chap- 
ter entitled  "The  Life  of  Dreams*  elabora' 


son*  and  by  Kipling  in  '"The  Brushwood  Boy.' 
Occult  philosophy  was  cleverly  employed  in 
'Zanoni'  (1842)  and  speculation  about  the 
future  age  of  electricity  in  'The  Coming  Race' 
(I87I).  A  series  of  ghost  stories  culminated 
in  'The  Haunted  antf  the  Haunters'  (1861) 
hardly  surpassed  in  its  kind.  Historical  ro- 
mance, resumed  in  'The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii' 
(1834),  was  continued  in  'Rienri'  (1835),  "The 
Last  of  the  Barons'  (1843),  'Harold'  (1848), 
and  the  incomplete  'Pausanias'  (posthumous, 
1876),  The  best  of  these  novels  stand  for  an 
attempt  to  get  near  to  the  'facts  of  history. 
In  the  midst  of  this  work  was  planned  a  com- 
prehensive history  of  'Athens,  its  Rise  and 
Fall,'  of  which  two  volumes  appeared  in  1837. 
Another  idealization  of  the  criminal  in  <Lu- 
cretia'  (1847)  provoked  considerable  criticism, 
to  which  he  replied  with  'A  Word  to  the  Pub- 
lic' (1846).  To  test  his  popularity  Bulwer  now 
published  anonymously  m  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine three  experiments  in  18lh  century  humor. 
The  series  comprises  'The  Caxtons'  (1849), 
'My  Novel'    (1853),  and  'What  Will  He  Do 


d=vGe^ogIc 


BULIAmbLYTTON  —  BUMBLEBEE 


With  ItM  1858).  Though  a  little  too  obvioasly 
in  the  manner  of  Steme^the  noveU  are  among 
Bulwer's  best  work.  They  were,  cudously 
enough,  as  well  received  by  the  public  as  if  they 
had  borne  die  author's  name.  Somewhat  like 
them  is  'Keaelm  Chillingly'  <1873),  interesting 
besides  for  its  infusion  of  autobiography. 

Throughout  his  career,  Bulwer  never  ceased 
to  cultivate  l^s  muse.  From  the  Byronic  in6u- 
ence  that  marked  his  poems  down  to  1830,  be 
worked  into  satire,  addressing  himself  *to  Ae 
humors  rather  than  to  the  passions  of  men.' 
The  'Siamese  Twins'  (1831),  a  poem  of  four 
books  in  the  metre  of  'Hudibrai,'  appeared  ia 
a  volume  of  miscellaneous  poems,  of  which  the 
longest  is  one  on  Milton.  'The  New  Timon; 
A  Poedcal  Romance  of  London>  (1846),  a 
satire  on  men  then  prominent  in  politics  and 
literature,  is  memorable  for  the  reference  to 
Tennyson  as  "School miss  Alfred,"  and  for 
Tennyson's  caustic  stanzas  ip  a  reply  contrib- 
uted to  Punch,  28  Feb.  1846.  Among  Bulwer's 
other  collections  of  verse  as  'Poems  and  Bal- 
lads,' translated  from  Schiller  (1844) ;  an  epic 
in  two  volumes  on  'Kins  Arthur'  (1846-49)  ; 
<The  Lost  Tales  of  Miletus'  (1866):  as>d  a 
translation  of  the  'Odes  and  E^ocs  of  Horace' 
(1869).  If  Bulwer  did  not  gain  much  fame  as 
a  poet,  he  exactly  hit  popular  taste  in  three 
plays— 'The  Lady  of  Lyons'  (1838),  'Riche- 
lieu' (1838)  and  'Money'  (1840)— which  still 
keep  the  stage. 

Bulwer's  role  in  letters  has  obscured  for 
later  limes  the  part  he  played  in  politics.  From 
1831  to  1841  he  sat  in  Parliament  as  a  Liberal 
member  of  Saint  Ives,  Huntingdonshire  and 
then  for  Lincoln.  After  maldng  his  maiden 
speech  in  support  of  the  Reform  Bill,  he  de- 
voted his  energies  largely  in  favor  of  copyright 
*  on  original  works,  cheap  postage  on  newspa- 
pers and  the  laws  affecting  dramatic  literature 
and  the  stage.  His  early  speeches  on  these  sub- 
jects are  still  worth  reading.  In  1834,  he 
issued  a  spirited  pamphlet  on  the  'Present 
Crisis,'  which  went  through  20  editions  and 
influenced  greatly  the  election  that  brought 
1-ord  Melbourne  back  to  power.  The  new 
Premier  offered  him  a  lordship  in  the  Admiralty 
but  the  post  was  declined.  In  1841,  Bulwer 
lost  his  seat  owing  to  his  willingness  to  accept 
a  slight  tax  on  corn.  Ten  years  later  he  ad- 
vocated protection  to  this  extent  in  'Letters  to 
John  BuU  Esq.';  and  in  1852  he  returned  to 
Parliament  as  a  Conservative  member  for  Hert- 
fordshire. His  numerous  si>eeches  of  this 
period  relate  to  the  excise  duties^  the  Crimean 
War,  CHiina  and  the  East  India  Company.  On 
the  f^omiation  of  the  Derb^  Ministry  in  1846,  he 
became.Secretary  lo  the  Colonies.  While  hold- 
ing this  ofEce  he  ormniied  the  new  colony  of 
British  Columbia.  He  spoke  in  support  of 
Disraeli's  reform  bill  of  1859,  but  against  the 
measures  introduced  by  Lord  Russell  and  Glad- 
stone in  I860  and  1866,  As  a  reward  for  his 
services,  he  was  elevated  to  the  peerage  in  1866, 
as  Baron  Lytton  of  Knebworth.  Before  this 
he  received  the  degree  LL.D.  from  both  of  the 
great  English  universities.  In  1854  he  was  in- 
(talled  honorary  president  of  the  Associated 
Societies  of  Edmburgh  University,  and  he  was 
twice  elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  To  the  last  he  kept  up  his  literary 
work.  'The  Parisians'  was  mnnmg  in  Black- 
waoi'r  Magatkie  when  the  cud  came  at  Tor- 


quay on  18  Jan.  1873.    He  wai  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

As  a  novelist  Bulwer  was  subject  to  fierce 
assaults  from  the  critics  throughout  his  career. 
Thackeray,  for  example,  in  a  review  of  'Ernest 
Maltravers'  ridiculed  and  scorned  his  bad  art, 
affected  s^le,  *hiR  eternal  whine  .  .  .  , 
about  the  good  and  the  beautiful*  and  *the 
dtilness  of  his  moral  sense.*  Still  there  is  the 
other  side.  In  various  prefaces  to  his  novels 
and  especially  in  two  papers  contributed  to  the 
Monthly  ChrorticU  for  1838,  Bulwer  carefully 
elaborated  his  views  on  the  art  of  fiction,  draw- 
ing clear  distinctions  between  the  novd  and  the 
drama  as  he  understood  and  practised  them. 
He  never  aimed  at  the  dramatic  novel  wherein 
each  incident  and  conversation  must  contribute 
to  the  working  out  of  a  logical  plot.  *It  is 
often  desirable"  he  said  with  reference  to  Ac 
novel,  *to  go  hack  instead  of  forward, —  to 
wind,  to  vary,  to  sbiit  the  interest  from  person 
to  person"  that  the  reader  may  not  become 
fatigued.  In  that  aim  he  succeeded.  However 
much  his  novels  may  fail  in  technical  details, 
they  have  never  failed  to  find  an  audience. 

Bibliompfay. —  Unfortunately  there  is  no 
adequate  fife  of  Bulwer  or  critical  edition  of  his 
novels,  indicatiug  the  many  important  changes 
he  made  in  the  text  from  time  to  time.  Uncrit- 
ical editions  of  the  novels  are  numerous.  To 
his  'Speeiches'  (2  vols..  Edinburgh  1874).  Ms 
son,  the  Earl  of  Lytton,  prefixed  a  memoir 
dealii^  with  his  political  career.  Tlie  period 
of  his  life  from  1803  to  1832  is  covered  by  a 
most  interestine  autobiography,  half  fact  and 
half  fictioii,  ana  several  supplementary  chapters 
by  his  son,  published  togetiter  under  the  title 
''Life,  Letters  and  Literary  Remains'  (2  vols., 
LondMi  1883).  After  the  death  of  Lady  Lyt- 
ton, her  executrix,  Louisa  Devey,  pubiistied  In 
vindication  of  her  memorf  'Letters  of  the  Late 
Edward  Bulwer,  Lord  Lytton  to  his  Wife' 
(New  York  1889).  Consult  also  C6oper,'Lifeof 
Edward  Bulwer,  First  Lord  Lytton'  (London 
1873) ;  Escott,  'Edward  Lytton'  (London 
1910);  Ten  Brink,  'Edward  Lytton'  (Leyden 
1882) ;  and  Second  Earl  of  Lytton,  'Life  of 
Edward  Bulwer,  Firat  Lord  Lytton'  (2  vols., 
New  Yoilc  and  London  1913). 

WiLBtJR  L.  OosS; 
Professor  of  English,  Yale  University. 

BULWBR-LYTTON,  Edward  Sobert. 
See  Lytton,  Edward  RcttBRT  Bulwbk. 

BUSf-BOAT  (perhaps  originally  •boom- 
boat,'  from  the  boom  rigged  out  from  the  side 
of  a  man-of-war  at  anchor,  to  which  boats  may 
make  fast),  employed  by  hucksters  to  visit 
ships  lyin^  at  anchor^  with  supplies  of  pro- 
visions, trinkets,  clothing,  etc.,  for  sale  to  the 

BUMBLEBEE,  a  wild  bee  of  some  spedes 
of  the  ^enus  Bombus,  of  which  upward  of  50 
species  inh^it  North  America.  Few  occur  bi 
the  southern  hemisphere  or  tropical  regions, 
and  none  in  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  or  in 
Australia,  while  they  are  the  only  bees  inhabit- 
ing Arctic  and  Alpine  regions.  The  bumble, 
or  humble,  bee  is  recognized  by  its  large,  thick, 
h^ry  body  and  long  bass  hum.  The  colonies 
of  bumblebees  are  not  numerous  compared 
with  those  of  wasps,  or  the  stingless  or  the 
-  honey,  bee.    A  poptHOua  colony  ia  England  'Sitd 


[ig 


v  Google 


BUHBLBFOOT — BUNCE 


America  may  number  from  300  to  400  individ- 
uals. The  proportion  of  sexes  and  castes  of 
BombHS  muscorum  in  England  were  found  by 
Smith  to  be,  in  a  colony  of  120,  25  females, 
36  males  and  59  workers.  The  roundish  oval 
cells  differ  in  size  and  have  no  exact  arrange- 
ment. Besides  the  cells  containing  the  young, 
the  old  discarded  ones  are  made  to  serve  as 
honcy  tubs  or  pollen  tubs,  and  there  are  also 
the  cells  of  the  guest  or  Psitbynis  bees.  In 
good  weather  and  when  flowers  are  plentiful 
the  bees  collect  and  store  honey  in  abundance, 
and  when  the  empty  pupa-cells  are  full  they 
form  special  cells  made  entirely  of  wax  and 
these  are  filled  with  honey,  and  left  open  for 
the  benefit  of  the  community  (Sharp).  Hofer 
states  that  special  tubs  for  the  storing  of  pollen 
are  sometimes  constructed.  Putnam  says  that 
the  larvK  make  their  own  cells  of  silk,  which 
are  finally  strengthened  with  wax  by  the  old 
bees.  Bumblebees  have  been  seen  working  in 
wann  moonlight  nights.  About  two  centuries 
ago  Godart  slated  that  a  trumpeter  bee  is  kept 
in  some  nests  to  rouse  the  colony  to  work  by 
three  or  four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  this 
has  been  recently  confirmed  by  Hofer,  who  ob- 
served the  fact  m  his  laboratory.  If  the  trum- 
peter was  removed  its  place  was  tilled  the  next 
morning. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  variation  in  our 
bumblebees,  ana,  besides  the  local  and  climatic 
varieties,  polymorphism  is  apparently  marked, 
as  Packard  has  (in  Bombus  fervidut)  detected 
two  sets  of  males  and  females,  the  lar^  and 
the  small;  but  whelbor  there  are  two  sues  of 
workers  has  not  yet  been  ascertained.  The 
queen  bees  lav  their  eggs  in  masses  of  bee- 
bread  attached  to  the  top  or  sides  of  the  old 
cells,  in  little  enclosures  formed  by  thin  par- 
titions set  up  by  the  bee  after  the  eggi  have 
been  deposited.  Thus  placed,  says  Packard,  in 
a  mass  of  food,  the  young  larvK,  on  halctung, 
be^n,  by  eating  the  food,  gradually  to  construct 
their  cells  in  me  manner  described  by  Putnam, 
who  gives  the  following  account  of  the  economy 
of  the  bumblebee  colony:  The  queen  awakens 
in  early  spring  from  her  winter's  sleep  beneath 
the  leaves  or  moss,  or  in  deserted  nests,  and 
selects  a  nesiing-place,  generally  in  an  aban- 
doned nest  of  a  field-mouse,  or  beneath  a 
stump  or  sod,  and  imraediateiy  collects  a  small 
amount  of  pollen  mixed  wim  honey,  and  in 
this  deposits  from  7  to  14  eggs,  grad- 
ually adding  to  the  pollen  mass  until  the 
first  brood  is  hatched.  She  does  not  wait,  how- 
ever, for  one  brood  to  be  hatched  before  laying 
the  eggs  of  another ;  but  as  soon  as  food 
enough  has  been  collected,  she  lays  the  eggs  for 
the  second.  As  soon  as  the  larvz  are  capable 
of  motion,  and  commence  feeding,  Ihey  eat  the 
pollen  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  and,  grad- 
ually separating,  push  their  way  in  various 
directions.  Eatmg  as  thev  move,  and  increasing 
in  sixe  quite  rapidly,  they  soon  make  large 
cavities  in  the  pollen  mass.  When  they  have 
attained  their  full  size,  they  spin  a  silken  wall 
about  them,  which  is  strengthened  by  the  old 
bees  covering  it  with  a  thin  layer  of  wax, 
which  soon  becomes  hard  and  tough,  thus  form- 
ing a  cell.  The  larvae  now  gradually  attain  the 
pupa  stage,  and  remain  inactive  until  their 
lull  development.  They  then  cut  their  way 
out,  and  are  ready  to  assume  their  duties  as 
workers   (small  lemales),  males  or  queens. 


Hie  cells  vary  in  size  and  are  known  as  queen, 
worker  and  drone  cells.  Of  the  first  brood  only 
workers  are  permitted  to  survive.  These  now 
supply  the  colonjr  with  honey  and  pollen  and  the 
queen  remains  in  the  nest,  laying  eggs  from 
which  emerge  new  workers  until  the  colony  is 
strong.  About  roid-sununer  males  or  drones 
are  permitted  to  develop  and  in  July  a  number 
of  eggs  are  laid  in  the  queen  cells.    The  young 

Sieens  are  fertilized  by  the  drones  in  the  fall, 
e  latter  dying  after  the  effort.  On  the  ajp- 
proach  of  cold  weather  all  the  workers  die, 
leaving  the  nest  in  possession  of  the  queens, 
who  sleep  through  the  winter  to  awaken  in 
spring,  when  the  process  b^ins  anew,  See 
Bee;  Beekzefinc. 

BUMBLEFOOT,  a  com  or  abscess  pn  the 
feet  of  domestic  fowls,  thought  to  arise  from 
roosting  on  narrow  perches  or  walking  on 
sharp  pebbles.  The  disease  is  sometimes  in- 
curable, but  in  other  cases  yields  to  the  daily 
application  of  lunar  caustic 

BUHHALOTI,  a  fish  (Harpodon  ne- 
hereuj}^  related  to  the  salmon,  but  marine, 
which  IS  caught  in  large  quantities  on  the 
western  coast  of  India,  dried,  salted  and  ex- 
ported all  over  the  East,  A  trade-name  is 
'Bombay  duck.'  It  is  a  veiv  long  fish,  with 
a  long  mouth  containing  slender  teeth,  an  indi- 
cation of  its  voracity, 

BUHPINO  POSTS,  construcUons  at  the 
ends  of  railroad  tracks  in  shifting  yards,  in- 
tended to  prevent  cars  from  running  off  the 
track.  They  are  usually  strong  wooden  frames 
with  buffers  placed  at  such  a  height  as  to  re- 
ceive the  blow  of  the  platform  or  coupler  of 
the  car.  Banks  of  earth  or  cinders  are  some- 
times utilized  for  this  purpose  and  portable 
metal  posts  known  as  shipblocks  are  frequently 
employed  as  bumping  posts. 
.  BUMPO,  Natty.  See  Leatherstocxikg 
Tales. 

BUHPUS,  Hermon  Carey,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Buckficld,  Me.  5  May  1862.  He  was 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1884,  was 
professor  of  biology  at  Olivet  College,  Michi- 
gan, 1886-89;  professor  of  roology  in  Clark 
University,  Worcester,  Mass.,  1890-91;  and 
professor  of  comparative  anatomy  in  Brown 
University  from  1892.  In  1898  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  biological  laboratory  of 
the  United  Stales  Fish  Commission  at  Wood's 
Hole,  Mass.,  and  was  assislant  to  the  president 
and  curator  of  the  department  of  invertebrates 
in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
in  New  York  in  1901-fl2,  when  he  became  di- 
rector of  the  Museum.  He  was  chosen  business 
manager  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in 
1911;  chosen  president  of  Tufts  College  in 
1914.  He  is  the  author  of  <A  Laboratory 
Course  in  In«rtebrate  Zoology'  (1893)  ;  also 
numerous  monographs  and  articles  on  biology 
and  educational  subjects. 

BUNCE,  Fnuicis  Marvin,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  Hartford,  Conn,,  25  Dec.  1836;  d. 
there  19  Oct  1901.  He  entered  the  naval  serv- 
ice in  1851  and  was  graduated  from  the  Naval 
Academy  in  1857.  In  1862  as  executive  olHcer 
of  the  Penobscot  he  took  part  in  the  engage- 
ment with  the  rebel  batteries  at  Yorktown,  Va. 
Assigned  to  temporary  duty  with  tbe  army,  be 


:,  Google 


BUNCE— BUNDI 


had  charge  of  the  disembarkation  of  the  heavy 
artUiery  and  mortars  for  use  in  the  mvestmenl 
of  YorVtown  tnr  General  McQellan,  April  1862. 
He  commanded  a  successful  expedition  up  Lit- 
tle River,  between  North  and  South  Carolina, 
destroying  several  schooners  and  large  quan- 
tities of  cotton,  turpentine  and  resin,  together 
with  extensive  salt  works.  With  the  monitor 
Palapico  in  1863  he  took  part  in  all  the  actions 
in  which  she  was  engaged  during  the  siege 
of  Charleston,  and  was  wounded  oy  the  pre- 
mature explosion  of  a  cartridge.  Later  he  was 
chief  of  scouts  on  (he  staf{  of  Admiral  Dahl- 
gren.  On  5  Sept.  1865  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand  of  the  monitor  Monadnock  and  took  that 
vessel  from  Philadelphia  to  San  Francisco,  the 
first  extended  sea  voyage  ever  made  by  a  moni- 
tor. On  1  March  1895  he  was  selected  to  com- 
mand the  North  Atlantic  squadron,  with  itae 
rank  of  active  rear-admiral.  On  1  Mav  1897 
he  went  to  the  Brooklyn  navy  yard  and  there 
superintended  the  conversion  of  many  fast 
ships  and  yachts  for  war  service.  It  is  said  that 
the  government's  policy  of  furntsbing  the  navy 
with  abundant  ammunition  for  target  practice 
and  civing  prites  for  the  best  shots,  a  policy 
which  produced  such  admirable  results  ui  thie 
Spanish- American  War,  was  due  to  the  efforts 
of  Admiral  Bunce,  He  was  commissioned  rear- 
admiral  6  Feb.  1898,  and  retired  from  active 
service  25  Dec.  ISSa 

BUNCE,  Oliver  Bell,  American  author:  b. 
New  York,  8  Feb.  1828;  d  there,  15  May  1890. 
After  spending  several  year*  as  clerk  in  a  sta- 
tionery store,  and  boolraeller  and  publisher  on 
his  own  account,  he  became  manager  of  the 
publishing  house  of  James  G.  Gregory,  which  he 
conducted  very  'successfully  for  many  years. 
It  was  at  his  instigation  that  the  fine  edition  of 
Cooper's  works,  with  steel  and  wood  engrav- 
ings by  F.  O.  C.  Darley,  was  planned  and  pub- 
lished. For  a  short  time  he  was  a  reader  for 
Harper  &  Bros.,  but  in  1869  he  formed  a  con- 
nection with  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  that 
ended  only  with  his  oeath.  He  edited  'Apple- 
ton's  Journal  '  and  largely  planned  and  carried 
through  for  Uie  firm  some  of  their  most  famous 


among  other  works,  'Romance  of  the  RevolU' 
tion>  (1852) ;  <A  Bachelor's  Story'  (1859) ; 
'Life  Before  Him'  (1860);  'Bachelor  Bluff. 
HU  Opinions,  etc'  (1881);  'Don't:  A  Manual 
of  Mistakes  and  Improprieties'  (1883),  of  which 
over  100,(KK)  copies  have  been  sold;  'My  House; 
An  Ideal'  (1884),  a  graphic  study  of  a  country 
home ;  and  'The  Adventures  of  Timias  Terry- 
stone:  a  Novel'  (1885).  As  a  very  young  man 
he  wrote  three  plays  which  were  accniled  and 
produced  on  the  stage  with  success ;  'Fate,  or 
the  Prophecy,'  a  tragedy;  'Love  in  76,'  a  com- 
et^; 'Marco  Bozians,'  an  heroic  tragedy.  The 
second  of  these  was  played  by  Laura  Keene,  the 
other  two  by  James  W.  Wallack. 

BUNCO,  a  familiar  term  aijptied  to  the 
practices  of  a  certain  class  of  swindlers.  The 
trickster  trades  upon  the  credulity  of  the  ap- 
parently well-to-do  stranger  in  the  city,  under 
pretense  of  some  connection  with  the  latter's 
friends  or  native  place,  or  by  similar  expeifi- 


ents.  After  confidence  is  secured,  counterfeit 
money  is  imposed  upon  him,  he  is  induced  to 
cash  "btwus"  checks,  etc.,  or  even  becomes  the 
victim  01  more  direct  robbery. 

BUNCOMBE,  or  BUNKUM,  swollen  po- 
litical oratory  not  directed  to  the  point  in  hand 
or  the  audience  present,  but  to  the  achievement 
of  a  charlatanic  reputation  outside.  "Twisting 
the  tail  of  the  British  lion,»  and  other  like  feats 
of  windy  chauviliism,  are  specimens  of  bun- 
combe ;  the  object  of  the  speaker  being,  not 
primarily  to  impress  the  hearers,  but  to  make 
the  general  oopulacc  admire  his  swaggering 
patriotism.  The  reputed  origin  of  the  story  is 
an  anecdote  of  a  member  of  the  North  Carolina, 
le^slature,  from  Buncombe  County  in  that 
State,  who  told  the  thin  remnants  of  a  house 
he  bad  nearly  emptied  by  his  dull  and  pointless 
remarks,  that  they  mi^t  go,  too,  as  he  was  only 
'speaking  for  Buncombe.*  Consult  Wheeler, 
'History  of  North  Carolina.' 

BUNDELCUND,  biin-del-kund',  or  BAN- 
DALKHAND,  biiu-del-kand',  India,  a  tract, 
consisting  partly  of  certain  British  districts  con- 
nected with  the  Northwest  Provinces,  and 
partly  of  a  number  of  small  native  states  sub- 
ordinate to  the  central  Indian  agency.  Politi- 
tally.  there  are  nine  states,  13  estates  and  the 
pargana  of  Alampur  belonging  to  the  Indore 
state,  makii^  an  area  of  9,851  square  miles. 
Diamonds  are  touni^  especially  near  Panna. 
Its  surface  is  considerably  diversified,  and 
there  are  several  ranges  of  hills,  some  of  which 
reach  the  height  of  2,000  feet.  It  has  soil  of 
every  variety,  which  yields  almost  eveiT"  gr^in 
and  plant  of  India.  The  Jumna  and  the  Ken  are 
the  only  two  navigable  tivers.  The  lesser  waters 
are  carried  by  different  streams  to  the  Jumna 
and  so  on  to  the  Ganges.  A  branch  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsular  Railway  traverses  the  north 
of  the  country.  A  garrison  of  all  arms  is 
stationed  at  Nawgong.  'Pop.  about  1,400,000. 
The  people  rei>resent  various  races,  the  Bcm- 
delas  still  remaining  chieftains.  The  prevailing 
,„i.'.^ :..   iTi>.4..: i»   lOi?  1.1..  i>Ji:..i. 


Hinduism.     In  1817  the  British 
.  by_  the  Treaty  of  Poona,  acquirej  all 
territorial  rights  over  Bundelcund.     There  was 

a  mutiny  in  1857. 

BUNDE8RATH,  boon'di!z-Ttt,  the  Ger- 
man Federal  council  which  represents  the  indi- 
iHdual  states  of  the  empire,  as  the  Reichstag 
represents  the  German  nation.  It  consists 
(1916)  of  61  members,  who  are  appointed  by 
the  governments  of  the  individual  states  for 
each  session,  while  the  members  of  the  Reichs- 


mainly  those  of  a  confirming  body,  although  it 
has  the  privilege  of  rejecting  measures  passed 
by  the  Reichstag. 

BUNDE3STAAT,  a  German  term  denot- 
ing a  political  form  created  by  the  union  of 
several  independent  stales  into  a  single  sov- 
ereign state  with  a  Federal  government.  Ex- 
am^es  are  the  United  Stales,  Switzerland  and 
Germany. 

BUNDI,  boon-de'.  or  BOONDI,  India^ 
a  native  Mate  of  Hindilstan,  in  the  southeast  of 
Rajputana,  under  British  protection;  area  2,220 
square  miles.  A  double  line  of  hills  running 
from  southwest  to  northeast,  penetrated  by  few 


Google 


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BUNQALOW— BUHIAS 


passes  and  rising  to  the  height  oi  li793  feet, 
<Uvidea  the  state  into  two  almost  equal  portions, 
that  of  the  south  being  the  more  fertile.  Much 
of  the  state  is  under  wood.  The  chief  river  is 
the  Uej,  which  penetrates  the  centra)  range  and 
joins  the  Chambal  near  the  northeast  extremis 
of  the  slate.  It  was  much  more  extensive  be- 
fore Kotah  and  its  territory  were  separated 
from  It.  The  inhabitants  are  of  the  Hara  tribe, 
which,  has  given  birth  to  many  famous  men, 
and,  among  others,  to  Ram  Singh  Kara,  one  of 
Auningzebe's  most  renowned  generals.  The 
ruler  is  practically  absolute  in  his  own  territory. 
Pop.  218,731.  SuNDi,  the  cajutal.  Is  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  a  steep  slope  in  a  gorge  in 
die  centre  of  the  hills  above  mentioned,  190 
miles  southwest  of  Agra,  and  its  antiquity, 
numerous  temples  and  magnificent  fountains 
give  it  a  very  interesting  appearance.  It  is 
crowned  by  a  tort  and  surrounded  by  fortified 
walls.  For  picturesque  effect  its  main  street  is 
almost  unequaled.  At  its  upper  extremity  stands 
die  palace,  built  of  stone,  with  tnrreted  win- 
dows and  battlements,  supported  partly  by  the 
perpendicular  rock,  and  partly  by  solid  piers  of 
masonry  400  feet  high.  At  its  lower  extremity 
is  the  great  temple  dedicated  to  Krishna.  Pop. 
31,000. 

BUNGALOW,  an  East  Indian  term  for  a 
kind  of  country  house  with  a  thatched  or  tiled 
Toof.  Bungalows  are  generally  of  one  stoty, 
though  sometimes  of  two,  and  have  verandas 
runniiw  round  them  to  anard  shelter  from  the 
sun.  Public  bungalows  for  travelers  (daks) 
are  maintained  by  government  on  the  main 
highways.  In  the  United  States  the  term  means 
any  small  cottage  of  one  story  usuallv,  or  else 
with  a  second  story  in  the  roof,  with  dormer 
windows.  It  usually  has  large  porches.  Con- 
sult Saylor,  ^Bungalows:  their  Design,  Qin- 
atruction  and  Funiishing>  <New  York  1913). 

BUNOAY,  Engfand,  a  market  town  in 
Suffolk,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Waveney,  30 
miles  northeast  oi  Ipswich.  It  is  well  hiilt ; 
the  streets,  spacious  and  well  paved,  diverge 
from  a  moderate-six ed  area  in  the  centre  of  the 
town  forming  a  market-place,  in  which  is  a 
handsome  cross.  It  has  two  fine  churches.  The 
principal  trade  is  in  com,  flour,  lime  and  malt, 
ui  which  a  considerable  atnount  of  business  is 
done.  There  is  also  an  extennve  printing 
efhce.  Adjoining  the  towi 
common.    Pop.  3,359. 

BUNOB,  boon'g«,  Alexander,  Russian 
botanist;  b.  Kiev,  24  Sept.  1803:  d.  1890.  He 
was  educated  at  Dorpat,  and  after  taking  the 
degree  of  M.D.  in  182S  he  traveled  in  Siberia 
and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Altai  Mountains, 
and  then  joined  the  mission  of  the  Academy  of 
Saint  Petersburg  to  Peldn,  where  he  remained 
eight  months  and  procured  an  exten»ve  her- 
barium. In  1883.  by  invitation  of  the  Academy 
of  Samt  Petersburg,  he  made  a  second  Asiatic 
journey,  and  in  1836  settled  as  professor  of 
botany  at  Dorpat,  His  prindpat  publications 
are  catalogues  of  the  plants  which  fie  collected 
in  Oiina  and  near  the  Altai  Mountains. 

BUNGE,  Friedrich  Geoiv  ▼on,  Russian 
legal  historian  {brother  of  die  preceding) : 
b.  Kiev.  13  March  I8Q2:  d.  1897.  He  was 
fducate4    at    Dorpat,   and    for    many    years 


was  professor  of  law  there.  His  writings,  .ptin- 
cipally  upon  the  history  of  law  and  rights  in  the 
countries  around  the  Baltic  Sea,  are  numerous 
and  valuable. 

BUNGENBR,  boon-ge-ni,  Lonis-F&Iix. 
French  writer  and  critic;  b.  Marseilles,  29  Sept 
1814:  d.  Geneva^  June  1874.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  theological  school  in  Geneva  and 
afterward  continued  in  the  same  institution  as 

Erofessor  until  1848,  when  he  began  to  devote 
is  time  to  Uterature.  His  works,  most  of 
which  were  published  at  Genev^  are  ouite 
numerous.  Among  the  most  notable  of  uiem 
are  'Deux  Soir^  i  I'hotel  de  Rambouillet* 
(1839)  ;  'Essai  sur  la  Po^ie  modernc'  (1840)  ; 
•Histoire  du  concile  de  Trente'  (1846)  ;  'Vol- 
taire et  son  temps>  (1850) ;  "JuUen,  ou  la  fin 
d'un  siecle>  (1853,  4  vols.)  ;  'Rome  et  la  Bible> 
(1859);  'Rome  et  le  eceur  humain'  (1861); 
'Saint  Paul,  su  vie,  son  ceuvre  et  ses  6pitres> 
(1867)  ;  'Lincoln>  (1867).  At  his  death  he  left 
a  great  deaf  of  work  still  unpublished. 

BUNOERT,  boon'girt,  August,  (German 
composer:  b.  Mtilheim,  Prussia,  14  March  1846. 
He  studied  under  Kufferath  at  Mtilheim,  at 
Cologne  and  Paris.  He  held  a  position  as 
musical  director  at  Kreuznach,  then  went  to 
Berlin,  where  he  continued  his  studies  under 
Kiel,  and  later  moved  to  (jenoa.  By  many  Ger- 
man musicians  he  has  been  regarded  as  one  of 
the  greatest  composers  of  the  Wagnerian 
school.  His  songs  are  among  the  modem 
masterpieces  of  Imt  kind  of  music.  His  com- 
positions include  an  opera  cycle.  'The  Homerk 
World,*  consisting  of  two  main  parts,  'Tlie 
Iliad,'  and  'The  Odyssey*;  'Tasso';  'The 
Students  of  Salamanca,'  a  comic  opera; 
'On  the  Wartburg,'  a  symphoiuc  poem ;  'Hohes 
Lied  der  Liebe' ;  a  inystery,  'Warum?  WtAer? 
Wohim?' ;  'Heroiscne  Syini^onie' ;  inciden- 
tal music  to  Goethe's  'Faust'  ;  'Meerlieder,' 
and  'Licder  eiwer  Kdnigin' ;  and  a  numiber 
of  songs.  The  songs  are  considered  his  most 
successful  productions. 

BUHHILL-FIELDS,  formerly  BON- 
HILL  FIELD,  a  burial-ground  in  London, 
near  Finsbun'  square.  The  poet  South  ey 
named  it  the  'Campo  Santo  of  the  Dissenters.* 
Opened  in  1665,  it  became  a  public  "open  space* 
by  act  of  Parliament  in  1867.  Amons  those 
who  lie  buried  there  are  John  Buniran  (1688) ; 
Dr.  Thomas  CJoodwin,  who  attended  Cromwell 
on  his  deathbed  (1679) ;  George  Fox,  the 
Quaker  (1690);  Dr.  Isaac  Watts  (1748);  Ckn- 
eral  Fleetwood,  son-in-law  of  Cromwell  (1692)  ; 
Daniel  Defoe,  author  of  'Robinson  Crusoe' 
(1731) ;  Dr.  John  Owen,  who  preached  the  first 
sermon  before  Parliament  after  the  execution 
of  Charles  I ;  William  Blake,  the  painter  and 
poet;  Susannah  Wesley,  mother  of  John  Wes- 
ley, and  Home  Tooke.  In  1870  a  monument 
to  Defoe  was  inaugurated,  subscribed  for  by 
boys  and  girls. 

BUNIAS,  a  smalt  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Cmeifer^,  mostly  natives  of 
soutfaeastem  Europe  and  adjacent  Asia.  Some 
of  the  species,  especially  B.  orientalis,  called  hill- 
mustard  have  been  cultivated  for  forage  and 
have  become  weeds  where  they  have  escaped 
from  cultivation.  Since  they  are  not  very  leafy 
and  are  not  relished  by  stock,  they  have  not 


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BUNION—  BUNSBH 


beconie  p(^)ii1ar.  In  Russia  It  is  used  as  a 
vegetable, 

BUNION,  a  small,  hard,  painful  tumor 
formed  in  any  ^rt  of  the  foot,  but  especially  in 
the  metatarsal  joints.  It  consists  in  a  swelling 
of  the  bones  themselves,  which  fact  distin- 
guishes bi^nions  (ram  corns.  It  appears  to  be 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  a  boot  or  shoe  which 
ia  foo  tight,  especially  when  the  feet  are  a  lit- 
tle deformed.  The  best  means  to  relieve  the 
pain  is  to  remove  the  causes  of  the  tumor  as 
soon  as  possible,  to  give  rest  to  the  foot  and 
to  apply  lotions  and  emollient  poultices. 

BUNKER  HILL,  Mass.,  an  eminence.  110 
feet  hifth  in  the  Charlestown  district  of  Boston, 
connectea  by  a  ridge  with  another  elevation,  75 
feet  high,  named  Breed's  Hill.  These  heights 
are  memorable  as  being  the  scene  of  a  battle 
17  June  1775,  commonly  known  as  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill.  The  city  of  Boston  was  occupied 
by  the  British  under  General  Ga^,  who  had  re- 
solved to  begin  offensive  operations  against  the 
rebels.  This  design  becoming  known  in  the 
American  camp,  it  was  determmed  to  seize  and 
fortify  fhe  hcirirts  of  Charlestown  on  the  ni^t 
of  16  June.  The  execution  of  this  perilous  mis- 
sion was  confided  to  Colonels  Prescott  and  Pep- 
perell  at  the  bead  of  a.  brigade  of  1,000  men ; 
juid  at  dawn  of  day  a  strong  redoubt  was 
alrea^  completed  on  Breed's  Hill.  About  1,500 
Americans  advanced  successively  to  the  relief 
of  Prescott,  and  General  Warren  entered  the 
redoubt  as  a  volunteer,  refusing  the  command 
which  was  tendered  to  him.  At  about  2:30 
o'clock,  two  columns  of  the  British  advanced  to 
a  simultaneous  assault;  they  were  received  with 
a  terrific  tire,  and  were  twice  repulsed  in  dis- 
order. When  the  Americans  had  exhausted  all 
their  ammunition,  Prescott  gave  the  order  for 
retreat  Thty  received  a  destructive  volley  as 
they  left  the  redoubt,  and  Warren  fell,  shot 
throu^  the  head  with  a  bullet.  The  retreat 
was  harassed  by  a  raking  fire  from  the  British 
ships  and  batteries,  but  there  was  no  pursuit 
beyond  Oiarlcstown  Neck.  The  British  loss 
was  226  officers  and  men  killed  and  828 
woundedj  that  of  the  Americans  145  killed 
or  missing  and  304  wounded.  Although 
defeated,  the  moral  result  of  this  action 
was  great.  The  Americans  had  seen  su- 
perior numbers  of  the  disciplined  soldiers 
of  England  retreat  before  dieir  fire,  and 
had  given  the  proof  they  they  were  able  to 
defend  their  liberties.  On  Breed's  Hill,  and 
near  the  spot  where  Warren  fell,  stands  die 
Bunker  Hill  Monument,  the  comer-stone  of 
which  was  laid  by  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  17 
June  1825.  This  monument  was  inaugurated  17 
June  1843.  It  consists  of  a  plain  granite  shaft, 
220  feet  high^l  feet  square  at  the  base  and  15 
at  the  top.  The  monument  affords  a  magnifi- 
cent panoramic  view  of  the  surrounding  coun- 
tiy.  Consult  Ellis,  G.  E,  'History  of  the  Battle 
of  Bunker's  (Breed's)  HilP  (1875) ;  Adams, 
C  F.,  Jr.,  in  American  Historical  Review  (Vol, 
1):  Frotnineham,  P.,  'Siege  of  Boston'  (Bos- 
ton 1902). 

BUNKER  HILL  ORATIONS.  The  first 
of  the  so-called  'Bunker  Hill  Orations'  of 
Daniel  Websttr  was  pronounced  17  June  1825, 
the  SOth  anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,  when  the  cornerstone  of  the  Bunker  Hill 
Motuunent  w^  [aid.    Ttie  scwiul  was  delivered 


18  yt^TB  later  at  the  exercises  to  commemorate 
the  completion  of  the  monument.  The  earlier 
address  is,  justly,  the  better  known,  and  ranks 
as  one  of  the  most  notable  examples  of  Ameri- 
can oratory,  if  indeed  it  is  not  the  greatest 
occasional  oration  delivered  in  America  during 
the  first  half  of  the  last  century.  Though 
Webster  substituted  a  weighty  dignity  of  utter- 
ances and  sheer  personal  force  for  the  more 
exuberant  figures,  the  classical  allusions  and 
quotations  which  were  in  vogue  In  the  pubhc 
speaking  of  his  day,  he  belonged  after  all  to 
the  old  school,  which  regarded  oratory  as  some- 
tliing  apart  from  the  simple  expression  of 
natural  thought  and  feeling.  A  comparison  of 
the  'First  Bunker  Hill  Oration*  with  Lincoln's 
'Gettysburg  Address'  will  make  this  plain;  and 
it  may  help  in  explaining  why,  notwithstanding 
the  clearer  recognition  of  Webster's  honesty 
and  ability,  his  orations  are  less  read  and  ad- 
mired now  than  they  were  in  his  day.  Themost 
valuable  part  of  the  'First  Bunker  Hill  Ora- 
tion' is  the  discussion  of  the  American  gov- 
ernment and  the  ideals  for  which  the  fathers 
fought -~  a  feeling  exposition  which  seems  to 
have  renewed  pertinency,  in  each  new  national 
crisis;  but  the  most  popular  passage  is  perhaps 
the  moving  address  to  the  veteran  survivors  of 
the  battle,  who  were  seated  on  the  platform. 
The  second  oration  is  filled  with 'felicitations 
and  compliments,  and  contains  no  very  notable 
passage^  though  the  tribute  to  Washington  has 
often  been  quoted. 

William  B.  Cauns. 


composed  of  a  number  of  low  rounded  cones 

or  cusps.  The  pig  is  one  of  the  best  examples 
among  living  animals;  the  teeth  of  monkeys 
and  other  omnivorous  or  frugivorous  animals, 
including  man,  are  also  of  this  type.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  molars  of  many  if^not  ail  modem 
mammals  have  been  evolved  from  bunodont 
teeth,  for  the  ancestors  of  many  races  of  the 
modern  hoofed  animals^  carnivora,  and  some 
other  groups,  show  a  series  of  stages  in  the  evo- 
lution of  the  teeth  leading  from  the  omnivorous 
bunodont  type  into  the  specialized  grinding  or 
cutting  teeth  (seienodont)  of  the  modem  ani- 
mals.   Sec  Teeth. 

BUNSEN,  Chriitlan  Karl  Josiaa  (Cheva- 
lier), (^rman  statesman  and  philosopher:  b. 
Korbach,  Waldeck,  25  Au^.  1791 ;  d.  Bonn,  28 
Nov.  1860.  He  studied  philology  under  Heyne 
at  (^ttingen,  and  subsequently  went  to  Holland 
and  Denmark,  to  acquire  a  critical  knowledge 
of  the  Danish  and  Dutch  langu^es.  In  1815 
he  made  the  acquaintance  at  Berlin  of  the  cele- 
brated Niebuh^  and  in  1816  proceeded  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  Persian  and  Aralric  under 
Sylvestre  de  Sacy.  The  same  year  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  married,  and  renewed  his  inti- 
macy with  Niebuhr,  then  Prussian  Ambassador  ' 
to  the  Papal  court.  Niebuhr  procured  him 
the  appointment  of  secretary  to  the  Prussian 
legation,  and  in  1823  Bunsen  assumed  Niebuhr's 
duties,  being  later,  and  in  1827,  formally  ac- 
credited as  resident  Prussian  Minister.  Itt  this 
capacity  he  continued  till  1838,  and  conducted 
several  important  negotiations  with  the  Papal 
see.  the  result  of  one  of  which  was  the  brief  of 
Leo  XII  relative  to  mixed  marriages.  His 
next  tnission  was  to  Berne,  as  Ambassador  to 


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BUNSBN  — BUHTBR  SANDSTONB 


the  Swiss  Fedeiatioa  E>urin^  his  residence  at 
Rome  Bunsen  had  industriously  pursued  his 
pldlosophical  and  historical  studies,  including 
more  especially  that  o£  the  Platonic  philosophy, 
and  investigations  into  the  religious  and  eccle- 
siastical history  of  mankind.  The  liturgies  of 
the  Church  received  his  especial  attention,  and 
a  service  of  his  own  framing,  introduced'  by 
him  into  the  chapel  of  the  Prussian  embassy  at 
Rome,  was  printed  by  order  of  the  King  of 
Prussia,  who  wrote  a  preface  to  it.  This  work 
was  published  without  the  author's  name  at 
HambuTC  in  1846,  under  the  title  of  •Allge- 
meines  Evang.  Gesang-und  Gebetbuch'  ('Gen- 
eral Hymn  and  Prayer  Book  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church'),  and  may  be  regarded  as  a 
new  edition  of  the  'Versuch  Eines  Allgemeinen 
Evang.  Gesang-und  Gebetbuchs,*  putuished  at 
Hamburg  in  1833. 

In  1841  Bunsen  was  summoned  to  Berlin 
from  Switzerland  to  proceed  to  England  in 
charge  of  a  mission  for  the  estabUshment,  in 
conjunction  with  that  country,  of  a  bishopric  at 
Jerusalem.  Shortly  afterward  he  was  nomi- 
nated Prussian  Ambassador  to  England.  In 
1844  he  was  consulted  on  the  subject  of  grant- 
ing a  constitution  to  Prussia,  and  is  said  to  have 
drawn  up  and  submitted  to  government  the  form 
of  one  which  bore  a  very  close  resemblance  to 
that  of  Great  Britain.  In  the  Schleswig-Hol- 
stcin  aSair  he  strenuously  opposed  the  claims 
of  Prussia  and  the  German  Confederation  in 
opposition  to  those  of  Denmark.  From  the 
opposite  views  taken  by  lum  to  those  of  his 
government  in  relation  to  the  Russian  War  he 
was  recalled  from  London  in  1854,  and,  aban- 
doning politics^  retired  to  Heidelberg  to  devote 
himself  exclusively  to  literary  pursuits.  The 
results  of  these  have  established  his  reputation 
as  one  of  the  most  profound  and  original  critics 
in  the  department  of  Biblical  and  ecclesiastical 
history.  Among  these  are  'Die  Verfassung 
dcr  Kirche  der  Zukunft*  ('The  Constitution  or 
the  Church  of  the  Future')  (1845)  ;  '.SIgyptens 
Stelle  in  der  Wcltgeschichte'  (*Egypfs  Place 
in  the  World's  History')  (1845):  'Hippolytus 
und  Seine  Zeit'  ('Hippolytus  and  His  Time') 
(1851)  and  lastly,  his  greatest  work,  'Bibel- 
werk  liir  die  Gemeinde'  ('Bible  Commentaiy 
for  the  Community'),  the  first  part  of  which 
was  Dublished  in  1858,  and  was  intended  to  be 
completed  in  1862.  It  had  occupied  his  atten- 
tion for  nearly  30  years,  and,  as  &e  informs  us, 
was  regarded  as  the  grand  centre-point  to 
which  alt  his  literary  and  intellectual  energies 
were  to  be  devoted.  Death  interposed  to  pre- 
vent him  completing  lus  imdertaldng.  Ill  health 
caused  him  to  spend  the  winters  of  1858-59  and 
185<^-M  at  Cannes,  in  the  south  of  France,  re- 
turning thence  in  the  spring  of  1860  to  Bonn 
(whither  he  had  recently  transferred  his  abode 
rom  Heidclbetx),  where  he  died.  Three  vol- 
umes of  his  'Bibclwerk'  had  been  published  at 
his  death  (the  first,  second  and  &ftn),  and  this 
great  work  was  completed  in  his  spirit  and  by 
the  aid  of  his  manuscripts  under  the  editorship 
of  Hollzmann  and  Kamphausen,  in  nine  vol- 
umes (1858-70). 

BUNSEN,  Robert  WUhelm  Eb«T«rd, 
German  chemist;  b.  Gottingen,  31  March  1811; 
d.  16  Aug.  1899.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  Uni- 
versity and  at  Paris,  Berlin  and  Vienna ;  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  Polytechnic  Institute 
'  of  Cassel  1836;  extraordinary  professor  at  the 


University  of  Marlburg  1838,  and  ordinuy  pro- 
fessor there  1841;  professor  at  Breslau  1851; 
and  finally  professor  of  experimental  chemistry 
at  Heidelberg  1852.  Among  his  many  dis- 
coveries and  inventions  are  we  production  of 
magnesium  in  quantities,  ma^esium  light, 
spectrum  analysis,  and  the  electric  pile  and  the 
burner  which  bears  his  name  (see  below). 
Among  bis  works  are  'Chemische  Analyse 
durch  Spektralbeobachteungen'  (with  Kircholl, 
1861;  new  etL  1895);  'Gasometrische  Melho- 
den'  (1857:  English  by  Roscoe)  ;  and  'Anlei- 
tung  lur  Analyse  der  Aschen  imd  Minera)- 
wasser*  (1874).  He  retired  from  active  teach' 
ing  in  1889. 

BUNSBN  BATTERY,  a  modification  of 
the  Grove  battery,  plates  or  bars  of  gas  coke 
bein^  used  instead  of  platinum.  The  electro- 
motive force  is  sli^tly  less  than  that  of  the 
Grove  battery. 

BUNSEN  BURNER,  a  form  of  ^s- 
bumer  especially  adapted  for  heating,  consisting 
of  a  tube  in  which,  by  means  of  holes  in  the 
side,  the  gas  becomes  mixed  with  air  before 
consumption,  so  that  it  gives  a  non-illifininating, 
smokeless  flatne.  Burners  of  this  nature  are 
part  of  the  indispensable  outfit  of  a  chemical 
laboratory, 

BUNT,  sometimes  called  SUUT  BALL, 
PEPPER  BRAND  and  BRAND  BLAD- 
DERS, the  most  formidable  disease,  perhaps, 
to  which  wheat  is  subject,  but  one  whidi  may 
in  most  instances  be  greatly  modified,  and  which 
seldom  in  the  present  day  does  material  injury 
except  where  there  is  careless  cultivation.  Like 
many  other  of  the  diseases  to  which  the  cereal 
plants  are  subject,  it  arises  from  the  attack  of  a 
parasitic  fungus  (Uredo  carUj).  It  is  gener- 
ated in  the  ovary  of  wheat  and  a  few  other 
Gramineie,  and  very  rarely  on  the  stem.  It  is 
formed  at  an  early  stage  of  growth,  before  the 
ear  is  free  from  the  sheath;  and  indeed  the 
plants  which  are  affected  by  the  parasite  may 
be  readily  recognized  by  their  unusual  luxuri- 
ance, being  generally  several  inches  higher  than 
plants  not  affected,  larger  in  bulk,  and  often 
producing  a  i^eater  number  of  stems,  from  the 
same  root.  The  bunted  grains  are  shorter  and 
blunter  than  the  sound,  of  a  dark-green  when 
young,  but  when  old  of  a  pale  brown,  or  some- 
times nearly  black.    The  contents  of  the  ovary 


cayed  fish.  Various  substances  have  been  used 
by  cultivators  to  prevent  the  growth  of  bunt, 
such  as  salt,  quicklime,  arsenic,  corrosive  subli- 
mate, etc.  Careful  washing  and  a  selection  of 
good  seed  will  alone  prevent  much  mischief,  but 
It  is  advisable  to  take  some  mote  stringent 
measures  with  a  view  to  destroy  the  vitality  of 
the  bunt  spores.  For  this  purpose  Dombasle's 
method  is  the  most  successful.  It  consists  in 
thoroughly  wetting  the  grain  with  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  soda  (jGlaube»'s  salts),  then  drying 
the  wheat  with  auicklime,  which  combines  with 
the  water  to  make  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum), 
which  acts  as  a  manure,  while  the  caustic  soda 
destroys   the   v^etative   powers   of    the  bunt  - 

BUNTER  SANDSTONE,  one  of  die 
three  divisions  of  the  Triasnc.  It  is  the  low- 
est, that  is,  the  oldest  of  the  series.  It  corre- 
^onds  to  the  iffis  btgarri  (va^egated  free- 


Cooglc 


BDHTINGS,  CANARIES,  ETC. 


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BUNTna — BUNYAH 


seone  or  Krit)  of  the  French.  In  the  Hartz  it 
is  more  than  1,000  feet  thick;  in  Cheshire  and 
Lancashire,  England,  about  600.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  red  sandstones,  and  fossils  are  very 
i^re.  The  rocks  are  hiKOly  porous  and  afford 
an  important  source  of  water  supply.  The 
footpnnts  foitnerly  known  as  those  of  ^rothe- 
rimn,  now  known  to  be  labyrinthodont,  are 
found  in  the  btmlcr;  the  plants  are  chiefly 
ferns,  cycads  and  conifers, 
'^  BUNTING,  Jabez,  HngUsh  clerKynun : 
b.  Uonyash,  Derbyshire,  1778;  d.  London,  16 
Tune  ]858l  His  parents  were  members  of  the 
Wesleyan  Church  and  removed  to  Manchester 
when  lie  was  a  child.  While  at  school  he  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Dr.  Percival,  who 
employed  him  as  his  amanuensis,  and  at  his 
death  made  him  one  of  his  executors.  He  early 
joined  the  Church;  became  a  traveling  preacher 
in  1799;  joined  the  Conference  after  the  death 
of  Mr.  Wesley,  and  was  appointed  to  the  Old- 
ham circuit  After  traveling  four  years  he  was 
sent  to  London^  where  he  gained  great  popu- 
larity as  a  pulpit  and  platform  orator.    After 


...  .  _  advocate  of  ecclesiastical  order  and  dis- 
cipline in  a  controversy  with  some  disaffected 
Methodists.  In  this  controversy  he  gave  such 
evidence  of  a  knowledge  of  the  polity  of  Wes- 
levan  Methodism  as  secured  for  him  the  favor 
of  the  entire  body  to  which  he  belonged.  He 
was  four  times  president  of  the  Methodist  Con- 
ference; 17  years  missionary  secretary,  and 
three  years  as  editor.     In  1835  he  was  chosen 

iiresidcnt  of  the  theological  school,  and  was 
ooked  upon  as  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
Methodists,  superintending  the  interests  of  the 
body  at  home  and  abroad,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  his  influence  was  felt  in  other  evangelical 
denominations,  and  also  in  the  political  world, 
statesmen  frequently  resorting  to  him  for  ad- 
vice. Yet  he  derived  only  the  ordinary  emolu- 
ments of  a  Methodist  minister  —  a  yearly 
salary  of  flSO,  with  house-rent  and  taxes.  Dur- 
ing all  the  distractions  connected  with  the  seces- 
sions that  have  taken  place  in  the  Wesle:^n 
body.  Dr.  Bunting  remained  a  firm,  unwavering 
adherent  and  advocate  of  the  doctrines  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  Church  as  they  came  from  the 
hands  of  John  Wesley,  and  to  his  influence  and 
indefatigable  zeal  are  largely  to  be  ascribed 
the  permanency  and  prosperity  of  the  Wesleyan 
connection. 

BUNTING,  Sir  Percr  {William),  Ens 
lish  journalist:  b.  Manchester  1836;  d.  22  Jul 
1911,     He   was    educated    at    Owens    College, 


^.ng- 
July 


Manchester,  and  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar.  He  was  e<Utor  of  the 
Contemporary  RevUw  from  1882  until  his  death 
and  was  concurrently  editor  of  the  Meihoditt 
Times  from  1902.    He  was  knighted  in  1908, 

BUNTING.  William  Madardie.  Wesleyan 
minister:  b.  Manchester,  23  Nov.  1805;  d.  High- 
gate  Rise,  13  Nov.  1866.  He  b^tan  to  preach 
at  the  age  of  18,  For  many  years  he  was  very 
active  in  the  Evangelical  Alliance  and  also  in 
the  British  Society  for  the  Proparation  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Jews.  After  his  death  his 
selected     sermons     and     other    writings     were 

Eiblished,  under  the  editorship  of  G.  Stringer 
owe  <1870>. 


BUNTING,  one  of  a  grou*  of  cone-billed 
birds,  forming  the  genus  EnAeriwidw,  reprc- 
scntea  in  Europe  by  several  large,  browo- 
streaked,  or  ydlovn^  finches,  of  whidi  the 
corn-bunting,  reed-bunting  and  ciri-bunting  are 
welt  known  m  Great^ritain.  It  is  mailced  by  its 
cone-shaped  bill  and  a  turd  knob  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  com- 
bunting,  which  is  considerably  lai^er  than  a 
house  sparrow,  is  brown  in  color  with  darker 
streaks  on  the  upper  parts  or  whitish  brown 
with  dark  brown  spots  and  lines  on  the  under 
parts,  and  has  a  slightly  forked  tail.  The  reed- 
bunting  has  a  black  head  and  throat  and  the 
nape  and  sides  of  the  neck  are  while.  The  head 
of  the  drl-bunting  is  olive-green,  with  bright 
yellow  patches  on  the  cheek  and  over  the  eyes. 
The  term  is  used  in  the  United  States  for  two 
or  three  similar  birds,  such  as  the  dick-cissel 
and  snow-bunting  (qq.v.).  All  the  buntings 
are  good  singers,  and  the  term  is  applied  by 
dealers  in  cage  birds  not  only  to  the  true  Euro- 
pean buntings,  but  to  many  other  seed-eaters,  - 
such  as  [he  ortolan  and  our  indigo-bird. 

BUNTING,  a  thin  woolen  stuff,  of  which 
flags  are  usually  made;  hence,  flags,  collectively, 

BUNYA-BUNYA,  the  native  Australian 
name  of  Araucorio  bidviiUii,  a  fine  Queensland 
tree  with  cones  larger  than  a  man's  head,  con- 
taining seeds   that  are  eagerly   eaten   by  the 

BUNYAN,  John,  English  preacher  and 
author :  b.  Elstow,  near  Bedford,  Bedfordshire, 
Enrfand,  1628;  d.  Swan  Hill,  London,  31  Aug, 
16!S.  The  fiunyans  were  ao  old  family  in  Bed- 
fordshire but  fiunyan's  immediate  ancestors  for 
several  generations  had  been  obscure,  and  Bun- 
yaa's  own  father,  Thomas  Bunyan,  was  a 
tinker.  Of  his  mother,  Margaret  Bentley,  little 
is  known,.  In  spite  of  their  lowliness,  however, 
these  parents  trained  Bunyan  with  some  care 
and  sent  him  to  the  Bedford  schools.  Then  he  , 
took  up  the  trade  of  tinker,  at  which,  until  he 
became  an  established  preacher,  he  worked  in- 
dustriously. In  the  latter  part  of  1645  and  the 
early  months  of  the  following  year  he  fought  in 
the  Civil  War,  but  on  which  side  is  uncertain. 
Froude  maintains  that  he  was  in  the  Royalist 
army,  whereas  Macaulay  and  Brown,  to  whom 
the  weight  of  authority  must  be  given,  state 
that  the  evidence  goes  to  show  that  Bunyan 
was  with  the  Parhamentarians.  In  1646,  he 
returned  to  his  trade  in  Elstow,  and  at  about 
the  age  of  20  married  a  wife,  whose  goodness 
of  character  is  the  accepted  proof  that  Bunyan 
was  better  than  he  represented  himself. 


of  hell  and  he&ven,  of  damnation  and  atone- 
ment, of  devils  and  evil  si»rits,  Bunyan's  boy- 
hood and  early  manhood  were  not  only  a  con- 
tinual stra^le  between  the  inclinations  of  an 
active,  plea  sure- loving  youth  and  the  terror  kst 
he  be  doomed  to  eternal  perdition,  but  also 
a  spiritual  an^ish  heightened  by  one  of  At 
most  im aginative  of  minds  of  which  there  is 
record,  'He  was.»  says  William  Tames  (<The 
Varieties  of  Rdisioas  Experience'),  'a  typical 
case  of  the  psydiopathic  temperament,  sensi- 
tive of  consdeuce  to  a  diseased  degree,  beset  by 
doitbts,  fcari  and  insistent  ideas,  and  a  victim 


.Google 


of  verbal  automatisms,  both  arator  And  sen- 
sory. These  were  usually  texts  of  Scripture 
whidi,  sometimes  damtiiitory  and  soraetiines 
favorable,  would  come  in  a  balf^Uucinatory 
forrn  as  if  they  were  voices,  and  fasten  on  bis 
mind  and  buSet  it  between  them  like  a  sholtlc- 
codc'  Though  in  moEt  ways  a  wholly  respect- 
able character,  he  speaks  of  himseif,  in  his  au- 
tc^oeraphy,  'Grace  Abounding,'  as  a  most 
blasphemous  youth,  in  return  for  which  he  was 
warned  and  tormented  by  visions  to  which  he 
gave  little  heed.  When  the  visions  left  him 
he  teils  us  that  he  became  worse,  nor  were  some 
narrow  escapes  from  death  sufficient  to  make 
him  repent  His  marriage  had  a  good  effect  on 
him;  he  went  to  church  regularly  and  was  rev- 
erent, thoueh,  he  says,  in  a  formal  way.  He 
still  liked  Eis  sports  and  was  in  the  habit  of 
playing  cat  on  the  village  green  Sunday  after- 
noons. The  effect  of  a  peculiarly  vivio  vision 
of  a  waminK  voice  from  heaven  white  he  was 
in  the  act  of  strikiog  the  cat  was  to  make  him 
■  despair  of  ever  being  redeemed  from  his  wicked 
courses.  Yet  he  began  to  mend  his  ways,  first 
^ving  up  his  profanity,  then  bis  lave  o£  beli- 
ringing,  and  lastly  his  dancing,  though  it  took 
him  "nearly  a  full  year  before  he  could  quite 
leave  that.  He  became  esteemed  as  a  godly 
man,  but  he  feared  that  he  had  no  depth  of  re- 
pentance.  Overhearing  some  poor  oM  women 
talking  of  the  new  birth  and  of  the  ways  of 
resistinz  the  devil,  he  became  convinced  that  he 
'wanted  the  true  tokens  of  a  truly  godly  man.* 
Tbourii  he  meditated  much  on  their  sajdngs. 
though  he  ^ve  up  all  his  evil  companions  ana 
once  or  twice  had  visions  of  the  way  to  sal- 
vation, two  questions  obtruded  themselves, 
•Whether  he  was  elected?"  and  "How  if  the 
day  of  grace  should  now  be  past  and  goncF' 
After  much  questioning,  distress  of  mind  and 
manifold  temptations  that  Satan  put  in  Us 
way,  he  Rained  some  comfort  from  the  Scrip- 
tures. Toe  iweadiing  and  Calk  of  Gifford,  the 
Bedford  minister,  made  him  feel  worse  and 
worse ;  be  seemed  to  himself  to  be  nttet^  base 
and  corrupt.  Temporary  comfort  came  in  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  but  about  "a  montb  after,  a 
very  great  storm  came  down  upon  nc,  which 
bandied  me  twenty  times  worst  than  all  I  had 
met  with  before.*  Satan  was  cantinuajly  with 
him :  he  feared  that  he  had  blasphemed  against 
the  Holy  Ghost,  This  temptation  lasted  about 
A  year,  but  partly  from  texts  in  the  Bible,  and 

Eirtly  from  the  ministrations  of  Giilord  and 
uther's  'Comment  on  the  Galatians,'  be  re- 
ceived some  comfort  Even  so,  he  was  sub- 
ject to  another  temptation,  which  endured  a 
year,  "to  sell  and  part  with  the  most  blessed 
Christ.*  He  feared  that  he  had  committed  the 
unpardonable  sin,  and  he  was  so  torn  between 
despair  aad  hope  that,  after  another  conflict  of 
three-^uartera  of  a  year,  he  fell  into  sickness. 
Even  then  he  was  tempted,  but  his  mind  and 
body  grew  whole  together,  and  fronl  thit  time 
an,  about  1655,  he  seems  to  have  felt  himself 
.  redeemed. ' 

In  1653  Bunyan  joined  the  Bedford  churdi, 
and  two  years  later,  *after  I  had  been  about 
fiv«  or  six  years  awakened.*  he  began  preaching 
at  the  suggeslion  of  "some  of  uie  most  able 
of  the  saints.*    He  was  at  first  appalled  by  the 


secret  of  hi?  sncccss  lay  in  the  fact  that  *I 


teel;  even  that  under  which  tny  poor  soul  did 
groan  and  tremble  to  astonidunent.*  So  great 
was  the  sincerity  and  success  of  his  mission  that 
he  raised  for  himself  much  opposition  amone 
the  Anglican  divines,  and  was  much  slandered^ 
Almost  simultaneously,  he  began  his  very  pro- 
lific career  as  author  with  a  book  of  cootcoversy 
directed  against  the  Quakers,  'Some  Gospel 
Truths  Opened*  (1656). 

On  12  Nov.  1660,  shortly  after  the  retucn  of 
Charles  11,  Bunyan  was  arrested  for  preacjiine- 
Refusing  to  flee  or  to  agree  not  to  preach,  he 
was  lodged  in  the  Bedford  county  jail.  Failing 
to  get  Ris  case  heard,  he  remained  here  for 
12  years,  except  for  a  few  weeks  of  liberty 
in  1666.  During  his  unjust  imprisonment,  Bun- 
yan had  some  access  to  the  outside  world,  f  re- 
qiiently  visiting  his  church  and  once  goin^  as 
far  as  London.  In  the  sense  that  he  had  much 
leisure  to  write,  his  confinement  was  of  advan- 
tage to  him.  He  composed  and  had  published 
many  books  of  which  the  most  famous  was 
'Grace  Abounding  to  the  Chief  of  Sinners' 
(1666).  On  his  release,  in  1672,  from  jail,  in 
accordance  with  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence 
of  Charles  11,  he  became  minister  of  the  Bed- 
ford church.  In  1675-76,  Bunyan  was  again 
imprisoned,  this  time  for  six  months  in  the 
small  jail  on  Bedford  bridge.  The  fact  is  im- 
portant because  it  is  probable  that  there  he 
wrote,  among  other  books,  at  least  two-thirds 
of  the  first  part  of  "Pilgrim's  Progress.*  This 
part  was  first  published  in  1678.  and  a  second 
edition  with  some  additions,  as  the  character  of 
Mr.  Worldly  Wiseman,  appeared  the  same  year. 
The  third  came  out  early  in  1679  and  since  then 
editions  have  been  numberless.  The  second 
part  appeared  in  January  1685.  In  the  interval 
between  the  two  were  published  the  other  books 
for  which  Bunyan  is  best  known  next  to  'Pil- 
grim's Progress'  and  'Grace  Abounding' — 
'The  Life  and  Death  of  Mr.  Badman'  (1680) 
and  'The  Holy  War>  (1682).  Aside  from  the 
imprisonment  of  1685  and  some  persecution 
Bunyan's  last  years  were  ^uiet  His  influence 
from  his  preaching  and  his  writing  was  very 
widely  diffused,  and  he  was  in  these  respects, 
second  to  scarcely  any  man  in  England.  He 
met  his  death  in  doing  a  charactenstic  act  of 
charity ;  having  successfully  reconciled  a  father 

*  at  Reading,  he  was,  while  continuing 


sure,  in  bis  60th  year. 

Buuyan  ranks  among  the  most  popular  of 
EnKlish  authors:  his  'Pilgrim's  Progress'  is 
said  to  be  read  more  widely  than  any  other 
book  in  the  language,  except  the  Bible.  It  has 
been  translated  into  over  70  foreign  tonnes. 
The  reasons  for  its  extraordinary  vogue  be  in 
the  simplicity  of  the  style,  the  fervor  of  the 
imagination,  the  universalitir  of  its  spiritual  ap- 

feal;  no  book  is  more  widely  inteUi^ble  or 
reer  from  sectarian  dogmas.  In  all  his  books 
he  appears  as  an  unsurpassed  master  of  a 
simple,  (Mrect,  vernacular  style.  See  Holy. 
Wak,  The;  Ptlgrims's  Phogkess. 

Bibliography..— Editions  of  Bunyan's  four 
more  important  works  are  numerous,  and  there 
are  several  gf  his  collected  works.  Altogether 
be  wrote  about  60  books..  Among  the  many 
lives  that  of  the  Rev.  John  Brown,  'John  Bun- 


d=y  Google 


BDHZLAO — BUaV 


yan.  His  Utt,  Times  and  Work>  0885),  is  the 
most  complete  and  author!  tatire.  Fmude's  life 
in  the  'English  Hen  of  Letters'  <1880)  ;  and 
that  by  Canon  Venabies  in  die  'Great  Writers 
Series'  are  also  Kood;  to  the  Utter  a  full  bib- 
■iograpby  is  added.  QMisult  also  DowdeiL 
'Puritan  and  An^icaa  Studies*  (1901)  and 
James  op.  dt  <  19(g). 

BUNZLAU,  booirtelow,  Gennany,  the 
name  of  several  European  towns,  dilef  of 
which  are: 

1.  A  town  of  Pmssia,  in  the  provinee  of 
Silesia,  near  the  Bober,  25  miles  west  of  Lieg- 
niti.  Formerly  surrounded  by  fortifications, 
handsome  promenades  now  cover  their  sites. 
In  the  market-place  is  an  iron  obelisk  to  die 
Russian  general,  Kutasov,  who  died  here  in 
1819.  Earthenware,  glass,  iron,  etc.,  are  manu- 
factured   Pop.  16,000. 

2.  Jung  Bdnilau,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  31 
miles  northeast  of  Prague,  the  capital  of  the 
circle  of  Bunzlau.  It  stands  on  the  kft  bank 
of  the  Iscr,  is  well  built,  and  has  an  old  castle, 
an  old  and  a  new  town  house  and  other  inter- 
esting buildings.  Us  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
engaged  in  manufacturing  cottons,  woolens, 
starch,  sugar,  spirits,  beer,  etc     Pop,  11,500. 

3.  Ai.T  BuNZLAU,  a  small  town  of  Bohemia, 
situated  on  the  Elbe. 

BUOL-SCHAUKNSTBIN,  bwal-diow'en-. 
stin,  Karl  Ferdinand  (Count),  Anstrian 
statesman:  b.  17  May  1797;  d.  Vienna,  28  Oct 
1865.  He  was  Minister  in  auccession  at  Carl»- 
mhe,  Stuttgart,  Turin  and  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  was  second  Austrian  plenipotentiary  at 
the  Dresden  Ckinference  (18S0),  after  which  he 
was  Minister  at  London  until  the  death  of 
Schwarzenberg  recalled  him  to  Vienna  to  hold 
die  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs.  He  presided 
at  the  Vienna  Conference  in  185S,  and  repre- 
seoCed  Austria  at  the  Congress  of  Paris. 

BUONAPARTE.     See  Bonafakte. 

BUONAROTTI,  bw8-nar-r6t'le^  FOippo: 
b.  Pisa.  11  Nov.  1761;  d.  Paris,  IS  feepL  1837. 
He  received  an  excellent  education  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold,  but  for- 
feiting the  friendship  of  that  prince  on  account 
of  his  sympathies  with  the  French  revolution' 
iits,  he  resorted  to  Corsica,  where  he  com- 
menced a  journal  of  so  inflammatory  a  charac- 
ter that  he  became  involved  in  difficulties  with 
the  govemmenL  After  having[  spent  some  time 
in  Sardinia,  where  he  was  invited  to  draw  up  a 
liberal  constitution  for  the  people,  he  went  to 
Paris  to  urge  the  desire  of  the  people  of  the 
Corsican  island  of  Saint  Pierre  for  annexation 
to  France.  French  citixenship  was  conferred 
upon  him ;  he  was  employed  in  important  mis- 
sions in  Corsica  and  Onegha  and  became  an 
ardent  partisan  of  the  Terrorists.  Havine;  been 
detained  for  some  tims  in  prison  after  the  fall 
of  Robespierre,  he  founded  the  Pantheon  Asso- 
ciation and  when  this  was  dissolved  by  the 
government  he  joined  the  conspiracy  of  BabeuE 
and  was  sentenced  to  transportation,  but  was 
finally  permitted  to  retire  to  Geneva,  and  after- 
ward went  to  Brussels,  where,  in  1S28,  he  pub- 
lished his  'Conspiration  de  Babeuf.'  Eetucn- 
ing  to  Paris  after  the  revolution  of  1830,  he 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  poverty  and 
Mfcurity. 

BUONARROTI,      UicbdanBdo.        See- 

HtCHELAKtKXO. 


BUONONCINI.  bw6.n&n-chJ'n«.  L  . 
ni  BattiaU,  Italian  composer:  b.  Modena  1672. 
In  1697  he  went  to  Vienna  and  soon  after  to 
Berlin,  where  his  opera  'Polifemo'  had  great 
success.  After  living  a  while  at  Rome,  be  went, 
in  1720,  to  London,  and  became  there  one  of 
the  tiu>st  powerful  rivals  of  Handel.  Every- 
thing in  Englajid  at  that  time  waS  made  to  bear 
upon  jiarty  politics,  and  Buononcini  became  the 
favonte  of  the  Whigs,  while  Handel  was  sup- 
ported by  the  Tories.  But  upon  a  trial  of  skill, 
in  an  opera  of  their  joint  composition,  the  talent 
and  taste  of  Buononuni  proved  an  unequal 
match  for  the  genius  of  bis  rival. 

BUONTALENTI,  bwon-ta-l£n'te,  Ber- 
nardo (Delle  Girandole),  Italian  painter 
sculptor  and  architect:  b.  Florence  1536;  d.  6 
June  1608.  When  II  years  of  age  an  inundation 
of  the  Amo  broke  into  the  qnarter  of  Florence 
where  his  family  resided,  and  carried  off  eveiy 
member  of  it  except  himself.  Cosmo  de  Medici, 
on  learning  the  disa.fter,  received  him  into  his 
palace,  and  improved  the  taste  which  he  had 
displayed  for  drawing  by  placing  him  in  the 
schools  of  Salviati,  Bronzino  and  Vasari.  He 
displayed  great  versatility  of  mind,  and  excelled 
not  only  in  the  kindred  arts  of  painting,  sculp- 
ture and  architecture^  but  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  mathematician,  a  military  engineer 
and  an  inventor. of  machineK 

BUOY,  boo^  boi  or  bwoi,  any  floating- 
body  employed  to  point  out  the  particula*. 
situation  of  anything  under  water,  as  of  a  ship's 
anchor,  a  shoal,  etc.  They  arc  of  various  shapes 
and  constructions.  The  can  buoy  is  of  a  conical 
fonn  and  is  used  for  pointing  out  shoals,  sand- 
baid^s,  etc  In  the  United  States  it  Is  prescribed 
by  law  that  chanoel  buoys  be  painted  red  on  the 
starboard  hand  coming  in  from  sea,  and  black  - 
on  the  port  or  lef^hand  side.  They  are  also 
numbered  in  order  from  seaward,  with  even 
numbers  on  the  starboard  and  odd  numbers  on 
the  port  hand.  Mid-channel  obstructionB  ai«. 
DMtrked  with  danger  buoys,  having  black  and 
red  transverse  stripes.  Mid-channel  Inrays 
marlcwg  the  fair  way  have  longitudinal  white 
and  black  stripes.  Buoys  marking  sunken 
wrecks  are  painted  green.  White  buoys  de»g- 
nale  ancboraee  limus  or  dumping  limits.  A 
yellow  buoy  designates  a  quarantine  station. 
The  cask  buoy  is  in  the  form  of  a  cask;  the 
larger  are  employed  for  mooring,  and  are  called 
mooring  buoys.  S^ar  buoys  are  wooden  poles 
weighted  at  the  thick  end,  by  which  they  are 
moored.  They  are  used  in  inland  waters  and 
in  situations  where,  by  reason  of  ice,  iron  buoys 
would  be  dama^d  in  winter.  Whistling  buoys 
are  provided  with  apparatus,  operated  by  the 
waves,  which  compresses  air  and  discharges  it 
through  a  whistle.  A  bell  buoy  is-  a  large  fixed 
bvoy  to  whidi  is  attadied  a  bell  which  is 
sounded  by  the  heaving  of  the  sea,  serving  as  a 
signal  in  foggy  weather.  The  life  or  safety 
buoy  is  intended  to  keep  a  person  afloat  till  he 
can  be  taken  from  the  water.  Its  most  usual 
fonn  is  a  ring_  of  cork  covered  with  painted 
canvas  and  having  beckets  at  its  circumference. 
Life  buoys  are  sometimes  equipped  with  a  port- 
fire or  signal  light  which  is  Idndled  by  pulling 
a  lanyard  at  the  moment  of  heaving  overboard. 
Gas  buoys  are  chared  with  compressed  gas  and 
provided  with  a  suitable  burner.  The  gas  be-, 
ing    lighted,    and    burning    continuously,    sndb 


Google 


BUPALUB — BUSBANK 


buojrs  serve  as  a  guide  at  night.  Some  buoys 
are  fitted  for  generating  and  burning  acetylene 
gas,  and  are  often  made  to  carry  a  charge  to 
last  six  months  or  more.  Electric  buoys  are 
illuminated  by  connection  with  power  on  ^ore 
by  means  of  a  cable, 

BUPALUS,  Greek  sculptor  ;a  at  Chios 
about  5O0  B.C,  He  and  his  brother  Atbenis  are 
best  known  for  their  satirical  conflict  with  the 
poet  Hipponax.  Augustus  adorned  many  of  the 
Roman  temples  with  works  of  the  two  brothers, 
who  used  the  pure  white  marble  of  Paros. 
Pauaanias  represents  Bupalus  as  being  an 
elegant  architect  as  well  as  a  sculptor. 

BUPHAGA,  bu-fa'ga,  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  starling  family  (Sturnidee),  whose  species 
arc  found  in  vanous  parts  of  Africa,  where 
they  are  of  great  use  from  thar  habit  of 
feeding  on  the  parasites  infesting  cattle.  They 
are  popularly  known  as  beef -eaters  or  ox- 
peckers,  and  are  distinguished  from  the  true 
starlings  by  a  stouter  beat  bare  nostrils,  more 
curved  claws  and  some  other  characters.  The 
South  African  ox-pecker  (B.  africana)  in- 
habits NataL  while  farther  north  the  genus  is 
represented  by  a  red-billed  species  (,B.  erylhro- 
rhyncha).  A  third  species  is  found  still  fartlier 
north  and  also  in  the  Transvaal. 

BUPHAGUS,  in  ancient  mytholorar,  a  son 
of  Japetus  and  Tbomax,  who  was  killed  tnr 
E)iana  for  an  attempt  upon  her  chastity.  A 
river  of  Arcadia  was  named  after  him.  Bu- 
phagus  was  also  one  of  the  surnames  of  Her- 
cules, which  was  given  to  him  on  account  of 
his  gluttony. 

BUPHOHIA,  bQ-fO'ny«  (Gr,  jSou^ia  ox. 
killer),  an  ancient  Athenian  festival  in  honor 
of  Zeus,  celebrated  every  year  on  the  14th  of 
Sdrophorion,  on  Ae  Acropolis.  Barlev  and 
wheat  were  placed  on  the  altar,  and  the  ox 
destined  for  the  sacrifice  was  permitted  to  go 
and  eat  the  gnin,  when  a  priest  armed  with  an 
axe  sprang  forward  and  slew  the  ox,  and  then 
secreted  hmiself.  The  other  priests,  as  if  not 
knowing  the  author  of  the  deed,  made  inquiry, 
and,  failing  to  ascertain  anything,  for  lack  of  a 
better  victnn  arraigned  the  axe,  found  it  guilty 
and  condemned  it.  The  Buphonia  were  also 
called  DiipoJia. 

BVPRASIUM,  a  town  of  andent  Greece, 
in  Elis,  often  mentioned  by  Homer  as  one  of 
the  chief  cities  of  the  Epians,  It  had  ceased  to 
exist  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  but  the  name  was 
still  attached  lo  a  district  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Larissus,  and  on  the  road  leading 
from  Dyme  to  Elis,  The  region  is  now  identi- 
fied with  the  plain  of  Bakouma. 

BUPRESTID,ffi,  hu-pres'ti-de,  a  family  of 
ctdeopterous  insects  (benles),  manv  of  whidi 
are  ronarkable  for  the  splendor  of  tneir  appear- 
ance.  This  family  is  induded  in  the  pentamerous 
section  of  CoUoflera,  which  was  formed  by 
Latreille,  and  so  named  because  the  members 
of  it  have  five  joints  in  the  tarsi.  The  cbar- 
acteristica  of  the  B%prettid*  are:  bo^  ovate, 
elongated,  somewhat  broad  and  obtuse  in  front, 
but  pointed  behind;  eyes  oval,  with  die  antennx 
finely  serrate  inserted  between  them ;  jaws 
powerful.  The  larvK  are  mostly  wood-borers 
although  some  of  the  smaller  spedei  mine  in 
leaves  or  galls.    They  walk  slowly,  hut  fly  with 


great  rapidi^,  espedally  in  warm  weather. 
They  are  very  fond  of  sunning  themselves  on 
bushes  or  the  branches  of  trees.  When  one 
attempts  to  sdze  diem,  sometimes  even  -when 
one  approaches  them,  they  allow  themselves  to 
fall  suddenly  to  the  earth,  or  fl^  rafndly  away. 
l^re  are  several  hundred  species  belonging  to 
this  family,  over  200  spcdes  occurring  in  North 
America,  and  the  tropical  spedes  are  those 
which  are  chiefly  distinguished  tq'  the  brilliancy 
of  their  colors.  The  prevailing  color  appears  to 
be  greeiL  but  q>edes  are  often  found  of  a  blue, 
red,  golden  or  other  color.  The  most  injurious 
is  the  Ckrytobolhris JennoTola,  an  apple  borer. 
The  largest  are  the  B.  Chaicophora,  which  bore 
into  pines.  The  B.  gigas  of  Ijnnseus,  which  is 
about  two  inches  in  length,  and  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  family,  has  br^t  golden  elytr^ 
wing-cases,  which  are  often  used  as   ortia- 


coun tries,  chiefly  as  weeds,  but  some  as  garden 
plants.  The  best-known  ornamental  species  is 
B.  qraniifiora,  a  native  of  Mexico.  Several 
species  are  common  in  eastern  North  America, 
where  they  are  variously  known  as  devil's 
bootjack,  stick-tight,  beggar-tick,  Spanish' 
needle,  etc  They  are  especially  troublesome  in 
woo]  and  on  clothing,  to  whicfa'tfae  seeds  stick 
like  burs.    Some  spedes  are  valuable  aa  honey 

BUKA,  in  andent  mythology,  a  daughter 
of  Jupiter^  or,  according  to  some  atithonties, 
the  onspnng  of  Ton  and  Helice,  from  whom 
Bura,  or  Buns,  once  a  flourishing  city  of 
andent  Greece,  on  the  Bay  of  Corinth,  received 


jf  Helice,  by  a  terrible  earthquake,  the 
surviving  inhaUtants  rebuilt  it  afterward  about 
40  stadia  from  the  coast,  and  near  the  small 
river  Buraicus.  Bura  was  situated  on  a  Tilll,  and 
contained  temples  of  Ceres,  Venus,  Bacchus  and 
Ludna,  the  statues  of  which  were  sculptured  by 
Eudidas  of  Athens.  On  the  banks  of  the  river 
Buraicus  was  a  cave  consecrated  to  Hercules, 
and  an  oracle  usually  consulted  by  the  throwing 
of  dice.  The  mins  of  Bura  are  close  to  the 
road  from  Megastelia  to  Vostit^  and  the  cave 
of  Hercules  Buraicus  is  visited  by  tourists. 

BURBANK,  Lather^  American  naturalist, 
author  and  plant  originator :  b,  Lancaster, 
Worcester  County,  Mass.,  7  March  1849?  of 
&iglish-Scotch  ancestry;  educated  in  the  com- 
mon schools  and  local  academy;  worked  as  a 
boy  tor  the  Ames  Plow  Company,  agricultural 
implement  manufacturers,  Worcester,  Mass., 
where  he  exhibited  marked  inventive  abilities, 
but  soon  began  market-gardening  and  seed- 
raising  in  a  small  way,  developing  the  well- 
known  Burbank  potato  in  1873;  removed  to 
Santa  Rosa,  Cal„  1  Oct,  187S,  where  he  has 
since  resided  and  carried  on  his  work.  His 
many  and  important  ■new  creations*  of  fruity 
flowers,   vegetables,    timber  trees,   grains   and 


.Google 


»l 


grasses  have  made  him  the  best  kaown  plant- 
orieinator  in  the  world.  The  characteristics 
which  are  the  special  factors  in  the  success  of 
Ms  work  are,  the  large  extent  of  his  experi- 
ments, bis  keenness  of  perception  of  sliRht 
variations  in  plant  qualities  and  the  raindity 
with  which  he  develops  new  qualities,  this 
rapidity  being  due  to  a  combination  of  multiple 
hyhridizing,  selection  and  grafting  of  seedling 
punts  on  mature  stocks,  so  that  immediate  re^ 
suits  as  to  flowers  and  fruits  are  obtained  from 
seedling  stems.  But  the  final  and  most  import- 
ant factor  in  Burbank's  success  is  the  inherent 
personal  genius  of  the  man,  whose  innate 
sympathy  with  natur^  aided  by_  the  practical 
education  in  plant  biology  derived  from  50 
years  of  constant  study  and  experiment,  enable 
him  to  perceive  correlations  and  outcomes  of 
plant  growth  which  seem  to  have  been  visible  to 
no  other  man.  As  the  history  of  Burbank's 
life  is  the  history  of  his  work,  the  remainder  of 
his  biosraphicat  sketch  may  advantageously  be 
devotedto  a  brief  consideration  of  the  character 
and  method  of  creation  of  some  of  his  principal 
new  plant  varieties.  Burbank  has  originated 
and  introduced  a  remarkable  series  of  plums 
and  prunes.  No  less  than  60  varieties  are  in- 
cluded in  his  list  of  ofTerinKS,  and  some  of 
them,  notably  the  G0I4  Wick&on,  Apple,  Oc- 
tober, Chalco,  America,  Climax,  Formosa,  Bart- 
lelt,  Santa  Rosa  and  Beauty  plums  and  the 
Splendor,  Sugar,  Giant  and  Standard  prunes 
are  among  the  best  known  and  most  successful 
Idnds  now  grown.  He  has  also  perfected  a 
Stoneless  prune,  the  Abundance,  and  has  created 
an  absolutely  new  species,  the  plumcot,  by  a 
combination  of  the  common  plum  and  the  apri- 
cot The  Sugar  and  Standard  prunes  promise 
to  supplant  the  French  prune  in  California. 
The  Bartletl  plum,  cross  of  the  bitter  Chinese 
simoni  and  the  Delaware,  a  Burbank  hybrid, 
has  the  exact  fragrance  and  flavor  of  the  Bart- 
letl pear.  The  Climax  is  a  cross  of  the  simoni 
and  the  Japanese  triflora.  The  Chinese  simoni 
produces  almost  no  pollen,  but  few  grains  of 
it  ever  having  been  obtained,  but  these  few 
grains  have  enabled  Burbank  to  revolutionize 
the  whole  plum  shipping  industry.  Most  of 
Burbank's  plums  and  prunes  are  the  result  of 
multiple  cressings,  in  which  the  Japanese  vari- 
eties have  played  ap  important  part.  Hundreds 
of  thousands  of  seedlings  have  been  grown  and 
carefully  worked  over  in  his  40  years'  experi- 
ments with  plums  and  single  trees  have  been 
made  to  carry  as  many  as  600  varying  seedling 
grafts. 

Burbank  has  originated  and  introduced  the 
Van  Deman,  Santa  Rosa,  Alpha,  Pineapple, 
*No.  80,*  Dazzle  and  other  quinces;  the  Leader, 
Opulent  and  National  peaches,  cross-bred  from 
the  Muir,  Wager  and  White  nectarine;  the 
Winterstein  and  Goldridge  apples ;  and  has 
made  interesting,  although  not  profitable, 
xrrosses  of  the  peach  and  almond,  and  plum  and 
almond. 

Next  in  extent,  probably,  to  his  work  with 
fdums  is  his  long  and  successful  experimenta- 
tion with  berries.  This  work  has  extended 
through  35  years  of  constant  attention,  has  in- 
volved the  use  of  over  50  diflerent  species  of 
Rubtu,  and  has  resulted  in  the  originarion  and 
introduction  of  10  new  UMnmercial  varieties, 
mostly  obtained  throu|^  various  hybridizations 


of    dewberries,    blackberries    and    raspberries. 

Among  these  may  especially  be  mentioned  the  , 
Pheitomenal,  a  hybrid  of  the  Western  dewberry 
(R.  Hrnitus)  and  the  Red  raspberry  (R.  ideaus), 
fixed  in  the  first  generation,  which  rifjens  its 
main  crop  far  ahead  of  most  raspberries  and 
blackberries,  and  the  berry  is  of  enormous  pro- 
portions and  exquisite  quality ;  the  Iceberg,  a 
cross-bred  white  blackberry  derived  from  a 
hybridization  of. the  Crystal  White  (pistillate 
parent^  with  the  Lawton  (staminate  parent) 
and  with  beautiful  snow-white  berries  so  nearly 
transparent  that  the  small  seeds  may  be  seen 
in  them ;  the  Balloon  heriy,  selected  from  a 
complicated  cross  of  many  species;  the  Hima- 
laya, the  most  rapid  growing  and  by  far  the 
most  productive  bladcberry  in  existence,  of 
unequiled  quality  and  of  great  value  in  Cali- 
fornia and  other  mild  climates;  also  a  wonder- 
ful series  of  absolutely  thomless  blackberries 
of  great  productiveness  and  superior  quality. 
The  thomless  beriy  has  not  yet  been  generally 
introduced,  but  will  no  doubt  supplant  the 
thorny  varieties  nearly  everywhere.  An  inter- 
esting feature  of  Mr.  Burb^k's  brief  account, 
in  his  "New  Creations^  catalogue  of  1894,  of 
the  l>erry  experimentation,  is  a  reproduction 
of  a  photograph  showing  'a  sample  pile  of 
brush  12  feet  wide,  14  feet  high  and  20  feet 
long,  containing  65,000  two-  and  three-year-old 
seedling  berry  bushes  (40,000  Blackberry  X 
lUspberry  hybrids  and  25,000  Shaffer  X  Gregg 
hybrids)  all  dug  up  with  their  crop  of  ripening 
berries.*  The  photograph  is  introduced  to 
give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  work  neces- 
sary to  produce  a  satisfactory  new  race  of 
berries.  «0f  the  40,000  Blackberry-Raspberry 
hybrids  of  this  kind  'Paradox*  is  the  only  one 
now  in  existence.  I'rom  the  other  25,000 
hybrids  two  dozen  bushes  were  reserved  for 
further  trial.' 

Leaving  Burbank's  other  fruit  and  berry 
creations  unmentioned,  we  may  refer  to  his 
curious  cross-bred  walnut  results,  the  most 
astonishing  of  which  is  a  hybrid  between 
Juglans  caiifornica  (staminate  parent)  and 
/.  regia  (pistillate  parent),  which  grows  with 
an  amazing  vigor  and  rapidity,  the  trees  in- 
creasing in  size  at  least  twice  as  fast  as  the 
combined  growth  of  both  parents,  and  the 
clean-cut,  gfossv,  bright-green  leaves,  from  two 
to  three  feet  long,  navm^  a  sweet  odor  like 
that  of  apples.  This  hybnd  produces  no  nuts, 
but  curiously  enough  the  result  of  a  nearly 
similar  hybridization  (i.e.,  pollen  from  nigra 
on  pistils  of  caiifornica)  produces  in  abundance 
large  nuts  of  a  quality  superior  to  that  pos- 
sessed by  either  parent.  These  new  species  o£ 
walnut  are  now  known  as  'Paradox^  and 
*Royal'   respectively. 

Of  new  vegetables  Burbank  has  introduced, 
besides  the  Burbank  and  several  other  new 
potatoes,  new  tomatoes,  sweet  and  field  corn, 
squashes,  asparagus,  etc.  Perhaps  the  most  in- 
teresting of  his  experiments  in  this  field  is  the 
successful  production  of  a  whole  series  of 
giant  spineless  and  spiculess  cactus,  both  for 
forage  and  fruit  (the  spicules  are  the  minute 
spines,  much  more  dangerous  and  harder  to 
get  rid  of  than  the  conspicuous  long,  thom-Iike 
spines),  edible  for  stoclc,  and  indeed  for  man. 
This  work  is  chiefly  one  of  pure  selection,  for 
the    cross-bred    forms    often    seem    to    tend 


d=,  Google 


BURBOT  —  BUTtCH  ARD 


strongly  to   revert  to  the  ancestral  spiny  con- 

Among  the  many  new  flower  varieties  origi- 
nated by  Burbank  may  be  mentioned  the  Peach- 
blow,  Burbank,  Coquito  and  Santa  Rosa  roses, 
the  Splendor,  Fragrance  (a  fragrant  form)  and 
Dwarf  Snowflake  callas,  the  enormous  Shasta 
and  Alaska  daisies,  the  Ostrich  plume.  Wavcrly, 
Snowdrift  and  Double  clematises,   the   Hj-hnd 


and  a  petunia,  numerous  hybrid  Nii 
hundred  or  more  new  gladioli,  an  atnpelopsis. 
ntunerous  amaryllids,  various  dahlias,  the  Fire 
poppy  (a  brilliant  flame-colored  variety), 
striped  and  camelian  poppie^  a  blue  Shirley 

(obtained  by  selection  from  the  Crimson  field 
popp>'  of    Europe),    the    Silver   lining  poppy 

(obtained  by  selection  from  an  individual  of 
Palaver  umbrosium  showing  a  streak  of  silver 
inside)  with  silver  interior  and  crimson  ex- 
terior, and  a  crimson  California  poppy  (Escholl- 
tia')  obtained  by  selection  from  the  familiar 
golden   farm.     Perhaps  his  most  extensive  ex- 

Eerimenting  with  flowers  has  been  done  in  the 
ybridiiing  of  lilies,  a  field  in  which  many 
botanists  and  plant  hreeders  have  found  great 
difficulties.  Using  over  half  a  hundred  vari' 
elies  as  a  basis  of  his  work,  Burbank  has 
produced  a  great  variety  of  new  forms.  "Can 
my  thoughts  be  imagined,"  he  says,  in  his  'New 
Creations*  of  1893,  "after  so  many  years  of 
patient  care  and  tabor  (he  had  been  working 
over  16  years)  as,  wallang  among  them  (his 
new  lilies)  on  a  dewy  morning,  I  look  upon 
these  new  forms  of  beauty,  on  which  other 
e^s  have  never  gazed?  Here  a  plant  six  feet 
high  with  yellow  flowers,  beside  it  one  only 
six  inches  high  with  dark  red  flowers,  and 
further  on  one  of  pale  straw,  or  snowy  white, 
or  with  curious  dots  and  shadings;  some  de- 
liciously  fragrant.  Others  faintly  so;  some  with 
upright,  others  with  nodding  flowers,  some 
with  dark  green,  woolly  leaves  in  whorls,  or 
with  polished,  light  green,  lance-like,  scattered 

So  far  no  special  reference  has  been  made 
to  the  more  strictly  scientific  aspects  of  Bur- 
bank's  work.  Burbank  has  been  primarily  in- 
tent on  the  production  of  new  and  improved 
fruits,    flowers,    vegetables,    trees,    grains    and 

g "asses  for  the  immediate  benefit  of  mankind. 
ut  where  biological  experimentation  is  being 
carried  on  so  extensively  it  is  obvious  that 
there  must  be  a  large  acctmiulation  of  data  of 
much  scientific  value  in  its  relation  to  the 
great     problems     of     heredity,    variation     and 

raes-forming.  Burbank's  experimental  gar- 
s  may  be  looked  on  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  biologist  and  evolutionist  as  a  great 
laboratory  in  which,  at  present,  masses  of 
valuable  data  are,  for  lack  of  time  and  means, 
being  let  go  unrecorded.  Of  Burbank's  own 
particular  scientific  beliefs  touching  the  "grand 
problems*  of  heredity  we  have  space  to  record 
but  two;  first,  he  is  a  thorough  believer  in  the 
inheritance  of  acquired  characters,  a  condition 
disbelieved  in  by  the  Weismann  school  of 
evolutionists;  second,  he  believes  in  the  con- 
stant mutability  of  species,  and  the  strong 
individuality  of  each  plant  organism,  holding 
that  the  apparent  fixity  of  characteristics  is  a 
phenomenon  wholly  dependent,  for  its  degree 


of  reality,  on  the  length  of  tiue  this  ditracter- 
istic  has  been  ontogenetically  repeated  in  the 
phylogeny  of  the  race.  See  FLAMT-BKEeiaNG. 
For  other  accounts  of  Burbank  and  hi* 
work,  consult  articles  in  the  illustrated  maga- 
zines; 'New  CreatitHis  in  Plant  Life,>  by  W.  S. 
Harwood.  Burbank  has  written  12  larf^  vol- 
umes, 'Luther  Burbank.  His  Methods  and  Dis- 
coveries and  Their  Practical  Application' ;  "The 
Training  of  the  Human  Plant' ;  and  his  scries 
of  catalogues.  1893-1501,  called  <Ncw  Crea- 
tions' ;  and  has  several  other  volumes  under 
preparation  covering  an  enormous  amount  of 
experimental    data    on    plant    life    in    all    Its 

Vernom  L.  KeLLOOG, 
Professor    of    Entomology,    Leiand    Stanford 
Junior  Univeriily. 

BURBOT,  a  fresh-water  fish  (Lola  Iota-) 
of  the  cod  family,  inhabiting  northern  Europe 
and  America.  It  is  numerous  in  the  inland 
waters  of  the  Northern  Slates  and  Canada, 
where  it  displays  the  nocturnal  voracity  of  its 
race.  It  ordinarily  weighs  about  five  pounds, 
but  has  little  market  value.  It  is  more  often 
called  cusk.  ling  or  lochc  among  us,  than  bur- 
bot, which  is  the  British  designation. 

BURBRIIKiE.  Stephen  Gano,  American 
soldier:  b.  Scott  County,  Ky.,  19  Aug.  1831;  A 
1894.  He  organiied  the  famous  26th  Kentucky 
Regiment,  which  he  led  for  the  Union  at  Shitotu 
where  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers.  He  was  engagediit 
the  Vicksburg  expedition  under  GeneiaT  Grant ; 
led  the  charge  at  Arkansas  Post  and  at  Port 
Gibson,  being  the  first  to  enter  each  of  these 
places ;  was  retired  with  the  brevet  of  major- 
general  in  1865. 

BURCH,  Charlea  Sumner,  American  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  bishop :  b.  Pinckney,  Mich.,  30 
Tune  1855.  A  graduate  of  the  University  of 
Michigan  in  1875;  after  engaging  in  publish- 
ing business  in  Chicago;  be  was  editor  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  Evening  Press  from  1897  to  190S. 
He  had  taken  deacon  s  orders  in  1895  and  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1905.  He  was 
rector  of  Saint  Andrew's,  Siaten  Island.  N.  Y., 
until  1911,  when  he  was  consecrate^  suffragan 
bishop  of  New  York. 

.  BURCHARD,  Samnel  Dickinson,  American 
clergyman:  b.  Steuben,  N.  Y.,  6  Sept.  1812;  d. 
Saratoga.  N.  Y.,  25  Sept.  1891.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Centre  College  in  1836  and  became  a 
prominent  lecturer  in  Kentucky  on  the  anti- 
slavery  and  temperance  questions.  He  was  for 
many  years  a  Presbyterian  pastor  in  New  York. 
In  1885  he  became  pastor  emeritus.    During  the 


*rum,  Romanism  and  rebellion,*  and  this  de- 
nunciatory speech  on  the  very  eve  of  the  elec- 
tion created  intense  excitement  throu^out  the 
United  States  and  alienated  from  Blaine  many 
Democratic  votes  upon  which  he  had  reckoned. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  Burchard  was 
thus  largely  instrumental  in  electing  GroVCT 
Oevcland. 


d=y  Google 


BURCHm,LO  —  BURCKHARDT 


BURCHIBLLO,  boor-che-elld,  Domenico, 
Italian  poet:  fl.  15th  century  at  Florence,  where 
he  was  probably  bom.  He  died  at  Rome,  about 
1449.  He  was  the  son  of  a  barber  named  Gio- 
vanni, and  was  called  orisinally  only  Domenico. 
He  aKsutned  the  name  of  Burchiello  afterward 
for  reasons  that  cannot  be  assigned.  His  fame 
began  about  1425.  He  was  first  registered  as  a 
barber  in  1432.  Some  writers  have  reproached 
him  for  shameful  vices,  and  represented  him 
as  a  low  buffon  who  did  everything  for  money. 
Others  have  defended  him.  His  shop  was  so 
famous  that  learned  and  unlearned,  high  and 
low,  assembled  there  every  day,  and  Cosmo  the 
Great  caused  a  picture  of  it  to  be  painted  on 
one  of  the  arches  of  his  gallery.  It  ap^rs 
here  divided  into  two  portions ;  in  one  Bur- 
chiello is  acting  the  part  of  a  barber:  in  the 
other  that  of  a  musician  and  poet.  The  por- 
trait of  Burchiello  himself  is  painted  over  his 
shop.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  decide  tipon 
the  absolute  value  of  his  satires,  as  the  local 
and  personal  allusions  in  them  are  obscure. 
They  were  composed  of  his  contemporaries, 
with  a  studied  obscurity  and  extravagance  of 
expression.  His  style  ig,  nevertheless,  pure 
and  elegant.  His  burlesque  sonnets  are  enig- 
mas, of  which'  we  have  no  intelligible  explana- 
tion, notwithstanding  what  Doni  has  done. 
The  narrative  and  descriptive  parts  are  very 
easily  understood;  but  the  wit  they  contain  is, 
for  Oie  most  part,  so  coarse,  that  the  satire  fails 
of  producing  its  effect.  Thev  are,  on  the  whole, 
lively,  but  licentious.  The  best  editions  of  his 
sonnets  are  those  of  Florence  (1568)  and  of 
London  (17S7). 

BURCKHARD,  Max  Bncen.  Austrian 
writer  on  jurisprudence,  poet,  novelist  and 
dramatist:  b.  Korneuburg  1SS4;  d.  1912.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Vienna,  rendered 
efiicient  service  for  several  years  as  a  member 
of  the  ministry  of  education,  and  received  in 
1890  his  appointment  as  director  of  the  Hof- 
theatre  (court  theatre)  in  Vienna,  an  oSice  so 
well  suited  to  his  talents  that  it  called  forth  a 
series  of  appropriate  works.  Thus,  in  1896  he 
published  *Das  Rccht  des  Schauspielers' ;  next 
followed  the  comedy  <Rat  Schrimpf  (Berhn 
190S);  'Gottfried  Wunderlich>  (1906);  »Das 
Theater>  (Frankfurt  am  Main  1907);  'Im 
Patadicse>  (Wien  1907) ;  'Die  verfixtcn  Frau- 
enzimmer'  (1909)  ;  'Jene  Asra>  (Salzburg 
1910);  a  novel  of  distinction  entitled  'Trin- 
earia'  in  1910;  and  in  1912  his  'Cillis  —  Sina  — 
(^abrielle:  Briefe  von  und  an  Carl  Rahl.'  It 
should  be  noted  that,  before  his  appointment  as 
director  of  the  court  theatre,  he  had  published 
his  '(jesetze  und  Verordnungen  in  (Cultussa- 
chen'  (1887)  and  the  poem  entitled  'Das  Lied 
vom  Tannhituser'  (1888). 

BURCKHARDT,  boorkTiart,  Jakob.  Swiss 
author,  eminent  as  a  student  and  critic  of  Italian 
art  and  as  an  historian :  b.  Basel  1818  d.  1897. 
At  the  university  of  bis  native  lown^  and  later 
at  the  University  of  Berlin,  he  studied  history 
and  theology.  His  Grst  appointment  was  as 
professor  of  the  history  of  art  and  civilization 
at  the  University  of  Basel,  and  this  connection 
he  maintained  to  the  end  of  his  life,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  years  spent  at  Ziirich  as  an 
instructor  in  the  Polytecbnic  Institute  of  that 
city.  His  most  important  works  are  'Die  Zeit 
ConstanCins  des  Grossen'  (Ldpzig  1880)  ;  'Der 


2,  Leipzig  18791  with  its  English  versions,  'The 
Ciczrone,  or  Art  Guide  to  PaintiDR  in  Italy' 
(ed.  by  A.  von  Zabn  and  trans,  by  Mrs,  A.  H. 
Ctough,  London  1873),  and  a  translation  of  that 
portion  which  relates  to  painting,  published  in 
New  York  in  1910;  'Die  Kultur  der  Renais- 
sance in  luUen*  (1st  ed..  1860,8th  ed.,  1902,  and 
English  translation,  'The  Civihzacion  of  the 
Renaissance  in  Italy,'  London  1890) ;  'G&- , 
schichte  der  Renaissance  in  Italien*  (3  ed_ 
1890-91);  'Griecbische  Kulturgeschichte'  (3 
vols.,  1898-1900).  Material  additions  to  and  en- 
hancement of  the  value  of  'Der  Cicerone'  must 
be  credited  to  Dr.  Bode  and  the  other  editors. 

BURCKHARDT,  Jobatm  Karl,  Ger- 
man astronwner:  b-  Leipzigi  30  April  1773; 
d.  22  June  1825.  He  acquired  a  fondness 
for  astronomy  from  the  study  of  the  works  ot 
Lalande,  and  made  himself  master,  at  the  same 
time,  of  nearly  all  the  European  languages.  He 
wrote  a  Latin  treatise  'On  the  Combinatoiy 
Analytic  Method'  (Leipzig  1794).  He  then 
studied  practical  astronomy  with  Baron  voR 
Zach  at  me  latter's  observatory  on  the  Seebeij^ 
near  Gotha,  and  assisted  his  patron,  from  1795- 
97,  in  observing  the  right  ascension  of  the  stars. 
Von  Zach  recommended  him  to  Lalandt^  at 
Paris,  who  received  him  at  his  house  IS  Dec, 
1797,    Here  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  cat- 


nephew,  Lefrani;ois  Lalande;  took  an  active 
part  in  the  observatory  of  the  Qcolc  Militaire; 
and  translated  the  first  two  volumes  of  La- 
place's 'Micaniquc  Cileste'  into  German  (Ber- 
lin 1800-02).  Being  appointed  adjunct  astrono- 
mer by  the  board  of  longitudj^  he  received  let- 
ters of  naturalization  as  a  French  citizen  20 
Dec.  1799.  His  important  treatise  on  the  comet 
of  1770,  which  haa  not  been  visible  for  nearly 
30  years,  although,  according  to  the  calculalioos 
of  its  orbit,  it  should  have  returned  every  five 
or  six,  was  rewarded  with  a  gold  medal  by  the 
Institute  in  1800.  This  treatise,  which  proposed 
some  improvements  in  Dr.  Obler's  mode  of  cal- 
culation, is  contained  in  the  'Memoires  de- 
rinstitut'  for  1806.  During  this  year  he  was 
made  a  member  df  the  dei>artment  of  physical 
and  mathematical  sciences  in  the  Academy;  in 
1818  was  made  a  member  of  the  board  of  lon- 
^tude;  and,  after  Lalande's  death,  astronomer 
in  the  observatory  of  the  ficole  Militaire.  In 
1814  and  1816  hejniblished  in  French,  at  Paris, 
'Tables  to  Assist  in  Astronomical  Calculations.' 
He  also  wrote  some  treatises  in  Von  Zach's 
'Geographical  Ephemerides.* 

BURCKHARDT,  John  LcwIb,  English 
African  explorer:  b.  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  24 
Nov.  1784;  d.  Cairo,  17  Oct.  1817.  He  was 
educated  at  Neuchatel,  Lripzi^  and  Gottinpxn. 
In  1806  he  went  to  London  with  introductions 
to  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  who  accepted  his  proffered 
services  on  behalf  of  the  African  Association, 
founded  to  explore  the  interior  of  Africa.  Af- 
ter studying  at  Cambridge,  and  inuring  himself 
to  hardship  and  exposure,  he  sailed  for  Malta 
in  1809;  and  from  Malta  he  went  to  Aleppo  as 
an  Oriental,  and  studied  there  for  two  years 
AraUc   and   Mohammedan   law.     In    1810  t)e 


d=,  Google 


&URDKKIH  —  BUSDBTT 


made  a  tour  of  Palmyra,  Damascus  and  Baal- 
bek; in  1812  he  journeyed  through  Palestine 
and  Arabia  to  Egypt;  in  1813  he  traversed  the 
Nile  above  Assouan ;  in  1814  he  visited  Mecca, 


and  he  journeyed  to  Suez  and  also  made  the 
ascent  of  Mount  Sinai  in  1816.  He  died  with 
the  main  purpose  of  his  life  unfulfilled,  the 
exploration  of  the  sources  of  the  Niger,  and 
was  buried  in  his  assumed  character  of  a  devout 
Moslem  pilgrim.    His  collection  of  350  volumes 


humously;  travels  in  Nubia  (1819),  in  Syria 
(1822),  in  Arabia  (1829);  Notes  on  the  Be- 
douins and  Wahabys  (1830);  'Arabic  Prov- 
erbs >  (1830). 

-  BUKDEKIN.  a  river  of  the  northeast  of 
Queensland,  with  a  course  of  about  3S0  miles. 
With  its  amuents  it  waters  a  large  extent  of 
country,  but  it  is  useless  for  navigation. 

BURDEN,  Henry,  American  inventor:  b. 
Dumblanc,  Scotland,  20  April  1791;  d.  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  19  Jan.  1871.  He  was  brought  up  on 
a  farm,  and  at  an  early  age  showed  bis  inven- 
tive genius  by  making  a  variety  of  labor-saving 
machinery,  including  a  threshing-machine.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1819  and  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements. 
He  invented  an  improved  plow;  the  first  culti- 
vator made  in  this  country;  machines  for  mak' 
ing  horse-shoes  and  hook-headed  spikes  used  on 
railroads ;  a  self-acting  machine  for  rolling  iron 
into  bars,  and  a  new  machine  for  making  EorsC' 
shoes,  which  received  a  rod  of  iron  and  turned 
out  completed  shoes  at  the  rate  of  60  a  minute. 
BURDEN  OF  PROOF,  in  le^  procedure, 
the  obligation  to  establish  1^  evidence  certain 
disputed  facts.  As  a  general  rule  this  burden 
lies  on  the  party  asserting  the  affirmative  of  the 
issue  to  be  tried  or  question  in  dispute,  or  on 
the  party  who  would  fail  if  no  evidence  were 
adduced  on  either  side.  Burden  of  proof  is  to 
be  distinguished  from  prima  facie  evidence  or  a 
prima  facie  case.  Generally,  when  the  latter  is 
shown,  the  duty  imposed  upon  the  party  having 
the  burden  will  be  satisfied ;  but  it  is  not  neces- 
sarily so.  In  criminal  cases,  on  the  two-fold 
ground  that  a  prosecutor  must  prove  every  fact 
necessary  to  substantiate  hii  charge  against  a 
prisoner,  and  that  the  law  will  presume  inno- 
cence in  the  absence  of  convincing  evidence  to 
the  contraryi  'he  burden  of  proof,  unless  shifted 
by  legislative  interference,  will,  in  criminal  pro- 
ceedings, be  on  the  prosecuting  party,  though 
in   order  to  convict  ne  must   necessarily  have 

'  recourse  to  negative  evidence.  The  burden  of 
proof  throughout  is  on  the  government     This 

^subject  is  treated  by  all  writers  on  EvidencCj  as 
Taylor,  Roscoe  and  Powell  in  England ;  Dick- 

,son  in  Scotland  and  Grecnleaf  in  the  United 
States.    Consult  also  Bentbam's  'Rationale  of 

;Judicial  Evidence.' 

BURDER,  Geoi^,  Congregational  min- 
ister: b.  London,  5  June  1752;  d.  S  June  1832. 
He  started  life  as  an  engraver  and  artist  and 
drifted    partially   into   journalism.      He   began 

'preaching  in  1776  and  was  ordained  pastor  two 
years  later,  but  was  not  publicly  recognized 
until  1784.  In  the  meantime  he  had  been  doing 
the  work  of  a  traveling  preacher  throughout 


Elnghmd  and  Wales.  He  initiated  Stmday 
schools  al  Coventry  (1785)  and  he  was  chief 
founder  of  the  "Association  of  Ulnislers  for 
the  Spread  of  the  Gospel  at  Home  and  Abroad* 
(1793),  now  called  the  "Warwickshire  County 
Association,"  which  has  done  much  to  encour- 
age foreign  missions.  He  helped  to  form  the 
'Religious  Tract  Society.*  In  1803  he  became 
secretary  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  a 
post  he  held  until  1827.  He  also  edited  the 
Evangelical  Magaaine  for  several  years,  and  in 
1804  he  was  instrumental  in  the  foundatkin  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Among 
his  works  are  'The  Welsh  Indians,  a  Collection 
of  Papers  Respecting  a  People  whose. Ancestors 
Emigrated  from  Wales  to  America  in  the  year 
II70  with  Prince  Madoc'  (1797);  'Missionary 
Anecdotes' ;  'The  Pilgrim's  Progress,  an  Epic 
Poem,'  and  several  volumes  of  poems.  Consult 
Bennett's  "History  of  Dissenters'    (1839). 

BURDETT.  Snt  Francis,  English  politi- 
cian: b.  25  Jan.  1770;  d.  23  Jan.  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster  and  after  two  years 
at  Oxford  made  a  continental  tour.  In  1796  he 
obtained  a  seat  in  Parliament  through  the  pa- 
tronage of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle;  but  he  soon 
abandoned  the  Tory  party  and  made  himself 
conspicuous  by  his  advocacy  of  liberal  measures. 
In  1802  he  stood  for  Middlesex  but  though  at 
first  elected  he  finally  lost  his  scat  in  1806  after 
much  costly  litigation.  He  was  more  success- 
ful in  1807  at  Westminster  where  his  election 
at  the  head  of  the  poll  was  hailed  as  a  great 
popular  triumph.  In  1810  he  published  a  letter 
m  Cobbett's  Political  Register,  denying  the 
right  of  the  House  of  Commons  to  Imprison 
for  libel,  as  they  had  recently  done  in  the  case 
of  John  Gale  Jones.  This  letter,  having  been 
brought  under  the  notice  of  the  House,  was  de- 
clared a  gross  breach  of  its  privileges,  and  a 
warrant  was  issued  by  the  speaker  for  the  com- 
mittal of  Sir  Francis  to  the  Tower.  He  denied 
the  legality  of  the  warrant  and  declared  his 
determination  to  surrender  only  to  force.  The 
public  mind  was  strongly  agitated,  but  proro- 
gation of  Parliament  relieved  him  from  his  im- 
prisonment in  the  Tower,  and  be  became  per- 
haps the  most  popular  man  in  the  kingdom.  In 
attaining  this  popularity  he  was  greatly  aided  by 
the  graces  of  his  appearance  and  tile  talents 
which  he  undoubtedly  possessed.  Ultimately, 
however,  his  fervor  cooled,  and  he  owed  bis 
last  seat  in  Parliament  to  the  Conservatives  of 
Wiltshire. 

BURDETT,  Sir  Henry,  KCB.  (1897), 
K.C.V.O.  (1908),  English  author,  publicist  and 
statistician :  b,  1845.  Was  superintendent  of  the 
Queen's  Hospital,  Birmingham,  and  the  Sea- 
man's Hospital,  Greenwich,  and  secretary  of  the 
share  and  loan  department  of  the  London  Stock 
Exchange.  He  was  founder  and  editor  of  The 
Hospital.  His  works  are  numerous  and  cover 
a  wide  range.  Among  them  are  'The  Sinkii^ 
Fund  of  the  National  Debt'  ;  'The  Patriotic 
Fund'  ;  'How  to  Become  a  Nurse' ;  'Dwellings 
of  the  Middle  Classes';  'Helps  in  Sickness'; 
'Health':  'The  Future  of  Hospitals';  'Official 
Intelligence  of  British,  American  and  Foreign 
Securities'  (17  vols.)  ;  'The  National  Debts  of 
the  World'  ;  'Local  Taxation  in  England  and 
Wales' ;  'Seventeen  years  of  Securities'  ;  'Co- 
lonial Loans  and  Development' ;  'The  Admi- 
ralty and   the  Country';    'Hosiutals  and  Asy- 


d=vGe^ogIc 


BURISTT-COUTTS—  BURDON-8  ANDERSON 


luma  o(  the  Wortd*  <4  vols.);  'Hospitals  and 
Charities*;  'Hospitals  and  the  State';  'Archi- 
tects, Hospitals  and  Asylums';  'A  Practical 
Scheme  for  Old  Age  Pensions' ;  'The  Nursing 
Profession';  'Housing  of  the  Poor';  'Official 
Nursing  Direeton''  J  'London  Water  Com- 
pany' ;  'Light  Railways' ;  and  'Municipal, 
County  and  Indian  Fmance.' 

BURDETT-COUTTS,    Right   Hon.    An- 

Sila  GeoFEitia  (Baroness),  English  philan- 
ropist:  b.  21  April  1814;  d  London,  30  Dec. 
1906.  In  1837  she  inherited  much  of  the  prop- 
erty of  her  grandfather,  Thomas  Coutts,  the 
banker,  on  the  death  of  his  widow,  the  Duchess 
of  Saint  Albans  (formerly  the  actress.  Miss 
Mellon).  Besides  spending  large  sums  of 
money  in  building  and  endowing  churches  and 
schools,  she  endowed  the  three  colonial  bishop- 
rics of  Cape  Town,  Adelaide  and  British  Co- 
lumbia. She  founded  an  estabUshment  in  South 
Australia  for  the  improvement  oE  the  aborig- 
ines, and  established  a  fisheiy  school  at  the 
Irish  vill^e  of  Baltimore  (1887).  To  the  city 
of  London  she  presented,  besides  several  hand- 
some fountains,  the  Columbia  Market,  Bethnal 
Green  (1870),  for  the  supply  of  fish  in  a  poor 
district.  She  also  built  Columbia  Square,  con- 
sisting of  model  dwellings  at  low  rents,  for 
about  300  families.  The  home  estabhshed  by 
her  at  Shepherd's  Bush  has  rendered  great  as- 
sistance to  many  unfortunate  women,  and  the 
People's  Palace  owes  much  to  her  generosity. 
In  1871  she  was  created  a  peeress  in  her  own 
ri^t  as  Baroness  Burdett-Couits.  In  1877  she 
organized  the  Turld^  Compassionate  Fund,  to 
relieve  the  sufferings  of  the  peasants  in  Turkey, 
and  in  recognition  of  her  services  the  Sultan 
conferred  upon  her  the  Order  of  the  Medjidie, 
In  1881  she  was  married  to  William  Ashmead- 
Barttett,  who  in  1882  obtained  the  royal  license 


to  2 


e  her 


BURDETT-COUTTS,  WilUwn 
Ashmead-Bartlctt,  English  philanthropist:  b. 
in  the  United  Stales  in  18S1,  the  son  of  the 
late  Ellis  Bartlett  of  Plymouth,  New  England. 
He  was  graduated  at  Keble  College,  Oxford, 
in  1876,  and  married  in  1881  Angela,  Baroness 
Burdett- Coutts,  whose  name  he  assumed  As 
commissioner  (or  the  Baroness'  Turkish  Com- 
passionate Fund  he  proceeded  to  the  theatre 
of  the  Russo-Turidsh  War  in  1877;  and  sub- 
se<^uently  lat«cly  developed  her  schemes  for 
relieving  Irish  (ustress  and  aiding  Irish  fisher- 
men. The  food  supply  for  the  poor  of  London 
is  a  subject  that  has  deeply  interested  him,  and 
he  has  been  instrumental  in  carrying  through 
some  useful  acts  of  Parliament,  notably  the 
Hempstead  Heath  Act  of  188S.  He  has  repre- 
sented Westminster  in  the  House  of  Commons 
since  1885. 

BURDETTE,  Robert  Jones,  American 
humorist,  lecturer,  writer,  preacher:  b.  Greens- 
boro, Pa-  30  July  1844;  d  Pasadena,  Cal,  19 
Nov.  1914.  Removed  in  boyhood  lo  Peoria,  111. 
He  was  educated  in  public  schools ;  D.D., 
Kalamazoo  University,  Michigan,  1908;  LL.D., 
Occidental  College,  California,  1913.  Served 
as  private  in  the  47th  Illinois  Volunteers, 
1862-65.  In  1869  he  became  night  editor 
of  the  Peoria  Transcript,  and  afterward  was 
associated  with  other  Peoria  papers.  He  be- 
e  editor  of  the  Burlington,  Iowa, 


Hawktye  in  187Z  where  hdmade  a  r^mtation 
as  a  hiunorist  Later  he  was  on  staff  of  the 
Brooklyn  Eagle,  and  was  editorial  contributor 
to  the  Los  Angeles  Times,  and  to  many  periodi- 
cals. Began  to  lecture  in  1876.  He  became  a 
Ucensed  minister  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  1887, 
was  ordained  in  1903,  and  became  pastor  of  the 
Temple  Baptist  Church,  Los  Angeles ;  pastor 
ementus,  July  1909;  and  was  city  commissioner 
of  Pasadena,  Cal.  He  published  'Hawkeve- 
tems'  (1877)  ;  'Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Moustache' 
(1879);  'Life  of  William  Penn'  (1882); 
'Innach  Garden'  (1897);  'Sons  of  Asaph': 
'Chimes  from  a  Jester's  Bells';  'Temple  and 
Templars' ;  'Smiles  Yoked  with  Signs'  (poems, 
1900);  'Silver  Trumpets'  (poems);  'Old  Time 
andYoungTomi  (1912)  ; 'Drums  of  the  Forty- 
Seventh'    (1914). 

BURDICK,  Francia  Haiion,  American 
jurist  and  author:  b.  De  Ruyter,  N.  Y.,  1  Aug, 
1845.  He  was  graduated  at  Hamilton  College 
in  1869,  and  at  iis  law  school  in  1872.  He  prac- 
tised  law  in  Utica.  N.  Y.,  from  1872  to  1883, 
and  was  later  professor  of  law  at  Hamilton 
CJsllege  and  at  Cornell.  From  1891  he  was 
professor  of  law  at  &>lumbia  University^  and 
in  1907  was  appointed  commissioner  on  umform 
State  laws  for  New  York,  Besides  numerous 
articles  in  law  journals  his  published  works 
include  'The  Law  of  Sales'  (3d  ed.,  1913); 
'The  Law  of  Torts'  (1905:  2d  ed.,  1908); 
'Law  of  Partnership'  (2d  ed,  1906)  ;  'Essen- 
tials of  Business  Law'  (1906). 

BURDOCK,  a  small  genus  (Arctivm)  of 
coarse  perennial  or  biennial  herbs  of  the  family 
Atteracea,  natives  of  temperate  Asia  and  Eu- 
rope, but  widely  distributed  as  weeds  througji- 
out  the  world  Common  burdock  <.A.  lappa), 
which,  often  attains  a  height  of  four  feet,  is 
sometimes  planted  in  Japan,  where  it  has  been 
improved  by  cultivation,  tor  its  enlarged  pars- 
nip-like roots,  which  are  eaten  as  a  boiled 
vegetable.  Formerly  the  roots  were  used  in 
medicine  but  they  seem  to  be  generally  classed 
with  many  other  domestic  remedies  of  doubtful 
value.  Tlic  plant  is  best  known  as  a  weed  in 
waste  land,  but  usually  on  good  soil.  Its  globu- 
lar burs  become  attached  to  the  wool  of  sheep 
and  to  clothing.  Their  presence  injures  the 
price  of  wool. 

BURDON-SANDERSON,  Sib  John 
Scott,  English  physician;  b.  Jesmond,  New 
castle-on-'fynt  21  Dec  1828;  d.  23  Nov.  1905. 
He  was  graduated  at  Edihburrii  University 
in  1851  and  afterward  studied  at  Paris,  settling 
in  London  as  a  practising  physician  in  1853. 
In  1856,  while  medical  officer  for  Paddington, 
he  first  gave  proofs  of  the  eminence  lo  which 
he  was  to  attain.  In  1870  he  gave  up  his  hos- 
intal  appointments  and  a  valuable  private  prac- 
tice to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  scientific 
research.  He  held  the  appointments  of  pro- 
fessor of  practical  physiology  and  histology  at 
University  College,  London,  1871-77 ;  was  Jodrell 
professor  of  physiology,  1874-82;  Wayneflete 
professor  of  physiology  at  Oxford  1882-95; 
and  regius  professor  of  medicine  at  the  same 
university,  1895^1903.  He  is  regarded  as  the 
virtual  founder  of  the  medical  school  at  Ox- 
ford His  methods  of  research  into  the  diseases 
of  animals  occasioned  the  violent  apposition  of 
the  anti-vivisectionists.  He  accomplished  much 
in  the  way  of  elucidating  the  true  character 


.Google 


BURDWAN— BUROAOB  TSNUBB 


of  cholera  and  tuberculosis.  He  was  created 
>  baronet  in  1899,  and  died  without  issue.  He 
contributed  nany  papers  to  scientific  publica- 
tKins,  and  a  'Memoir^'  which  contains  some  of 
his  addresses,  edited  in  part  by  his  widow,  was 
publi^Kd  in  1911. 

BURDWAN,  or  EARDWAN,  India,  town 
and  capital  of  a  division  of  the  same  name  in 
the  lower  provinces  of  Bengal,  on  the  left  hank 
of  the  Damoda,  68  miles  northwest  of  Calcutta, 
with  which  il  is  connected  by  railway.  There 
is  a  titular  rajah  of  Burdwan,  who  resides  here 
in  a  spacious  palace,  with  gardens,  etc, ;  and 
there  are  also  a  large  collection  of  temples  arid 
a  shrine  of  Pirba-haram.  Pop.  34,477.  The 
division  has  an  area  of  13,956  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  8,250,000  and  is 
divided  into  the  districts  of  Burdwan,  Banknra, 
Birbhum,  Huirli,  MJdnaitur  and  Howrah.  The 
chief  crops  are  sugar,  indigo,  tobacco,  cotton 
and  the  usual  cereals.  Mulberry'trees  are  culti~ 
vated  and  coal  is  raised. 

BUREAU,  the  chamber  or  official  apart- 
ments of  an  officer  of  government,  and  the 
body  of  subordinate  officials  who  labor  under 
the  direction  of  a  chief.  The  term  'bureau 
system,*  or  tureaucracjr,"  is  applied  to  those 
systems  of  government  in  which  the  business 
of  administration  is  carried  on  In  departments, 
each  under  the  control  of  a  chief;  and  is 
Opposed  to  those  in  which  the  officers  of  govern- 
ment have  a  co-ordinate  authority.  Sometimes 
a  mixture  of  the  two  systems  is  found.  Thus 
the  business  of  the  executive  branch  of  govern- 
ment may  be  carried  on  by  bureaus,  while  the 
administration  of  justice  is  in  the  hands  of  co- 
ordinate judges.  In  the  United  States,  bureau 
is  the  universal  word  for  a  chest  of  drawers. 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY, 
The.    See  Agriculture,  Department  of. 

BUREAU  OF  BIOLOGICAL  SURVEY, 
The.    See  Agricultubb,  Depaktuent  or. 

BUREAU  OP  CHEMISTRY,  The.  See 
AcwcuLTuiiE,  Depabtment  or. 

BUREAU  OF  CROP  ESTIMATES, 
The    See  Agbiculture,  Department  of, 

BUREAU  OP  ENTOMOLOGY,  Tho. 
See  Agriculture,  Department  of. 

BUREAU  OP  PLANT  INDUSTRY, 
The.    See  AGitcuLTtntAL,  Department  of. 

BUREAU  op  SOILS,  The.  See  Agu- 
COLTURE,  Department  of. 

BUREAUCRACY,  bu-ro'cra-ce.  a  form  of 
political  organization  through  which  the  gov- 
ernment is  carried  on  by  means  of  bureaus, 
each  of  which  manages  a  particular  branch  of 
state  business.  This  form  of  organization  is 
admirably  adapted  to  securing  responsibility. 
since  each  bureau  is  hierarchically  organized 
with  a  chief  at  its  head  on  whom  rests  the  final 
responsibility,  whereas  in  the  collegial  or  board 
system  a  number  of  {icrsons  of  coequal  author- 
ity divide  the  responsibility.  While  the  officials 
of  bureaucracies  are  usually  trained  and  ex- 
perienced administrators,  little  affected  by  pub- 
lic opinion,  their  tendency  is  to  develop  a  caste 
spirit,  to  overemphasize  administrative  routine 
and  to  become  victims  of  'red  tape'  and  ex- 
cessive formalism.  They  fail  to  stimulate  inter- 
est in  public  affairs  or  to  cultivate  patriotism 


unoDg  the  masses,  thus  becoming  "pedantoc- 
racies.*  Consult  Gamer,  J.  W.,  'Inlrodttctioa 
to  Political  Sciencc>  (New  York  1910);  Good- 
now,  P.  I.,  'Comparative  Administrative  Law' 
(New  York   1903y 

BURETTE,  a  praduated  g;tass  tube  oeca- 


BURG,  boorft  Adriaan  van  der,  Dutch 
painter:  b.  Dordrecht  1693;  d.  1733.  He 
studied  under  Arnold  Houbraken,  distingui^ed 
himself  by  his  portraits,  and  acquired  a  reputa- 
tion which  would  have  procured  him  an  in- 
dependence. But  intemperate  habits  rendered 
his  talents  of  no  avail,  and  hurried  him  to  a 
premature  grave.  His  freedom  of  touch  and 
fine  coloring  are  his  distinguished  excellences. 
His  best-known  {neces  are  two  large  pictures 
at  Dordrecht,  one  of  which  gives  on  a  single 
canvas  portraits  of  the  managers  of  the  ondian 
hospital,  and  the  other  portraits  of  the  officers 
of  the  Mint. 


the  notice  of  Van  Swieten,  who  was  then  at 
the  head  of  the  commission  appointed  to  re- 
form the  scholastic  establishments  of  Austria, 
and  throu^  his  patronage  obtained  the  means 
of  prosecuting  the  study  of  mathematics,  and 
more  especially  of  astronomy,  for  whtdi  he 
showed  a  decided  inclination.  In  1791  he  be- 
came professor  of  physics  at  Klagenfurt,  and 
in  1792  was  appointed  colleague  of  Trisnccker 
at  the  Observatory  of  Vienna.  In  1798;  the 
French  Institute  Having  proposed  a  prize  for 
the  determination,  by  at  feast  SOO  observations, 
of  the  mean  place  of  the  apogee  and  ascending 
node  of  the  mtHHi.  Burg  sent  in  a  memoir  in 
which  the  determination  was  made  by  a  most 
accurate  and  ingenious  method,  not  from  500 
but  3,232  observations.  The  tables  contained 
in  it  were  afterward  published  by  the  Institute, 
and  constitute  the  chief  foundation  of  his  fame. 
In  1813  he  became  almost  entirely  deaf  and 
retired  from  public  life  to  Wiesenau,  Carinthia. 

BURG,  Prussia,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  12  mites  northeast  of  Magdeburg,  on 
the  Ihle,  where  it  joins  a  canal  uniting  the 
Havel  with  the  Elbe.  It  has  four  churches,  a 
hospital,  a  gynmasium  and  a  well-endowed  in- 
stitution for  the  bringing  up  of  orphan  children, 
and  is  the  seat  of  civil  ana  judicial  administra* 
tion  for  the  circle  Its  manufactures  are  ex* 
tensive  especially  of  woolens,  for  which  it 
was  a  centre  as  early  as  the  12th  century. 
Cloths  for  army  purposes  are  largely  made. 
There  are  also  spinning  mills,  dye  works,  ma- 
chine works,  tanneries,  oil  works,  brick  kilns, 
foundries  and  a  large  trade  in  farm  produce. 
The  prosperity  of  Burg  dates  from  die  end  of 
the  17th  century,  when  a  large  number  of 
French,  Palatinate  and  Walloon  refugees  look 
shelter  there.     Pop.   24.074. 

BURGAGE  TENURE,  in  England,  a  ten- 
ure in  socage,  whereby  burgesses,  citizens  or 
townsmen  hold  their  lands  or  tenements  of  the 
King  or  other  lord  for  a  certain  yearly  rent 
In  Scotland  that  tenure  by  which  the  property 
in  royal  burghs  is  held  under  the  Crown,  pro- 
prietors being  liable  to  the  (nomiiwl)  KTvice 


=,  Google 


BURGAS  —  BUSGSSS 


of  watching  and  wanUiK,  or,  as  it  is  common^ 
termed,  'service  of  bui^  used  and  wont,» 

BURGAS,  boor-gas',  or  BOURGAS,  Tur- 
key, a  seaport  of  the  province  of  eastem  Ru- 
melia,  situated  on  tlie  Black  Sea.  The  bav  on 
which  it  stands  is  of  sufficient  depth  for  larKc 
vessels,  and  the  exports  are  grain,  iron,  butter, 
wine  and  also  wooden  goods  for  Constanti- 
nople. It  is  the  teminal  of  the  Sofia- Burgas 
Railway,  and  contains  several  mosques  and 
Christian  churches.  The  principal  source  of 
die  prosperity  of  the  town  is  the  manufacture, 
of  pottery,  pipe-bowls,  cups,  etc,  for  which  i^' 
superior  clay  is  found  in  the  neighborhood 
Pop.  about  12.000. 

BURGDORF,  boorg'dorf,  Switzeilaud,  a 
town  in  the  canton  of  Barn,  situated  on  the 
Emmen.  It  is  the  market  for  the  linen  goods 
and  cheeses  of  the  EmJiienthal,  and  manufac- 
tures linen,  wool,  tobacco  and  chocolate.    The 


to  1804  in  the  chiteau  of  Bur^dorf,  and 
verted  it  into  an  educational  institution.  In 
the  vicinity  are  the  baths  of  Sommerfaaus.  Fop. 
9,381. 

BURGEO  ISULNDS,  Newfoundland,  a 
group  of  islands  on  the  southern  cpast,  much 
visited  by  summer  tourists  and  artists  from  the 
Eastern  States  and  Canada,  lat  47*  33*  N.  and 
tong.  57°  44'  W,  The  population  is  chiefly 
engaged  in  fishing,  Burgeo,  the  principal  town, 
has  a  population  oi  less  than  1,000.  In  1765 
Captain  Cook  made  an  observation  of  the  sun's 
echpse  here, 

bURGBR,  Gottfried  Aafiut,  German  poet : 
b.  1  Jan.  1748,  at  Wolmcrswende,  near  Halber- 
stadt :  d.  Gottingen,  8  June  1794.  He  showed  an 
early  predilection  for  solita^  and  ^omy  placep 
and  the  making  of  verses,  for  which  he  had  no 
other  model  than  hymnbooks.  He  learned 
Latin  with  difficulty.  In  1764  he  studied  theol- 
ogy at  the  University  of  Halle,  and  in  1768  he 
-  went  to  Gottingen,  in  order  to  exchange  theol- 
ogy for  law,  but  soon  formed  connections  here 
equally  disadvantageous  to  his  studies  and  his 
morals,  so  that  his  grandfather,  who  had  hith- 
erto maintained  him,  withdrew  his  support 
The  friendship  of  several  distinsuished  young 
men_  at  the  university  was  now  oi  great  service 
to  him.  He  studied  the  ancient  classics  and  the 
best  works  in  French,  Italian,  Spanish  and  Eng- 
lish, particularly  Shakespeare,  and  the  old 
English  and  Scottish  ballads.  Percy's  'Re- 
liques'  was  his  constant  companion.  His  poems 
soon  attracted  attention.  In  1772  he  obtained 
the  office  of  bail  lie  in  Alten-Gieichen,  but 
throughout  bis  Ufe  he  was  involved  in  pecu- 
niaty  difficulties.  In  1774  he  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  neighboring  baillie,  named  Leonhart, 
but  his  marriage  was  unfortanate.  He  con- 
ceived a  violent  passion  for  the  dster  of  his 
wife  and  married  her  in  1784,  soon  after  his 
first  wife's  death.  She  also  his  celebrated 
'Molly,*  died  the  first  year  of  their  marriage. 
At  the  same  time  be  was  obliged  by  tntrigues, 
)  re^n  his  jilace.     He  was  made  professor 


obliged  to  gain  Kis  living  by  poorly  rewarded 
translations  for  booksellers.  A  third  marriage 
in  1790^  with  a  young  bcty  of  Swabia,  who  had 


pnblicly  offered  him  her  hand  in  a  poenL  con>- 
pleted  his  misfortunes;  he  procured  a  divorce 
from  her  -two  years  afterward  The  (govern- 
ment of  Hanover  afiorded  him  some  assistanca 
shortly  before  his  death.  His  songs,  odes,  elegies, 
ballads,  narrative  poems  and  epigrams  bold  a 
very  hiaji  place  in  German  literature,  Scble^el 
especially  commending  his  work,  though  Scml- 
ler  criticised  him  very  severelv.  The  first  col- 
lection of  his  poems  appeared  in  Gottingen  in 
1778.  His  complete  works  were  first  published 
by  Reinhard  at  Gdttii^en  in  four  volumes  in 
1796;^  and  this  edition  has  been  repeatedly 
published  sinc^  Other  editions  of  bis  worl^ 
and  letters  have  also  been  published  and  his 
life  has  been  written  by  Dorin^;  FroMe,  'G.  A. 
Biirger:  Sein  Leben  und  Seine  Dichtungen* 
(Leipzig  1865),  and  others. 

BURGER,  Lttdwig,  German  historical 
painter  and  illustrator:  b.  Craoow,  19  Sept 
1825 ;  d  Berlin,  22  Oct  1884.  He  studied  at  the 
Berltn  Art  Academy,  at  the  same  time  working 
at  IxKdc-illustradng;  he  was  also  a  pupil  oi 
Couture  in  Faris.  Among  his  best  drawings 
are  the  illustrations  for  the  works  of  La  Fon- 
taine and  a  collection  of  20  plates  known  as 
'Die  Kanone.'  After  1869  he  devoted  himself 
to  decorative  painting,  bis  most  important 
work  in  this  line  being  the  walls  and  ccilii^s 
in  the  Berlin  City  Hall  (1870;  and  the  colossal 
figures  symbolizing  the  warlike  virtues  at  the 
School  of  Cadets  at  Lichterfelde  (1878). 

BURGERS,  Thotnafl  Francis,  Transvaal 
statesman:  b.  Cape  Colony  1834;  d  1881.  He 
was  educated  for  the  ministry  at  Utrecht  and 
was  pastor  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  of 
Hanover,  Cape  Colony.  Some  of  the  rational- 
istic views  he  expressed  led  to  his  trial  for 
heresy,  but  he  was  acquitted  He  was  elected 
President  of  the  Transvaal  republic  in  1872  and 
held  the  office  nniil  1877,  when  the  republic  was 
annexed  by  Great  Britain, 

SURGES,  Tristm,  American  statesman 
and  orator :  b.  Rochester,  Mass..  26  Feb.  1770; 
d  Providence,  R.  I.,  13  Oct.  1851  When  15 
years  old  he  attended  a  school  in  the  vicinity 
for  six  weeks,  and  again  the  next  year  for  six 
weeks  more.  This  was  all  the  instruction  he 
received  from  others  until  he  reached  the  age 
of  21.  In  September  1793.  he  entered  Rhode 
Island  College,  now  Brown  University,  gradu- 
ated three  years  later  with  the  first  honors  of 
bis  class  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1799. 
He  became  a  leader  of  the  Federal  party,  and  in 
1811  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  State  legisla- 
ture. In  1815  he  was  made  chief  justice  of 
Rhode  Island  and  afterward  became  professor 
of  oratory  and  belles-letlres  in  Brown  Univer- 
sity. In  1825  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and 
almost  immediately  achieved  a  national  reputa- 
tion by  his  speech  on  the  judiciary.  He  con- 
tinued in  Congress  Until  1835.  Many  of  his 
most  brilliant  efForls  were  in  defense  of  the 
American  tariff  system,  and  his  logic  and  sar- 
casm won  for  him  an  unrivaled  reputation  as 
a  debater.  Consult  Bowen.  'Memoirs  of  Tris- 
tam  Burgcs.* 

BURGESS,  Alexander,  American  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  bishop:  b.  Providence,  R.  I., 
31  Oct.  1819;  d  Saint  Albans.  Vt.,  8  Oct  1901. 
He  was  a  younger  brother  of  Geoijie  Burgess, 
first  bbbop  of  Maine.    He  was  gcaduted  mm 


.Google 


3«  BUR 

Brown  University  in  1S38,  and  from  the  Gen- 
eral Theological  Seminary  in  1841.  Me  was 
successively  rector  at  East  Haddam,  Conn., 
1842-43;  Saint  Mark's,  AuEusta,  Ue.,  1845-54; 
Saint  Luke's,  Portland,  Ue.,  1854-67;  Saint 
John's,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1867-^;  and  Christ 
Church,  Springfield,  Uass.,  1869-7a  In  1878 
be  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  the  diocese 
of  Quincy,  III.  He  wrote  a  popular  religious 
textbook,  'Questions  for  Bible-Classes  and 
Sunday-schools*  (1855),  and  a  'Memoir  of  the 
Life  of  George  Burgess,  First  Bishop  of  Maine' 
(1869). 

BURGESS,  CharlM  Frederick,  American 
electrochemical  engineer:  b.  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  5 
June  1873.  A  graduate  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  he  became  instructor  and  assistant 
professor  of  electrical  engineering  there  1^5 
to  1900,  organized  the  department  of  applied 
electrochemistry  and  chemical  engineering.  He 
developed  several  electrolytic  processes  and 
was  appointed,  in  1904,  investigator  of  electroly- 
tic iron  alloys  for  the  Came^  Institute  and 
president  of  the  Northern  Chemical  Enanecriiw 
Laboratoriea.  He  is  author  of  'The  Strength 
of  the  Alloys  of  Nickel  and  Copper  with  Elec- 
trolytic Iron'  (1910). 

BURCESS,  Daniel,  English  eccle-uastical 
writer:  b.  Staines,  England,  1645;  d,  London,  26 
Jan.  1713.  He  studied  at  Oxford  but  was  not 
graduated  because  he  would  not  conform  to  the 
established  church.  In  1667  he  went  to  Ireland 
with  Roger  Boyle,  Earl  of  Orrery,  where  he 
became  nead  of  a  school  established  by  the 
Utter  at  Charleville.  In  168S  he  went  to  Lpn- 
don  where  he  soon  attracted  attention  on  ac- 
count of  his  humor,  vivacity  and  oratorical 
power.  His  publications  include  'Directions  for 
Daily  Holy  Living'  (London  1690) ;  'The 
Golden  Snuffer^>  (1697)  ;  «Prwf  of  (iod's  Be- 
ing and  of  the  Scriptures'  Divine  Ori(^> 
(1697). 

BURCESS,  Edward,  American  naval 
architect:  L  West  Sandwich,  Mass.,  30  June 
1848;  d.  Boston,  12  July  1891.  He  was  educated 
at  Harvard,  whence  he  was  graduated  in  1871, 
and  became  secretary  of  the  Boston  Society  ot 
Natural  History,  beit%  editor  of  the  publica- 
tions of  that  society.  He  was  instructor  of 
entomology  at  Harvard  from  1879  to  1883.  He 
then  became  a  designer  of  sailing-yachts.  In 
1684  he  designed  the  Pufitan,  the  winner  of  the 
America's  cup  in  1885;  and  a  year  later  the 
Mayfiower,  the  winner  in  1886.  He  was  also 
the  designer  of  the  Vohmtttr,  which  won  the 


illustrator:  b.  Boston,  30  Jan.  1866.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  in  1887;  was  a  draughtsman  with 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  1887-90,  and  in- 
structor in  topographical  drawing  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  California.  He  was  a  designer  1893- 
94,  and  in  1895-97  he  came  prominently  before 
the  reading  public  as  a  publisher  and  writer  of 
eccentric  and  humorous  literature,  such  as  his 
journal  called  The  Lark,  and  poem,  'The  Pur- 
ple Cow'  (1897).  In  1898  he  removed  to  Lon- 
don, but  returned  to  America  in  1900;  in  1914- 
16  he  was  in  Paris  as  correspondent  of  Collier's 
Weekly.    He  edited  'Petit  Journal  des  Refu- 


s6es>  (1897),  and  has  written  'The  Laik  Al- 
■nanac>  (1898);  'Vivette'  (.1898);  'The  Non- 
sense Almanac'  (1898)  ;  'The  Lively  Gty  o' 
Lire'  (1898)  ;  '(ioops  and  How  to  he  Them> 
(19()0);  'A  Joyous  Journey  Round  the  Year' 
(1901) ;  'Romance  of  the  Commonplace' 
(1902);  'A  Gage  of  Youth'  (1901);  'Burgess 
Nonsense  Book' (1901);  'More  Coops'  {1903); 
'The  Reign  of  Queen  Isyl'    (with  Will  Irwin, 


1903); 


The    Picaroons'     (with    Will    Irwin, 


'Are  You  a  Bromide?'  (1906) ; 
Cat'  (1907);  'The  Heart  Line'  (1907);  'The 
Maxims  of  Methuselah'  (1907)  ;  'Blue  Coops 
and  Red>  (1909);  'Lady  Mechanic'  (1909): 
'Find  the  Woman'  (1911);  'The  Master  of 
Mysteries'  (1912) ;  'The  Goop  Directory' 
(1912)  ;  'Love  in  a  Hurry'  (1912)  ;  'The  Mas- 
ter of  Mysteries'  (1912);  'Burgess  Un- 
abridged' (1914);  'The  Romance  of  the  Com- 
monplace' (new  version,  1915). 

BURGESS,  Geonre,  American  Protestant 
Episcopal  tnshop:  U  Providence,  R.  I,  31  Oct 
1809;  d.  Haiti,  23  April  1866.  After  graduating 
at  Brown  University,  and  holding  a  tutorship 
in  that  college,  he  traveled  in  Europe,  and 
studied  for  two  years  in  the  universities  of 
Gottingen,  Bonn  and  Berlin.  He  was  rector 
of  Christ  Church  in  Hartford  from  1834  to 
1847,  when  he  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of 
the  diocese  of  Maine  and  became,  at  the  same 
time,  rector  of  Christ  Church  in  Gardiner. 
Both  offices  he  filled  with  great  ability.  He 
published  two  academic  poems,  a  metrical  ver- 
sion of  a  ^rtion  of  the  Psalms,  'Pages  from 
the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New  England* 
(1847) ;  'The  Last  Enemy  Conquering  and 
Conquered'   (1850),  and  vanous  sermons. 

BURGESS,  George  Khnball,  American 
pivsicist  and  author:  b.  Newton,  Mass-  4  June 
1874.  He  studied  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technolp^  and  at  the  University  of  Paris, 
later,  in  the  Tormer  institution,  and  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Michigan  nnd  (^lifornia,  becoming  . 
instructor  in  physics.  He  was  appointed  asso- 
ciate physicist  in  the  National  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards in  1903,  and  editor  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Washington  Academy  of  Sciencei  in  1911. 


modynamics  and  Chemistry'  (I90I).  His  orig- 
inal work  includes  'Recherches  sur  la  constante 
de  gravitation'  (1901),  'Elxperimcntal  Physics, 
Freshman  Course'  (1902);  'The  Measurement 
of  High  Temperatures,'  collaboration  with  H. 
Le  CEatelier  (1911;  3d  ed.  rev,  1912);  'A 
Micropyromeler*   (1913). 

BURGESS,  Jamei,  Scottish  archaeologist: 
b.  Kirkmahoe,  Dumfriesshire,  14  Ang.  1832.  He 
went  to  India  in  1855,  and  there  entered  upon 
ediicational  work  in  Calcutta  and  Bombay. 
From  1886-89  he  was  director-general  of  the 
ardueological  surveys  of  India.  From  1872  to 
1884  he  published  the  'Indian  Antiquary.'  His 
works  include  'The  Temples  of  Shatrunjaya' 
(1869) ;  'The  Rock  Temples  of  Elephanta' 
(1871);  'Scenery  and  Architecture  in  Gujarat 
and  Rajputana*  (1S73) ;  and  other  books;  also 
many  writings  in  the  'E^ngraphia  Indica,'  and 
'Archeological  Reports'  (1874-87). 

BURGESS,  John  William,  American  edu- 
cator:  b.  Comersville,  Tenn.,  26  Aug.  1844.    He 


BUROKSS  —  BURGKMAJR 


was  educated  at  Ctunberland  University,  Leb- 
anon, Tenn.,  and  at  AmJurst  College,  Mass., 
where  be  was  graduated  in  1867;  studied  law, 
aod  began  to  practise  in  1869.  During  this 
year  he  was  appointed  professor  of  English  lit- 
erature and  political  economy  at  ICnox  CoU^e, 
Galesburg,  IlL  Two  years  later  he  studied  ia 
GottingeiL  Leipzig  and  Berlin.  On  his  return 
in  1874.  ne  became  professor  of  history  and 
political  science  at  Amherst,  in  1876  professor 
of  history,  political  science  and  international 
law  in  Columbia  College,  and  in  1880  professor 
of  constitutional  and  international  history  and 
Uw.  In  1890  he  became  dean  of  the  faculty  of 
political  science ;  also  dean  of  the  faculties  of 
philosophy,  pure  science  and  fine  arts,  holding 
all  of  these  offices  until  1912,  when  he  retired 
from  the  active  service  of  the  university.  In 
1906  he  became  Roosevelt  professor  of  Ameri- 
can history  and  institutions  at  Berlin  University. 
He  received  the  degrees  of  A.B.,  M.A.  and 
LL.D.  from  Amherst  College,  the  degree  of 
U..D.    from    Columbia,    that   of    Ph.D.    fi 


Princeton,  and  from  the  University  of  Leipzig 
Germany.and  the  degree  of  Ju.D.  from  the  Um- 
versity  of  Berlin.   In  1907  he  received  the  order 


King  of  Saxony.  He  has  published  'Political 
Science  and  Comparative  Constitutional  Law* 
(L890);  'The  Middle  Period  of  United  States 
Hislofy>  (1897)  ;  'The  Civil  War  and  the  Con- 
stihition*  (1901)  ;  'Reconstruction  and  the  Con- 
5titution>  0902)  :  'The  European  War  of  1914> 
(1915)  ;  'The  tteconciliation  of  f^vemment 
and  Liberty*  (1915);  'The  Administration  of 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes'  (1915);  'America's  Re- 
lations to  the  Great  War'  (1917),  and  contri- 
butions to  reviews  on  historical,  political  and 
legal  topics. 

BURGESS,  Neil,  American  comedian:  b. 
Boston  1846;  d.  19  Feb.  1910.  Not  lone  after 
entering  the  theatrical  professioti,  he  undertook 
b  a  stage  emergency  to  fill  the  place  of  an 
actress,  amd  his  success  in  the  humorous  female 
role  assumed  led  to  his  entering  that  line  per- 
manently. He  acted  in  'Josiah  Allen's  Wife' 
and  in  'Widow  fiedott.'  The  latter  was  very 
popular,  as  was  also  'Vim.'  produced  in  1833, 
'lie  Country  Fair,'  a  plav  which  he  brought 
out  in  1889,  ran  for  more  than  two  years.  Mr. 
Burgess  finally  undertook  vaudevUIe  acting. 
Consult  Qapp  and  Edgctt,  'Players  of  the 
Present'  (Dunlap  Sodcly  Publications,  New 
York  1899). 

BURGESS,  a  word  used  in  somewhat  vaiy- 
ing  senses,  but  generally  meaning  a  freeholder, 
or  a  person  invested  with  all  the  privileges  of 
a  citizen  in  a  borough  or  corporate  town.  Those 
entered  on  the  burgess  roll  of  English  bor- 
oughs are  householders  who  have  resided  and 
paid  rales  for  12  months'prior  to  July  in  any 
year.  In  the  United  States  the  uses  of  the 
word  have  under^ne  some  specific  changes, 
and  in  Stales  having  boroughs  as  political  di- 
visions, as  Connecticut,  New  Jersey  and  Penn- 
tyK-ania,  it  carries  an  implication  of  magisterial 
authority.     See  Boboucr  ;  Burgh. 

BURGH,  b*rg,  a  corporate  town  ©r  bor- 
ough, more  especially  the  Scottish  term  corre- 
sponding to  the  English  borough,  applied  to 
several  different  kinds  of  corporations  and  to 


towns  and  cities  in  Scotland.  There  are  three 
classes  of  burghs:  (1)  A  burgh  of  barony  i» 
a  certain  tract  of  land  created  in  a  barony  by 
the  feudal  superior  and  placed  under  the  au- 
thority  of  magistrates.  The  right  of  electing 
these  magistrates  is  vested  by  the  charter  of 
erection  sometimes  in  the  baron  or  superior 
of  the  barony  and  sometimes  in  the  inhabitants 
themselves.  (2)  A  royal  burgh  is  a  corporate 
body  created  by  a  charter  from  the  Crown,  the 
corporation  consisting  of  the  magistrates  and 
burgesses  of  the  territory  erected  into  the 
burgh.  The  magistrates  are  generally  a  provost 
and  baillics,  dean  of  the  guild,  treasurer  and 
common  council.  (3)  A  burgh  of  regaUly  is 
a  kind  of  burgh  of  barony  which  had  legal 
jurisdiction  (i.e.,  exclusive)  over  its  own  terri- 
tory. The  right  of  free  trade  in  return  for 
bearing  certain  public  burdens  was  sometimes 
given  to  a  burgh  of  barony,  in  wfiich  case  it 
was  known  as  a  free  burgh.  In  the  United 
States,  the  termination  "borou^"  was  for  gen- 
erations added  to  the  names  of  places,  as  in 
England.  But  under  a  decision  of  the  United 
Stales  Board  on  Geographic  Names,  the  fottn 
•boro*  was  adopted,  as  in  ■Brattleboro,> 

BURGHER,  the  name  applied  to  a  former 
subdivision  of  the  Scottish  Secession  Church. 
The  Secession,  which  originated  through  the 
withdrawal  oi  Ebenezer  Erskine  and  some 
other  ministers  from  the  Scottish  establishment 
in  1732,  split  in  two  in  1747,  part  having  felt 
free  to  take,  while  others  refused,  what  they 
deemed  an  ensnaring  burgess  oath.  They  re- 
UJiitcd  in  1820  under  the  name  of  the  Asso- 
ciate Synod,  and,  joining  with  the  "Relief"  in 
1847,  formed  the  United  Presbyterian  Church. 
The  name  "burgher*  is  also  applied  to  any 
citizen  of  a  borot^  or  town. 

BURGIN,  George  B.,  English  novelist  uid 
ionmalist:  h.  Croydon,  Surrey,  15  Jan.  185& 
He  became  private  secretary  to  Baker  Pasha 
and  accompanied  him  to  Asia  Minor  as  secre- 
tary of  the  Reform  Cotmntssion  in  Armenia. 
In  1885  he  returned  to  En^and  and  was  for 
a  time  sub-editor  of  The  Iditr.  Among  his 
works  are  'The  Dance  at  the  Four  Corners' ; 
"Tuxter's  Liule  Maid' ;  <The  Judge  of  the 
Four  Comers';  'Tomalyn's  Quest' ;  'Fortune's 
Footballs':  'The  Cattle  Man';  'The  Hermits 
of  Gray's  lnn» ;  'The  Bread  of  Tears';  'The 
Tiger's  Claw' ;  'A  Son  of  Mammon' ;  'A  Wil- 
ful Woman' ;  'The  Shutters  of  Silencj' ;  'The 
Belles  of  Vaudroy' ;  'Galahad's  Garden' ; 
'This  Son  of  Adam';  'A  Lady  of  Spain'; 
'The  Duke's  Twins';  'The  Game  at  Hearts.' 

BURGKMAIR,  boork'mar,  Hans,  German 
painter  and  engraver;  b.  Augsburg  1473; 
d.  about  1531.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
pupil  of  Albert  Durer  but  studied  principally 
under  Schongauer  in  Colmar,  Alsace.  Several 
of  his  frescoes  and  paintings  in  oil  upon  wood 
arc  stilt  preserved  in  bis  native  town ;  but 
though  possessed  oE  considerable  merit,  th^ 
have  contributed  far  less  to  his  fame  than  his 
woodcuts,  in  which  he  at  least  equaled  Diirer, 
and  has  scarcely  been  surpassed  by  Holbein. 
In  1501  he  executed  three  pictures  of  Roman 
[>Bsiltcas,  with  scenes  from  the  lives  of  patron 
saints,  etc.  He  was  one  of  the  first  exponents 
of  the  Renaissance  in  Germany,  Among  his 
most  famous  works  are  the  'Trium^  of  tlK 


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«0 


BURQLAS  Y — BUROLEH 


Emperor  Maximilian  1,)  embracing  135  cuts, 
with  a  text  written  by  that  Emperor;  and  a 
series,  'The  Wise  King,'  including  237  cuts,  in 
which  the  deeds  of  the  same  ruler  are  repre- 
sented.- Consult  Woltmann  in  Ddhme's  'Kunst 
und  Kiinstler'  (Vol.  I);  Domhofer,  'Ober 
Burgkmair  und  Diirer'   (1903). 

BURGLARY,  at  common  law,  the  break- 
ing and  entering  the  bouse  of  another  in  the 
nighttime,  with  intent  to  commit  a  felony 
therein,  whether  the  felony  be  actually  commit- 
ted or  not.  Burglary  at  common  law,  and  ia 
its  first  degree  in  the  statutes  of  the  various 
States,  must,  in  general,  be  committed  in  a 
mansion-house  actually  occupied  as  a  dwelling 
but  if  it  be  left  by  the  owner  animo  reverUndt, 
though  no  person  resides  in  it  in  his  absence, 
''   ■[  still  his  ■  "  -     . 


of  money,  post  office  and  r  .  ,  . 

lion,  negotiable  seen ri ties,  drafts,  promissory 
notes  and  merchandise,  in  consequence  of  the 
felonious  abstraction  of  the  same  from  a  safe 
or  safes  after  entry  therein  by  the  nse  of  tools 
or  explosives;  also  for.  direct  loss  by  damage 
to  the  safe  or  safes,  to  the  merchandise  or  to 
the  furniture,  fixtures  or  premises  caused  there- 
from ;    known    as    mercantile    safe    i 


(41  sgainst  direct  loss  by  robbery  of  monex, 
bullion,  post  office  and  revenue  stamps,  checks, 
negotiable  securities,  coupons,  bills  of  exchange. 


has  been  adopted,  burglary  at  common  law, 
or  in  the  first  degree,  must  be  committed  in  the 
night,  but  in  New  York  and  in  some  other 
States  burglary  in  the  second  and  third  decrees 
may  be  committed  in  the  daytime,  and  it  ii 
burglary  in  the  third  degree  in  New  York 
feloniously  to  enter  a  building,  whether  inhab- 
ited or  not,  either  in  the  daytime  or  night.  Be- 
fore the  oftense  is  complete  there  must  be  both 
a  breaking  and  an  entry  or  an  exit.  An  actual 
breaking  takes  place  when  the  burglar  breaks 
or  removes  any  part  of  the  house,  or  the  fasten- 
ings provided  for  it,  with  violence.  Construct- 
ive breakings  occur  when  the  burglar  gains 
an  entry  by  fraud,  conspiracy  or  threats.  The 
least  entry,  with  the  whole  or  an^  part  of  the 

body,  hand  or  fool,  or  with  any  instru '  -- 

weapon,  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 

ting  a  felony,  will  be  sufficient  to  const. 

offense.      Burglary  is   a   felony   in   all   of   thi 


York  it  is  punishable  as  follows :  Burglary  in 
the  first  degree,  imprisonment  for  not  less  than 
10  years ;  second  degree,  not  exceeding  10  years ; 
third  degree,  not  exceeding  five  years. 

BURGLARY  INSURANCE.  A  contract 
of  indemnity,  (1)  against  direct  loss  by  bur- 
glary, or  by  burglary,  theft  or  larceny  of  any 
of  the  assured's  property,  occasioned  by  its 
felonious  abstraction  from  the  interior  of  the 
house,  building  or  apartment  occupied  by  the 
assured  as  a  residence  bv  any  domestic  servant 
or  other  employee  of  the  assured,  or  by  any 
other  person  or  persons,  excepting  a  person 
whose  property  is  insured ;  also  against  direct 
loss  by  damage  to  property  insured,  and  to  the 
premises,  caused  by  burglars  or  thieves;  known 
as  residence  burglary  uisurance;  (2)  against 
direct  loss  by  burglary  of  merchandise  owned 
by  the  assured,  or  held  in  trust  or  on  com- 
mission, or  sold  but  not  delivered,  occasioned 
by  its  felonious  abstraction  from  the  premises, 
occupied  by  the  assured  for  business  purposes, 
by  any  person  or  persons,  after  entry  into  the 
premises  by  the  use  of  force  and  violence,  of 
which  there  are  visible  marks  upon  the  prem- 
ises; also  for  direct  loss  by  damage  to  the 
merchandise,  furniture,  fixtures  or  premises 
caused  thereby;  known  as  mercantile  burglary 
;  (3)  against  direct  loss  by  burglary 


negotiable  securities,  coupons,  bills  of  exchange, 
drafts  and  notes,  express,  bank  and  post  office 
monw  orders,  watches,  jewelry  and  other  mer- 
chan<use  from  the  care  or  custody  of  any 
employee  of  the  assured,  while  acting  as  mes- 
senger or  paymaster,  and  while  conveying  the 
same  to  or  from  the  place  or  places  direct  by 
the  assured;  also  for  direct  loss  by  robbery  of 
any  of  said  property,  feloniously,  violently  and 
forcibly  abstracted  from  within  the  premises 
of  the  assured;  also  for  direct  loss  by  robbery, 
by  force  or  violence  of  money  intended  for 
payrolls,  from  the  person,  care  or  custody  of 
any  employee  of  the  assured,  while  acting  as 
messenger  or  paymaster,  or  while  conveying  the 
tame  to  and  from  the  places  directed  by  the 
assured;  also  for  direct  loss  by  robbery,  of 
any  property  above  described,  from  the  safe 
or  safes  located  on  the  premises  of  the  assured, 
by  any  person  or  persons,  after  entry  therein, 
by  the  use  of  tools  or  explosives;  also  for 
direct  loss  by  damage  to  said  propeily,  or  said 
safe  or  safes,  or  the  furniture,  fixtures  or 
premises  caused  by  such  entry;  known  as  com- 
bination messenger,  paymaster,  interior  holdup 
and  safe  burglary  insurance. 

Burglary  insurance  was  first  written  in  this 
country  in  1892,  over  25  years  a^o,  and  from  a 
very  modest  bediming,  in  which  this  form 
of  underwriting  was  confined  entirely  to  hur- 
Klarizing  private  residences,  the  business  has 
broadened  and  developed  until  the  assured  is 
protected  now,  not  only  in  his  home,  against 
burglars,  as  well  as  theft  and  larceny  by  his 
own  servants  or  employees,  but  also  in  his 
place  of  business,  and  even  against  loss  by 
the  robber);  or  holdup  of  his  messenger  or  pay- 
master while  going  to  or  from  the  hank,  or 
the  store  or  office,  or  vihWt  en  route  to  some 
distant  place,  with  payrolls  for  employees 
working  in  a  factory,  mill  or  mine.  The  bu^- 
ness  grew  quite  slowly  during  the  first  five 
years,  but  in  the  next  five  years,  from  1897 
to  1901,  premiums  written  amounted  to  $1,759,- 
540,  and  losses  paid  to  $622,765.  During  the 
next  10  years,  the  increase  was  much  greater, 
with  premiums  of  $20,000,000  and  losses  of 
$6,859,000.  The  figures  for  the  five  years  end- 
ing 31  Dec.  1916,  show  premiums  written,  $21,- 
938,671,  and  losses  pai^  $8,103,180,  while  for 
the  year  1916  alone,  the  results  were  the  most 
satisfactory  in  the  entire  history  of  the  business, 
with  44  companies  transacting  some  or  aU  of 
the  different  forms  above  mentioned,  and  v 
premiums  written  of  $5,427,977,  and  los 
of  $1,932,022. 

Edwih  W.  DeLbon. 

BORGLBN,  Switierland,  village  in  the 
canton  of  Uri,  about  a  mile  from  Altorf.  is 
the  traditional  birthplace  of  William  Tell.  The 
suwosed  site  of   the  patriot's  house  is  now 


:,  Google 


BURGOMASTER  —  BUROOYNS 


occupied  by  a  chapel,  erected  in  1522,  upon 
the  walls  of  which  are  represented  certain 
well-known  scenes  froro  his  history.   Pop.  1,8S2. 

BURGOMASTER,  the  title  of  the  chief 
magistrate  of  a  city  or  a  lar^e  town  in  Germany 
ana  the  Netherlands,  practically  equivalent  to 
mayor.  He  is  elected  by  the  people,  but  in 
most  German  towns  he  must  have  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  government. 

BURGOMASTER,  a  sailor's  name  for  cer- 
tain large  domineering  gulls  of  the  genus  Lamj. 

BURGON,  John  WiUum,  English  Biblical 
scholar  and  critic:  b.  Smyrna,  21  Aug.  1813; 
d  Chichester,  4  Aug.  1838.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Turkish  merchant,  was  sent  lo  study  at 
London  University,  and  later  was  graduated 
at  Oxford  in  arts  and  finally  in  theology  (1848). 
He  became  vicar  of  Samt  Mary's,  Oxford 
(1863),  Gresham  professor  of  divmity  (1867) 
and  dean  of  (Hriehester  (1876).  He  was  the 
bitterest  and  at  the  same  time  ablest  and  most 
learned  of  the  critics  and  opponents  of  the 
revised  New  Testament  including  the  revised 
Greek  text.  His  publications,  which  are  very 
numerous,  include,  in  addition  to  controversial 
tracts  and  periodical  literature,  'The  Life  and 
Times  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham'  (2  vols,  Lon- 
don 1839)  ;  'A  Plain  Commentary  on  the  Four 
Holy  Gospels'  (8  vols.,  1855) ;  "Ninety  Short 
Sermons  for  Family  Reading*  (2  series,  2  vols, 
each,  1855-67)  ;  'Portrait  of  a  Christian  Gentle- 
man* (1859)  ;  'The  Revision  Revised'  (Lon- 
don 1883)  ;  'The  Lives  of  Twelve  Good  Men' 
(2  vols.,  1888) :  <Tbe  Traditional  Text  of  the 
Holy  (jospels  vindicated  and  Established  and 
Causes  or  the  Corruption  of  the  Traditional 
Text'    (1896). 

BURGOS,  boor'g6s  Francuco  Javier  de, 
Spanish  statesman  and  poet:  b.  Motril,  Gra- 
nada, 1778;  d,  1845.  In  his  dramatic  composi- 
tions-he sought  to  restore  the  classical  Spanish 
comedy.  Among  them  are  'The  Three  Equals' ; 
'The  Masked  Ball';  and  <The  Optimist  and 
the   Pessimist'     He  wrote   a   celebrated    'Ode 

BURGOS,  Spain,  city,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Burgos,  and  formerlj^  of  Old  Cas- 
tile, and  once  the  residence  of  its  kings.  It 
Stands  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  on  the  right 
hank  of  the  Arlanzon.  The  streets  are  narrow 
and  dark,  the  finest  in  eveir  respect  being  that 
called  the  Huerto  del  Rey.  Places  of  promenade 
are  numerous ;    the   one   most    frequented,   and 

fistly  forming  the  boast  of  the  town,  being  the 
spolon.  The  most  remarkable  structure  is 
the  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest  buildings  of  the 
kind  in  Europe.  It  was  begun  in  1221,  but  was 
not  finished  for  several  centuries.  It  is  bujlt  of 
white  tnarhle  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and 
is  about  300  feet  long  by  200  broad,  and  its  siie 
is  such  that  service  can  be  performed  in  eight 
chapels  at  once  without  confusion.  Its  interior, 
as  well  as  its  exterior,  is  of  great  magnificence, 
is  adorned  with  fine  carvings  and  paintings,  ana 
contains  numerous  monuments,  in  particular 
the  tombs  of  Don  Fernando  and  the  Gd,  both 
natives  of  Burgos,  and  celebrated  throughout 
Spain  tor  their  heroic  achievements  in  the  wars 
with  the  Moors.  There  are  several  other  fine 
churches,  but  the  rest  of  the  public  buildings 
are  not  deserving  of  notice.  Tne  wool  of  Old 
Castile  passes  principally  through  Burgos,  and 


it  has  some  woolen  manufactures  and  hat  mak- 
ing. Burgos  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and 
at  one  time  contained  a  university.  It  was 
founded  about  the  close  of  the  9th  century  as 
the  caiHtal  city  of  the  courts  of  Castile  and 
Le6n  and  soon  became  a  flourishing  dty,  reach- 
ing the  height  of  its  prosperity  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury when  it  shared  with  Toledo  the  prestige 
of  heing  occupied  as  a  royal  residence.  It 
declined  rapidly  after  the  removal  of  the  court 
to  Madrid  in  1S60.  To-day,  despite  its  decay, 
the  dty  is  dominated  by  the  grand  old  cathedral 
and  the  personality  of  the  national  hero,  the  Cid 
C^ampeador.  Pop.  about  31,400.  The  province 
of  Burgos  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Santan- 
der,  east  by  Alava,  Logroiio  and  Soria  south 
by  Socovia  and  west  by  Palenda  and  Vallado- 
tid.  The  area  is  5,650  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
340,00a 

BURGOYNE,  ber-goin',  John,  English 
general  and  dramatist:  b.  24  Feb.  1723;  d.  Lon- 
don, 4  Aug.  \792.  He  was  the  son  of  Capt 
John  Burgoyne,  and  grandson  of  Sir  John  Bur- 
goyne  of  Bedfordshire,  although  reputed  to  be 
a  natural  son  of  Lord  Bingley.  Educated  at 
Westminster,  he  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age,  and  while  a  subaltern  eloped  with  Lady 
(Tharlolte  Stanley,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Derby.  Soon  after  his  marriage  he  sold  hb 
commission  to  pay  his  debts.  He  then  lived 
abroad  for  seven  years,  but  entered  the  army 
again  in  1758  as  captain  of  the  Foot  Guards. 
In  1759,  as  lieutenant- colon  el  of  the  Coldstream 
Guards,  he  served  at  Belle  Isle.  After  an  elec- 
tion to  Parliament  in  1761,  he  served  with  dis- 
tinclion  in  Portugal,  and  was  sent  to  America 
in  1775,  He  joined  General  Gage  at  Boston, 
with  large  reinforcements,  and  witnessed  the 
battle  otBunker  Hill,  of  which  he  has  left  an 
animated  description.  After  proceeding  to  Can- 
ada as  governor,  he  returned  to  England,  but 
in  1777  was  despatched  to  take  command  of  that 
expedition  from  Canada  against  the  United 
Stales,  the  failure  of  which  so  largely  con- 
tributed to  the  establishment  of  American  free- 
dom. Indeed,  few  battles  have  led  in  their  ulti- 
mate influence  to  results  so  great  as  did  the 
surrender  of  Burgoyne  with  5,791  fighting  men, 
well  provided  wim  artillery,  at  Saratoga,  to  the 
army  of  General  Gates.  (Jn  his  return  home, 
he  was  received  by  the  King  with  marked  dis-  ■ 
favor.  His  wife  ^ed  in  1776.  He  had  several 
natural  children  by  Susan  Caulfield,  an  opera 
singer,  one  of  whom  was  Field  Marshal  Sir 
J.  r.  Burgoyne.  Burgoyne  did  not  possess  the 
genius  of  a  great  general,  and  was  in  many 
respects  utterly  inadequate  to  the  tasks  imposed 
upon  htm,  yet  no  one  can  read  his  work  written 
in  his  own  defense,  'State  of  the  Expedition 
from  Canada'  (London  1780),  without  ac- 
knowledging his  courage,  and  detectins  quali- 
ties which  m  a  less  exalted  station  m^t  have 
been  of  much  service  to  his  country.  Disgusted 
with  his  treatment  by  the  government,  he  re- 
tired to  private  life,  and  devoted  his  Idstire  to 
the  production  of  dramas,  some  of  which,  as 
'The  Maid  of  the  Oaks.'  'The  Lord  of  the 
Manor,'  etc.,  were  highly  popular  in  their  day. 
His  best  play,  'The  Heiress,'  has  been  success- 
ful not  only  in  its  original  tongue,  but  also  in 
several  fordgn  versions.  He  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chtef  io  Ireland  in  1782,  and  in  1787 
was  one  of  the  managers  of  the  impeachment  of 


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v  Google 


BURGO  YNB  —  BUROUNDT 


Warren  Hastitucs,  whose  trial  lasted  through 
several  years  after  Burgoyne's  death.  He  was 
buried  at  Westminster  Abbey.  (See  Sahatoca, 
Battlesof).  Consult  De  Fonblanquc,  'Episodes 
from  the  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Bur- 
goyne'  (London  1876);  O'Callaghan  (editor). 
■Orderly  Book  of  Lieutenant  General  Jolui 
Burgayne>    (Albany   1860)  ;  and   Stone,   'Cam- 

C'gn  of  Lieutenant  General  Burgoyne*  (Al- 
ly 187?). 

BURGOYNE,  Sir  John  Pox,  English  offi- 
cer of  engineers:  b.  24  July  1^2;  d.  7  Oct.  1871. 
He  was  the  son  of  Gen.  John  Burgoyne;  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy  at  Woolwich;  entered  the  Royal  En- 
gineers in  1798:  served  at  Malta  in  1800,  in 
Sicily  with  (General  Stewart  in  1806,  in  Egypt 
in  1807  and  in  the  Peninsula  with  Sir  John 
Moore  and  Wellington  from  1809  to  1814.  He 
shared  in  the  celebrated  retreat  on  Corunna  and 
was  present  at  all  the  sieges,  generally  as  first 
or  second  in  command  of  die  engineers,  and 
at  most  of  the  battles  of  the  Peninsular  War, 
in  which  he  was  twice  wounded.  During  the 
War  of  1812  he  assisted  as  lieutenant-colonel 
and  chief  engineer  in  the  attack  on  New  Or- 
leans. In  1826  he  accompanied  the  army  of 
General  Clinton  to  Portugal  in  the  same  capac- 
ity. He  was  appointed  diairman  of  the  board 
of  public  works  in  Ireland  in  1830  and  in  1845 
became  inspector-general  of  fortifications  in 
England.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in 
1851,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  War 
was  sent  to  Turkey  to  provide  for  the  defense 
of  Constantinople.  After  reluming  to  England 
he  was  again  sent  out  to  Sebastopol,  where  be 
was  chief  of  the  engineering  department  till 
recalled  in  1855.  He  receivctfthe  order  of  the 
Medjidie  from  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  was  made 
a  general  in  1855,  the  following  year  was  cre- 
ated a  baronet,  in  1868  a  fie  Id- marshal  and  for 
some  years,  up  to  his  death,  held  the  appoint- 
ment of  constable  of  the  Tower  of  London. 
In  1859  a  work  was  published  in  London  under 
the  title  of  'Military  Opinions  of  Gen.  Sir  J.  F. 
Burgoyne,'  in  whicn  many  of  his  official  writ- 
ings were  collected. 

BURGRASS.    See  Sandbur. 

BURORAVB  (cf.  Ger.  Burg,  town,  +  Graf, 
count,  governor),  a  count  who  in  the  Middle 
Ages  had  command  of  a  castle  or  burg.  Bur- 
graves  were  appointed  lo  their  office  by  the 
Emperor  or  by  the  bishops,  and  belonged  to 
the  nobility  by  virtue  of  their  office,  which  be- 
came hereditary.  Their  powers  differed  in  dif- 
ferent places,  but  as  a  rule  they  were  entrusted 
with  keeping  the  public  peace,  the  oversight  of 
trade  and  the  market,  and  the  command  of  the 
troops  and  the  police  in  their  districts.  As  the 
free  cities  jcrew  in  power  they  were  separated 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  burgrave.  The 
ofiice  lost  Its  significance  in  the  course  of  the 
13th  century,  but  the  title  is  retained  by  some 
princely  families  to  the  present  day,  a^  for  in- 
stance, by  the  Kings  of  Prussia,  who  have  the 
title  of  Burgrave  of  Nuremberg. 

BURGUNDY,  Lotdi  (Duke  op),  Dauphin 
of  France:  b.  Versailles,  6  Aug.  1682;  d.  18 
Feb.  1712.  He  was  grandson  of  Louis  XIV 
and  father  of  Louis  XV.  A  boy  of  ungovern- 
able passions  and  temper,  great  haughtiness  of 
bearing  and  sensuality  of  life,  he  is  said  to  have 


been  much  corrected  in  character  and  conduct 
W  the  influence  of  his  precepto^  the  saintly 
F&elon.  At  the  age  of  about  15  be  married 
Princess  Adelaide  of  Savoy ;  was  made  general- 
issimo of  the  army  in  1701,  but  he  failed  to 
show  any  ability  and  the  result  of  the  unfortu- 
nate campaign  of  170S  was  laid  at  his  door, 
after  which  he  returned,  discredited,  to  Paris. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  he  became  heir- 
apparent  to  the  throne.  He  was  called  the 
Gr»nd  Dauphin.  Throwing  himself  into  the 
party  of  St.  Simon  and  his  old  teacher,  Fin- 
elon,  he  boldly  advocated  liberal  measures  that 
would  have  removed  many  of  the  worst  evils 
of  the  old  rigime.  But  before  his  party  had 
more  than  barely  outlined  their  scheme,  he  was 
stricken  with  smallpox.  With  him  perished  the 
hopes  of  the  party.  His  wife  died  two  d^^ 
previous  to  his  death.  His  second  son  became 
Louis  XV  of  France.  Consult  St  Simon, 
'Memoirs'  (Paris  1829-30),  and  Fanner,  'Ver- 
sailles and  the  Court  under  horns  XV'  (New 
York  1896). 


„-— ^   -1  thfl 

Oder  and  the  Vistula.  In  conse<)uence  of  the 
wars  against  the  Alamanni,  in  which  they  were 
defeated,  they  migrated  to  the  region  of  the 
upper  Rhine  and  m  the  beginning!  ol  the  5th 
century  they  passed  over  mlo  (laul,  and,  as 
allies  of  the  Romans,  after  a  long  struggle 
obtained  possession  of  the  southeastern  part  of 
this  country.  Here  they  founded  a  tdngdom, 
which  had  as  its  seat  of  government  sometimes 
Lyons  and  sometimes  C^ncva;  but  having  be- 
come engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Franks,  they 
were  at  last  wholly  subdued  in  534.  More 
than  one  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  so  called,  sub- 
sequently arose,  as  well  as  the  miportant  county 
of  Burgundy  (Upper  Burgundy,  Franche- 
(Zomt£)  ;  but  the  most  important  state  of*  this 
name  was  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  (Lower  Bur- 
gundy),  consisting   principally   of    the   French 


,  if  Duke  of  Burgundy  v 
restored  in  1363  by  his  grant  of  the  dukedom 
to  his  youngest  and  favorite  son,  Philip  the 
Bold  (q.v.).  In  1368  he  married  Margaret,  the 
widow  of  the  last  Duke  Philip  of  the  old  line, 
only  daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis  III,  Count 
of  Flanders,  and  thereby  greatly  augmented  his 
possessions,  which  now  includea  Flanders, 
Mechlin,  Antwerp  and  Franche-Comti  In  1402 
he  was  made  regent  of  Franc^  an  appointment 
which  gained  him  the  haired  of  the  King's 
brother  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  led  to  the 
struggle  between  the  Orleanist  and  the  Bur- 
gunoian  factions.  In  1404  Philip  died  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  John  the  Fearless,  who 
was  stabbed  by  the  companions  of  the  Dauphin 
in  1419,  His  son  and  successor,  Philip  the  Good 
<q.v.),  gained  great  accessions  of  territory,  in- 
cluding Hainault,  Holland,  Zealand,  Namur  and. 
in  1431,  Brabant  and  Limburg,  which  reverted 
to  him  from  a  younger  branch  of  his  family. 
In  1441  he  also  obtained  the  duchy  of  Luxem- 
burg. On  his  marriage  with  his  third  wife, 
Isabella,  daughter  of  King  John  of  Portugal. 


d=,  Google 


BURGUNDY  i^  BURIAL 


he  founded  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece 
(1429).  His  son,  Charles  the  Bold  (q,v.),  who 
succeeded  hini  in  1467,  became  the  inveterate 
enemy  o£  Louis  XI  of  France,  and  one  of  the 
most  powerful  orinccs  in  Europe.  He  acquired 
Guelders  in  14/5,  but  perished  in  the  fatal  bat- 
tle of  Nancy  in  i477,  leaving  behind  him  a 
daughter,  Maria,  the  sole  heiress  of  his  states. 
She  married  MaximiUan  of  Austria,  who  thus 
obtained  the  Netherlands  and  Upper  Burgundy. 
The  King  of  France  received  the  dukedom  of 
Burgundy,  which  he  assumed  as  a  male  fief. 
Henceforth  ihe  territories  that^  had  belonged 
to  Charles  shared  the  fortunes  cither  of  France 
or  of  the  empire.  In  the  empire  what  was 
called  the  circle  of  Burgundy  for  a  time  em- . 
braced  Franche-Coml£  and  the  Netherlands.  In 
the  Peace  of  Madrid,  in  1526,  Francis  I  was 
obliged  to  agree  to  the  cession  of  the  duchy 
of  Burgundy  to  Charles  V  of  Germany,  but  the 
cession  was  never  carried  out  and  in  the  Peace 
of  Cambray,  in  1529,  Charles  renounced  his 
claim  to  it.  Franche-Comti  was  conquered  by 
Louis  XIV  and  retained  by  him  at  the  Peace 
of  Nim^uen  in  1678.  After  this  time  the  name 
Burgun^  is  best  known  as  designating  one  of 
the  provinces  or  pivemments  of  France.  The 
name  is  now  applied  to  one  of  the  four  depart- 
ments of  Yonne,  one  of  the  most  productive 
re^ons  in  France.  Consult  Plancher,  U.,  *His- 
toirc  gfnfrale  et  particuliJre  de  Bourgogne' 
(Dijon  1739-81) ;  John,  O.,  'Geschichte  der 
Burgundionen'  (Halle  1874)  ;  Barante,  B.  de, 
'Histoire  des  dues  de  Bourgogne  de  la  malson 
de  Valois'  (Paris  1833-36). 

BUSGUNDY  (called  also  Burgundy 
Proper  or  Lower  Burgundy),  formerly  a  prov- 
ince in  the  east  of  France,  lying  on  the  .west 
of  Franche-Comti  and  on  the  south  of  Cham- 
pagne. It  now  forms  the  four_  departments  of 
Vonn^  Cote-d'Or,  Saonc'et-Loire  and  Ain.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  productive  regions  in  France. 
The  principal  procTuct  is  wine.  See  Bukcundy 
Wines.  < 

BURGUNDY  PITCH,  the  Ksinous  exuda- 
tion of  the  stem  of  the  spruce  fir  QAbies  excelsa 
or  Pimu  abies),  melted  and  strained.  It  is  ob- 
tained from  Switzerland,  but  is  seldom  genuine, 
it  is  hard  and  brittle,  opacjue,  of  a  dull  reddish- 
brown  color,  empyreumatic  odor  and  aromatic 
taste.  It  gives  ofi  no  water  when  heated,  is  not 
bitter  and  ia  free  from  vesicles.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  resin  and  a  little  volatile  oil,  whence 
its  odor.  The  resin  resembles  that  of  turpen- 
tine. The  resin  is  melted  in  hot  water  to  re- 
move some  of  the  oil  and  is  then  strained 
through  a  coarse  material.  Pitch  plaster  acts 
externally  as  a  slight  stimulant  to  the  skin. 
Burgundy  ^itcfa  enters  also  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  iron  plaster.  It  takes  its  name  from 
Burgundy  in  France,  where  it  was  first  pre- 
pared A  pitch  resembling  it  can  be  i>ri;pared 
from  common  resin  and  palm  oil,  which,  un- 
like Burgundy,  is  non-soluble  in  glacial  acetic 
acid. 

BURGUNDY  WINES,  famous  French 
wines,  deriving  their  name  from  the  ancient 
province  of  Burgundy.  They  have  a  reputa- 
tion superior  to  their  present  popularity.  They 
are  nevertheless  wines  of  delicious  flavor  and 
bouquet.  It  has  been  supposed  thai  they  would 
not  well  bear  a  sea-voyage,  but  it  Is  now  set-. 


tied  that  when  transported  to  America  and  back; 
their  quality  is  greatly  improved.  Burgundy 
has  a  medium  content  of  alcohol,  acids  and 
solids,  is  veiy  low  in  tannin  and  rather  lacking 
in  color.  The  vineyards,  consisting  of  Pinots, 
Gamai  Noir  and  Meunier  grapes,  are  located 
half-way  up  the  hillsides  (800-1,000  feet  high) 
in  the  Cote  d'Or,  between  Dijon  and  Chalons, 
Three  classes  of  red  Burgundy  and  two  of 
white  are  recogniied.  The  most  renowned  red 
wines  of  Burgundy  are  Roman6-Conti,  Clos- 
Vougeot,  Chambertm  and  Richebourg.  Cham- 
bertm  was  the  favorite  wine  of  Louis  XVI  and 
Napoleon.  Chablis,  a  white  wine,  has  many 
admirers  but  is  inferior  to  the  best  growths  of 
the  Garonne  and  the  Ithone. 

BURHANPUR,  boor-han-poor',  a  town  of 
the  Nimar  district,'  Central  Provinces,  British 
Indi;      ■  ■     ■■  ■    •     ' 


ace  of  brick,  known  as  the  Red  Fort,  built  by 
Akbar,  who  adorned  the  town  with  marble  halls. 
It  has  a  mosque  and  other  building  worthy  of 
note,  and  was  once  famous  for  its  manufac- 
tures of  gold  and  silver  brocade,  muslin  and 
silks,  whidi  still  exist  to  some  extent,  though 
the  town  has  long  been  declining.    Pop.  22,7/7. 

BURHEL.     See  Bahrau 

BURI.  the  grandfather  of  Odin,  in  Nor- 
wegian mythology.  According  to  the  legends, 
12  streams  flowed  from  the  spring  Hvergelmir 
(the  roaring  cauldron)  in  Ninheim  (the  region 
ot  shadows),  and  later  in  their  course  were 
frozen,  thus  surrounding  the  region  of  elemen- 
tal  fire  (Muspelheim)  with  blocks  of  ice.  In 
the  conflict  of  the  ice  with  the  fire,  the  rime, 
or  frosty  snow,  was  melted  and  the  drops 
formed  the  giant  Ymir  and  the  cow  Audhumla 
(darkness)  ;  from  the  cow's  udder  came  four 
streams  of  milk  with  which  the  ^ant  was  fed. 
Audhumta  was  nourished  by  licking  the  salt 
ice-blocks,  and  as  she  licked  them  a  man's 
hair  appeared  on  the  first  day,  a  man's  head  on 
the  second  day  and  the  whole  man  on  the  third 
day;  this  was  Buri.  He  was  of  giant  size  and 
strength ;  he  had  a  son  Bor  through  whom  he 
was  the  grandfather  of  Odin,  Vili  and  Ve. 
Consult  Anderson,  'Norse  Mj^hology'  (Chi- 
cago 1901). 

BURIAL,  the  ordinary  method  of  disposing 
of  the  dead,  a  practice  which  varies  among 
different  people.  Among  savage  races,  and 
even  among  some  civilized  peoples  of  the  East, 
exposure  to  wild  animals  or  birds  of  prey  is 
not  uncommon.  The  careful  embalming  of  the 
dead  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  may  be  regarded 
as  a  special  form  of  burial.  But  by  far  the 
most  common  forms  of  disposing  of  the  dead 
have  been  burning  and  interring.  Among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  both  forms  were  pi^ctised, 
though  among  the  latter  burning  became  com- 
mon onfy  in  the  later  times  of  the  republic. 
In  this  form  of  burial  the  corpse,  after  being 
borne  in  procession  through  the  streets,  was 
placed  upon  a  pyre  buill  of  wood,  and  profusely 
sprinkled  with  oils  and  perfumes.  Fire  was 
set  to  the  wood,  and  after  the  process  of  cre- 
mation was  complete,  the  bones  and  ashes  were 
carefully  gatherofl  together  by  the  relatives  and 


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BURIAN  VON  RAJBCZ— BURIN 


placed  in  an  urn.  With  the  introduction  of 
the  Christian  relie:ion,  conMcrated  places  were 
appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  eencral  burial, 
and  the  Roman  custom  of  providing  the  sepul- 
chre with  a  stone  and  inscnption  was  continued 
by  the  Christians.  The  practice  of  cremation 
now  declined  and  finally  disappeared,  but  has 
recently  to  some  extent  been  revived.  See 
Burying- Pu^cES ;  Ckemation;  Funeral  Rtfes; 
Hound  Builders;  Muumy. 

BURIAN  VON  RAJBCZ,  Baron  Stefan, 
Austro-Hungarian  diplomat  and  statesman :  b. 
near  Pressburg,  Hungary,  15  Jan.  I8S1,  a  Hun- 
garian of  Slovak  extraction.  Educated  in  his 
native  town  and  Vienn^  be  served  in  various 
consular  capacities  at  Alexandria,  Bucharest, 
Belgrade,  Sofia  and  Stuttgart.  As  Austro-Hun- 
garian Consul- General  at  Moscow,  he  acquired 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Russian  language 
and  country;  later,  as  Ambassador  to  Greece, 
he  became  intimately  actjuainted  with  the  com- 
plexities ot  Balkan  politics.  He  was  also  for 
a  time  Finance  Minister  of  the  Dual  Monarchy, 
and  in  1903  succeeded  von  Kalla^  as  chief  ad-' 
ministrator  of  Bosnia-Herzegovina,  in  which 
oflice  he  came  into  close  touch  with  the  vexed 
southern  Slav  Question.  On  the  resignation 
of  Count  Berchtold,  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Foreign  Minister,  in  January  J915,  Baron  von 
Burian,  known  as  a  man  of  conciliatory  tem- 

Erament  and  firm  character,  in  addition  to 
I  wide  experience,  was  called  to  succeed  him. 
His  amiointment  at  that  juncture  was  regarded 
ai  evidence  of  a  desire  to  make  some  political 
changes  at  a  moment  when  afiairs  had  become 
extremely  critical.  The  policy  of  Count  Berch- 
told (q.v.)  had  precipitated  the  great  war;  and 
Berchtold  was  now  involved  in  a  diplomatic 
^lel  with  Baron  Sonnino  (q.v.),  the  Italian 
Foreign  Minister,  over  the  interpretation  of 
Article  VII  of  the  Triple  Alliance  (q.v.).  on 
the  strength  of  which  Italy  demanded  certain 
territorial  concessions.  It  was  believed  that 
Baron  Burian  would  be  more  disposed  than 
Count  Berchtold  to  make  the  sacrifices  neces- 
sary to  assure  a  continuance  of  Italian  neutral- 
ity. Almost  from  the  beaming,  however,  he 
declared  the  cession  of  territory  to  be  impos- 
sible, though  he  afterward  agneed,  on  the  ad- 
vice of  Germany,  to  cede  almost  the  whole  of 
the  Italian- speaking  territory  of  Austria.  The 
only  imimrtant  Italian  demand  he  rejected  was 
the  cession  of  certain  islands  aloi^  the  Dal- 
matian coasL  The  n^otiations,  at  which  Prince 
Buelow  assisted  in  Rome,  broke  down  owing 
to  the  inflexible  demand  of  Baron  Sonnino 
that  the  transfer  be  effected  immediately  and 
not,  as  was  proposed,  after  the  end  of  the  war. 
Italy  declared  war  on  Austrta-Hut^ary,  23 
May  1915.  The  undiplomatic  activity  of  the 
Austrian  Ambassador  to  the  United  States,  Dr. 
Dumba  (q.v.),  was  revealed  by  the  British 
seizure  oj  a  private  letter  addressed  by  him  to 
Baron  Burian,  and  resulted  in  the  Ambassa- 
dor's dismissal.  In  the  Ancona  and  Arabic 
(q.v.)  controversies  with  the  American  govern- 
men.  Baron  Burian  experienced  further  diplo- 
matic reverses.  Reports  of  his  resignation  were 
current  on  several  occasions,  the  first  appearing 
a  few  days  after  his  acceptance  of  office. 


by  the  Russians  in  1664  and  have  WBce  de- 
veloped the  peaceful  arts.  They  resemble  the 
Clhinesc  in  appearance  and  dress,  the  men  still 
retaining  the  queue.  They  inhabit  the  southern 
part  of  Irkutsk  and  the  trans-Baikal  territory. 
Their  principal  occupation  is  the  breeding  and 
rearing  of  cattle  and  horses,  the  latter  being 
especially  famous  for  their  endurance  and  for 
the  masters'  attachment   to   them.     They  arc 


and  irrigation,  and  a 
trappers.  They  are  active  in  the  mechanical 
arts.  Their  relipon  is  partly  Buddhistic,  with 
a  Kharobo  Lama  at  their  head  who  resides  at 
the  Goose  Lake;  partly  Shamanistic  with  head- 
quarters at  the  nver  Angar;  and  some  thou- 
sands near  Lake  Baikal  have  been  converted  to 
Christianity.  They  have  three  dialects  of  their 
own,  and  some  literature.  Manv  are  educated. 
Consult  Melinkoff,  Dr.  N.,  'intematkinales 
Archiv  fiir  Ethnographic*  (1899);  Gmelin, 
'Siberia*;  Howorth,  Sir  H.  H..  'History  of 
the  Mongols'    (1876-88). 

BURIDAN,  bu-r£-daA,  Jean,  French  scho- 
lastic philosopher:  b.  Bithune,  Artois,  about 
1300;  d.  after  1358.  He  studied  at  Paris,  where 
he  attached  himself  as  a  disciple  of  Occam  to 
the  party  of  the  Nominalists,  and  at  a  later 
time  became  himself  a  teacher.  In  the  end  he 
was  forced  by  his  opponents  to  flee  from  Paris, 
when  he  betook  himself  to  Vienna,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  been  influential  in  bringing  about 
the  establishment  of  the  universi^.  Here  also 
he  wrote  some  logical  and  ethical  treatises,  in 
which  he  appears  as  a  zealousadherent  of  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy.  Buridan  was  a  sup- 
poner  of  the  doctrine  of  Determinism  (q.v.), 
and  he  is  now  chiefly  known  through  having  his 
name  attached  to  an  illustration  that  ha  is  said 
to  have  used  in  support  of  his  vieWs,  and 
known  as  "Buridan's  Ass.»  He  is  said  lo  have 
supposed  the  case  of  *a  hungry  ass  placed  at 
an  equal  distance  from  two  equally  attractive 
bundles  of  hay,  and  to  have  asserted  that  in 
the  supposed  case  the  ass  must  inevitably  perish 
from  hunger,  there  being  nothing  to  determine 
him  to  prefer  the  one  bundle  to  the  other.  This 
illustration,  however,  is  not  found  in  any  of 
his  works,  and  from  its  nature  it  would  appear 
more  likely  to  have  been  used  by  the  assailants 
of  the  doctrine  of  Determinism.  He  wrote 
'Compendium  Logicae'  (1489);  'In  Aristotdis 
Metaphysica*  (1518);  'Quzstiones  in  Decern 
Libros  Ethiconim  Aristotelis*  (1489).  Consult 
Prantt,  'C^schichte  der  Lomk'  (Vol.  IV,  Leip- 
zig 1855-70) ;  Townsemd,  'Great  Schoolmen  of 
the  Middle  Ages*  (New  York  1905),  and 
liickaby,  'Scholasticism'    (London  1908). 

BURIN,  or  BRAVER,  the  principal  in- 
strument used  in  copper  engraving,  is  made 
of  tempered  steel,  and  is  of  prismatic  form, 
the  graving  end  being  ground  off  obliquely  to 
a  sharp  point.  Tlie  distinctive  style  of  a  master 
is  frequently  described  by  such  expressions  as 
a  soft  burin,  a  graphic  burin,  a  brilliant  burin, 
etc.  It  is  fixed  in  a  handle,  the  end  of  which 
is  rounded  to  fit  the  hand.  Pushed  forward 
by  the  hand  it  cuts  a  shallow  or  deep  furrow, 
according  to  the  pressure  exerted.  When  in 
•tching,  bitten  lines  or  lines  with  the  dry 
point  are  imperfect  or  weak,  the  burin  is  used 
to  repair  or'strengthen  diem. 


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BURITI— BURKB 


BURITI,  bn-ri-iy,  PALM,  a  lofty,  fan- 
leaved  valm  iMamitia  vtnifgra),  common  in 
swamps  in  northern  Brazil.  It  bears  abundant 
crops  of  scaly  nuts  about  two  inches  long, 
from  the  reddish  oily  pnlj)  of  which  a  confec- 
tion is  made  by  boilmK  with  sugar.  The  nuts 
also  yield  an  oil  whicn  is  emul^fied  to  make 
a  popular  drink.  After  the  tree  is  felled  nu- 
merous cuplike  holes  are  made  in  the  prostrate 
trunk.  These  become  filled  with  a  reddish 
fluid,  which  is  used  as  a  bevei^^e.  Its  taste 
resembles  some  sweet  wines. 


BURKB,  Edmtmd,  political  philosopher 
and  orator:  b,  Dublin,  12  Jan.  (prolrably)  1729; 
d.  Beaconsfield,  England,  9  July  1?97.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  solicitor  in  good  practice.  His 
mother  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  he  and  his 
two  brothers  adopted  the  religion  of  their 
Protestant  father.  Always,  however,  he  was 
tolerant  of  Catholicism.  At  the  age  of  14 
he  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he 
took  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1748.  In  this 
period,  as  his  letters  show,  he  had  fits  of  enthu- 
siasm over  various  studies  —  a  fvror  mathe- 
matictis,  succeeded  by  a  furor  logictu,  a  fttror 
histoHcui  and  a  ftiror  foelicus.  The  17  years 
between  1748  and  1765,  when  hb  career  was 
finally  determined  by  his  election  to  Parlia- 
""  nt,  he  spent  in  different  employments.    Going 


and  philosophy.  He  traveled  in  En^and  and 
on  the  Continent  frequented  debating  clubs  and 
theatres  and  did  more  or  less  hack  work  for 
publishers.  He  printed  nothing,  however,  with 
which  his  name  is  connected  till  the  two  books 
of  1756:  'A  Vindication  of  Natural  Society' 
and  <A  PhilosopbicaJ  Inquirv  into  the  Origin 
of  Our  Ideas  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful.' 
In  the  first  he  attempted  to  refute  Bohngbroke's 
arguments  ag^nst  revealed  reli^on  by  showing 
*  that  they  might  be  urged  with  equal  force 
against  the  organization  of  socieh^.  In  the 
second  he  took  up  a  subject  much  discussed  at 
the  time ;  and  tnough  his  speculations  have 
been  superseded,  he  has  the  credit  of  stimulat- 
ing Lessing  to  the  production  of  'Laokoon.' 
Burke  also  wrote  or  helped  to  write  an  'Ac- 
count of  the  European  Settlements  in  America' 
(1757),  and  an  'Abridgment  of  the  History 
of  England'  (1758).  In  1759  he  began  to  edit 
the  Annual  Register,  with  which  he  was  con- 
nected for  30  years.  In  1761  he  went  to  Ireland, 
attached  in  some  indefinite  way  to  William 
Gerard  Hamilton  — 'Sii^le-speech*  Hamilton 
—  who  was  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant. 
After  two  years  in  Dublin  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land; there  he  joined  the  famous  Literaiy  Gub; 
with  which  are  associated  the  names  of  John- 
son. Goldsmith,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and  Gar- 
rick. 

In  recognition  of  his  abilitieg  and  of  the 
knowledge  of  politics  which  he  had  shown  in 
the  AtmwU  Registtr,  he  was  offered  the 


same  year  he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament 
'  from  Wendover.  Within  a  week  or  two  hp 
made  a  strong  impression  with  two  speeches  . 
for  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  Upon  the  fall 
of  the  Rockingham  ministry,  Burke,  who  might 
have  had  a  place  with  the  new  administration, 
remained  with  his  friends.    Turning  to  their 


___ t  bis  Utcrary  powers,  he  began  his  series 

of  great  political  tracts.  In  1769  he  put  forth 
•Observations  on  the  Present  State  of  the 
Nation,'  a  repljr  to  a  pamphlet  by  George 
Grenville.  In  this  controversy  Burke  showed 
himself  a  master  of  the  details  of  revenue  and 
finance.  At  this  time  he  took  part  in  some 
transactions  which  afforded  his  enemies  a 
handle  against  him.  Though  he  had  been  living 
almost  from  hand  to  mouth  till  he  entered 
Parliament,  he  bought  in  1768  an  estate  worth 
upwards  of  $100^000.  The  underlying  facts  have 
never  been  determined  with  complete  satisfac- 
tion. This  much,  however,  is  clear:  Burke  lived 
on  terms  of  intimacy  with  his  brother  Richard 
and  a  distant  kinsman,  William  Burke.  Richard 
and  William,  together  with  I^rd  Verney,  a 
political  patron  of  Edmund,  speculated  in  stock 
of  the  East  India  Company,  and  later  Richard 
was  engaged  in  questionable  dealings  in  West 
Indian  lands.  That  these  ventures  were  shared 
by  Burke  has  been  charged  but  never  proved. 
(Jn  the  other  hand  it  can  De  shown  that  most  of 
the  money  for  the  purchase  of  his  estate  be 
borrowed  from  Lord  Rockingham._  After  get- 
ling  the  place,  he  had  to  borrow  right  and  left 
to  maintain  it.  Probably  his  faults  were  neither 
dishonesty  in  speculation  nor  venality  in  Parlia- 
ment, but  undue  ambition  to  live  as  he  thou^t 
became  his  position,  careleasness  and  improvi- 
dence, and  adherence  to  ISch  century  standards 
of  propriety,  which  in  such 'matters  were  lower 
than  ours. 

Whatever  his  shortcomings  in  manaipng  his 
private  affairs,  his  services  to  the  public  were 
very  great.  He  was  on  the  side  of  the  people 
in  tne  long  contest  over  John  Wilkes,  Since  nis 
sentiments  on  this  subject  were  in  general  those 
of  the  'Letters'  ot  Junius,  he  was  susi>ected  of 
being  Junius.  This  accusation  he  denied;  and 
his  'Thoughts  on  the  Cause  of  the  Present  Dis- 
contents' (1770)  showed  so  many  differences 
on  minor  points  that  — were  no  other  evidence 
available  —  it  must  be  concluded  that  Burke  was 
rot  Junius.  In  the  'Thouf^ts'  Burke  argued 
that  the  King  and  a  small  knot  of  advisers  were 
building  up  power  for  themselves ;  that  powers 
of  government  are  held  in  trust  for  the  people ; 
andthat  popular  impatience  must  therefore  be 
indulged.  But,  true  to  his  conservative  in- 
stincts, he  would  not  accent  the  radical  reforms 
commonly  proposed  —  universal  suffrage  and 
the  disfranchisement  of  "rotten  boroughs,"  He 
would  have  changes  more  gradual.  During  the 
years  immediately  following  1770  Burke  devoted 
nis  energies  to  keeping  the  Rockingham  Whi^ 
united  against  the  efforts  of  the  King  to  win 
them  over.  Without  Burke,  says  John  Morlev, 
"the  Rockingham  connection  would  undoubtedly 
have  fallen  to  ruin,  and  with  it  the  most  up- 
right, consistent  and  disinterested  body  of  men 
then  in  public  life.* 

From  his  political  activity  Burke  withdrew 
for  a  time  in  1773  for  a  trip  to  France.  There 
he  observed  two  things  which  he  strongly 
dreaded:  atheism  and  an  eager  questioning  of 
the  'allowed  opinions  which  contnbute  so  much 
to  the  public  tranquillity.*  This  atheism  and 
speculation,  he  perceived  —  and  he  was  one  of 
tne  few  who  were  so  clear-sighted  —  were 
working  toward  revolution.  His  fear  of  these 
tendencies  he  expressed  in  Parliament  not  long 
.  after  his  returik 


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By  this  ttme  Burke  had  won  a  substantia] 
reputation  throughout  the  United  Kingdom. 
Indeed,  as  early  as  1766  at  least  one  Irish  munic- 
ipality had  voted  him  the  freedom  of  the  dty; 
and  in  succeeding  years  English  mercantile 
organizations  passed  resolutions  commending 
his  labors  in  behalf  of  commerce.  Finally  in 
1774,  when  troubles  with  America  were  thicken- 
ing,  Bristol,  the  trading  centre  of  the  west  of 
England,  a  dty  which  had  everything  to  lose 
and  nothing  to  gain  from  a  war  with  the  colo- 
nies, elected  him  to  Parliament.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  poll  his  colleagues  had  promised 
obedience  to  the  instructions  of  his  constituents. 
Burke,  however,  declared  his  independence: 
•Your  representative  owes  you,  not  hia  industry 
only  but  his  judgment;  and  he  betraj^s  you  in- 
stead of  serving  you  if  he  sacrifices  it  to  your 
opinion.^  To  this  declaration  he  adhered  when 
in  177S  a  bill  was  proposed  relaxing  restrictiona 
upon  Irish  commerce.  The  English  merchants, 
including  those  of  Bristol,  protested ;  but  Burke 
replied,  'England  and  Ireland  may  flourish  toi 
gether.  The  world  is  large  enough  for  us  both. 
Let  it  be  our  care  not  to  make  ourselves  too 
little  for  it»  ('Two  letters  to  Gentlemen  in 
Bristol*).  For  this  liberality  Burke  was  never' 
forgiven,  and  in  Che  election  of  1780  be  was 
forced  to  seek  a  new  constituency. 

It  was  during  his  six  years  as  member  for- 
Bristol  that,  in  the  contest  over  America,  he 
rose  to  his  full  height  as  a  statesman.  He  was 
almost  alone  among  the  speech-makers  of  that 
time  in  always  going  below  the  superficial  con- 
siderations of  the  moment  to  the  fundamental 
fact  that  in  the  long  run  restraint  and  violence 
defeat  themselves.  In  addition  to  many  minor 
speeches  scattered  through  the  'Parliamentary* 
Histoiy,'  he  made  three  great  contributions  to 
the  subject — 'Speech  on  American  Taxation,' 
19  April  1774;  'Speech  on  Conciliation,'  22 
March  1775,  and  'Letter  to  the  Sheriffs  of 
Bristol.'  3  April  1777.  In  the  first  he  argued 
that  the  tea  duty  was  of  no  use  to  England  for 
revenue;  that  it  served  only  to  irritate  the 
Americans,  and  that  by  winning  the  loyalty  of 
the  colonists  England  would  get  more  than  she 
could  ever  take  by  force.  In  the  second  speech 
Burke  maintained  that  England  must  conciliate, 
and  that  the  onl^  wav  was  by  yielding.  In  the 
'Letter'  he  reviewecl  the  struggle  and  in  the 
light  of  events  justified  his  own  position.  Of 
the  three  pieces  that  on  'Conciliation'  is  the 
best  Not  even  when  dealing  with  India  does 
Burke  excel  in  grasp  of  details,  in  lucid  pres- 
entation of  a  large  mass  of  facts,  and  in  rip- 
ened political  wisdom.  Then,  too,  he  saw  what 
so  many  failed  to  observe,  that  the  real  cause 
of  the  contest  lay  deeper  than  the  casual  orders 
of  a  governor  or  the  retaliation  of  a  mob,  and 
that  America,  in  resisting  the  encroachments 
of  royal  prerogative,  was  fighting  a  battle  for 
the  liberties  of  Englishmen  at  home. 

Though  Burke  could  not  win  over  Parlia- 
ment to  his  views  on  America,  he  had  better 
success  with  his  'Speech  on  the  Plan  for  Eco- 
nomical Reform'  (1780).  People  were  stag- 
gering under  the  debt  from  the  American  war 
and  agitating  for  a  general  reform  of  Parlia- 
ment. Burke  opposed  such  radical  changes;  he 
proposed  to  abolish  some  offices,  consolidate 
others  and  reduce  salaries.  One  of  the  offices 
which  he  reformed,  that  of  jtaymaster  of  the 
forces,  he  himself  occupied  in  1782.     At  that 


ingham,  Charles  James  Fox  and  Lord  Shel- 
bume.  Burke,  owing  in  part  to  infirmities  of 
his  temper  and  the  suspicions  against  him,  got 
only  this  third-rate  position,  instead  of  a  place 
in  the  cabinet  The  Whigs  were  scarcely  in 
their  seats  when  Lord  Rocldngham  died  and 
Lord  Shelburne  became  head  of  the  adminis- 
tration. At  once  Fox  and  Burke  refused  to 
woilc  with  him,  and  by  joining  their  old  enemy. 
Lord  North,  in  what  is  known  as  the  Coalition, 
they  broke  up  the  Whig  party.  Burke  is 
accused  of  deserting  his  principles  for  purely 
personal  motives,  His  conduct  is  hard  to  de- 
tend,  for  he  attacked  Shelburne  with  asperity, 
and  under  the  Coalition  resumed  for  a  few 
months  the  office  of  paymaster. 

Against  this  dubious  course  we  may  set  his 
strenuous  advocacy  of  reform  in  India.  That 
country  was  victim  of  the  corrupt  and  cruel 
system  of  the  E^st  India  Company.  Burke  waa 
familiar  with  the  subject,  for  he  had  been  a 
member  of  select  committees  on  Indian  affairs 
and  had  drawn  two  important  reports.  He  is 
also  supposed  to  have  framed  the  East  India 
bill  commonly  known  as  Fox's.  At  any  rate  be 
defended  it,  1  Dec.  1783,  in  one  of  his  best 
speeches.  The  bill,  however,  was  defeated  and 
toe  Coalition,  which  supported  it,  driven  from 
office.  Early  in  178S  Burke  renewed  the  attack 
In  his  'Speech  on  the  Nabob  of  Arcot's  Debts' 
—  a  prehminary  to  the  proceedings  against 
Warren  Hastings.  In  1786  Burke  drew  the  ar- 
ticles against  Hastinss.  The  trial  draped  on 
tin  I79S,  and  though  the  verdict  at  last  was 
for  ftcquitttal,  Burke  had  none  the  less  suc- 
ceeded in  reforming  the  government  of  India; 
for  he  had  trumpeted  the  wrongs  of  that 
'emptied  and  emboweled"  land  till  public  sen- 
timent would  no  longer  tolerate  them. 

Before  the  trial  of  Hastings  had  closed, 
the  French  Revolution  had  broken  out.  Burke 
looked  upon  it,  not  as  the  emancipation  of  op- 
pressed masses,  but  as  an  effort  of  athnsts  and 
political  theorists  to  uproot  the  settled  order. 
Since  his  views  were  hostile  to  those  of  the 
more  radical  Whigs,  he  began  to  draw  away 
from  the  men  with  whom  he  had  ^been  allied 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Crown  ia 
^gland  and  America.  In  1790  he  widened  the 
breach  still  further  by  aggressive' proclamation 
of  his  opinions  in  'Reflections  on  the  Revolu- 
tion in  France.'  The  book  had  for  that  day  an 
enormous  sale  and  divided  Great  Britain  into 
two  parties  —  one  composed  of  Burke  and  an 
uncongenial  company  of  Tories;  the  other  of 
Liberals,  many  of  whom  had  been  Burke's  life- 
long associates.  Burke  himself  violently  quar- 
reled with  his  old  friend  Fox.  The  seeming 
contradiction  between  his  early  position  and  his 
later  is  accounted  for  in  part  h)'  the  fact  that  he 
grew  more  conservative  with  age,  in  part  by  his 
desire  to  preserve  the  balance  between  monarch 
and  subject.  In  England  the  Crown  had  been 
the  aggressor;  in  France,  he  thou^t,  the  peo- 

file.  Moreover,  he  had  always  insisted  that 
iberty  is  ■inseparable  from  order* ;  and  in 
France  he  saw  nothing  but  disorder.  As  the 
devolution  progressed,  Burke  became  more  and 
more  wrought  up,  so  that  in  each  of  his  suc- 
ceeding utterances —'Letter  to  a  Member  of 
the  National  Assembly'  (1791),  'Appeal  from 


d=v  Google 


1  th« 

.    -  ,        ,,  "  on 

the  Conduct  of  the  Minority'  (1?93)  and  "Let- 
ters on  a  Regidde  Peace'  (1796>— the  reason- 
ing grew  feebler,  the  scolding  shriller. 

During  the  same  period,  when  Burke  wag 
dealing  with  a  subject  on  which  he  was  more 
thoroi^ij'  informed,  Ireland,  he  showed  his 
old  qualities  of  statesmanship.  He  had  always 
been  a  champion  of  his  down-trodden  native 
land.  When  Ireland  caught  the  contagion  of 
the  French  Revolution,  and  when  the  war  be- 
tween England  and  France  made  Ireland  still 
more  restless,  Burke  urged  for  Ireland  the  same 
policy  of  conciliation  that  be  had  urged  for 
America.  In  letter  and  pamphlet  he  unceas- 
ingl)[  advocated  relieving  the  Catholics  of  their 
political  disabilities. 

In  1794  he  retired  from  Parliament  He 
was  to  have  received  a  peerage  with  the  title 
Lord  Beaconsfield ;  but  smce  the  death  of  his 
son  left  him  without  direct  male  heir,  he  ac- 
cepted instead  a  pension.  This  was  the  occa- 
sion of  a  fresh  attack  upon  him  by  his  enemies. 
He  replied  effectively  in  the  'Letter  to  a  Noble 
Lord'    (1796). 

His  zeal  in  behalf  of  the  wretched  and  the 
oppressed  was.  not  a  mere  vague  sentiment;  it 
was  a  motive  in  his  daily  conduct  When  the 
poet  Crabbe  was  obscure  and  penniless,  Burke 
took  him  into  the  family,  found  a  printer  for 
his  verses  and  finally  obtained  for  faim  a  living; 
in  the  Church.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolution, 
Burke  also  kept  open  house  for  French  refu- 
gees and  established  a  school  for  their  chil- 
dren. Burke's  principles  of  statesmanship,  when 
briefly  set  down,  seem  very  bald  and  simple. 
The  basis  of  his  system  is  explained  in  a  sen- 
tence from  one  of  his  letters;  "The  principles 
of  politics  are  those  of  morality  enlarged." 
The  first  of  the  moral  laws  upon  which  he 
rested  ^reat  weight  was  justice ;  the  second,. 
generositjr.  Knowing  that  perfect  justice  could 
never  be  obtained,  that  human  institutions  are 
at  belt  compromises,  he  was  not  a  theorist ;  he 
did  not  fall  into  the  fallacy  that  the  machinery 
of  government  may  be  constructed  as  if  men 
were  uniform,  passive  units.  These  phases  of 
his  bent  for  the  practical  are  in  the  last  analy- 
sis a  trust  in  experience.  A  man  who  clings 
so  tenaciously  to  experience  is  likely  to  be  an 
uncompromising  conservative;  and  Burke  was, 
for  his  generation  and  all  generations  since, 
the  *gTeat  pleader  for  conservatism."  As  an 
orator  he  frequently  produced  no  immediate 
effect.  His  gestures  were  clumsy,  and  when  he 
spoke  in  public  his  voice  was  somewhat  harsh, 
he  dropped  into  a  strong;  Irish  brogue  and,  at 
times,  a  hurried  articulation.  But,  above  all,  he 
overestimated  the  capacity  of  his  hearers.  Not 
content  with  a  concise  presentation  of  leading 
points,  he  insisted  on  applying  profound  philo- 
sophic principles.  Yet  some  of  his  speeches, 
notably  at  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  pro- 
duced a  profound  effect  This  eflecl  was  largely 
due  to  ine  vi^or  of  his  style  as  a  writer.  He 
was  virile,  vivid  in  description  and  unsurpassed 
in  lucid  and  logical  arrangement  of  material. 

In  the  winter  of  1756-57  he  married  Jane 
Nugent,  daughter  of  a  physician.  Her  capaci^ 
for  management  lifted  many  burdens  from  his 
shoulders.  His  only  child,  a  son,  Richard,  died 
in  1794. 


Among  his  important  writings  or  speeches 
not  alreack  mentioned  are  'Address  to  the 
King'  (1777);  'Letter  to  Sir  Hercules  Lang- 
rishe'  (1792) ;  'Thoughts  and  Details  on 
Scarcity'  (1795).  See  Reflections  on  the 
French  Revolution  ;  On  .  Cokcilia'mon  with 
THE  Colonies;  On  The  Subume  and  Beauti- 

the   marlrat 

_.     _.._   .     _.  writings  and 

speeches,  substantially  complete.  The  best  short 
life  is  in  the  'Dictionarjf  of  National  Biogra- 
phy.' John  Morley's  'Ljfe  of  Burke'  (in  the 
'Fjiglish  Men  of  Letters,'  1879)  is  excellent; 
also  his  'Burke,  a  Historical  Study'  (1867). 
Of  the  earlier  lives  James  Prior's  (2d  ed, 
1826)  is  the  best  Of  course  Burke  bulks  large 
in  the  standard  histories  and  memoirs  of  Eng- 
land in  the  18th  century. 

Haumons  Lamont, 
Editor    New    York    Nation;    Editor  ■ 'Burke's 
Speech   on  Conciliation  ivith  America.' 
BURKE,  Jane,  better  known  as  Calamity 

JANE,  American  army  scout  and  mail  carrier; 
.  Princeton,  Mo.,  1852;  d.  Deadwood,  S.  D..  1 
Aug.  1903.  She  was  reared  on  the  plains  and 
earW  became  an  Indian  scout  and  was  an  aide 
to  (jcneral  Custer  and  General  Miles  in  numer- 
ous campaigns.  For  several  years  she  was  the 
rvemment  mail  carrier  between  Deadwood,  ■ 
D.,  and  Custer,  Mont. 

BURKE,  John,  Irish  genealogist;  b.  near 
Parsonstown,  Ireland,  1786;  d. -Aix-la-Chapelle, 
27  March  1848,  His  life  was  devoted  to  gene- 
alogical research.  In  1826  he  began  to  publish 
a  'Genealogical  and  Heraldic  Dictionary  of  the 
Peerage  and  Baronetage  of  the  British  Empire' 
and  subsequent  works  by  him  were  'A  Gene- 
alogical and  Heraldic  History  of  the  Com- 
moners of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland'  (1833- 
38),  which  in  subsequent  editions  appeared  as 
<A  Dictionary  of  the  Landed  Gentry.' 

BURKE,  John,  State  governor  and  national 
treasurer;  b.  Keokuk  Count^^,  Iowa,  25  Feb. 
1859.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Iowa, 
receiving  the  LL.B.  degree  in  1886,  when  he 
removed  to  North  DiOcota  and  was  county 
judge  during  several  years  of  Rolette  County. 
After  being  elected  member  of  the  North  Da- 
kota House  of  Representatives  (1891-93)  and 
State  Senator  (1893^5).  in  1906,  1908  and  1910, 
on  three 'occasions,  he  was  elected  Democratic 
Governor  of  North  Dakota.  President  Wilson 
in  1913  appointed  him  Treasurer  of  the  United 
Slates. 

BURKE,  SiH  John  Bernard.  English  herald 
and  genealogist  son  of  John  Burke  (av.)  ;  b. 
London  1815;  d.  Dublin,  13  Dec.  1892.  He  was 
educated  at  Caen  in  Normandy,  was  trained 
as  a  lawyer  and  called  to  the  bar  in  1839.  Be- 
sides editing  the  successive  issues  of  the  'Peer- 
age' foun<fcd  by  his  father  {49th  ed.,  1887), 
he  published  other  works  on  the  'Landed  Gen- 
try' (1846);  'Extinct  Peerages'  (1846);  'An- 
ecdotes of  the  Aristocracy'  (1849);  'Family 
Romance'  (1853) ;  'The  Vicissitudes  of  Great 
Families'  (1859)  ;  'The  Rise  of  Great  Families' 
(1873);  'The  Book  of  Precedence'  (1880; 
and   'Reminiscences'    (1882). 

BURKE,  Manrke  Prancii,  American  cler- 
gyman :  b.  Ireland,  S  May  1845.  He  came  to  the 
United  Stales  in  childhood  and  wss  educated  in 


d=,  Google 


BURKE — BURLEIGH 


Chica^  and  Notre  Dame,  Ind,  and  in  the 
Amencan  Collie,  Rome,  where  he  was  or- 
dained to  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  in 
1875,  Returning  to  the  United  States,  he  took 
charge  of  a  pansh  in  Joliet.  111.  (1878-87).  Ip 
18S7  be  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Cheyenne, 
Wyo.,  and  in  1893  was  transferred  to  the  see 
of  Saint  Joseph,  Mo.  Bishop  Burke  b  known 
as  a  fine  linguist. 

BURKE,  Robert  O'Hara,  Australian  ex- 
plorer; b.  County  Galway,  Ireland,  182);  d. 
Australia,  28  June  1861,  After  serving  in  the 
Austrian  army  he  went  to  Australia,  and  after 
seven  years'  service  as  inspector  of  police  was 
^pointed  commander  of  an  expedition  to  cross 
the  continent  of  Australia  from  south  Co  north. 
He  and  his  associate,  Wills,  reached  the  tidal 
waters  of  the  Flinders  River,  but  both  perished 
of  starvation  on  the  return  journey.  They 
were  amon^  the  very  first  white  men  to  cross 
the  Australian  continent  from  south  to  north. 

BURKE,  Thomas,  American  statesman:  b. 


_..  __  .;  years  in  Accomac  County,  Va.,  er_ 
Saged  in  the  study  and  practice  of  medicine. 
He  next  studied  law,  began  practice  in  Nor- 
folk and  in  1774  removed  to  Hillsborough, 
N.  C.  Of  a  bold  and  impetuous  temper,  a 
ready  writer  and  speaker,  he  became  one  of 
the  leading  spirits  in  the  Revolutionary  strug- 
gle. While  he  was  in  Virginia,  his  wntings  in 
opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act  had  brought  him 
into  notice,  and  he  had  a  large  share  in  the 
formation  of  the  constitution  of  North  Caro- 
lina. He  was  a.  member  of  the  provincial  con- 
gress at  Halifax  in  1776  and  a  volunteer  at 
the  battle  of  Brandywine.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  December  1776  to  1781,  when 
he  was  chosen  first  governor  of  North  Caro- 
lina under  the  new  constitution.  In  September 
of  that  year  he  was  surprised  and  seized  by 
the  Tories  and  retained  at  James  Island,  S.  C, 
as  a  prisoner  on  parole.  Obnoxious  to  the 
Tories   from  his  previous  course,  he  was  in 


_.i  exchange  or  a  parole  to 

State,  he  efTecCed  his  escape  in  the  night  of  16 
Jan.  1782,  after  an  imprisonment  of  four 
months.  In  a  letter  to  General  Leslie,  Burke 
gave  his  reasons  for  withdrawing  and  said  that 
he  still  considered  himself  subject  to  the  dis- 
posal of  the  British  authorities.  He  was  reg- 
ularly exchanged  soon  afterward  and  resuined 
,his  duties  as  governor,  but  was  defeated  the 
following  year,  when  a  candidate  for  re-elec- 
tion, it  being  urged  that  he  bad  violated  his 

BURKE,  Thomaa  Martin  Aloyaini,  Amer- 
n  clern'man:  b.  Ireland,  10  Tan.  1840;  A.  20 
n.  1915.  He  came  in  childhood  to  Ulica, 
[.  Y.,  and  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Saint 
Michael,  Toronto,  and  at  Saint  Mary's  Semi- 
nary, Baltimore,  and  was  ordained  to  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  priesthood  in  1864.  He  was  ap- 
I>ointed  to  labor  in  Albany  and  became  succes- 
sively vicar-general  and  administrator.  In  1894 
be  was  consecrated  tsshop  of  Albany. 

BURKE,  Thomu  Nicholu,  Irish  clergy- 
man and  orator:  b.  Galway  1830:  d.  1883.    He 
'    1  in  Italy,  where  he  entered  the 


ftv; 


Order  of  Saint  Domimc.  Going  to  England, 
he  preadied  in  that  country  and  later  in  Ire- 
land, gaining  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator 
and  becomine  familiarly  known  as  'Father 
Tom.>  In  1872  he  made  a  visit  to  the  United 
States  and  lectured  in  reply  to  Froude,  his 
addresses  appearing  in  print  under  the  title  of 
*  English  Misrule  in  Ireland.' 

BURKE  AND  HARB,  two  miscreants,  of 
whom  William  Burke,  a  native  of  Ireland,  was 
detected,  tried  and  executed  at  EdinburRfa.  in 
1829,  for  the  murder  of  numerous  individuals, 
his  accomplice,  Hare,  escaping  the  hangman  by 
turning  king's  evidence.  At  this  time  Hie  ■res- 
urrectionists* were  busy  at  their  nefarious 
trade,  but  the  vigilance  with  which  the  burying^ 
grounds  throughout  the  country  were  watched 
rendered  a  supply  of  subjects  for  anatomical 
schools  almost  impracticable,  and  the  demand 
for  dead  bodies  consequently  became  great. 
This  led  Burke  and  Hare  to  murder,  by  suffo- 
cation, many  poor  waifs  who  were  decoyed  into 
Hare's  lodging-house,  and  whose  bodies  they 


r  of  a 


:  of 


Burke  and  Hare  brought  home  to  the  public 
mind  more  clearly  than  ever  before  how  neces- 
sary it  is  that  schools  of  anatomy  should  re- 
ceive a  regular  supply  of  subjects  for  dissection, 
and  in  1832  an  act  was  passed  for  supplying 
the  anatomical  schools  throughout  the  kingdom 
from  the  unclaimed  dead  in  the  hospitals. 

BURKBL,       burlcel,     Heinrich,     German 
painter:  b.  Pirmasens,  30  March  1813;  d.  Mu- 


the  Bavarian  and  Tyrolean  Al^s 
were  among  the  first  of  their  kind,  and  his 
illage  and  tavern  scenes  rank  among  the  best 

BURKITT,  Prands  Crawford,  En^ish 
Biblical  scholar:  b.  London  3  Sept  1864.  He 
was  graduated  at  Trinity  CoU^,  Cambridge, 
was  lecturer  in  palaeography  at  Gimbridge  Uni- 
versity 1904-05,  and  since  1905  has  been  Nor- 
risian  professor  of  divinity  at  the  same  insti- 
tution. He  has  published  'Early  Christianity 
Outside  the  Roman  Empire*  (1S99) ;  'Frag- 
ments of  Aquila>  (1897);  'The  Rules  of  Ty- 
conius'  (1894)  ;  'Two  Lectures  on  the  Gospels' 
(1900):  'Early  Eastern  Christianity'  (1904); 
'The  Gospel  Histoty  and  Its  Transmission' 
(1906);  'Earliest  Sources  for  the  Life  of 
Jesus>  (1910);  'The  Failure  of  Uberal  Chris- 
tianity' (1910);  'Jewish  and  Christian  Apoca- 
lypses' (1914). 

BURLEIGH,  btria,  Bennet,  war  corre- 
spondent: b.  Glasgow,  Scotland,  1841;  d.  17 
Tunc  1914.  He  fought  in  the  American  Qvil 
War,  during  which  he  was  twice  condemned  to 
be  shot.  As  war  correspondent  he  served  in 
the  Egyptian  campaign  of  1882,  in  the  Sudan, 
Mada^scar,  Ashanti,  South  Africa,  the  Rosso- 
Japanese  War  Tripolitan  War  and  the  Bul- 
garian War  of  1912-13,  He  was  the  author  of 
'Two  Campaigns'  and  'The  Empire  of  the 
East'  (1905)- 

BURLEIGH,  Edwin  Chick,  United  Stales 
Senator:  b.  Unneus,  Me.,  27  Nov.  1843.  A 
student  of  Houlton  Academy,  he  became  Slate 


d=,  Google 


BURLSIOKm  BURL2N0AHB 


(and  agtint  and  asmtakit  deik  in  the  MioBe 
House  of  Rcpretentalivcs  1876-78,  dcrk  in  the 
ofBc«  of  the  State  treasurer  in  18B0  and  treas- 
urer in  1884.  He  was  elected  Governor  of 
Ifaine  1SKM)2;  member  of  Congress  1897- 
1911;  and  United  States  senator  1913-19. 


Plainfield,  Conn..  2S  March  1821;  d-  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  21  July  1903.  He  has  published 
'The  Mania(^  and  Other  Poems' ;  'Signal  Fires 
on  the  Trail  of  the  Pathfinder';  a  metrical 
romance  in  six  canton  several  dramas  and  a 
very  considerable  volume  of  fugitive  poetry 
wliich  appeared  in  newspapers  and  magaiinCs 
for  half  a  century.  His  work  is  characteriied 
by  simpHcity,  naturalness  and  forcefulness ;  but 
it  is  very  uneven  in  quality,  thougfi  generally 
euphonic.  Burleigh  early  developed  a  fadli^ 
in  verse  which  gained  for  him  distinction  in 
his  native  State  where  he  was  fcnown  as  the 
farmer  poet.  He  received  only  such  Education 
as  the  district  school  afforded  in  the  winter 
months,  and  he  contimicd  to  work  on  the  farm 
until  middle  life.  All  his  spare  time  was  given 
to  literary  pursuits   from   his  boyhood   days, 

BURLEIGH,  William  Cecil  (Lord)  Eng- 
lish statesman;  b.  Bourn,  Lincolnsnire,  13  Sept. 
!S2I);  d.  London,  4  Aug.  1598.  He  was  Sec- 
tary of  Slate  under  Edward  VI  and  Elizabeth, 
and  Prime  Minister  of  England  for  40  years. 
In  1588  Parliament  was  assembled,  and,  by 
his  advice,  a  plan  of  religious  reform  was  laid 
before  it.  In  this  he  had  a  considerable  share ; 
and  he  also  took  the  leading  part  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  faith 
which  form  the  basis  of  the  reformed,  reli^on 
of  the  state.  To  him  is  also  due  the  regula- 
tions of  the  coini^e,  which  had  been  altered 
since  Henry  VIIl's  time.  He  was  created  Baron 
Burleigh,  in  1571,  and  in  158S  concluded  an 
advantageous  treaty  with  the,  Netherlands.    His 


jaffectcd  by  personal  prejudices 

in  his  management  of  pubhc  affairs,  ConaiAt 
Nares,  'Memoirs  of  Lord  Burghley*  (1828- 
31);  Charlton,  'Life'  (1847);  Hume.  'Great 
Lord  Burleigh'    (1898), 

BURLESON,  Albert  Sidney,  Umted  States 
Poatmaster- General :  b.  San  Mareos,  Tex.,  7 
June  I8&3.  A  gmduate  in  1884  of  the  Univer- 
taty  of  Texas,  he  became  a  lawyer,  and  was 
assistant  dty  attorney  of  Austin,'  and  attomay 
of  the  26th  judicial  district  of  Texas  during 
(everal  years.  Prom  1899  he  was  several  tknos 
eiecied  member  of  Cotwress,  Mid  in  1913  wsa 
Bilpointed  PcMboatter-General  by  President 
Wilson. 

BURLESQUE,  the  comic  effect  arising 
from  a  ludicrous  mixture  of  things  high  and 
low.  High  thou^ts,  for  instance,  are  clothed 
in  low  expressions,  or  noble  subjects  described 
in  a  familiar  manner,  or  vice-versa. 

BURLEY,  Bennett  Q.,  Confederate  naval 
ofiiccr.  On  19  Sept.  1864,  assisted  by  Acting- 
MaUer  John  Y.  Bcall  and  others,  he  captured 
the  steamer  Phiio  Parsons,  plying  between  De- 
troit and  Sandusky,  when  about  two  miles  from 
Kelly's  Island,  off  the  Ohio  Coast.  Subve- 
quenlly  another  American  steamer,  the  Islaml 
Queen,  wat  captured  by  Burley  and  his  party, 
and  after  her  passengers,  indudiog  25  United 


States  sbldBcrs,  -  had  been  made  'prisoners  and 
ttansferced  to  the  Philo  Parsons^  the  tslaitd 
■0«*en  was  taken  out  into  the  lake  and  sunk. 
The  Philo  Parsons  was  afterward  taken  to 
Sandwich,  on  the  Canadian  shore,  and  left 
there,  Burley  was  arrested,  and  iWe  evidence 
prodncsd  at  the  extradition  trial  at  Toronto  tn 
his  case  rendered  it  manifest  that  hewos  acting 
under. the  ocders  of  the  Southern  Confederaey 
in  the  capture  of  the  sttameri,  and  that  the  im- 
mediate object  was  the  capt)ire  of  th;  United 
States  war-vessel  Michigan,  ^arding  Johnson's 
Island;  and  the  ultimate  object  the  takiiw  of 
Johnson's  Island  and  the  Hbcration  of  the  IpQO 
Confederate  soldiers  there  imprisoned.  That 
all  (his  was  not  attempted  by  Burley  and  tus 
comrades  was  probably  owing  to  (he  fact  of  his 
discovery  of  the  haiardous  and  seemingly  in^- 

Eossihle  character  of  the  undertaking  after  he 
ad  captured  the  two  steamers.  After  some 
diplomatic  correspondence  tetweea  the  British 
government  and  that  of  the  United  States,  Bur- 
ley was  surrendered  to  the  authorities  of  the 
latter,  under  the  provisions  of  the  extradition 
treaty,  the  plea  of  "belligerent  ri^ls"  in  his 
behalf  by  Jefferson  Davis  not  being  regarded 
by_  the  court  as  sufficient  to  free  bira  from  the 
crime  of  robbery  charged  against  him  in  the 
indictment. 

BURLINGAME,  Anrco,  American  di- 
plomatist: b.  New  Berlin,  N.  Y.,  14  Nov.  1822; 
d.  Saint  Petersburg,  Russia,  23  Feb.  1870.  After 
jie  wai  graduated  from  Harvard  Law  School 
in  1S47  he  practiwd  law  in  Boston,  and  enter- 
ing politics  was  active  as  a.  Free  Soil  advocate 
in  1848.  and  in  1854  was  sent  to  Congress  as  a 
representative  of  the  American  party,  Hb 
vigorous  denunciation  of  the  assault  upon  Sen- 
ator Sumner  by  Preston  Brooks  brought  him 
a  ch^enge  from  the  latter,  which  was  accepted, 
.but  Brooks  declined  to  travel  to  the  rendezvous 
in  Canada.  In  1861  he  was  sent  as  Minister  to 
Austria  but  was  not  received  by  the  Austrian 
government  on  account  of  his  advocacy  of  Uun- 
^rian  independence.  He  was  Minister  to  Q^na 
1661-67.  and  in  the  last-named  year  was  ap- 
pointed Ambassador  from  China  to  the  United 
Slates  and  various  European  governments.  On 
4  July  1868  he  concluded  the  noted  'BuHin- 
game  Treaty'  which  gave  reciprocal  privileges 
to  Chine  and  the  United  States  and  was  the 
first  acceptance  by  GiiiHk  of  the  principles  of 
international  l%w.  After  concludinK  treaties  be- 
tween China  and  Denmark,  Sweden,  Holland 
and  Prussia,  he  died  white  arranging  a  treaty 
between  China  and  Russia.  Consult  Williams, 
'Anson  Burlingame,  and  the  First  Chinese  Mis- 
sion to  Foreign  Powers'   (New  York  1912), 

fiURLINOAUE,  Edward  LiTennon,  an 
American  editor,  son  of  Anson  BurlinganK 
(q.v.)  :  b.  Boston.  30  May  1848.  He  studied  at 
Harvard  and  Heidelhcrg  and  later  acted  « 
private  secretary  to  his  fat^e^  who  waj  United 
States  Minister  to  China.  '  Since  1879  he  has 
been  associated  with  the  publishing  house  of 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  and  from  1886  to  1914 
was  editor  of  Scribner's  Magaane.  He  has 
received  the  degrees  Hon.  A.Jif ,  Harvard,  1901 ; 
.LittD.,  Columbia.  1914. 

BURLINGAHE,  Ckl.,  city  in  San  Mateo 
County,  situated  on  a  peninsula,  20  miles  south 
of  San  FranciscOk  on  the  Southern  Pacific  and 
the  Unilod  of  Son  Frandioo  railroads.    It  is 


d=,  Google 


flO 


BURIilNGTOH 


well  built,  has  two  grdniiiidr  scfaoob,  a  citv 
hall  and  a  public  library,  four  cburches,  banks, 
a  weekly  newspaper.  Its  enterprises  are  of  the 
kind  that  supply  the  wants  of  the  immediate 
territory  in  which  th^  are  situated.  The-  city 
ii  a  favorite  residential  suburb  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  is  progressive  in  the  matter  of  im- 
provements, with  miles  of  permanently  paved 
streets  and  walks,  well-lighted,  and  with  a  ntn- 
mcipal  water  plant.    Pop.  3,50IX 

BURLINGTON,  England.     See  Bwdunc- 

TON. 

BURLINGTON,  Iowa,  ci;^^  and  county- 
seat  of  Des  Moines  County,  206  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Chic^o  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi    River   at    the   intersection    of    the 


■and  South  and  the  Toledo,  Peoria,  and  Western 
railroads.  Burlington,  sometimes  called  the 
■Orchard  City,*  occupies  a  natural  amphi- 
theatre, formed  by  the  limestone  bluffs  that 
slope  back  from  the  river,  and  on  which  many 
of  the  residences  are  built.  The  river  here  is 
broad  and  deep  and  is  spanned  by  a  railroad 
bridge.  The  city  is  connected  by  steamboat 
lines  with  important  points  on  the  Mississippi, 
and  its  river  commerce  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance. The  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  tools,  pearl  buttons, 
wheels,  desks,  furniture,  screens,  boiler^  mat- 
tresses, soap,  flour,  candv,  burial  caskets,  Cor- 
liss engines,  sleigh  bells,  novelties  and  the 
quarrying   of   limestone   found  in   the   vicinity. 

'  The  extensive  machine  and  repair  shops  of  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad  are 
located  here.  The  city  contains  among  its  im- 
portant buildings  an  opera  house,  courthouse, 
public  library,  hospitals,  schools  of  various 
kinds  and  the  Burlington  College  of  Commerce. 
Crapo  Park,  of  100  acres,  is  In  the  southern 
part  of  the  city  and  is  noted  for  its  beau^. 
The  city  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  elected  for 
two  years,  and  a  city  council,  which  has  the 

.power  of  appointment  to  alt  city  offices    (the 

'  commission  form  of  government) .  It  was 
named  for  Burlington,  Vt.,  by  its  first  settlers, 
A  fur  trading  post  was  established  there  in 
1829;  its  earliest  buildings  were  erected  in  1S33, 
and  it  was  the  State  capital,  1837-40.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1837  and  received  its  city  char- 
ter in  1838.    Pop.  24,800, 

BURLINGTON,  Kan.,  city  and  counQr- 
seat  of  Coffey  County,  60  miles  south  of  Topeka. 
on   the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  ana 

■Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  railroads,  on  the 
Neosho  River.  It  has  extensive  agricultural 
and  stock-raising  interests;  is  iii  a_ district  rich 
in  natural  gas,  and  contains  grain  elevators, 
fkniring  mills,  d^ar  factories  and  manufactories 
of  electric  appliances,  tiles  and  carriages,  and 
a  Carnegie  library.    Pop.  2,180. 

BURLINGTON,  N.  J.,  city  and  port  of 
entry  in  Burlitigton  County,  on  the  Delaware 
River  and  flie  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  18  miles 
northeast  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  a  manufactur- 
ing trade  centre  for  surrounding  towns,  and 
contains  Saint  Mary's  Church,  endowed  by 
Queen  Anne;  Saint  Mary's  Hall,  the  oldesl 
Church  school  fcrr  girls  m  the  country;  the 
Slate  Masonic  Hotne;  Burlington  College,  and 
many  fine  old  residences;  and  has  manufac- 
tories of  shoes,  stoves,  iron  pipe,  canned  goods. 


siUc,  hollowware,  braid,  telewriter  ribbons  and 
carbon  paper,  carriages  and  strtictural  iron. 
There  is  a  national  bank  and  a  trust  eompiuw, 
with  combined  resources  amounting  to  $2356,- 
959.  The  value  of  taxable  property  is  ^866,- 
201 ;  of  school  property  and  equipment  $137,- 
200;  and  of  fiuUic  buildings  and  equipment 
.  $344888.  Burlington  is  governed,  under  a  char- 
ter of  1851  (revised  in  1868).  by  a  common 
council  of  12  members.  In  1915  the  govemmenl 
receipts  amounted  to  $116,393,  expenditures  to 
$H559.  The  city  was  settled  in  1677,  by 
Friends,  imder  the  name  of  New  Beverlj^  The 
name  was  subsequendy  changed  to'Bridlington. 
in  honor  of  the  Yorkshire  town  of  that  name 
on  the  North  Sea,  commonly  called  Burlington, 
and  the  spelling  was  presentlj^  made  to  accord 
with  the  pronunciation.  The  city  was  for  many 
years  the  seat  of  government  of  West  Jersey; 
and  was  the  residence  of  the  last  colonial  gov- 
ernor, William  Franklin.  It  was  bombarded 
by  the  British  in  1776  and  agam  in  1778.  Pop. 
9,504.  Consult  Stackhouse,  A.  ML,  'Retrospect 
of  Colonial  Times  in  Burlington  County* 
(Mooreslown,  N,  J.,  1906) ;  Woodward,  E.  M,, 
'tlislory  of  Burlington  and  Mercer  Counties, 
N.  J.'  (Philadelphia  1883). 

BURLINGTON,  N.  C,  city  in  Alamance 
County,  20  miles  east  of  Greensboro,  on  the 
Southern  Railroad.  It  contains  casket  factories, 
hosiery  and  overalls  establishments,  manufac- 
tures ste«l  bridges  and  has  extensive  cotton 
.interests.  Settled  in  1850  Burlington  was  in- 
corporated in  1866.  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  mayor  and  council,  the  former  being  t^osen 
for  a  term  of  two  years.  The  city  owns  the 
waterworks.     Pop.  4,808. 

BURLINGTON,  Vt,  city,  port  of  entry 
and  county-seat  of  Chittenden  County,  en  Lake 
Champlain  and  the  Central  Vermont  and  Rut- 
land railroads,  40  miles  northwest  of  Mont- 
peiier.  It  bas  a  very  large  lake  commerce  and 
manufactories  of  lumber,  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  furniture,  boxes,  refrigerators,  brushes, 
paper,  toys,  mechcines  and  iron.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood are  large  quarries  of  marble  and  lime- 
stone. The  environment  is  agricultural.  The 
city  is  the  seat  of  the  State  University  of  Ver- 
mont and  of  the  State  A^cultural  and  Medi- 
cal colleges;  Bishop  Hopkins  Hall;  the  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral;  the  Fletcher,  BilUngs  and 
Burlington  Law  Libraries,  a  county  courthouse. 
United  States  government  building  and  a  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  hall.  Burlingtiui 
is  noted  for  its  benevolent  and  educational  in- 
stitutions, which  include  the  Mary  Fletcher  Hos- 
pital, Home  for  Aged  Women,  Home  for  Friend- 
less Women,  Home  for  Destitute  Children, 
Adams   Mission   House,   Louisa   Howard   Mis- 


tariums,  the  Vermont  Episcopal  Institute,  Saint 
Joseph's  and  Saint  Mary's  academies  (Roman 
Catholic)  and  high  and  graded  schools.  The 
city  was  settled  in  1763,  was  a  garrisoned  post 
during  the  War  of  1812  and  was  incorporated 
in  1865.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  elected  for 
two  years,  a  council  and  a  board  of  aldermen. 
The  waterworks  and  electric-lighting  plants  are 
the  property  of  the  city.  Its  material  develop- 
ment has  been  largely  due  to  its  great  lumber- 
ing industries.  The  famous  Col.  Ethan  Allen 
is  buried  beneath   a  handsome  monument    in 


d-=,  Google 


BUSLINjQTOH  ~  BURUA 


01 


Grecmnoant  Cemeluy.  Pim>.  (1910)  20,46& 
Consult  Aflen,  'About  BnrlinEUui,  Vermont' 
(Burlington,  Vt.,  1905);  Possons,  'BurUoKton, 
Vt,  as  a  ManuEacturinfe .  Business  and  Com- 
mercial Centre*  (Glens  Falls,  N.  Y..  18<«) ; 
'Vermont  Historical  Gazetteer'  (Vol,  L  4  vols,, 
Burliagton  1867-82),  and  New  England  Magor- 
cine   (Vol  XI.  2d  series). 

BURl'INGTON.  Wis.,  dtv  in  Racine 
County,  35  miles  southwest  of  Milwaukee,  oa 
the  Chicagp,  Uilwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  and  the 
Minneapolis,  Saint  Paul  and  SMilt  Sainte  Marit 
railroads.  It  is  a  pros^ous  dairying  centre 
and  has  bride yarit,  ttleyards,  brass worka, 
condensed  milk  facton^  and  manufactories  oi 
baskets,  horse  blankets  and  veneer.  The  watei> 
works  are  tbe  property  at  the  munici[ialtty. 
Consult  Wood,  'Burliagton:  Its  Early  Growth, 
History  and  Progress'  CBuriington  1908).  Pop. 
3;Z1^ 

BURLINGTON  LIMESTONE,  a  lime- 
Btone  of  sub-CaiimnifenMis  (Mississippian) 
Age,  named  for  its  occurrence  near  Burlnigton, 
Iowa.  It  is  also  found  in  other  parts  of  the 
Uississippi  Valley.  This  limestone  is  of  light 
color  and  fine-cry stalline,  resembling  Ulho' 
graphic  stone.    It  has  important  industrial  value. 

BURUAt  India,  the  largest  province  of 
British  India,  on  tbe  east  side  of  the  Bay  of 
Bmgai,  at  one  time  formed  the  greater  portion 
of  a  native  idngdom  or  empire;  which  is  said 
to  have  extended  from  lat.  9°  to  26"  N.,  and 
from  long  92°  to  104°  E.  its  greatest  length 
was  about  1,000  miles  and  its  breadth  600,  its 
Area  being  then  about  270,000  Englisb  square 
miles.  In  1826  tbe  provinces  or  divisions  of 
Arracan  and  Tonasserim  were  occupied  by  the 
Briiisl^  and  in  1S52  Pegu  and  the-province  of 
Martaban  shared  the  same  fate,  'ntis  portion 
was-  then  kmwn  w  British  finnna  and  con- 
ttmied.to  be  so  till  in  1886  tbe  r«st  of  the  lda«> 
dam  vrai  animed  by  Great  Britain,  when  t£e 
two  portions '  came  to  be  designated  Upper  and 
Lower  Burma,  respectivelv.  They  now  fon« 
toother  one  pnmace  tmoer  a  lieutenant-eov- 
emor  and  legislative  council.  Total  area,  aoont 
23.'.00O  square  miles;  population,  over  1^000,- 
OOOt  mainly  Buddhists. 

Lower  Burma  is  to  a  large  extent  mountain- 
ous in  character,  tbe  only  extensive  level  being 
hi  P^u,  where  ihe  valleys  of  the  Irrawadi  and 
S«ttaung  form  an  alluvial  tract  of  about  10,000 
square  miles.  The  rainfall  varies  from  less 
than  60  inches  in  tome  places  to  190  or  more 
in  others.  About  half  the  soil  is  believed  to  be 
cultivatable,  but  a  comjuratively  small  portion 
is  as  yet  uiider  cultivation,  though  agriculture 
is  extending  year  by  year.  Since  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  couotry  by  the  British  it  has  rajudly 
increased  in  prosperity,  atwl  the  revenue  is 
generally  sreater  than  the  expenditure.  The 
imports  and  exports  twelber  exceed  $84,500,000, 
the  bulk  of  the  trade  being  with  Great  Britain. 
The  capital  and  principal  port  is  Rangoon. 
Other  towns  are  Moulmein.  Akyab  and  Bassein. 
Upper  Burma  is  on  the  whole  similar  in  char- 
acter to  Lower  Burm^  but  less  productive,  and 
has  generally  a  smaller  rainfall.  It  is  rich  in 
minerals,  incIudloK  gold,  silver,  precious  stones, 
marble,  iron,  lead,  tin,  antimony,  arsenic,  sul' 
phur  and  pc^olemn.  Only  a  few  of  these  ar^ 
worked  The  chief  preeious  stones  arc  the  ruby 
and   the  sapphire;  amber  and   jade  are  also 


found.  All  precious  stones  used  to  be  sent  to 
the  royal  treasury  and  strangers  were  prohibited 
from  ai^oaching  the  places  where  they  were 
found.  These  districts  are  still  the  subject  of 
special  regulation  under  the  British  rule.  The 
whole  country  is  intersected  by  numerous 
streams,  which,  following  the  direction  of  the 
chief  mountain  chains,  How  generally  south  to 
the  Indian  Ocean.  The  chief  of  these  are  the 
Irrawadi,  the  Salween  and  the  Chindwin,  whidi 
joins  the  Irrawadi,  the  combined  stream  being 
of  great  volume.  The  Irrawadi  is  of  great 
value  as  a  highway  of  communication  and 
traffic,  being  navigable  beyond  Bhamo,  near  the 
Chinese  frontier.  In  their  upper  courses  the 
flow  throu^  narrow  valley;  in  tfaeir 
they  traverse  low-lying  districts, 
ana  in  me  rainy  season  often  overflow  their 
banks.  Among  the  wild  animals  of  the  country 
are  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  tiger,  leopard,  deer 
of  various  kinds  and  the  wild  hog.  The  rivers 
abound  with  fish.  Of  domestic  animals  we  may 
mention  the  ox,  buffalo,  horse,  elephant  and  cat. 
lo  the  southern  districts,  owing  to  the  numerous 
rivers,  the  soil  is  most  productive.  Here  grow 
rice,  sugar  cane;  tobacco,  cotton,^  indigo  and  all 
the  tropical  fruits.  Tea  is  cultivated  in  many 
of  the  more  elevated  parts.  The  forests  pro- 
duce limber  of  many  sort^  including  teak.  A 
great  part  of  the  trade  of  the  country  is  carried 
on  by  means  of  the  Irrawadi  River,  From 
Bhamo  goods  are  conveyed  to  China,  Rice  is 
the  great  crop  (occupying  about  80  per  cent  of 
the  cultivated  area),  and  this  grain  forms  the 
chief  export,  others  being  teak,  cotton  and  silk 
stuffs,  petroleum,  saltpetre,  paper  and  lacquer 
ware.  About  12,446  miles  of  roads  are  main- 
tained, and  the  number  of  railway  miles  open 
is  now  about  1,000.    From  Rangoon  two  Uiiea 

froceed  north,  one  along  the  left  bank  of  the 
rrawadi.  to  Prome  and  Meaday,  the  other 
through  the  Sittaune  Valley  to  Mandalay,  and 
from  that  on  the  other  side  of  the  Irrawadi  to 
Bhamo  and  Mogaung. 

The  Burmese  have  many  skilful  weavers, 
sroiths,  sculptors,  workers  in  eold  and  silver, 
joiners,  etc.  Among  industrial  establishments 
•mills,  saw-mills,  a  few  works  for  iron 


pottery,  lacquerwork  and  brass  work.  The 
weaving  of  cotton  and  silk  fgods  is  carried  on 
by  the  women  everywhere.    The  pottery  of  the 


numerous  purchasers  outside  the  country. 
^^'ood-ca^ving  is  extensively  practised  for  the 
adornment  of  bouses,  boats,  etc  The  native 
vessels  plying  on  the  Irrawadi  and  other  rivers 
are  often  of  100  to  150  tons  burden,  while  thou- 
sands of  small  craft  are  engaged  in  trade  or 
fishing.  Large  numbers  of  good  cigars  are  made 
by  women,  and-are  partly  used  in  the  country, 
partly  exported.  The  buildings  among  the  Bur- 
mese are  very  slight,  as  the  government  used 
to  require  them  to  be  chiefly  of  wood  or  bam- 
boo, and  prohibited  the  use  of  stone  or  brick 
except  for  pagodas,  and  other  important  struc- 

.  People.^-  The  Burmese  are  divided  into  sev- 
eral tribes,  and  belong  to  the  common  Indo- 
Chinese  stock.  Among  the  tribes  other  Ihao 
the  Burmese  proper  are  the  Karen^  Kakhyens, 


:,  Google 


Shdhs,  etc.  The  BurmeM  proper  are  of  a 
brown  color,  with  lank,  black  hair,  and  vigorous 
well-proportioned  frames.  No  Buntiese  can 
have  more  than  one  wife;  but  he  may  have  as 
many  mistresses  as  he  will.  The  latter  live  in 
the  same  house  with  the  wife,  and  are  her  serv- 
ants. The  Bnmtese  women  enjoy  a  good  deal 
of  freedom ;  are  not  shut  up  as  in  some  parts 
of  the  East,  and  can  even  engage  in  a  lawsuit  in 
their  own  name.  The  chief  amusement  of  the 
Burmese  is  (heir  theatre,  where  declamation, 
dancing- and  music' are  given  bv  turns.  The  new 
year  (which  begins  in  April)  is  celebrated  with 
what  is  known  as  the  'water  feast,*  when 
young  men  and  women  throw  water  on  each 
other  and  the  passers-by.  The  Burmese  usually 
write  on  palm  leaves  'with  an  iron  style  or  ort 
black  tablets  with  a  pencil;  the  nch  have 
libraries,  with  books,  Ine  leaves  of  some  of 
which  are  thin  pieces  of  ivory,  with  gilt  edges. 
Their  materia  medica  is  chiefly  confihed  to 
heTl>s,  spices  and  mercury ;  with  vaccination  they 
have  long  been  acquainted.  The  language  ij 
monosyllabic,  like  Chinese,  and  written  with  sii 
alphabet  (derived  from  India);  the  characters 
of  which  are  more  or  less  circular.  Alnong  the 
common  people  the  principal  part  of  the  male 
dress  consists  of  a  double  piece  df  cloth  about 


front,  and  reaching  below  the  knees.  The  lower 
classes  of  women  wear  only  a  single  garment, 
resembling  a  sheet;  wrapped  round  Ine  bo<^ 
and  fastened  under  the  arms.  Men  of  rank 
wear  a  long  robe  of  flowered  velvet  or  satin, 
whh  open  sleeves  and  collar,  a  mantle  or  scarf 
being  thrown  over  this.  On  the  head  is  worn 
t  high  velvet  or  silk  cap,  plain  or  embroidered; 
according  to  rank.  The  men  wear  earrings, 
often  of  large  siie.  Women  of  the  higher, 
classes  generally  wear  a  shift  which  reaches 
inly  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  where  it  is  drawn 
tight  and  fastened  by  strings.  This  is  covered 
by  a  loose  jacket,  with  ti^t  sleeves.  A  pieci 
of  silk  or  cloth  encircles  the  waist  and  descends 
to  the  feet.  When  a  woman  wishes  to  be  par- 
ticularly fine  she  stains  her  nails  and  palms  a 
red  color,  and  tinges  her  teeth  and  the  cdgtS 
of  faer  eyelids  with  black.  Both  sexes  wear  the 
hair  long;  the  men  tying  it  in  a  knot  on  the 
crown  of  the  head,  the  women  on  the  back; 
Sandals  are  often  worn,  but  neither  boots;  ^oes 
nor  stockings;  every  man,  woman  and  child; 
however,  carries  an  umbrella.  The  chewing  of 
betel  and  smoking  of  tobacco  are  universal. 
The  Kakhyens  or  Stngfo  are  a  courageous 
people  inhabiting  the  upper  basin  Oi  the  Irra- 
waai  above  Bhamo,  They  practise  a  sort  of 
nature  worship,  and  are  active  as  traders, 
diough  at  present  rather  bwless.  Their  villages 
are  ruled  by  hereditary  chiefs.  Chinese  from 
Ytmnan  have  settled  in  considerable  'numbers 
as  traders  and  agriculturists  hi  the  Kakhyen 
coimtry;  and  in  Lower  Burma  they 


t   than   the   Burmese,   and  n< 
In   physical   character, 
alaings   orMons   of   the   Irrawadi   delta   i 


more  ignoi 

purely   Mongolian   In   physical   character.     The 

Talai-      -   "—    -■   '*-- 


ctosdy  allied  to  diJe  Siamese,  and  inHabitinK 
eastern  ^nd  tmrtheastern  Burma,  toother  mtn 
portions  of  the  neighboring  countries. 

The  native^government  was  an  absolute  mon- 


after  osdflating  between  Ava  and  AmarBpura, 
was  latterly  fixed  in  Uandalay,  a  new  town 
founded  in  1857,  and  situated  in  a  dusty  plain  a 
bttle  over  two  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
Irrawadi,  and  about  28  miles  northwest  from 
Ama^apura.  The  King  was  assisted  in  govem7 
tag  by  a  council  of  state  known  as  the  Hlool- 
dOw,  to  which  belonged  at  once  the  functions  of 
a  le^slatiire,  &  cabinet  and  a  supreme  court  of 
jnatKe.  It  was  composed  of  oSiciaU  of  14 
grades,  Hie  president  being  the  King  himself, 
some  other  member  of  the  royal  family  or  the 
Prime  Minister.  Tlie  King  had  power  to  punish 
at  his  pleasure  anyone,  including  even  the  great 
cdioers  of  'state.  The  public  revedae  was  de- 
rived from  taxes  Imricd  in  a  very  irregular  and 
(apricious  manner,  and  as  the  officials  received 
no  fixed  salary  corruption  and  oppression  were 
extremely  prevalent  The  criminal  laws  were 
barbarously  severe.  Cai^tal  immsbment  was 
commonly  inflicted  t^  dcc3H)itstion,  but  cruci- 
fixion and  disemboweliae  were  also  practised. 
Torture  might  be  applied  to  principals  wr  wit- 
nesses; and  trial  by  ordeal  was  not  unknowiL 
The  staoding  anny  was  small.  Levies  were 
made,  .in  cose  of  war,  by  way  of  consciiptkin: 
and  a  specified  nwnber  of  houses  was  requirea 
to  fumidi  a  soldier  or  pay  a  fine.  The  religion 
of  the  cAunto;  is  that  of  Buddha,  which  is  said 
to  exist  here  in  great  parity.  The  tutelary  ^• 
vinities  worshipped  in  -  various  Buddhiit 
eouolnes  are  unknovm,  and  the  vows  of  pov- 
erty and  chastity  taken  by  the  monks  are  said 
to  be  less  frequently  bt-oken  here  than  else- 
where. The  Burmese  possess  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  educatjoc  so  far  as  male  children  art 
toocerned.  All  boys  are  required  to  reside  in 
areligious  house  for  three  years  and  there  they 
act  as  servants  to  the  priests  who  instruct  them 
in  readily  writing  and  arithmetic,  as  well  as 
the  doctrines  of  their  religion.  Upward  of  90 
of  the  population  dwell  in  rural  areas. 


that  the  social  position  of  women  is  so  assured 
in  Burma  and  that  there  is  no  suspicion  of  the 
existence  of  female  infanticide,  women  number 
DiHy  962  m  1,000  arainst  1,006  and  1,022  in  Ben- 
gal and  Madras.  But  the  explanation  probably 
hes  in  the  preponderance  of  the  male  element 
among  the.  ntmierous  immigrants  into  the  prov- 
ince. Marriage  in  Burma  is  a  purely  secular 
ceremony,  a niT  elementary  education  is  far  more 
widely  dispersed  than  in  India,  one  individual 
in  five  being  able  to  read  and  write. 

History.— The  Burmese  empire  is  <jf  little 
.note  in  ancient  or  general  history.  Buddhism 
and  civilization  are  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced from  India,  TTie  last  native  dynasty  was 
founded  by  a  Burmese  called  Alompra,  a  man 
of  obscure  bjrth,  who  defeated  the  Peguans,  and 
in  1753  obtained  possession  of  Ava.  Having 
made  himself  master  of  Burma,  he  mvaded 
Siam;  but  during  this  iirvasion  he  died  sud- 
denly in  1760.  Alompra  ruled  well  and  wisely, 
and  Namdogee,  his  eldest  son  and  successor, 
who  died  in  1764,  inheriting  his  father's  spirit. 


d=vGGOgIc 


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d=,  Google 


Digitized  =,  Google 


BU3M»ISTER  ^wnUUB  Y 


inlToduced  various  refafnuandUsefnlntcaMireit 
Shembaun  (Tshen-bcHyeii),  fbe  Emperor's 
brother,  becaune  regent  as  guu'diui  for  'his 
nephew  MoiiiKn;  but  he  uMirped  the  throna 
himself  and  conqoered  Siam.  In.  1771,  how^ 
ever,  Sivn  recovered  its  independence,  :while 
the  principal  part  of  the  B^nnese  forces  wert; 
engaged  in  a  war  with  Qpna  In  thi&  war  they 
were  victorious,  and  compelled  the  Gm^a- 
whotn  thev  took  prisoners  to  intermarry  wilH 
Bunnese  females,  and  to  remain  in  their,  terri- 
tory. In  1776  Sh<mf>iian  left  his  empire,  much 
eoJarged,  to  his  son,  Cheognza.  Thii  (Hincid 
lived  in  the  uarestrained  indulgence  of  evflty 
appetite  till  in  1782  he  was  dethroned  ajod  put 
to  death.  In  consequence  of  the  r^vQlutioT^ 
Mentaraoyi,  the  fourth  son  of  Alompr^ 
ascendedthe  throne.  He  ordered  his  nephew, 
Momiei^  who  was  a  state  prisoner,  <  to  be 
'  1  1783  subdued  the  tdn^otn  of 
red  in  a  war  ■wi*  SiiaiP, 

. .J,  wbcD  peace' was  made 

on  certain  conditions.  About  this  period  il 
happened  that  some  robbers  fled  from  the  Bur- 
mese empire,  and  took  refuge  in  the  territory  of 
the  East  India  Company.  The  Burmese  de- 
manded that  they  should  be  delivered  up,  and  on 
their  demands  pot  belnif  immetfiztely  complied 
with,  marched  with  a  strong  force  into  the 
offending  counttv.  At  the  same  time  they  car- 
ried on  a  friendly  negotiaiior  with  the  govern- 
ment in  Calcutta^  which  resulted  in  the  surren- 
der of  the  crimmals,  and  the  conclusion  ol  a 
treaty  oE  amity  and  commierce  between  the  two 
Eovermnents,  negotiated  by  Captain  Symes.  The 
last  victory  of  the  Burmese  was  in  1822  over  the 
province  of  Assam.  The  party  driven  from 
Assam,  together  with  the  Burmese  rebels,  fled  tQ 
the  British  territories,  whence  they  intended  to 
invade  Burma.  The  British  government  dis- 
armed the  insurgents,  but  refused  to  deliver 
them  up  or  to  drive  them  from  the  island  of 
Shapun,  which  they  had  occupied.  At  length 
the  Burmese  sovereign  demanded  of  the  eovtrn- 


forces  marched  into  Cachar,  which  was  under 
British  protection.  Lord  Amherst,  aS'  governor- 
general  of  the  British  East  Indies,  now  declared 
war  against  Burma,  and  Gen.  Archibald  Camp- 
bell prosecuted  It  so  successfully  that  after  the 
victory  at  Prome  (1-3  Dec  1825),  he  obliged 
the  monarch  to  conclude  a  peace  at  Palanadi 
in  18ZS.  As  the  tiwty  was  not  ratified  on  tbC 
part  'of  the  Burmese  Emperor  by  the  time 
specified  (18  Jan.  1826),  Campbell  renewed  lh^ 
>var  and  stormed  the  fortress  of  MUnnum.  On 
24  February  the  peace  was  ratified,  and  the  wat 
concluded  with  the  cession  of  Arracan,  Mergui, 
Tavoy,  etc.  In  1852  a  second  war  broice  out  at 
the  conclusion  of  which  Rangoon  and  the  whole 
of  Pego  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
About  1S60  the  new  citv  Mandalay  supplanted 
Amarapnra  as  the  capital  In  1867  British 
steamers  were  permitted  by  treaty  to  navigate 
Burmese  rivers,  and  not  long  after  traffic  was 
carried  on  up  die  Irrawadi  as  far  as  Bhamo.  In 
I88S  the  outrageous  proceedings  of  Kinft  Thee- 
baiv  provoked  another  war,  and  a  British  Force 
proceeded  from  Rangoon  m  the  Irrawadi  River, 
took  ifandalay  and  sent  l^ng  T^Hjj  a^flris- 
oner  to  Rangoon.  On  1  Jan.  iSSc^  Theebaw's 
J.,™'n,nns  were  annexed  to  the  British  empire 
t'^ZZion  of  the  vicetoy  of  India  ^ 


iy  pttWanJatw" 


JEaul  «E  Dttfferki).  After  the  annexhtioB  ikera 
was  a  considerable  amount  of  scattered  fitting 
with  dacoits'  and  others,  but  this  has  ceased 
sbace  1890  and  the  country  is  now  opened  up  tt> 
flommerce,  atid  is  rapidly  advancing  in  pros- 
perity. In  1697-  Burma  was  constituted  a 
province,  and  placed  under  a  lieutenant- gov- 
cmorinatead  of  a  chief  commissioner. 

Biblioaraphy.-^ Clifford,  H,  C,  'Further 
India'  (New  York  1904)  ;  Coxon,  S.  W.,  'And 
That  Reminds  Mc>  (London  1915)  ;  Dautre- 
mer,  J.,  .'Unc  colonic  modeler  la  Birmanie! 
(Paris  1912)  ;  Kelly,  R.  T.,  'Bunna^  Painted  and 
Described*  (London  1912)  ;  White,  T.,  'A 
Civil  Servant  in  Buima'    (London   1913). 

■      CHAKLffi  LBOMARD'&rtJAKT, 

Editorial  Slag  of  The  Americana. 
BURMEISTER,    boor'mis-tir,    Hennaiill, 

Germaii  scientific  writer:  b.  Stralsund,  15  Jan. 
1807;  d.  Buenos  Air^s,  Argentina,  2  May  1892, 
In  1842,  he  became  professor  of  zoology  at 
HftUe^  Hei  diciingiuriied  himself  as  a  gecdagist 
Sttid  zoologist^  hi  tus  native  country,  and  eetdtd 
pcanapently  in  Argentina,  where  he  continued 
his  investigatioDH.  He'  liaveled  in  Soath 
America,  and  was  for  a  time  director  of  the 
UusBum:  of  Natural  History  at  Buenos  Airet^ 
Among  his  works  ere  >Hahdbudi  der  Ejitomol* 
Dgie'  (5  vOla,  Beriia. 1831-55);  'Gcschichtcder 
Sthoffuag'  (Lciprix  1M3) ;  'Systematiscbe 
Ubersicht  det  Tit*c  Brariliens*  (3  vols.,  18S4- 
56) ;  and  many  concributioiu  to  scientific  peri- 
odicals. 

BUKMBISTBR,  Richard,  German-Ameri- 
can musical. composer ;  h.  Hamburg,  Germany, 
7  Dec.  1860.  ■  He  received  an  academical  educa- 
tion in  Hamburg;  studied  with  Franz  Llszt^  and 
trt  Rome,  Budapest  and  Weimar;  made  concert 
tours  m  Europe  in  1883-85  and  in  the  winter  of 
1893 ;  was  at  the  head  of  the  piano  department 
Of  Peab«iy  Institute  Baltimore.  Md.,  1885-97; 
and  seitled'in  New  York  in  the  latter  year.  He 
made  concert  tours  all  over  the  United  Slates 
and  was  director  of  the  Scnarwenka  Conserv- 
ator^, New  York,  in  1897-99.  In  1903  he  be- 
came head  of  the  piano  department  of  the  Roya) 
Conservatory  of  Dresden,  Since  1907  he  has 
been  living  m  Berlin.  He  has  composed  'The 
Sisters'  (a  dramatic  tone  poem),  numerous 
songs,  and  piAno,  violin  and  orchestra  pieces; 
and  arranged  Liszt's  'Concerto  Pathetique,' 
originally  for  two  pianos,  for  the  inano  and 


Thui 

at(  .  .  _  

ink  Qf  ptotftnd.  He  joined  the  stafi  of  the 
RoyAl  Canadian  Bapk  in  1866;  in  1880  was  ap^ 
pointed  general' manager  of  the  Bank  of  (Ottawa. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  Canadiait 
Pankers'  Association  in  1915;  has  been  promi- 
nently identified  with  philanthropic  and  patriotic 
work,  aOd  was  knighted  in  1917. 

BURNABY,  Frederick  Oustaviu,  Engli^ 
soldier  and  traveler:  b,  Bedford,  England,  3 
March  1842;  d.  17  Jan.  18S5.  He  was  educated 
at  Bedford  and  Harrow,  and  entered  the  Royal 
Horse  (ioards  in  his  I8th  year  as  comet.  In 
1861  he  became  lieittenant,  in  1866  captain, 
maior  in  1879.  lieutenant-colonel  in  1880;  and 
finally,  in  1881,  was  ap^imed  colonel,  a  rank 
whiiji.he^ct<}.  till.his  death.    He  was.milttaiy 


d=v  Google 


BUKNAND — BUSHBC 


correspondent  for  tbe  London  Times  with  Don 
Carlos  in  Spain,  and  joined  Gordon  in  the 
Sudan.     In  1875  be  made  his  famous  ride 


partly  because  be  bad  learned  that  the  Rus- 
sian gavemnient  kept  Europeans  out  of  cen- 
ti^  Asia,  he  suRercd  severely  from  the  intettBe 
cold  prevailing  st  tbe  time  whra  he  crossed  the 
steppes.  In  1576  he  rode  (hrouKh  Asiatic  Tar- 
knr  and  Persia.  Of  both  these  jouriKys  he  pub- 
li^ed  narratives,  namely,  *Ride  to  Khiva> 
(1876,  llth  ed,  1877,  new  ed.,  1884),  and  <0n 
Horsebadc  Through  Asia  Minor'  (1S77).  In 
1880  be  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
Binnin^tam  seat  in  Parliament.  While  serving 
as  lieutenant -colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guar<U 
in  tbe  Egyptian  campaign,  he  was  killed. at  the 
battle  of  Abu-KJea.  Consult  Mann,  'Ufc  of 
Burnaby>  (London  1882)  and  Wnabt,  'The 
Life  of  Colonel  Fred  Burnaby?  (London  1908). 
BURNAND,  Sn  Francu  Cowler,  En^sh 
author:  b.  29  Nov.  1837;  d.  21  April  1917.  H« 
Was  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cam* 
bridge,  and  at  first  studied  with  x  view  to  enter- 
ing the  Church  of  England,  but  when  in  1858  he 
became  a  Roman  Catholic  he  devoted  himself 
to  legal  studies,  atid  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1S62.  By  that  year  he  bad  already  achieved 
some  success  as  a  writer,  and  in  conscQnence  he 
seldom  practised  After  about  a  year's  conttec- 
tion  with  Fun  he  joined  the  stan  of  Pimck  in 
1863,  and  was  editor  from  1880  to  1906.  His 
book,  'Happy  Thoughts,'  republtsbed  from 
Punch  went  through  several  editions,  and  was 
followed  by  'More  Happy  Thoughts*  (1871) ; 
'Happy  Thought  HalP  (1872);  'Quito  at 
Home>  (1^0).  Other  successful  productions 
of  his  are  the  extravaganzas,  'New  Light  on 
Darkest  Africa,'  and  'Ride  to  Khiva'  (making 
fun  out  of  Stanley  and  Colonel  Bumaby  respec- 
tively), the  paro^  on  Ouida's  novel,  'Strath- 
more,*  which  he  published  under  the  title  o£ 
'Strapmorc,'  and  'The  Modem  Sandford  and 
Merton.'    Numerous  plays  have  come  from  his 

Sen,  mostly  o£  the  nature  of  burlesques  and 
ght  comedies,  such  as  the  plays  'Black-eyed 
Susan'  (a  burlesque  of  Douglas  Jerrold's 
drama),  and  'The  Colonel.'  He  issued  a  his- 
tory of  the  Amateur  Dramatic  Club  which  he 
had  founded  at  Cambridge  University.  He  col- 
laborated with  Sir  A.  Sullivan  in  the  li^t 
operas  'The  Chieftain,'  produced  in  1894,  and 
'Contrabandista.'  He  was  knigbted.  in  190S, 
and  published  an  interesting  volume  of  'Records 
and   Reminiscences.' 

BURNS-JONES,  Sw  Edward,  Englid 
painter:  h.  Birmingham,  38  Aug.  1833;  d.  Lon- 
doiL  17  June  1898.  In  1852  he  went  to  Exeter 
College.  Oxford,  where  he  was  a  fellow  student 
of . William  Morris,  and  afterward  became  ac- 

guainted  with  A.  C-  Swinburne  (who  dedicated 
is  'Poems  and  Ballads'  to  bim).  His  first 
intention  was  to  enter  the  Church  of  England, 
end  it  was  not  till  he  had  reached  his  22a  year 
that  he  seriously  devoted  himself  to  art  studies; 
but,  going  to  l-ondon  in  I85S,  he  came  under 
the  inthience  of  D.  G.  Rosaetti  and  the  Pre- 
Raphaelite  movement,  and  soon  attained  con- 
nderable  success  in  various  departments  of 
artistic  work.  In  1859  he  set  out  on  a  journey 
through  Italy  in  order  to  se«  the  productions  of 
the  early  l^lian  palnt«#*  and  setHptors,  and  «n 


his  retmti  to  Engtand  he  gav«  in  hts  stained- 
glass  dcB^s  and  his  juctures  sfdendid  promise 
of  his  subsequent  trimnphs.  In  186!  he  begati  a 
series  of  illustraticns  to  Morris'  'Earthly  Para- 
dise,* and  he  also  executed  some  70  designs 
for  the  'Story  of  Cunld  and  Psyche,'  besides 
pictures  dealing  with  the  same  subject.  He  was 
fleeted  a  member  o*  thedd  Sodety  of  Painters 
•in  Water  Colors  in  1864,  but  withdrew  from  it 
In  1870.  and  from  this  year  dll  1877  scareetf 
ever  exhibited  in  London.  In  the  Grosvenor 
Gallery  exhibition  of  the  latter  year,  however, 
his  worics  foimed  the  chief  attraction.'  He  re- 
ceived the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in 
1880,  was  elected  in  1885  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  a  position  nttid)  be  resigned  in  1893 
(having'only  exhibited  one  picture  at  the  Acad- 
etny,  'The  Depths  of  the  Sea'),  and  he  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1894.  His  most  important 
pictures  are  'Day,  Night';  'Spring,  Summer, 
Autumn,  Winter'  (1867-68);  'The  Wine  of 
Grce'  (1869);  'Chant  d" Amour'  (1873);  <Be- 
guifing  of  Merlin'  (1877),  an  illustration  of 
Tennyson's  'Merlin  and  V)vlen»;  'Six  Days  of 
Creation'  (1877);  ^The  Gdlden  Staiw'  (1880); 
'The  Wheel  of  Fortune'  (1883);  'Wood 
Nymph';  'King  Cophetua'  (1884);  'Laus  Ven- 


speeiallY  high  place  as  a  designer  for  stained- 
glass  windows,  and  in  many  other  departments 
of  decorative  art.  His  leading  charaaeristics  as 
a  painter  are  his  fertile  imagination  and  fine 
poetic  feeling,  qualities  which  no  painter  of  the 
century  has  possessed  in  anything  like  the  same 
degree.  The  Old-World  dreaminess  of  his 
work  is  finely  aided  by  his  wonderful  power  as 
a  colorist.  In  common  with  his  friends,  Morris 
and  Rossetti,  he  esxrclsed  a  most  potent  im- 
fhience  on  Victorian  art.  Consult  Bell.  'Ed- 
ward Bume-;ones'   (1902). 

BUKNBLL,  Arthur  Coke,  Eflflish  Orien- 
talist: b.  Gloucestershire  1840;  d  ISE^.  He  w» 
educated  at  Bedford  and  King's  coJlcKeSi 
entered  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  and  became 
immersed  in  South  Indian  paleography.  His 
'Handbook  of  South  Indian  Pateo^ra^y' 
was  regarded  by  Max  Muilei  as  indispensable 
to  every  student  of  Indian  literature. '  A 
'Gassified  Index  to  the  Sanskrit.  MSS.'  in  th« 
palace  at  Tajore  appeared  in  1680.  'The  Law 
qf  Partition  and  Succession'  showed  how  well 
he  had  grasped  the  fundamentals  of  Indian  law. 
He  left  unpublished  'A  Translation  of  the 
Ordinances  of  Manu'  (1885)  ;  vid  (jointly  with 
Colonel  Yu]e)  'Hobson-lobson;  betas  a  Glos- 
saiy  of  Anala-Indian  Colloituiai  Words  and 
Phrases'  C1886>.  He  was  a  remarkable  lin- 
guist, having  a  knowledge  of  Sanskrit,  Tibetan, 
Pali.  Kawi,  Javanese,  Kopiic  and  Arabic,  and 
in  his  later  years  he  became  deeply  absorbed  in 
the  Italian  wrhers  of  th;  Reoaisaance.  An 
ardent  booklover  himself,  be  <  overflowed  with 
helpfulness  and  generosity  to  other  students. 
His  collection  of  over  350  Sanskrit  MSS.  was 
lifted  in  1670  to  the  India  Library,  and  by  the 
twie  of  his  death  he  had  again  collected  an 
equal  number,  which  were  purchased  from  his 
heirs  on  behalf  o(  tbe  same  institution. 

BURNES,  Sir  Alexander,  Scottish  soHier 
and  traveler:  h.  Montrose  1805;  d.  Cabul,  2 
Nov.  1841.  Having  obtained  a  cadetship,  he 
}oineil-tiM  fiomb^  iia^e   infwrtty  in   *"'*' 


[I.  I 


.Google 


Here  hii  proficiency  in  Hinduitani  and  Persian' 
procured  nitn  two  n^imental  appointments  as 
interpreter,  and  contributed  greatly  to  bis  future- 
pronidtian.  In  1830  he  was  appointed  to  pro- 
ceed to  Lahore,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of. 
delivertng  a  present  of  horses  from  the  King 
of  England  to  Runjeet  Singh,  but  realty  for  tbe 
purpose  of  acquainting  himsdf  with  the  lower 
Indus,  with  die  view  of  opening  it  up  to  oora-; 
mercial  enterprise.  On  returning  from  this 
mission,  which  he  successfully  accomplished,  he 

Proposed  a  miision  into  central  Asia,  and 
aving  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  Kevecnoient, 
set  out  iu  January  1832,  descended  the  Sutlej. 
to  Lahore,  antf  proceeded  thereafter  to 
Peshawur,  Cabul  and  Bokhara.  He  afterward 
traveled  with  a  caravau  across  the  de&ert  of 
Uerv,  visited  the  Shah  of  Persia  in  his  capital 
of  Teheran,  traveled  southward  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  reached  Bombay  after  a  year's  ab-' 
scence.  He  published  an  account  of  this 
journey  in  1834,  under  the  title  of  <Travel5  into 
Bokhara.'  He  was  afterward  sent  to  England 
as  the  bearer  of  his  own  despatches,  received 
the  special  thanks  of  the  court  of  directors  aitd 
was  presented  with  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
and  ttie  silver  medal  of  tbe  French  Geographical 
Society.  He  relumed  to  Indii  in  1835.  and  in 
the  following  year  was  sent  on  a  commercial 
mission  to  Cabul.  While  there  he  discowred 
that  Russia  was  intriguing  to  detach  the  Emir, 
Dost  Mohammed,  from  the  British  alliance,  and 
on  findtDfi;  the  Emir  disposed  to  be  friendly  to 
Great  Bniain,  he  urged  Lord  Auckland  to  come 
to  terms  with  him.  His  advice  was,  however, 
r^ected,  and  a  force  was  dispatched  In  1839  to 
reinstate  Shah  Sujafa  on  the  throne.  Burnet 
accompanied  the.  force  as  second  politicat 
ofiicer,  and  received  the  honor  of  kniijithood. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  an  insurrection  in  CabuL 
he  was  murdered  with  his  brother  and  several 
other  Europeans. 

BURNET,  Gflbert,  British  prelate  and  his- 
torian :  b.  Edinbur^,  18  Sept,  1643 ;  d.  London, 
15  March  1715.  Having  graduated  at  Uarischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  he  lealpusly  devoted  hinir 
self  to  the  study  of  law  and  divinity.  In  1661 
he  qualified  as  a  probationer  in  the  Church,  and 
traveled  into  Holland  in  1664.  On  his  return 
he  was  made  fellow  of  the  Royal  Sodety  in 
London,  and  ordained  to  the  living  of  Saltoim, 
Haddingtonshire,  in  1665.  In  1669  he  was  made 
a  professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow,  where  he 
published  his  'Modest  and  Free  Conference 
between  a  Conformist  and  a  Nonconformist,' 
and  wrote  his  'Memoirs  of  the  Dukes  of 
Hamilton'  (1676)  ;  and  was  offered  a  Scottish 
bishopric,  which  he  refused.  His  'Vindication 
of  the  Authority,  Constitution,  and  Laws  of  the 
Church  and  State  of  Scotland,*  in  which  he 
maintains  the  cause  of  episcopacy,  was  much 
approved  of  at  court,  aiid  several  bishoprics 
were  successively  offered  him  and  refused.  In 
1673  he  was  made  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the 
King,  and  was  in  high  credit  both  with  Charles 
and  the  Duke  of  York.  Removing  to  London 
he  received  the  appointment  of  chaplain  to  the 
Rolls  Chapel  in  1675,  and  shortly  afterward  the 
lectureship  at  Saint  Clement's.  The  nation  be- 
ing alarmed  on  account  of  the  progress  of 
Catholicism,  Burnet  undertook  a  'History  of 
die  Reformation  in  England.'  He  gave  a  first 
Volume  to  the  public  in  1679,  wlten  the  afEair 


of  the  popish  plot  vis  in  agitation.  It  procured* 
tor  ■  the  author  the  unprecedented  honor  of 
thanks  from  both  houses  of  Parliament.  The 
second  appeared  in  1681 ;  the  third,  which  was 
supplementaiy.  in  1714.  The  high  character  of 
Burnet  as  a  divine  caused  him  to  be  sent  for  by' 
tbe  witty  and  profligate  Eart  of  Rochester, 
when,  eiutausted  by  a  course  of  libertinism,  he 
was  sinking  into  the  grave.  The  result  of  his 
conferences  with  the  dying  nobleman  he  gave 
to  the  world  in  his  celebrated-  'Account  of  ithe 
Life  and  Death  of  the  Earl  of  Rochester.' 
About  this  time  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  King, 
censnriug  his  public  mis^overtunent  and  private 
vices.  His  connectii»i  with  the  opposition  party 
was  now  very  intimate,  and  he  attended  Lord 
William  Russell  to  the  scaffold,  when  executed 
for  his  share  in  the  Rye  House  ploL  He  pult- 
lished  during  this  period  several  works  in  favor 
of  litKrty  and  ProtestantismL  and  wrote  the 
lives  of  Bishop  Bedell  arid  Sir  l&tthe*  Hale: 
(1682) ;  and  m  1683  tnade  his  translation  of 
Ifore's  'Ut^ia,'  On  the  accession  of  James 
he  made  a  tour  in  France  and  Italy,  and  in  1687 
he  published  an  accoimt  of  his  travels  in  a  senes 
of  letters  to  Robert  Boyle.  When  at  UtredM 
he  was  invited  to  The  Hague  hy  the  Prince  and 
Prineesa  of  Orange,- and  had  a  great  share  in 
tbe  coimcils  relative  to  Britain.  James  caused 
a  pTOsectttiMi  for  high  treason  to  be  commenced 
againlt  him  in  Scothnd,  and  demanded  his 
person  firun  tbe  States,  who  refused  to  deliver 
him  up.     In  the  revolution  he  took  an  active 

grt,  acoocnpanyin^  the  Prince  of  Orange  to 
«land  as  diaplain,  and  waS  rewarded  for  hia 
services  by  the  bishopric  of  Salisbury.  On 
taking  his  seat  in  (he  House  of  Lords,  ht  dis- 
played, his  usual  moderation  in  regard  to  thfl 
non-juring  clergy  and  dissenters.  As  a  prelate. 
Bishop  Burnet  diistinguished  himself  by  fervor; 
assiduity;  tolerance  and  charity.  In  I6Q9  he 
published  his  'Exposition  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles.'  The  scheme  for  the  alimentation  of 
poor  living  out  of  the  first-fruits  and  tenths 
due  to  the  Crown,  known  as  Qaeen  Anne's 
Bounty,  originated  with  Burnet.  He  left  t>ehind 
him  in  manuscript  his  well-known  'History  of 
His  Own  TOmes'  (1723-34),  upon  which  the  best 
judgment  to-day  is  that  nothing  could  be  more 
admirable  than  "his  general  candor,  his  accuracy 
as  to  facts,  the  fullness  of  his  information  and 
the  justice  of  his  judgments,  both  pi  those 
whom  he  vehemently  opposed  and  of  those 
whom  he  greatly  admired  The  value  qf  the 
work,  says  a  recent  authority,  "as  .a  candid 
narrative  and  an  invaluable  work  of  reference, 
has  continually  risen  as  investigatioDS  into 
original^  materials  have  proceeded." 

BURNZT,  Jacob,  American  jurist :  b.  New- 
ark, N.  J.,  22  Feb.  1770;  d.  Qnrinnati,  Ohio,  10 
May  1853.  He  was  ^duated  at  Princeton 
1791,  was  admitted  to  the  t>ar  in  179^  removed 
to  Cincinnati,  then  a  village  with  about  500  in- 
habitants, and  was  a  meml>er  of  the  territorial 
government  from  1799  till  the  establishment  of 
a  State  government  in  1803.  In  1821  he  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ohio, 
and  was  elected  United  Slates  senator  in  1828, 
and  was  prominent  in  the  tegislatton  to  remove 
the  national  debt  of  liie  Middle  West  for  public 
lands;  and  for  the  completion  of  the  Miami 
Canal.  Bnmet  was  elected  a  metnber  of  the 
Prencli  Acadwny  of  ScienccB  upon  tbe  neooia- 

_oglc 


Be. 


BURNET  »  BURNETT 


itieiKUtian  oF  Lafayette,  ami  publithed  in  1M7  a 
volume  of  'Notes  on  the  Northwestern  Ter- 
ritory.'. He  was  prominent  in  dvic  enter(irises 
m  Ciudmiati  for  over  half  a  century,  assisting 
to  establi^  the  Lancastrian  Academy;  hdjmg 
to  found  the  Cindnnati  College,  whose  first 
prstident  he  was;  besidea  being  president  of  Ute 
Ohio  Medicai  CoUege  and  the  Qnciimati 
Colonization. Society  and  the' Qndnnati  btancli 
of  the  United  Stales  Bank. 

BURNET,  John,  Scottish  engraver,  painter 
and  art-critic :  b.  Musselburgh,  near  Edinburgh, 
20  March  1874;  d.  1868.  He  teamed  etching  and 
engraving,  and,  with  Sir  William  Allan  amt  Sir 
David  Willcie,  was  a  student  in  drawing  and 
dainting  at  the  Trustees'  Academy,  Edinburgh. 
In  1806  he  went  to  London,  where  he  engra^d 
Wilkies  'Jew's  Harps' ;  'Blind  Fiddler> ;  <Rent 
Day* ;  >Rakbtt  on  the  Wall' ;  'Chelsea  Pension- 
ers Reading  the  Gaaetie  of  the  Baide  of  Water- 
loo' (his  largest  and  most  elaborate  work)  ; 
'Letter  of  Introduction'  ;  'Death  of  Tippoo 
Sahib' ;  and  'Village  School.'  He  also  engraved 
plates  from  several  recent  'painters,  from  the' 
Rembrandti  in  the  National  Gallery  and  (rmn 
several  of  his  own  paintia;^.  Amonp  his  writ- 
ten works,  for  whidi  he  still  maintains  a  repu- 
tation, are  'Practical  Treatise  on  Painting* 
(1827);  'Rembrandt  and  His  Works'  <1849); 
*Life  and  Works  of  J.  W.  M.  Tarner,'  with 
Cunningham  (18S2).  He  was  a  sound  and 
careful  painter,  but  .possessed  little  originality. 
He  was  made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  in  1860,  receiving  a  dvil  pension,  he  retired. 
Consult  Pye,  'Patronage  of  British  Art'  (in 
Art  Joumtal   1850,  I86B). 

BURNBT,  John,  Scottish  classical  scholar: 
b.  Edinburrfi,  9  Dec.  1863.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Royal  High  SchocJ  and  University,  Edin- 
burgh, and  BdlUol  College,  Oxford,  and  has 
been  professor  of  Greek  in  Saint  Andrew's 
University  since  1992.  His  works  include 
<Early  Greek  Philosophy*  (1892) ;  'Gfeek 
Rudiments'  (1897);  'Pfatonis  Opera*  (S  vols., 
iS9«W907);' 'Plato's  Phtedo'  (1911);  'Greek 
Philosophy,  Part  V    (1914). 

BURNBT,  Thomas,  Enflish  divine  and 
philosopher;  b.  Croft,  Yorkshire,  about  1635; 
d.  London,  27  Sept.  1715.  He  was  educated 
under  Dr.  Ralph  Cudworth  at  Cambridge,  and 
afterward  traveled  as  tutor  to  several  young 
noblemen.  In  1681  he  made  himself  known  by 
his  'Telluris  Theoria  Sacra,'  whidi  he  subse- 
quently translated  into  English.  In  1685  he 
became  master  of  the  Charterhouse  and  after 
the  revolution  of  1688  was  appointed  chaplain 
in  ordinary  and  clerk  of  the  closet  lo  King 
William.  In  1W2  he  published  'Archaeologife 
I^ilosobhicK,  sive  Doctrina  Afitiqua:  de  Return 
Originibus,'  but  the  freedom  of  opinion  <£&- 
played  in  this  woik  led  to  the  removal  of  the 
author  from  the  clerkship  of  the  royal  closet. 
Two  postfaiimolis  works  of  this  author  appeared 
in  1727  — tbe  treatise  'De  Fide  et  Officiis 
Christianorum' ;  'De  Statu  Uortuorum  et 
Resur^ntium.*  AH  the  works  of  Bumct  ex- 
hibit hiro  as  an  ingenious  speculator,  rather  than 
as  a  patient  and  sober  inquirer  concerning  the 
moral  and  natural  phenomena  of  which  he 
treats.  His  great  work,  the  'Theory  of  the 
Earth,'  is  one  of  the  many  systems  of  cos- 
mogony in  wUch  Christian  phflosf^hers  have 
Utenipted  to  reconcile  Hie  Mosaic  account  of 


die  creation,  paradise  and  the  deluge,  with  the 
traditions  of  the  ancient  and  the  principles  of 
modem   science.     His  speculations   are   recom- 


he  has  combatted  die  Kteial  interpre- 
tation of  the  history  of  the  fall  of  man.;  and 
to  expose  its  improhahitity  he  has  introduced 
an  imaginary  dialogue  bctVKcn  Ev<  and  the 
serpent,  which,  as  coming  from  the  pen  of  a 
dtviOe,  is  singular  enou^.  It  is  daly  to  be 
found  in  the  first  editioin  of  the  work. 

BURNET,  Williann,  American  colonirf  gov- 
ernor: b.  The  Hague,  Holland,  1688;  d.  Boston, 
7  Sept.  1729.  He  was  a  son  of  Gilbert  Bnrnet 
(q.v.)  and  was  appointed  governor  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  in  1720!  Two  years  later 
he  founded  at  Oswego  the  ear&est  English 
trading  post  on  the  Great  Lakes  as  the  first  step 
in  his  able  Indian  policy  in  New  York  which 
accomplished  very  much  for  the  interests  of  the 
mother  country  and  the  colonics.  In  1728  he 
was  transferred  to  the  governorship  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  New  Hainpshire  and  was  speedily 
Biyolved  in  disputes  witk  the  assembly  of  die 
former  colony  over  the  question  of  salary.  Ho 
was  fond  of  astronomical  studies  and  published 
cAservations  in.  the  'Transactions'  of  the  Royal 
Society. 

BURNET,  the  popular  name  of  two  genera 
of  plants  of  the  familv  Romceir.  (1)  (^rdcn 
Burnet  {Sangniiorba}f  a  perennial  plant 
which  grows  to  the  heit^t  of  about  two  feet; 
leaves  smooth,  alternate,  hnparipinnate,  com- 
posed of  serrate  leaflets;  flowers  arranged  in 
rounded  heads  of  a  purpKsh  color,  with  the 
female  flowers  above  and  the  male  flowers 
below.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe  but  has  bwome 
naturalised  in  sunny  places  among  rocks  and 
in  open  fields,  from  New  York  to  Maryland. 
It  is  cultivated  in  kitchen  gardens  far  its 
aroraadc  leaves,  which  are  used  to  season 
salads.  (2)  Canadian  Burnet  (S.  fronadffuu)  is 
also  a  perennial  plant;  calyx  of  four  divisions; 
Stamens  four.  Its  stem  is  straight,  from  three 
to  six  feet  in  height;  leaflets  ovate,  smooth. 
This  plant  grows  chiefly  in  bogs  and  wet  places 
from  Labrador  to  (jeorgia,  and  west  to  Michi- 

BURNBT  MOTH,  the  name  for  the  genus 


Dth.  The  six  spots,  which  a 
su^perior  wings,  are  red,  while  the  Test  of  the 
wuigs  are  green.  Its  caterpillar,  which  feeds 
on  the  plantain,  trefoil,  dandelion,  etc,  is  yel- 
k>w,  spotted  with  black.  A.  loli  U  the  five-spot 
bumet  moth.  It  is  less  common.  The  cater- 
pillar feeds  on  honeysuckle,  bird's  foot,  trefoil, 

BURNETT,  Frances  BlizK  Hpdffton. 
Anglo- American  novelist :  b.  Manchester,  Eng- 
land, 24  Nov.  1849.  In  1856  went  to  Tennessee 
mth  her  widowed  mother,  and  lived  there  until 
her  marriage  in  1873  to  Dr.  S.  M.  Burnett.  She 
has  since  lived  in  Washington  and  Europe. 
Between  the  ages  of  16  ana  20  Mrs.  Burnett 
wrote  numerous  stories  for  magazine  puUica- 
tion  — including  'Vagabondia' ;  'Theo';  'The 
Fortunes  of  Philippa  Fairfax,'  etc.  This 
girlish  work  was  collected  later  by  (Charles 
Scxibner's  Sons  in  an  edition  known  as  ^Mrs. 
Burnett's  Earlier  Stories.'     Her  first  serious 

D,,  _,     Coogic 


BURHBTT^fiDilHBVi 


liUtBTT  fliccoss'  was  <TllU  Lua  o'  Loiirne's^ 
(1S77),  A  novel  founded  on  coUiery  life  in 
Lancaslure.  This  appeared  serrall}"  *"  Scrit^- 
Kir's  Mdgasine  and  in  book  form  in  1^7.  This 
was  followed  by  <Haworths'   (18?9)  ;  <LouUi-, 


'Little  Lord  Famrtleroy'  (1886);  'A  Little 
Princess'  (1905) ;  <Two  Little  Pilgrims'  Prog- 
ress'; 'The  Secret  Garden';  'The  Lost 
Prince,*  etc.  Her  dramatic  work  comprises 
plays  foimdei]  upon  'Little  Lord  Fauntleroy' ; 
*A  Little  Princess';  'Esmeralda*  (1881); 
'Phyllis';  'A,  Lady  of  Quality';  'The  Dawn 
of  a  To-morrbw,'   etc. 

BURNSTT,  Jumes  (Lord  Konboddo), 
Scottish  jud^e:  b.  at  the  family  seat  of  Mon- 
boddo,  in  Kincardineshire,  1714;  d.  Edinburgh, 
26  May  1799.  After  studying  at  Aberdeen  and 
Edinburgh  he  went  to  the  University  of  Gronin- 
gen,  whence  he  returned  in  1737,  and  commenced 
practice  as  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar.  In 
1767  he  \Tas  raised  to  the  bench  on  the  decease 
of  his  relative  I^rd  Milton.  He  disting^iished 
himself  by  bis  writings  as  a  metaph^sic' — 
having  published  a  work  on  the  'Origin 


boddo  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  ancient 
literature,  and  especially  of  the  works  of  Plato 
and  other  Grecian  philosophers.  His  woirks 
contain  many  interesting  observations,  but  also 
exhibit  some  strange  and  paradoxical  opinions. 
Thus  he  seriously  advocates  the  crtistcnce  of 
satyrs  and  mermaids,  and  has  advanced  some 
pre-Darwinian  speculations  on  the  affinity  be- 
tween the  human  race  and  the  monkey  tribe, 
which  exposed  him  to  a  good  deal  of  'ridicule 
on  the  first  publication  of  his  theories.  Boih 
tns  official  and  his  private  character  were  of 
high  standing  and  be  was,  notwithstanding 
some  eccentricities,  a  man  of  learning  and 
ability. 

BURNETT,  Peter  Hardeman,  first  State 
governor  of  California  and  author-:  b.  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  1807;  d.  San  Francisco  1895.  After 
residence  in  Mbsouri  and  Oregon,  where  he 
practised  as  a  )awyer  and  assisted  in  the  organi- 
zation of  territorial  ^vernment,  serving  two 
terms  in  the  le^slature,  he  went  to  California 
in  1848  with  one  of  the  first  band  of  gold 
diggers,  and  became  prominent  in  organizing 
State  government  without  waiting  for  (^n- 
gressional  sanction.  He  was  elected  governor 
on  the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  but  resigned 
in  1851.  In  1857-58  he  was  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  and  from  1863  to  1880  preddent 
of  the  Pacific  Bank  of  San  Francisco.  His 
published  works,  marked  by  lucid  exposition  alid 
clear  logical  thinking,  include  'The  Path  which 
led  a  Protestant  lawyer  to  the  Catholic  Church' 
(1860);  'The  American  Theory  of  (k>vem- 
ment  considered  with  reference  to  the  Present 
Crisis'  (1861) ;  'Recollections  of  an  old 
Pioneer'  (1878)  ;  'Reasons  why  we  should  be- 
lieve in  God,  Love  God,  and  Obey  God'  (1884). 

BURNETT  PRIZES,  The.  Two  prices  in 
theology  founded  by  John  Burnett,  of  Dens, 


ai 

the  wisdom  and  goodness  qf  the  Deil^;  — 
this  independent  of  writlea  revelation,  and  of 
(he  revelation  of  the  Lord  Jesus;  and  from  the 
whole  to  point  out  the  inferences  most  neces- 
sary and  U5cful  to  mankind"  Burtlctt,  who  was 
born  in  1729  and  died  in  1784.  was  a  merchant 
of  Aberdeen,  and  was  known  for  his  bene- 
factions to  the  poor.  On  his  death  he  be- 
queathed his  fortune  to  found  the  prizes  above 
referred  to,  and  to  establish  flinds  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  poor  and  of  pauper  lunatics.  He 
ordered  the  prize  fund  to  be  accumulated  for 
40  years  at  a  time,  and  tbe  prizes  (not  less  than 
$6,000  and  ?2/W0)  to  be  awarded  as  above.  In 
1883  the  fund  was  applied  to  found  a  lectureship 
on  natura]  thoology  in  the  University  of  Aber- 
deen. Awards  oT  the  priKes  were,  first  prize 
to  Willianj  Laurence  Brown  in  1815;  second 
prize  to  John  Bird  Sumner  in  1848;  first  prize 
to  Robert  A.  Thomson  in  1855.;  second  prize 
to  John  Tulloch  in  1860. 

BURNEY,  Charles,  English  composer  i^nd 
writer  on  music:  h.  Shrewsbury,  12  April  1726: 
d.  Chelsea,  London,  12  A^iril  18M.  He  sWaed 
music  under  the  organist  of  Chester  Cathedral 
there,  and  at  Shrewsbury,  tutder  the  direction 
of  his  half-brother,  an  organist,  and  afterward 
in  London  between  1744  and  1747,  under  Dr. 
Ame.  In  1751  be  obtained  the  place  of 
organist  at  Saint  Margaret's  Churoi,  Lynn 
R^s,  in  Norfolk.  Here  he  conm^nced  his 
'(ieneral  History  of  Music'  In  1760  he  rer  - 
turned  to  London,  where  his  compositions  and 
the  musical  skill  of  his  eldest  daughter,  then 
eight  years  of  age,  excited  admiration.  In  1769  . 
he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  music  at  Ox- 
ford. In  1770  he  visited  France  and  Italy,  and 
two  years  afterward  the  Netherlands  and  Ger- 
many, for  the  sake  of  his  great  work.  He  pub- 
llahea  accounts  of  both  tours-  After  his  second 
return  he  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
In  1776  appeared  the  first  volume  of  his  'Cien- 
eral  History  of  Music  from  the  Earliest  Ages 
to  the  Present  Period''  (4to),  the  second  in 
1782,  and  the  third  and  fourth  in  1789.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  other  valuable  worksL 
among  which  are  the  'Memoir  of  Handel,'  and 
a  'Life  of  Metastasio.'  He  died  in  the  office 
of  organist  at  Chelsea  Hospitid,  and  in  receipt 
of  a  pension  of  $1,500.  He  wrote  most  of  the 
musical  articles  in  Rees'  Cyclopedia.  His  2d 
daughter,  Frances  or  Fanny  (Madame  D'Arblay. 
q.v),   well   known   i  '  "'  ' 


,  authoress,  published 


C3iarter-hoiise  School,  at  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge and  King's  College,  AberdeetL  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  M.A,  He  carried  on  a  pri- 
vate school,  distinguished  himself  as  a  writer 
in  the  iioittUy  Review  and  the  Londo* 
Magaamt,  to  which  he  contributed,  many  ai^ 
tides  on  classical  literature;  subsequently  en- 
tered into  holy  orders,  andobtained  some  pre- 
ferment in  the  Church.  His  valuable  coUeclion 
of  books,  many  of  them  enriched  with  n 


.Google 


ranura Y — bukhoup 


the  BritiBt 

BURNBY,  Frances. 


i  end  knd  to  erase  blemishes 


i    lyAHBLAT,    Ma- 


He  started  in  lite  as  a  stenoarapher,  and  be- 
came a  clerk  in  the  United  States  Circuit 
Court,  northern  district  of  Illinois,  He  took 
up  astronomy  as  an  amateur,  and,  in  1876, 
became  connected  with  the  Chicago  Observa- 
tory, and  later  with  the  LJck  Observatory, 
receiving  also  an  appointment  as  professor 
of  practical  astronomy  at  the  Yerkes  Ob- 
servatory of  the  University  of  Chicago.  He 
has  maoe  notable  discovenes  of  double  stars, 
having  catalogued  1,274  new  ones.  In  1874 
he  was  made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society  of  England,  recriving  its 
gold  medal  in  1894  for  his  disco veiv  and 
measurement  of  double  stars.  In  1900  the  Yerkes 
Observatory  issued  a  catalogue  of  the  stars  he 
discovered.  In  1904  he  was  awarded  the 
Lalande  prize  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  pubhshed  'General  Catalogue  of  Double 
Stars  within  121°  of  the  North  Pole>  (1906) 
and  'Measures  of  Proper  Motion  Slars'  (1513). 

BURNHAM  BEECHES,  England,  remains 
of  an  ancient  forest  in  Buckinghamshire.  It  is 
situated  some  25  miles  northwest  of  London, 
and  is  famous  for  its  enormous  beech  trees. 
Since  1883,  the  Bumham  Beeches  tract  of  374 
acres  has  been  open  to  the  puUk  as  &  park  by 
the  Corporation  of  London. 

BURNINO-BUSH,  or  WAAHOO,  a  tall 
■  shrub  iEuonymtu  atroPurpitreiu)  of  the  natural 
order  Celoriracea  with  oval-ob!ong  leaves  and 
purple  flowers  occurring  in  fours.  It  is  com- 
-  mon  throughout  the  Middle  West  from  New 
Yoric  to  Wisconsin  and  NebrasksL  and  south- 
ward. It  is  sometimes  cultivated  for  the  orna- 
mental effect  of  its  long  drooping  peduncles  of 
crimson  fruit. 

BURNING  BUSH,  The,  the  place  from 
Out  of  which  Yahwe  spoke  to  Moses  on  Sinai, 
when  he  gave  him  the  tables  of  the  law  (Exod. 
iii,  2^).  The  story  as  there  told  would  ap- 
pear to  have  resulted  from  a  fusion  of  two 
widely  current  beliefs — that  fire  indicated  the 
Divine  Presence  and  ihat  certain  trees  were  the 
jkcrmanent  abode  of  deities.  In  Deut.  xxxiii, 
11,  another  fortn  of  the  story  is  hinted  at  ac- 
cording to  which  the  bush  was  Yahwe'a  per- 
manent dwelling.  The  fiery  appearance  in 
Exodus  is  clearly  regarded  as  temporary.  Rob- 
ertson Smith  cites  some  parallels  from  non- 
biblical  sources,  and  arpjes  that  'the  original 
seat  of  a  conception  Idee  the  burning  bush, 
which  must  have  its  idiysical  basis  in  electrical 
phenomena,  must  probably  be  sou^t  in  the 
clear  dry  air  of  the  desert  or  of  lofty  moun- 
tains." Consult  Baudissin,  ^Studien  zur  semit 
Religons-geschichte. ' 

BURNISHER,  a  blunt,  smooth  tool,  used 
for  smoothing  and  polishing  a  roug^  surface 
Yn  pressure,  and  not  by  removing  any  part  of 
the  body.  Other  processes  of  polishing  detach 
die  little  ksperities.  Agates,  tempered  steel  and 
dogs'  teeth  are  used  for  burnislung.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  expeditious  methods  of  polishing, 
and  one  which  gives  the  highest  lustre.  The 
biimishers  used  by  engravers  are   formed  to 


burnish  with  on 
with  the  other. 

BURNJIRD,  Persia,  town  of  the  province 
of  Irak-Ajemi,  in  the  Tahji  River  Valley,  about 
190  miles  north  by  west  of  Ispahan.  It  has 
manufactories  of  cottons,  felt  hats,  caps,  etc., 
and  a  trade  in  skins,  most  of  whch  are  ex- 

forted  to  Russia.  Roads  connect  the  town  with 
spahan  and  Hamadan.  .  It  boastr  a  castle  and 
numerous  mosques.     Pop.  25,000. 

BURNLEY,  England,  a  parliamentary  and 
county  borough  in  Lancashire,  about  29  miles 
north  of  Manchester  by  rail,  situated  on  the 
small  river  Brun,  near  its  confluence  with  the 
Calder.  The  town  presents  a  modem  ap- 
pearance, and  is,  generally  spealdng,  well  built, 
mostly  of  stone.  The  town-hall  is  a  large. 
handsome  building,  erected  in  1S87;  there  is 
also  a  commodious  exchange,  and  a  convenient 
market  halL  Among  the  churches  the  chief 
place  is  due  to  Saint  Peter's,  an  ancient  build- 
ing restored  in  1867.  A  splendidly  equipped 
technical  school  was  opened  in  1909.  The  public 
utilities  are  nearly  all  publicly  owned.  The 
manufactures  and  commerce  of  Burnley  have 
rapidly  increased  in  recent  years.  The  staple 
manufacture  is  cotton  goods,  and  there  are 
large  cotton-mills,  worsted-mills  and  several 
extensive  foundries  and  machine-shops,  with 
collieries,  quarries  and  other  works  in  the 
vicinity.  Burnley  is  situated  on  the  Leeds  and 
Liverpool  Canal,  has  a  good  water  supply  and 
has  five  railway  stations.  It  seems  to  have  been 
a  Roman  station,  and  various  Roman  remains 
have  been  dug  up  in  and  around  it.  Burnley 
returns  one  member  to  Parliament-  Pop. 
106,765. 

BURNOOSE,  a  large  kind  of  mande  in 
use  among  the  Bedouin  Arabs  and  the  Berbers 
of  northern  Africa,  commonly  made  of  white 
or  undyed  wool,  but  sometimes  also  of  red,  blue. 
green  or  some  other  color,  and  having  a  hood 
which  may  be  drawn  over  the  head  in  case  of 
rain.  In  Spain  also  a  similar  garment  is  worn 
which  bear?  the  similar  name  of  albomoz,  and 
the  name  has  also  been  applied  to  different 
kinds  of  upper  garments  worn  by  women  of 
other  European  countries. 

BURNOUf,  b>ir-noof,  EmUe  Lotus, 
French  Orientahst,  cousin  of  Eugine  Bumouf 
(q.v.)  :  b.  Valognes,  Manche,  France,  25  Aug. 
l&l ;  d.  1907.  After  a  normal  school  training, 
.  he  became  professor  of  ancient  literature  in  the 
faculty  of  Nancy,  and  in  1867  director  of  the 
French  School  in  Athens.  Among  his  works 
are  'Essay  on  the  Veda'  (1863);  'Sanskrit- 
French  Dictionary'  (1863-65).  the  first  of  its 
kind  in  France;  'History  of  Greek  Literature' 
{2  vols.,  1868);  'Science  of  Religions';  'The 
Athenian  Legend' ;  Essays  on  Antiquity'  (Paris 
1679) ;  'MeSod  of  Studying  Sanskrit  (1859,  3d 
ed..  Paris  1885)  ;  'The  Mythology  of  the 
Japanest^'  according  to  the  'Koku-si-Ryakel,' 
the  first  translation  of  the  work  into  a  European 
loi«ue  (1875)  ;  'The  City  and  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens'  (Paris  1877) ;  and  'Contemporary 
Catholicism'  (1879).  He  also  edited  the  letters 
of  his  cousin.  Eugene  Bumouf. 

BURNOUF,  Eugine,  French  OrienUlist: 
b.  Paris,  12  Aug.  1801 ;  d.  there,  28  May  \9Si. 
He  commenced  his  studies  at  the  College  of 
Louis-lc-Grand,   became  a  pupil  in  the  Scolc 


Google 


BURNCH^ — BURNS 


des  Ourtcs  in  18Z2,  puwd  u  a  lawyer  in  1824 
and  soon  after  devoted  himself  to  the  Kndy  oi 
OrientBl  laiwittgea.  In  1826  be  attracted  ths 
anention  of  mett  of  IwraiBg  thnMtebDol 
Europe  by  publithim^  in  conjuoctien  with  iaa 
ftiend,  Lassen,  an  'Eisay  on  the  Pali,'  or  the 
laCred  languwe  of  the  Buddhists  in  Ceylon  and 
the  Eastern  Peninsula,  and  in  1827  by  furnish- 
ing an  explanatory  text  to  the  series  of  lidio- 
Kraphic  plates'  prepared  by_  Geringet  and  Cha- 
Dretle  to  illustrate  the  religion,  manners,  cub- 
toms,  etc.,  of  the  Hindu  nations  inhabiting  the 
French  possessions  in  India.  This  work  was 
not  completed  tilt  1835.  In  1832  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  in 
lEe  same  year  was  appointed  to  the  profeswr- 
ship  at,  Sanskrit  in  the  College  de  France,  an 
office  which  be  held  till  his  death.  His  fame  is 
chiefly  due  to  his  having,  so  to  speak,  restored  to 
life  an  entire  language,  the  Zend  or  old  Persian 
language  in  which  the  Zo  roast  rian  writings 
were  composed.  Anquctii-Duperron  had  ob- 
tained the  text  of  the  extant  works  of  diis 
sacred  language  of  the  Persians.  It  is  the  glory 
of  Bumouf  to  have  interpreted  those  works 
with  the  aid  of  tbe  Sanskrit  To  this  part  of  bis 
labors  belongs  his  *£xtrait  d'un  commentaire 
et  d'une  traduction  nouvelle  dn  Vendidad- 
Sadi'  (1830) ;  'Observations  sur  la  grammaire 
de  M.  Bopp*  (1833) ;  'Commeniaire  sur  le 
Yagna>  (1833-35).  Bumouf  also  distinKuished 
himself  by  his  labors  on  Buddhism.  On  Ibis 
subject  be  published  the  text  accompanied  by  a 
translation  of  the  'Bha^vata  Purana*  (184ft- 
47):  'Introduction  i  lliistoire  du  Boud<Uiisme 
Indien>  (1st  vol.,  1844),  etc.  A  fortni^t  be- 
fore bis  death  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
elected  him  secretary  for  life.  Consult  Lenor- 
mant,  'Eugene  Bumouf  (Paris  1852);  Bar- 
ditiemy-St.-Hilaire^  'Notice  sur  les  travaux 
de  M.  E.  B.>  (in  the  2d  ed.  of  the  'Introduc- 
tion i  I'histoire  du  Bouddhisme'  (1876)  ;  'Choii 
de  Lettres  d'Eug^e  Buraouf>   (1891). 

BURNOUF)  Jean  hovls,  French  classical 
scholar:  b,  Urvifle,  Manche,  1775;  d.  Paris, 
IS44.  He  was  appointed  assistant  professor  at 
the  Colliae  Charlemagne  in  1807  and  professor 
of  Latin  ^ere  in  1816.  In  1840  he  became  uni- 
versity librarian.  He  exercised  a  profound 
influence  on  classical  learning  in  France.  He 
published  a  translation. of  'Tacitus'  (6  vols., 
1827-33,  1881)  and  a  'Milhode  pour  iludier  la 
langue  grccque'  (1814,  1893). 

BURNS,  Anthon;^,  American  fugitive  slave : 
b.  Virginia,  about  1830;  d.  Saint  Catherine's, 
Ontario,  27  July  1862.  Escaping  from  slavery 
he  worked  in  Boston  during  the  winter  of 
1853-54;  but  on  24  May  1854~tbe  day  after  the 
repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  the 
passing  of  the  Kansas- Nebraska  Bill  had  in- 
fiamea  the  North  against  the  slave  power — 
was  arrested  on  warrant  of  Charles  F.  Suttte 
through  his  agent  Brent.  The  next  day  he  was 
taken  before  United  States  Commissioner  Ed- 
ward G.  Loring  for  examination;  but  Wendell 
Phillips  and  Tneodore  Parker  secured  an  ad- 
journment for  two  days.  Burns,  meanwhile, 
was  confined  in  the  courthouse  under  a  strong 
guard,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  26th  a  great 
mass  meeting  in  protest  was  held  at  Fanenil 
Hall.  T.  W.  Higginson  and  others  had  jilanned 
to  stampede  the  meeting  into  stormmg  the 
-cmrtliousr  and  reselling  Bums,  and  at  the  ap- 


pointed dme  battered  in  a  door  and  &tteinpt«d 
the  rescue  themselves,  inlying  upon  assistance 
in  their  undertaking.  The  size  of  the  meet- 
ing, however  prevented  the  signals  frttm  work- 
iiw  well  and  tbe  leaders  from  emerging,  and 
after  a  scuffle  in  which  a  deputy  was  fatally 
stabbed  and  several  assailants  wounded,  the 
latter  retired.  The  next  day  Lorii^,  an  ardent 
upholder  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  delivered 
Bums  to  his  claimant  on  evidence  entirely  il- 
legal and  worthless  even  under  that  law.  Es- 
corted by  a  strong  military  guard,  Bums  was 
taken  to  a  government  cutler,  through  streets 
draped  in  mourning  and  crowds  ready  to  stone 
the  soldiers.  A  riot  at  the  wharf  was  only  pre- 
vented by  the  action  of  Rev.  Daniel  Foster  upon 
his  saying  *Let  us  pray  I*  The  crowd  uncov- 
ered and  stood  quiet  wfaile  Bums  was  taken  on 
board.  Indictments  were  drawn  against  his 
would-be  rescuers,  but  quashed  for  want  of  evi- 
dence. Burns  afterward  gained  his  liberty, 
studied  theology  at  Oberlir  College  and  ,was 
eventually  settled  over  a  Baptist  colored  church 
in  Saint  Catherine's,  Ontario,  where  he  died. 
Consult  Stevens,  'Anthony  Bums  r  a  History' 
(1856);  Adams,  "Richard  Henry  Dana:  a 
Biography'  (1891) ;  Higginson,  'Cheerful  Yes- 
terdays' (1898). 

BURNS,  John,  English  labor  orKKiiizer  and 
statesman:  b.  London,  October  1858.  He  was 
of  humble  birth  and  became  a  factory  employee 
at  the  a^  of  10.  He  was  an  omnivorous  reader 
and  imbibed  his  socialistic  views  from  a  French 
fellow  laborer.  By  working  a  year  as  engineer 
on  the  Niger  River,  he  earned  enough  for  a  six 
months'  tour  of  Europe.  He  constantly  ad- 
dressed audiences  of  worldngmen,  and  was  a 
Grsistent  labor  agitator.  He  was  one  of  the 
iders  in  the  West  End  riot  in  London,  Feb- 
ruary 1886,  and  was  imprisoned  the  same  year 


Ben  "fillett,  organized  the  successful  dock 
strike  in  London  in  IS89.  He  has  been  thrice 
elected  to  the  London  county  council  and  has 
sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  Labor  mem- 
ber for  Battersea  since  1892.  From  1905-14 
he  was  president  of  the  Local  Government 
Board,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Trade.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Great  European  War  in  August 
1914,  on  account  of  the  war  policy  of  the  As- 
quith  cabinet,  be  resigned  his  place  in  the  gov* 


BURNS,  Robert,  Scottish  poet :  b.  near  Ayt, 
Scotland,  25  Jan.  1759;  ±  Dumfries,  21  July 
1796v  His  father,  William  Bumes  or  Bumess, 
a  native  of  Kincardineshire,  had  been  a  gar* 
dener,  but  at  the  time  of  the  poet's  birth  was  a 
nurseryman  on  a  small  piece  of  land  on  tbe 
banks  of  the  Doon  in  Ayrshire.  He  was  a  mad 
of  strong  intelligence  and  deep  jrfcty,  but  un- 
successful in  his  struggle  with  poverty.  His 
mother  was  Agnes  BrowiL  a  woman  of  ability, 
and,  though  of  meagre  book  education,  wdl 
versed  in  folk-song  and  legend.  Robert,  the 
eldest  of  seven  children,  went  to  school  for 
three  years,  1765-68,  tmder  John  Uardoeh  in  tbe 
neighboring  village  of  Alloway.  Later  he  was 
in  attendance  for  a  few  months  each  at  Dal' 
rymple  parish  school  in  1772.  at  Ayr  Aeadeny 
fai  1773  and  at  KiritonvsOd  aboot  1776;  bat  du 


v  Google 


Inare  impcinanb  pdrt  o£  his  edacatiaM  'he  to- 
oeived  from  his  father  and  hia  own  reading. 
In  1766  William  Bumess  had  borrowed  money 
to  rent  the  farm  of  Uount  Oiiphant;  aad  the 
future  poet  by  the  time  he  was  16  wat  do 
ing  a  man's  worl^  overstraining  his  immature 
phV^iQue  is  performing  hjs  share  in  the  vain 
effort  of  the  family  to  keep  its  head  above 
water.  The  scene  of  the  struggle  was  moved 
in  1777  to  Lodilea,  about  10  miles  distant, 
where  in  1784  his  father  died.  During  the 
Lochlea  period,  Bums,  ambitioiis  to  impiove 
hia  position,  went  \o  the  neighboring  town  at 
Irvine  to  learn  flax-dressing.  Nothing  came  o£ 
this  move ;  but  while  resident  there  he  formed 
that  acquaintance  with  a  dis^pated  sailor  to 
which  he  tuinseU  ascribed  the  hcginning  of  his 
licentious  adventures.  On  bis  father's  death, 
Robert  and  hie  brother  Gilbert  rented  the  farm 
of  MossgieL  but  this  experiment  was  no  more 
successful  than  those  previously  made.  While 
here  he  contracted  an  intimacy  with  Jean 
AnAour,  which  brou^t  upon  him  the  censuire 
of  the  Kirk-session._  Finalh-  the  poet,  dis- 
heartened by  successive  bad  narvcsts  and  irri- 
tated by  the  attempts  of  his  father-in-law  to 
cartcel  his  irregular  marriage  with  Jean  and  to 
hand  him  over  to  the  law,  determined  to  emi- 
grate. For  10  years  he  nad  been  composing 
verses,  some  of  which  had  brought  turn  con- 
siderable local  fame,  and  these  he  collected  and 
published  in  order  to  raise  money  for  the  vo^ 
ase ;  but  the  uneicpected  success  of  this  volume 
{KilmBmock  1786)  roused  his  literary  ambition. 


Indies,'  he  went  to  Edinbur^  in  November 
1786,  and  during  that  winter  was  the  literal^ 
li6n  of  the  season.  Here  he  met  such  celebrities 
as  Du^ld  Stewart,  the  philosopher;  Blair,  the 
rhetoncian;  Henry  Macltenzie,  the  author  of 
•The  Man  of  Feeling':  Lord  Glencairnj  the 
Puchess  of  Gordon,  and  Creech,  the  pubhsher. 
The  last  named  undertook  an  enlarged  editioa 
of  his  poems  (Edinburgh  1787) ;  and  while 
waitjng  for  the  profits  of  this,  volume.  Burns 
made  several  tours  through  the  country,  traces 
pf  which  are  to  be  found  in  a  number  of  occa-* 
sional  poems.  Creech  finally  paid  him  enough 
to  enable  him  to  give  substantial  help  to  his 
brother  in  MossgieT,  and  to  rent  and  stock  th; 
farm  in  Ellisland  in  Dumfriesshire.  Hither 
in  17SS  he  brought  Jean  Armour,  to  whom  he 
was  now ,  regularly  married,  his  success  and 
fame  having  reconciled  her  parents  to  the 
match;  and  for  three  years  he  tried  farming. 
But  failure  still  dogged  Um,  and  in  1791  he 
moved  to  Dumfries,  where  he  lived  on  a  imsi' 
tion  in  the  excise  service  which  he  had  obtained 
while  still  at  Ellisland  through  the  influence  of 
Gome  of  the  powerful  acaualntances  he  had 
made  in  Edinbur^.  He  nad,  however,  lost 
heart ;  and  after  a  tew  years  of  drudgery,  varied 
with  the  driidting  bouts  to  which  he  was  coR'- 
stantly  tempted  both  by  habit  and  by  the  invila' 
tion  of  foolish  admirers,  be  died  at  Dumfries 
in  his  38th  year. 

BiograiAiies  of  Bums  have  frequently  been 
crowded  with  attempts  to  disentangle  or  to  eit- 
plain  away  the  facts  of  bis  numerous  amours. 
There  is  much  controversy  over  the  identJtf  of 
the  semi-mythical  Mary  Campbell,  the  "High- 
land Mary"  of  the  songs;  much  curiosity  over 
the  precise  degree  of  Plalgnism  in  his  feeling 


for  Mrs.  UcLetaoK,'thc  HHuinda^  of  Us  leb- 
tcTS,  and  'the  inspiner  of  a  number  oi  lyrksj 
much  diSercnce  of  opinion  as  to  wiiether  and 
bow  long  he  was  in  love  with  his  wife.  Into 
these  details  we  do  not  enter..  It  is  cleat  enough 
that  Bums  was  a  man  of  exceptionally  power- 
ful passions,  that  the  txtreme  and  dcpresitng 
hardships  of  his  youth,  and,  indeed,  of  tin 
greater  part  of  his  life,  along  with  bis  natural 
tendencies  to  conviviality,  drove  bhn  to  exceucs 
of  self-indulgence;  and  that  wlule  he  strove 
often  and  painfully  after  better  things,,  hu 
striving  was  many  times  without  avail.  'The 
sport,'*  he  calls  himself,  'the  miserable  victim 
of  rebeUious  pride^  hypochondriac 'inu^nation, 
^onizing  sensibility  and  bedlaoj  passions.'* 
^ese  phrases  are  true  enough,  though  they  do 
not  imply  the  funher  explanation  of  his  pitiful 
career  that  is  found  in  the  habits  of  bis  class 
and  tim^  and  the  untoward  nature  of  his  eiv- 


Something  of  his  education  baa  a^eady  been 
indicated.  His  schooling  left  him  with  a  good 
grammatical  knowledge  of  English  and  a  read- 
ing knowledge  of  French.  His  father's  care 
and  bis  own  eagerness  gave  hinl  no  slight 
knowledge  of  hterature;  and  among  owkt 
authors  we  know  that  he  read,  of  older  hter- 
ature,  the  Bible,  Shakespeare,  Spenser,  Johnson, 
Bunyan,  Drvden,  Locke,  Moliere,  Wycherley; 
of  tus  own  century,  Addison,  Steele  and  Poik; 
Ramsay,  Fcrgusson,  lliomson  and  Beattici 
Fielding.  Smollett,  Sterne  and  Mackenzie; 
Shenstonc;  Gru*,  and  Goldsmith  i  Hume,  Rob* 
ertson  and  Adam  Smith,  and  a  number  of 
philosophical  atid  theological  works.  This  list 
IS  by  no  means  complete,  but  it  ti  tuf&cient  to 
correct  the  impression  that  Bums'a  was  an 
"untutored  Muse.* 

The  literary  influences  apparent  in  the  woik 
of  Bums  are  of  two  main  classes:  English  and 
Scottish.  So  far  as  kt  fell  under  the  farmer  of 
these  he  was  an  inferior  poet  of  the  school  of 
pope,  an  ardent  admirer  and  Iinitatoc  of  such 
a  minor  master  as  Shenstone.  In  this  field  his 
pritical  judgment  was  never  more  than  com- 
monplace, and  his  imitations  never  first-rate. 
Almost  all  of  his  greatest  work  was  done  in  his 
native  dialect;  and  here  he  is  the  heir,  as  well 
as  the  last  great  representative,  of  an  ancient 
national  tradition.  Previous  to  the  17th  century 
there  existed  a  Scottish  literature  of  consider- 
able variety  and  distinction,  produced  in  patt 
under  the  patronage  of  the  court.  But  the  Ref- 
ormation and  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  Eng- 
)and  and  Scotland  resulted  in  the  disuse  of  the 
vemaculatr  for  dignified  and  courtly  writing 
and  it  rapidly  lost  social  prestige,  until  as  a 
literary  medium  it  survived  only  in  the  songs 
of  the  peasantry  and  in  an  occasional  piece  of 
satire.  The  I8tb  century,  however,  saw  a  revival 
of  interest  in  purely  Scottish  letters,  and  the 
publication  of  sud)  compilations  as  Watson's 
'Choice  Collection  of  Comic  and  Serious  Scots 
Poems'  (1706-09-11).  and  Allan  Ramsay's 
'Evergreen'  (1724)  and  'Tea-Table  Miscellany' 
(1724-27)  was  the  result  of  an  impulse  that 
Solved  itself  also  in  renewed  attempts  to  com- 
pose in  dialect.  Among  the  most  important 
leaders  in  this  movement  were  William  Hamil- 
ton of  Gilbenfield  (who  modernized  the  ISth 
century  poem  on  Wallace),  Alla'n  Ramsay  and 
Robert  Fergusson;  and  each  of  these  had  a 
share  in  inspiring  Barns  to  work,  in  that  field 


.Google 


ROBERT  BURNS 


d=y  Google 


d=,  Google 


in  wflich  1m  achieved  his  greatest  tritnnphs. 
Their  influence  was  both  general  and  particular. 
They  showed  him  by  their  own  success  what 
could  be   done  in  the  native  idiom ;   and   they 

gave  him  ipodelt  oC  which,  be  w^s  cot  slow  to 
avail  himseU.  Many  of  Burns'a  best  known 
poems  are  all  but  imitations  of  productions, 
usually  inferior,  b^  Kamsay  and  Fcrgusson,  ana 
to  them  and  their  poetical  ancestors  he  was 
indebted  not  only  for  sugeestions  as  to  theme 
and  method  of  treatment,  but  also  for  his  most 
characteristic  verse-forms.  This  readiness  on 
the  part  of  Bums  to  accept  from  his  prede- 
cessors all  that  they  had  to  give,  and  to  seek  lo 
maintain  loyaUy  a  national  tradition  rather  than 
to  strive  after  mere  novelty,  has  much  lo  do 
with  his  success  in  carrying  that  tradition  to  its 
hii^hest  pitch,  and  in  becomtng,  in  a  sense  almost 
unique,  the  poet  of  iiis  people. 

The  first  kind  of  poetry  which  Bums  thor- 
oughly mastered  was  satire  2_  and  the  _        "  " 
por 


tut^niy  iixasicicu  w*ia  aaiiit ,  riiiu  luc  iihjsl  im- 
portant of  his  successful  efforts  in  this  form, 
'The  Twa  Herds,  or  the  Holy  Tuliie  >  'Holy 
Willie's  Prayer.'  The  'Address  to  the  Unco 
Guid,*  'The  Hgly  Fair.*  and  the  'Address  to 
the  Deil,'  were  all  written  within  less  than  a 
year  (1785-86).  \Vfcatevcr  Bums's  ieelings 
may  have  been  about  what  he  suffered  in  his 
own  p'Crson  from  the  discipline  of  the  Kirk,  it  is 
dear  that  the  impulse  that  gave  these  poems 
their  fire  and  their  uifiucnce  was  something 
much  larger  than  mere  personal  grudge. 
Against  the  narrow  Sogma  and  tyrannical  con- 
duct of  the  so-called' "Auld  Licht"  party  in  the 
Scottish  Churck  there  had  sprung  up  the  "New 
Lichts,"  demanding  some  relaxation  of'Calvin- 
istic  bonds  and  preaching  charity  and  tolerance. 
Though  not  a  member  of  ibis  or  any  ecclesias- 
tical faction,  Burns  sympathized  strongly  with 
their  protest;  and  the  shafts  of  his  satire  were 
directed  against  both  the  docttines  of  the  ortho- 
dox party  and  their  local  leaders.  For  some 
time  after  the  Reformation  the  Scottish  people 
seem  lo  have  submitted  willingly  to  the  ng- 
orous  domination  of  the  Presbyterian  ministers; 
but,  after  the  struggle  against  Rome  and  the 
persecutions  of  the  Covenanting  times  had  alike 
become  matters  ot  history,  there  began  to  ap- 
pear a  more  critical  attitiide  toward  their 
soiritual  leaders.  The  revolt  against  authority 
tnat  spread  throughout  Europe  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  century  manifested  itself  in  Scot- 
land in  a  growing  disposition  to  demand  greater 
individual  liberty  in  matters  of  conduct  and 
belief.  It  was  this  disposition  that  Bums  voiced 
in  his  satires,  the  local  conditions  determining 
the  ijrecise  direction  of  his  attack.  The  sub- 
stantial justice  of  his  cans?,  the  shatpness  of 
his  wit,  the  vigor  of  his  invective,  and  the  im- 
aginative fervor  of  his  ver^e,  all  combined  to 
bring  the  matter  home  to  hia  countrymen;  and 
he  ia  here,  lo  }fe  leclrancd  a  great  liberating 
iorce. 

Several  ot  the  satires  were  published  in  the 
Kilmarnock  volume,  and  along  with  them  a  va- 
riety of  other  kinds  of  poetry.  In  the  words  of 
his  preface,  "he  sings  the  sentiments  and  man- 
ners he  felt  and  saw  in  himself  and  his  tustic 
compeers  around  him.*  Some  of  these  arc  de- 
scriptive ot  sides  of  humble  Scottish  life  with 
which  he  himself  was. in  the  closest  contact, 
*Tbc  Twa  Dogs'  gives  a  democratic  peasant's 
views  of  the  lives  of  lairds  and  farmers;  and 
the  sketch  o^  the  factor  in  this  pocra  has  bem 


taken  as  a  reminiscence  of  what  his  father  hid 
to  endure  from  the  arrogance  of  sadi  u  agent, 
'The  Cotter's  Saturday  Might'  describes  with 
affectionate  reverence  iht  order  of  his  father's 
hfMite;  'Puir  MaiSe,'  'The  Auld  Mace  Mag- 
gie,* 'To  a  Mouse,'  and  others,  reveal  the  kinjdi- 
hness  of  the  poet's  heart  in  his  relation  to 
aniitials;  'Hallowe'en'  gives  a  vivid  picture  of 
rustic  mirth  and  manners,  and  preserves  a  tnasb 
of  folk-lorc;  Of  the  additional  poems  that 
appeared  in  the  Edinburgh  editions  the  most 
notable  was  'Tarn  o'  Shanter,'  Bums's  best  sus- 
tained piece  ot  narrative,  a  poem  that  indicates 
that,  had  he  worked  his  vein  farther,  he  mi^t 
have  ranked  with  Chaucer  as  a  teller  of  tales 

A  large  quantity  of  Bums's  poetry  remained 
in  manuscript  at  the  time  of  his  death.  Of  this, 
much  the  most  remarltable  is  'The  jolly  Beg- 
gars.' in  the  opinion  of  many  his  most  brilliant 
production.  lAis  cantata  carries  to  its  highest 
point  the  far-descended  literature  of  the  rogue 
3nd  the  beraar,  and  its  superb  spirit  and  aban- 
don show  now  heartily  die  poet  could  sympa- 
.thiie  with  the  very  dregs  of  society.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that,  alone  among  pieces  that  reach  his 
hig^st  level,  it  is  chiefly  in  English,  Burns 
wrote  besides  a  large  number  of  epistles,  epi- 
grams, epitaphs  and  other  personal  and  occa- 
sional verse,  the  quality  and  interest  of  which 
vary  much,  but  throughout  which  one  con- 
stantly finds  phrases  and  stanzas  of  superb 
(luaJity.  He  came  to  write  verse  with  great 
ease;  but  the  result  of  the  training  he  gave  him- 
self in  artistic  discrimination  was  to  check 
mere  fiuencj;,  and  to  lead  him  to  discard  ranch 
that  was  of  inferior  value  in  his  improvisations. 
Thus  the  proportion  of  his  work  possessed  of 
real  poetic  distinction  is  very  high. 

But  the  national  importanceof  Burns,  thou^ 
increased  by  his  influence  upon  the  liberalizing 
movements  of  his  time,  and  by  his  vital  de- 
scriptions and  charactenzations  of  the  peasant 
life  (jf  the  Scotland  of  his  tin)e,  is  based  chiefly 
oh  his  songs.  The  period  of  Presbyterian  des- 
potism already  referred  to  had  forced  the  lyric 
muse  of  Scotland  into  low  company,  and  as  a 
result  Burns  found  Scottish  song  still  pure  and 
fine  in  melody,  but  hopelcsly  degraded  in  point 
of  both  poetry  and  decenc}^.  From  youth  he 
had  been  interested  in  collecting  the  sordid  frag- 
ments he  heard  sung  in  cottage  and  tavern,  or 
found  printed  in  broadsides  and  chapbooks ; 
and  (he  resuscitation  of  this  all-but-lost  national 
heHtage  came  to  be  regarded  by  hirfl  in  the  light 
of  a  vocation.  Two  points  are  especially  to  he 
noted  about  his  song-making:  first,  that  almost 
all  sprang  from  real  emotional  experiences; 
second,  that  almost  all  were  composed  to  a  pre- 
viously existing  melody.  He  had  bcEUn  the 
composing  of  love-songs  while  still  auncst  a 
boy,  and  fie  continued  it  to  the  end.  During  his 
visit  to  Edinburgh  in  1786^7,  he  formed  a  con- 
nection with  the  editor  of  Johnson's  Musical 
Museum,  and  for  this  publication  he  nndertook 
10  supply  material.  Few  of  the  traditional 
songs  were  such  as  could  appear  in  a  reputable 
volnrne,  and  Bums's  task  was  to  tnakc  them 
oyer'  into  presentable  form.  Sometines  he  re- 
tained a  stanza  or  two,  semetimes  only  a  line  or 
refrain,  sometimei  merely  the  name  of  the 
melody :  the  rest  was  his  own.  His  method  was 
to  familiarize  himself  with  the  traditional  air, 
to  catch   a   suggestion    from  some  stanza   or 


d=,  Google 


BURNS  -^  BURHSIDE 


phrase  of  the  old  song,  to  fix  ttpon  an  idea  or 
situation  for  the  new  poem;  then,  fautnming  or 
vrhistling  the  melody  about  the  fields  or  the 
fannyard,  ai  imagination  and  emotion  warmed 
within  him,  he  worked  out  the  new  verses,  com- 
ing into  the  house  to  write  them  down  when  the 
tnspiTatioD  began  to  flag.  Careful  consideration 
of  this  process,  for  the  reality  of  whicii  we  have 
his  own  authority  as  well  as  the  evidence  of  the 
raw  material  and  the  finished  product,  will 
explain  much  of  the  precise  quality  and  ftuic- 
tion  of.  Burns  as  a  song-wnter.  In  Geofge 
Thomson's  collection  of  ^Scottish  Airs'  he  had 
a  share  similar  to  that  in  Johnson's  undertak- 
ing, his  work  for  these  two  publications  con- 
stituting the  greater  part  of  his  poetical  activity 
during  the  last  .eight  or  nine  years  of  his  life. 
It  was  characteristic  that,  in  spite  of  his  finan- 
cial stringency  during  these  years,  he  refused 
to  accept  any  recompense,  prcferfing  to  regard 
this  as  a  patriotic  service.  And  a  patriotic 
service  it  was  of  no  small  magnitude.  By  birth 
and  temperament  he  was  singularly  fitted  for 


__ n  of  the  finished  songs,  the 

from  the  old,  but  by  the  nnique  extent  to  which 
his  productions  were  accepted  b_y  his  country- 
men, and  have  passed  into  the  hfe  and  feeling 
of  his  race.  See  Tam  o*  Shaster;  Cotteh's 
Saturday  Night;  Jolly  Beckars,  the. 

Bibliography. —  Early  collections  by  Currie, 
Allan  Cunningham^  Hogg  and  Motherwell  have 
been  incorporated  m  modern  editions.  Consult 
Chambers,  R.  and  Wallace.  W.  (4  vols.,  London 
and  New  York  1896) ;  W.  Scott  Douglass  (6 
vols.,  Edinburgh  1877-79  and  3  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh 1893);  Smith,  Alexander,  •G!obe»  edition 
0  vol.);  "Cambridge"  edition  (Boston  1897); 
Lang,   A.,   and   Craigie,   W.   A.,    (1    vol..   New 


VorE'  1896)  r  McKieT  ''Bibliograpliy  of  feu 

'^E.  and  K„. 

,    -     -,     '14 

vols.,    Edinbut^    1896)-    Henderson,    T.    F., 


(Kilmarnock  1881 )  ;   Henley,   W.  E.  and  Hen- 
derson,_T.  F.,   '"Ilic  Centenary  of  Bums*    ' 


'Robert  Burns"'  (New  'tork  19C>t)  ; 'Dougali,' 
'The  Bums  Country'  (New  York  I91I) ;  Wal- 
lace (editor),  'Correspondence  between  Burns 
and  Mrs.  Dunlop'  (London  1898)  ;  Carlyle, 
'Bums'  in  his  'Essays'  (London  1847);  Ste- 
venson, "Robert  Bums'  (in  'Familiar  Sketches 
of  Men  and  Books'   (London  1882). 

WttUAW  A.  Neilsos, 
ProfestoT  of  English,  Harvard  University. 

BUSHS,  WilliuR  Chalmerfl,  Scottish  Prot- 
estant missionary:  b.  Dun,  Forfarshire,  1815; 
d.  1868.  He  received  his  education  at  Aber- 
deen University  and  entered  on  the  practice  of 
law,  which  he  soon  abandoned  to  enter  the  mis- 
sionanr  field  in  1839.  For  about  seven  years 
he  lea  great  revivals  throughout  the  British 
Isles,  but  set  out  for  (Hiina  in  1846.  He  was 
very  succcssfut  having  adopted  the  native  cos- 
tume and  manner  of  life  and  becoming  a  fluent 
speaker  in  the  native  tongue.  Consult  Bums, 
•Memoir  of  William  Chalmers  Borns>  (1870). 

BURNS,  William  Wallace,  American 
soldier:  b.  Coshocton,  Ohio,  3  Sept.  1825;  d, 
Beaufort,  S.  C,  19  April  1892.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  West  Point  in  1847.  He  served  in 
the  war  with  Mexico  and  also  in  the  Union 
army  during  the  Qvil  War,  becoming  major- 
general  of  volunteers.    In  1865  he  was  brevctted 


brigadier-general  and  was  for  maw  years  af- 
terward m  the  Cocninissary  Department  at 
Washington,  until  18S9,  when  fee  retired,  with 
the  regular  rank  of  colonel. 

BURNSIOB,  Ambrose  Everett,  American 
soldier:  b.  Liberty,  Ind,  23  May  1824;  d.  Bris- 
tol, R.  L,  13  Sept.  1881.  He  served  an  appren- 
ticeship to  a  tailor,  but  recdved  a  nomination 
to  West  Point,  where  he  was  graduated  in 
1847.      After    serving   some   years   in   ^rrison 

id ' 


as  first  lieutenant  m  1852, 

was  engaged  in  the  mao- 

facture  of   firearms   at  Bristol,   R.   I.,   during 


this 


h-Ioading  rifle.     On  the  outbreak  of  the 


May  to  August  of  that  year  as  cglonel  of  the 
Rhode  Island  Volunteers,  and  as  such  taking 
part  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  (q.v.).  On 
0  August  he  was  promoted  brigadier-genera!  of 
volunteers  and  from  October  1861  to  January 
1862  supervised  the  organization  of  the  *(^^asl 
Division*  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  From 
January  to  July  1862  he  commanded  the  De- 
partment of  North  Carolina!  in  February  cap- 
tured Roanoke  Island,  occupied  Newbern,  N.  C.. 
and  look  Fort  Macon,  Beaufort  He  was  ratsea 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers  on 
18  March  18^  and  placed  in  command  of  the 
troops  that  subsequently  constituted  the  9th 
Army  Corps.  In  July  1862  and  again  after  the 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run>(q.v,)  he  was  offered 
the  command  of  the  Army  of  Virginia  which, 
after  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  had  been  merged 
into  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  but  each  time 
declined  the  olTer  and  served  with  the  9th 
Army  Corps  under  McClellan.  In  this  capacity 
he  ^rlicipatcd  in  the  Maryland  campaign  (q.v.) 
agamsl  Lee,  rendering  important  services  in  the 
battles  of  South  Mountain  and  Antietam  (qq.v.), 
in  the  latter  action  on  I7  September  command- 
ing the  left  wing.  On  10  November  of  that 
year  he  superseded  General  McQellan  in  com- 
mand of  tie  Army  of .  the  Potomac.  On  13 
December  be  crossed  the  Rappahannock  and 
attacked  Gnieral  Lee  near  Fredericksburg,  but 
was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  over  10,000  men, 
and  was  soon  after  transferred  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Ohio.  In  November  1863  he  success- 
fully held  Knoxville  against  a  superior  force, 
and  in  1864  he  led  a  corps,  under  General  (jrant, 
through  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness  and  Cold 
Harbor.  Resigning  in  April  1865,  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Rhode  Island  (1866-68),  and 
United  States  senator  in  1875  and  1881.  Con- 
sult Poore,  'Life  and  Public  Services  of  Am- 
brose E  Bumfiide'  (Providence  1882) ;  Wood- 
bury, 'Major  (leneral  Burastde  and  the  Nmth 
Army  Corps'  (Providence  1867). 

BURNSIOB,  Helm  Harfon,  En^sh  art- 
ist and  poet :  b.  Bromley  Hall  1844.  She  pub- 
lished a  book  of  poems  in  1864,  which  made 
her  widely  known.  From  1880  to  1889  she  was 
designer  to  the  Royal  School  of  Art  Needle- 
wotlt.  She  has  published  'The  Lost  Letter,' 
'Tales  for  Children,'  'The  (jirl  without  a 
Penny'  and  many  occasional  contributions  in 
prose  and  verse  to  leading  magaiines. 


C.  R  A  C.  R.  and  Cindnnati  ft  SoudMrti  rail- 


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BURNT  OFVSRCNG— BURR 


toads.  The  diief  indoMiics  arc  lumber  nnnti- 
iftclures  -and  roller  mills.  Taxable  property 
amounts  to  $80Q,(na     Pop.  1,500. 

BURNT  OFPERING,  one  of  the  sacrifice 
enjoined  on  the  Hebrew  Churdi  and  nation.  It 
ii  called,  in  their  language,  olah,  from  the  root 
alah,  to  ascend,  because,  being  wholly  con- 
sumed,  all  but  the  refuse  ashes,  was  regarded  as 
ascending  in  the  smolce  to  God.  In  ttie  New 
Testament  it  i%  called  holokaulOma,  meaning  a 
whole  burnt  offering,  an  offering  wholly  burnt. 
Id  the  Vulgate  it  is  called  holocaiutitm,  which 
has  the  same  meaning.  Stated  burnt  offerings 
were  presented  daily,  every  Sabbath,  at  the  new 
moon,  at  the  three  great  festivals,  on  the  iay 
of  atonement  and  at  the  feast  of  trumpets. 
Private  ones  might  be  presented  at  any  time. 

BURNT  SIENNA.  aA  ochreous  earth 
known  as  sienna  earth  (ttrra  di  Sienna)  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  fir^  by  which  it  is  con< 
verted  into  a  fine  orajige-brown  pigment  used 
in  both  oil  and  water-color  painting. 

BURNT  STONKS,  a  Idnd  of  cameltan 
often  met  with  in  ruins.  The  red  color  dis- 
played by  holding  it  up  to  ibe  li^t  is  beKcved 
to  be  the  result  of  fire  and  artificial  methods 
toward  the  same  end  have  been  tried  with  more 
or  leas  stKcesB. 

BURNT  UMBER,  a  jngment  of  i^ddish- 
brown  color  obtained  by  burning  umber,  a  soft 
earthy  miicture  of  the  peroxides  of  iron  and 
manganese,  deriving  its  name  from  Umbria  in 
Italy. 

BURNT  WOOD  WORK.     See  Pytoc- 

BURNTI8LAND,  bfimt-ri^nd,  Scotland, 
a  royal  burgh  and  seaport  of  Fife,  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  estuary  of  the  Forth,  7^  miles 
north  by  west  of  Edinburgh  and  five  mites  by 
Steam  ferry  north  of  Granton.  It  is  a  favorite 
stinimer  residence  and  bathing-place  as  well  as 
a  busy  port.  Its  parish  church  dates  from  1S94, 
and  close  by  is  Rossend  Castle,  where  Chastel- 
"    "    '    "screet  love  affair      '"'    ■'        "  ' 

s  followed  by  his 


equipped.  Vegetable  oil  and  oil-cake  are  made, 
and  Uiere  are  railway  repairing  works  and  a 
disfiliery.  It  unites  with  Kinghorn,  Dysart  and 
Kirkcaldy  in  sending  a  member  to  Parliament. 
Pop.  4,708. 

BURPEE,  Lawrence  Johnston,  Canadian 
author;  b.  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  5  March  1873. 
He  entered  the  Canadian  public  service  in  1890; 
in  1905  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Car- 
negie Public  Library,  Ottawa.  It;  1912  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  Canadian  section  of 
the  International  Joint  Commission.  In  addi- 
tion to  editorial  work  for  (he  publications  of 
the  Canadian  Archives  and  the  Royal  Society 
of  Canada,  contributions  to  various  encyclo- 
paedias and  'Canada  and  Its  Provinces,'  he  has 
pubKshed,  among  others,  the  following  works : 
■Bibtiography  of  Canadian  Fiction'  (190*); 
'The  &arch  for  the  Western  Sea>  (1907),  a 
notable  contribution  to  the  history  of  explora- 
tion; 'By  Canadian  Streams' ;  'Songs  of 
French  Canada*  (1909);  'Dictionary  of  Cana- 
fian  History'  (with  A.  G.  Doughty) ;  'La 
Verendrye  and  the  Western  Sea'  (19111 ; 
'Canadian     H«mour>     (1912) ;     'Among    the 


BURR,  AsTon,  American  clergyman;  b. 
Fairfield,  Conn.,  4  Jan.  1716;  d.  Pirnceton,  N. 
J..  24  Sept.  1757,  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
and  was  settled  as  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Newark,  N.  J,  In  1748  he  became 
president  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  now 


months.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Jonathan 
Edwards,  and  was  the  father  of  Aaron  Burr 
(q.v.),  third'  Vice-PreMdent  of  the  United 
States.  He  published  a  Latin  gramma^  known 
as  the  'Newark  Grammar,'  and  'The  Supreme 
Divinity  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.' 

BURR,  Aaron,  American  statesman:  b. 
Newark,  N.  J.  (son  of  the  preceding),  6  Feb. 
I7S6;  d.  Port  Richmond,  Staten  Island,  14 
Sept.  1S36.  Before  he  was  three  years  old  bis 
parents  died,  leaving  him  a  considerable  estate. 
He  entered  the  sophomore  class  of  Princeton 
College  in  1769  and  was  graduated  in  1772,  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  Burr  enlisted  as 
a  private  and  joined  the  force  before  Boston. 
He  volunteered  for  the  expedition  against  Can- 
ada and  took  part  in  the  attack  upon  Quebec 
For  this  service  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major.  As  aide-de-camp  to  General  Putnam, 
Burr  was  engaged  in  the  defense  of  New  York, 
and  shorllv  after  (1777)  was  promoted  lieuten- 
ant-colonel with  the  command  of  his  renment, 
the  colonel  bein^  a  civilian.  He  was  at  valley 
Forge,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Monmouth,  where  he  commanded  a  brigade 
in  Lord  Stirling's  division.  During  the  .wmter 
of  1778  he  was  stationed  in  Westchester  County, 
N.  Y.,  but  early  in  the  following  spring  he 
resigned  his  commission,  partly  on  account  of 
ill  Health,  and  partly  through  disappointment 
at  not  bang  more  rapid^  promoted.  Burr  be- 
longed to  the  Lee  and  Gates  factions;  he  always 
aiitected  to  despise  the  military  talents  of  (Gen- 
eral Washington ;  and  it  is  not  improbahle  (hat 
these  circumstances  interfered  with  his  profes- 
sional career.  In  1782  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Albany,  and  in  July  of  the  satne  year  he 
married  Mrs,  Provost,  the  widow  of  a  British 
ofiicer  who  had  died  in  the  West  Indies.  Fn 
1783  he  began  to  practise  in^  New  York,  and 
soon  obtained  a  lucrative  business.  In  politics 
his  success  was  rapid  and  brilliant.  In  1784 
he  was  elected  to  the  State  legislature;  he  was 
appointed  attorney-general  of  New  York  in 
1789  and  United  Slates  senator  in  1791.  While 
in  the  Senate  several  influential  members  of 
Congress  recommended  him  for  the  mission  to 
France,  but  Waslungton,  with  marked  empha^s, 
refused  to  appoint  him.  He  left  the  Senate 
in  1797,  and  the  following  year  was  returned 
to  the  State  legislature.  Some  aspersions 
upon  his  conduct  while  in  that  body,  which 
were  thrown  out  by  John  B.  (Hiurch,  led  to  a 
duel  between  Burr  and  that  gentleman,  in 
which,  however,  neither  party  was  injured. 
Burr  was  very  efijcieni  in  tne  presidential  can- 
vass of  1800.  To  his  efforts  may  be  attributed 
the  success  of  the  Republicans  in  New  York, 
upon  the  action  of  which  State  the  restdt  in 
the  Union  depended.  On  account  of  the  prom- 
inence be  thus  obtained  the  friends  of  Jefferson 
brought  him  forward  for  the  Vice-Presidency. 
An  equal  number  of  votes  having  been  thrown 


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for  J«fftr9an  and  Burr  in  the  Eledora]  College, 
the  election  of  a  President  devolved  "po°  ">' 
House  o(  Reg^resentatives.  Most  of  the  Federal 
members,  taking  advantage  of  ihe  singular  turn 
in  affair^  supported  Burr.  The  contest  lasted 
several  aayi.  Upon  the  36th  ballot  Jefferson 
was  chosen  President,  and,  iii  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  constitution  at  that  time, 
Burr  became  Vice-President  His  conduct  id 
permitting  himself  to  be  used  by  his  political 
opponents  in  order  to  defeat  the  candidate  o£ 
his  party,  whom  he  himself  had  supported,  dis- 
solved his  connection  with  the  Bepublkans  and 
destroyed  his  political  influence,  The^  Federal- 
ists nominated  him  for  governor  of  New  York 
in  1804.  Some  of  the  leading,  men  of  that  party 
refused  to  support  him,  and  he  was  defeajed. 
The  contest  was  bitter  and  led  to  a  duel  between 
Burr  and  Alexander  Hamilton  (q.v.),  H  July 
1804,  in  which  the  latter  was  killed.  Burr  was 
compelled  to  give  up  his  residence  in  New  York. 
After  his  retirement  from  the  Vice-Presidency 
\a  April  180S,  he  made  a  journey  to  the  South- 
west. His  conduct  gave  rise  to  the  suspicion 
that  he  was  organizing  an  expedition  to  invade 
Mexico,  with  the  purpose  of  establishing  an 
empire  there  which  should  embrace  some  of 
the  southwestern  States  of  the  Union,  He  was 
arrested  in  Mississippi  and  taken  to  Richmond, 
Va.,  for  trial'  upon  an  indictment  for  treason. 
After  a  protracted  investigation  before  Chief 
Justice  Marshall  the  prosecution  was  abandoned 
and  Burr  was  acquitted  in  September  1807.  In 
1808  he  went  to  Europe,  expecting  to  gel  means 
to  carry  out  his  Mexican  design.  He  was  dis- 
appointed; and  after  being  abroad  four  years. 
part  of  the  time  in  extreme  poverty,  he  returned 
to  America  in  1812.  He  resumed  his  profession 
in   New  York,   but  never  regained  his   former 

Josition  at  the  bar.  In  1833  he  married  Mme. 
umel.  a  wealthy  widow,  but  ih^  .soon  sep- 
arated, Mr.  Burr  had  but  one  cnild,  the  ac- 
complished Theodosb  Allston.  (Sec  Burnt, 
Theodosia).  In  person  he  was  below  the  me- 
dium height  but  his  manners  and  presence  were 
very  attractive.  He  was  an  adroit,  persevering 
but  not  a  great  lawyer.  He  cannot  he  said  to 
have  been  an  orator,  yet  he  was  an  effective 
and  ready  speaker.  It  has  been  usual  to  regard 
Burr  as  a  brilliant,  and  even  a  great,  man,  who 
was  led  astray  by  moral  oliUtjuity,  .  In  regard 
to  the  looseness  of  his  principles,  there  can  be 
no  doubt;  but  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to 
relieve  his  name  of  much  of  the  odium  that  for- 
merly attached  to  it.  He  survived  nearly  all  his 
contemporaries.  His'  body  was  laid  beside  his 
father's  at  Princeton.  Consult  Adams,  'His- 
tory of  the  United  States'  (9  vols.,  New  York 
18©-9I) ;  Davis,  'Memoirs  of  Aaron  Burr'  (2 
vols..  New  York  1836);  Orlh,  S.  R.,  'Five 
American  Politicians:  A.  Burr'  (Cleveland 
1906)  ;  Parlon,  'Life  of  Aaron  Burr*  (New 
York  1858)  ;  Schouler,  'Histoid  of  the  United 
States  of  America  under  the  Constitution'  (6 
vols,  last  cd..  New  York  1899)  ;  TompldnB, 
'Burr  Bibliography'  (Brooklyn  1892)  ;  Todd, 
'The  True  Aaron  Burr'  (ib,  1902) ;  McCaleb, 
'The  Aaron  Burr  Conspiracy'   (ib.  1903). 

BURR,  Edirard,  American  soldier ;  b. 
Boonville,  Mo.,  May  18S9.  He  studied  at 
Washington  University'  1874-78,  and  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  1878-82,  and 
on  graduation  at  the  latter  was  assigned  to 


tbe  corps  of  vngineera  with  the  rank  of  second 
lieutenant.  He  was  promoted  first  lieutenant 
in  1883  and  captain  in  1894;  and  as  llenteoant- 
cobnel  of  volunteers  e[fBtund4>l.<  the  bttlation 
of  engineers  in  the  campaign  again^  Santiago 
de  Cuba  in  June-July  1898.  He  was  appointed 
colonel  2  March. 1912.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
American  Society  of  Gvil  Engineers. 

BURR,  Enoch  Pitch,  American  mathemati- 
ciaa  and  clergyman :  b.  Gtven'i  Farms,  Fair- 
field Cotmty,  Conn.,  21  Oct.  1818;  d.  1907.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yalein  1839,  and  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Congregalioaal  Churdi  in  Lyme, 
Conn.,  in  1850.  From  1868  till  his  death  he  was 
a  fecturer  at  Amherjt  (College;  Among  his 
works  are   <A  Treatise  on  the  Application   of 


dean'  (1891);  'PaMr  Mundi'  (1869);  'Ad 
Fidem»  (1671);  <Ecco  Terra'  (1884);  'Celes- 
tial Empires'  (1885);  'Uuvenal  Beliefs' 
(1887);  'Siqireme  ThiiiBs  in  tbdr  Practical 
Relations'    (1889)  ;    besiaJea  sevcraf  .biEtorical 

BURRt  George  Lincoln^  American  hi»- 
torian :  b.  Oramd,  N.  Y..  30  Jan.  1857.  He  was 
educated  at  Cornell  Univesnty,  where  he  wii 
graduated  in  1881,  and  studied  ^so  at  Leipzig, 
the  Sorbonne  and  at  ZuticJL  H^r  l^f^psDe  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  and  roedixval  oistory  at  Cor- 
nell in  18S8  and  in  1898  was  appointed  librarian 
of  the  White  Historical  Library.  In  1896-97 
he  served  as  historical  expert  of  the  Venerue- 
lan  Boundai?  Commtssiao.  He-  has  made  an 
especial  study  of  the  history  of  superstition. 
He  has  published  'The  Liteiaturc.  of  Wilcb- 
craft>  (1890)  and  *The  Fate  (if  Dicfrieh  Ftade' 
(1891).  He  edhed  the  'Century  Historical 
Series'  and  is  a  member  of  the  editorial  staff 
of  the  American  Historical  Rmievi. 


d.  1813.  She  was  carefully  educated  and  be- 
came very  accomplished,  showing  particular 
linguistic  talent.  After  the  death  of  Mrs.  Burr 
she  presided  over  her  father's  household  until 
her  marriage  in  1801  to  Governor  Allston  of 
South  Carolina.  Her  correspondence  with  her 
father  after  her  removal  to  the  South  is  of 
great  interest  and  shows  continued  devotion  to 
nis  interests.  Her  beauty,  brilliant  personality 
and  relationship  to  the  famous  statesman  drew 
her,  especially  during  hei 

,  .  ..d  the  effect  olenlisting  the 

public  sympathy  on  his  behalf.  In  1812  she 
sailed  from  Charleston  in  the  Patriot  for  New 
Yoric  hut  the  vessel  was  never  heard  from  and 
was  believed  to  have  been  lost  in  the  storm  or 
sunk  by  pirates. 

BURR,  William  Hubert,  American  edu- 
otor:  b.  Watertown,  Conn.,  14 July  I8S1.  He 
was  graduated  at  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute 1872;  was  employed  by  the  Wrought 
Iron  Bridge  Company  of  New  Yoiic,  and  later 
on  the  water  supply  and  sewerage  systems  «f 
Newarit,  N.  J.  He  was  assistant  professor  and 
later  professor  of  ralianal  and  teduiical  me- 
chanics at  Remselaer  Polytechnic  Institute 
187&^;  became  assistant  engineer  of  the  Phoe- 
nix Bridge  Company  1884,  and  subsequently  its 
general  manager;  was  professor  of  engineering 
in  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  of  Harvaia 


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BURRAGB—  BURIUTT 


University  1892^3;  consulting  engineer  to  the 
New  York  city  department  of  public  works 
1893-95,  of  parks  and  of  docks  1895-97,  and 
later  of  bridges.  Since  1893  he  has  been  pro- 
fessor of  civil  engineering  at  Columbia,  and  ia 
1904  became  a  member  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission.  He  is  author  of  'The  Stresses  in 
Bridge  and  Roof  Trusses'  (1879);  'Arched 
Ribs  and  Suspension  BridKes'  (1913);  'Elas- 
ticity of  the  Materials  of  Engineering'  (1883)  ; 
'The  Theory  of  Masonry  Arches,'  'Ancient 
and  Modem  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian 
Canal'    (1902),  etc 

BURRAGE,  Henry  Sweetser,  American 
clergyman;  b.  FitchburK,  Mass.,  7  Jan.  1837.  He 
was  graduated  from  Brown  University,  1861, 
and  entering  the  36th  Massachusetts  as  a  pri- 
vate, rose  to  the  rank  of  c^tain  and  brevet- 
major  of  volunteers.  After  the  war  he  resumed 
his  studies,  graduated  at  Newton  Theological 
Institution,  1867,  was  at  the  University  of  Hall 


Me-  1869-73 ;  editor  of  Zion's  Advocate.  1873- 
1905;  recording  secretary  of  the  American  Bap- 
list  Union,   1876-1904;    recorder   Maine   Com- 


stttution,  1889-1906;  fello*  of  Brown  Univer- 
sity since  1901.  He  has  edited  'Brown  Univer- 
sity in  the  Civil  War'  (1868);  'Henry  W. 
Longfellow's  75th  Birthday'  (1882)  ;  'History 
of  Ok  36th  Regiment  of  Massachusetts  Votun- 
tcers>  <1S84);  and  has  written  'The  Act  of 
Baptism  in  the  History  of  the  Christian 
Church'  (1879);  'History  of  the  Anabaptists 
in  Switzerland'  (1882);  <[iosier's  Relation  of 
Waymouth's  Voyage  to  the  Coast  of  Maine  in 
1605'  (1887) ;  'Baptist  Hymn  Writers  and  their 
Hymns'  (1888);  'History  oi  the  Baptists  in 
New  England,  (1894) ;  'History  of  the  Baptists 
in  Maine'  (1904^;  'Gettysburg  and  Lincoln' 
(1906);  'Early  English  and  French  Voyages' 
(1906);  'Maine  atXauisburg  in  1745'  (1910); 
'The  Beginnings  of  Colonial  Maine'   (1914. 

BURRARD  INLBT,  an  inlet  at  the  south- 
vest  corner  of  British  Columbia,  a  little  north 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Fraser  River.  It  is  nine 
miles  long,  is  one  of  the  finest  harbors  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  has  Vancouver,  the  terminus 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  on  its  south- 

BURRSLL,  David  James,  American  cler- 
gyman and  author:  b.  Mount  Pleasant,  Pa., 
■  1  Aug.  1844.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1867  and  at  Union  Theological  Seminary  io 
1870.  He  spent  four  years  in  mission  work 
at  Chicago  and  thereafter  was  successively 
pastor  at  Dubuque,  Iowa,  1876-87.  Westminster 
Church,  Minneapolis,  1887-91,  and  the  Marble 
Collegiate  Church,  New  Yoik.  He  has  pub- 
Ibhed  'Religions  of  the  World'  (1891)  ;  'Ck)s- 
pel  of  Gladness'  (1892);  'The  Early  Church> 
(1897);  'The  Religion  of  the  Future'  (1894); 
<The  Wonderful  Teacher'  (1902);  'Teachings 
of  Jesus'  (1904) ;  'The  Lure  of  the  Qty' 
(19(fe);  'The  Cloister  Book'  n909) ;  <tn 
David's  Town'  (1910);  'At  the  Gate  Beauti- 
(uP  (1911);  tThe  Home  Sanctuary'  (1911); 
'The  (iatcway  of  Life'  (1912);  'The  Old- 
Time  Religion'  (1913)  'The  Sermon'  (1913); 
*The   Church  in   the   Upper   Room'    (1913); 


'We  Would  See  Jesus'  (1914);  and  'The 
Apostles'  Creed'  (1915) ;  'Why  I  BeUeve  the 
Bible'     (1917). 

BURRELL,  Martin,  Canadian  legislator: 
b.  Ei^land  1858.  He  was  educated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Hurstpierpoint,  Sussex,  and 
came  to  Ontario  in  1886,  where  for  14  years 
he  engaged  in  fruit  growing  near  Niagara. 
He  removed  to  British  Columbia  in  1900,  and 
continued  at  fruit  growing  and  began  to  take 
an  interest  in  local  politics.  He  became  widely 
known  as  an  authority  on  horticulture,  and  in 
1907  the  ^vemment  of  British  Columbia  ap- 
pointed lum  fruit  commissioner  and  sent  him 
as  lecturer  to  England.  In  1908  he  was  elected 
as  a'  Conservative  to  the  House  of  (x)nunons 
and  re-elected  in  1911.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  appointed  Minister  of  Agriculture  in  the 
Borden  administration. 

BURRIANA,  Spain,  town  in  the  province 
of  C^stelldn,  eight  miles  south  of  the  town  of 
CastellAn,  on  the  river  Seco,  and  about  one 
mile  from  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fertile  region.  Agriculture  and  Ashing 
are  the  prindpal  industnes  and  it  has  a  trade 
in  oil,  wine  and  fruit.    Pop.  14,243. 

BURRILL,  Thomas  Jonathan,  American 
naturalist :  b.  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  2S  April  1839. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  Illinois  State  Normal 
University  in  186S,  and  in  1867  was  botanist 
of  Powell's  first  Rocky  Mountain  Expedition. 
Since  1868  he  has  been  a  member  of  the 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Illinois  and  has 
held  the  following  offices  in  the  university : 
Professor  of  botany  and  horticulture  since 
1868;  dean  of  the  Col]e«^of  Science,  1877-84; 
vice-president  since  1879 ;  acting  president; 
1889-90,  1891-94  and  1904;  dean  of  die  Grad- 
uate School  since  1894.  The  degree  of  LL.D. 
was  conferred  upon  him  in  1893  by  the  North- 
western University,  He  is  a  member  of  sev- 
eral American  and  foreign  scientific  societies, 
and  is  well  known  from  his  writings  under 
more  than  100  titles,  mostly  upon  the  parasitic 
diseases  of  plants,  bacteriology,  microscopy, 
fruit  growing,  forestry,  landscape  garden mg 
and  modem  education. 

BURRILLVILLE,  R.  L.  town  of  Provi- 
dence county,  24  miles  northwest  of  Provi- 
dence, on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hart- 
ford Railroad.  It  manufactures  woolen  goods. 
Nearby  is  Wallum  Lake,  a  popular  summer 
resort.  Burrillville  is  governed  by  a  town 
council,  chosen  every  year.     Pop.  7,878. 

BURRITT,  EHhn  ("The  Leabned  Black- 
smith'), American  reformer:  b.  New  Britain, 
Conn.,  8  Dec.  1811 ;  d.  7  March  1879.  The  son 
of  a  shoemaker,  he  was  educated  in  the  com- 
mon schools  of  his  native  village,  and  at  the 
age  of  16  was  apprenticed  to  a  blacksmith.  An 
early  conceived  project  of  reading  the  Scrip- 
tures in  their  original  language  led  him  to 
philological  studies  in  the  intervals  of  labor, 
and  by  diligence  and  a  remarkable  facility  he 
was  soon  able  to  understand  works  in  several 
languages.  He  removed  to  Worcester  to  take 
advantage  of  &e  library  of  the  Antiquarian 
Society  there,  and  while  still  pljring  liis  trade 
became  acquainted  with  the  pnncipal  ancient 
and  modern  languages.  In  1846  he  went  to 
England,  where  he  formed  the  league  of 
Universal  Brotherhood,*  whose  object  was  "to 


Digit  zed 


=,  Google 


&URRdu6tl— fiURftOWlHC  OWL 


employ  all  leeitimate  means  for  the  abolition 
of  war  throughout  the  world"  He  was  con- 
stantly engaged  in  writing  and  lecturing,  and 
took  a  prominent  part  m  all  the  European 
peace  congresses.  He  returned  to  America  in 
1853.  He  was  consular  agent  at  Birmingham, 
1865-68.  The  promotion  of  temperance,  cheap 
ocean  postage  and  the  abolition  of  American 
slavery  were  leading  objects  of  his  continued 
exertions.  His  principal  publications  are 
'Sparks  from  the  Anvil'  (1848);  'Thoughts 
and  Things  at  Home  and  Abroad'  (1854); 
'Chips   from    Many   Blocks,*    etc 

BURROUGH,  BOROUGH,  BURROWE, 
or  BORROWS,  Stephen,  or  Stefan,  English 
navigator :  b,  Devonshire,  23  Sept.  1S25 ;  d. 
1584.  In  1553  he  took  a  very  active  part  in 
the  expedition  dispatched  from  the  Thames 
under  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  to  look  for  a 
northwest  passive  to  Cathay  and  India.  There 
were  three  ships  in  the  expedition,  one  of 
which  was  under  the  command  of  Burrough, 
who  got  separated  from  the  other  craft  during 
a  storm.  He  continued  the  voya«e  alone, 
reaching  Nova  Zembla  and  the  island  of  Wai- 
gatz.  In  1S56  he  made  a  second  voyage  into 
the  same  regions  and  in  1560  he  took  charge 
of  another  expedition  to  Russia.  In  1563  he 
was  appointed  chief  pilot  and  one  of  the  four 
masters  of  queen's  ships  in  the  Medway,  a 
position  which  he  held  for  many  years.  Bur- 
rough,  who  reached  70'  30"  N.  on  one  of  his 
Russian  expeditions,  was  looked  upon,  in  his 
day,  as  a  noted  explorer.  He  seems  to  have 
been  a  very  active  and  intelligent  sailor. 

BURROUGHS,  George,  American  cleigy- 
man:  d.  Salem^  Mass.,  19  Aug.  1692.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1670,  was  a 
preacher  at  Falmouth,  now  Portlan(^  Me.,  in 
1676,  and  at  Salem  in  1680.  In  consequence 
of  some  dispute  with  his  people  he  returned 
to  Portland  in  1683,  but,  when  that  town  was 
destroyed  by  the  Indians  in  1690,  came  back 
to  Salem.  Thou^  a  person  of  unblemished 
character,  he  became  one  of  the  victims  of 
accusation  by  the  confessing  witches.  It  was 
testified  that  two  of  his  wives  had  appeared 
■ )  the  witnesses,  saying  that  he 


performing  feats  of  extraordinary  strength  by 
diabolical  assistance,  such  as  carrying  a  barrel 
of  molasses,  holding  out  a  gun  by  a  finger 
placed  in  the  muizle,  and  of  havine  'tortured, 
afflicted,  pined,  consumed,  wastea  and  tor* 
mented'  one  Mary  WolcotL  Althou^  he 
asserted  his  innocence  so  as  to  draw  tears 
from  the  spectators,  and  recited  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  which  it  was  supposed  no  witch  could 
repeat  without  mistake,  he  was  condemned  and 
executed. 

BURROUGHS,  John,  American  essayist 
and  literary  naturahst  i  b.  Roxbury,  N.  Y, 
3  April  1837.  In  hia  youth  he  taught  school 
for  about  10  j^cars;  he  began  early  to  write 
for  the  magazines;  in  18m  he  became  clerk 
in  the  Treasury  Department  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  where  he  worked  for  10  years,  cann- 
ing on  his  literary  activities  simultaneously. 
Later  he  became  a  national  bank  examiner. 
In  1873  he  built  ■Riverby,»  his  home  at  West 
Park,  on  the  Hudson,  where  he  has  since 
lived,  devoting  himself  to  fruit  culture,  nature 


study  and  literature.  In  1862  Mr.  Burroughs 
wrote  the  poem,  'Waiting,*  by  which  he  is 
perhaps  more  widely  known  than  by  any  of 
his  books.  His  first  book,  "Walt  Whitman, 
Poet  and  Person,*  was  written  in  1867,  he 
being  the  first  person  of  note  in  the  United 
States  to  give  public  recognition  of  Whitman, 
His  later  book  on  the  'Good  Gray  Poet,> 
'Whitman,  a  Study,'  was  published  in  1896, 
and  was  tne  result  of  many  years  of  comrade- 
ship with  the  poet.  Mr.  Burroughs  has 
gathered  most  of  the  harvest  for  his  nature 
books  near  at  home,  either  at  "Riverby,"  in 
his  bark-covered  study,  or  in  the  rwion  of 
''Slabside^"  his  retreat  back  from  the  Hudson, 
near  West  Park,  or  in  later  years  at  ■Wood- 
chuck  Lodge,  on  the  farm  in  the  Catskills 
where  he  was  bom.  He  has,  however,  wan* 
dered  away  from  these  haunts  occasionally, 
as  his  booKs  testify  —  to  many  narts  of  the 
United  States,  to  Bermuda,  the  West  Indies, 
the  Caqadas,  twice  to  Europe,  on  the  Alaskan 
expedition  of  1899  with  E.  H.  Harriman,  in 
the  Yellowstone  in  1903  with  President  Roose- 
velt, throu^  the  Southwest  and  Yosemite  with 
John  Muir  in  1909,  and  also  to  Hawaii.  The 
personal  element  is  very  marked  in  his  writ- 
ing, and  the  charm  of  his  easy  familiar  style, 
with  his  remarkable  observation  and  interpre- 
tation of  nature,  has  done  much  to  popularize 
the  study  of  nature  in  our  day,  while  his  work 
on  literary  criticism,  his  character  studies  and 
his  philosophical  e.csays  are  eagerly  welcomed 
by  lovers  of  good  literature.  His  books,  with 
the  dates  of  their  publication  are  'Walt  Whit- 
man, Poet  and  Person*  (1867)  ;  'Wake  Robin* 
(1871);  "Winter  Sunshine'  (187S):  'Birds 
and  Poets*  (1877)  ;  'Locusts  and  Wild  Honey' 
(1879);  'Pepacton'  (1881);  <Fre^  Fields' 
(1884);  'Signs  and  Seasons^  (1886);  'Indoor 
Stu<fies'  (1889);  'Riverby*  (ISM);  'Whit- 
man, a  Study'  (1896);  'The  Light  of  Day* 
(1900);  'Literary  Values'  (1902);  *Ufe  of 
Audubon'  (1902);  'Far  and  Near'  (19CM) ; 
'Ways  of  Nature'  (1905)  ;  'Bird  and  Bough* 
Poems  (1906)  ;  'Camping  and  Tramping  with 
Roosevdt'  (1907);  'Leaf  and  Tendril' 
(1908);  'Time  and  Change'  (1912);  'The 
Summit  of  the  Years'  (1913);  'The  Breath 
of  Life*  (1915) ;  'Under  the  Apple  Trees* 
(1916).  Mr.  Burroughs  has  also  edited  a  vol- 
ume of  nature  poems,  'Songs  of  Nature' 
(1901);  and  several  books  have  been  compiled 
from  his  works — 'Birds  and  Bees';  'Afoot 
and  Afloat';  'Sharp  Eyes*;  'Little  Nature 
Studies';  'Squirrels  and  Other  Fur  Bearers'; 
'A  Year  in  the  Fields;  <In  the  Catskills' ;  and  ' 
'Bird  Stories  from  Burroughs.' 

BURROWING  BEE,  any  of  the  species 
that  burrow  in  the  ground  and  form  their 
nests  there.  Among  the  principal  kinds  are 
the  Adrena  and  Bahctui.    See  Bee. 

BURROWING  OWL,  a  smaU  owl  {Speo- 
tylo  cuiticularia)  common  on  the  open  plains  of 
ijoth  North  and  South  America,  where  it  makes 
its  nest  in  burrows.  It  is  mottled  gray  in  color, 
has  very  long  legs,  scantily  feathered  and 
stands  erect  upon  them  in  a.  manner  ditlerent 
from  that  of  owls  generally.  It  is  gregarious, 
and  is  especially  prevalent  on  the  North  Ameri- 
can plains  in  the  ■towns*  of  the  prairie  dogs; 
and  m  South  America  it  lives  with  the  vizca- 
chas  and  cavies,  and  i»  thought  to  warn  them  by 


d  by  Google 


BURROWS  —  BURTON 


It  sea^  5 


its  excited  notes  whcneTer  an  enemy  a^ 
pToaches.  Among  the  many  unowl-lika  traits 
of  tUs  curioas  little  ex^  from  the  woods  is  its 
cry,  which  has  no  resemblance  to  tlK  ardinaiy 
hoot  of  an  owl,  hut  more  nearly  resembles  ^e 
chattering  of  a  cuckoo.  This  owl  makes  its 
home  wherever  it  can  in  some  abandoned  bur- 
row of  a  KTound'Squirrel  or  other  animal,  hut, 
failing  this,  it  digs  a  tittle  cave-like  hole  of  its 
own,  which  it  furnishes  with  a  bed  of  soft  ma- 
terials, whereon  are  laid  about  eight  globular 
white  eggs.  Hie  food  of  these  owls  consiits 
almost  entirely  of  insects  and  mice.  Consult 
Coues,  E.,  'Birds  of  the  Northwest>  (Wash- 
ington 1874)  ;  Sclater  and  Hudson,  'Argentine 
Omitfaokigy'   (London  1888). 

BURROWS,  WUUam,  American  naval  offi- 
cer:  b.  near  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  6  Oct.  1785;  d. 
.  5  Sept.  1813.    He  served  in  the  war  with 
'  nanded  the  slooD_  Enterprise  in 

lis  successiui  action  with  the  British  brig  Boxer 
off  the  coast  of  Maine.  Both  Burrows  and  the 
British  commander  were  killed  in  the  fight,  and 
they  were  buried  side  by  side  at  Forlland.  Con- 
press  struck  a  medal  in  honor  of  the  victory  and 

BURSA,  in  anatomy,  a  sac  containing  a 
clear  fluid  between  surfaces  which  move  one 
upon  the  other.  There  are  two  varieties  — 
mucous,  or  simple  cavities  between  the  skin 
and  bony  protuberances,  as  at  the  knee,  and 
synovial,  or  sacs  between  the  muscles  or  ten- 
aons  and  bony  protuberances. 

BURSAR,  or  BURSARY,  an  endowment 
in  one  of  the  Scotch  nniversities,  correipooding 
to  2n  eichibition  in  an  En^ish  university,  and 
intended  for  the  support  of  a  student  during 
his  ordinary  course  and  before  he  has  taken 
a  degree  in  the  facultv  in  which  he  holds  the 
bursary.  Each  of  the  tour  muversitiei  of  Scot- 
land 1^  a  greater  or  smaller  number  of  bur- 
saries. As  yet  the  University  of  Aberdeen  Is 
better  provided  than  any  of  the  others  with 
this  class  of  endowments.    Bursaries  ace  in  the 

S'ft  sometimes  of  the  Senatns  Academiciu  of 
e  university  to  which  they  belong,  sometinies 
of  the  town  council  of  the  city  in  which  the 
university  is  situated  and  sometimes  of  private 
individuals.  With  regard  to  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  bestowed,  some  are  obtained 
after  competitive  examination  and  others  are 

S'ven  by  U)e  patrons  for  special  reasons.  As 
e  former  metho4  of  bestowing  them  is  found 
to  be  the  more  beneficial  in  its  results,  it  is 
gradually  becoming  the  prevailing  one,  as  at 
Aberdeen  it  has  always  been.  Bursaries  which 
are  in  the  gift  of  the  Senatus  Academicus  are 
all  bestowed  in  this  way.  In  a  monastery,  the 
bursar  was  the  one  who  held  and  disbursed  the 
income.  In  the  sense  of  subtreasurer.  the  term 
is  still  used  in  English  universities  Uld  in  Har- 
vard Utiiversity  afid  eTsewhere.  In  England  it 
n  also  applied  to  candidates  for  the  elementary 
school-teaching  profession  receiving  mainte- 
nance from  the  slate. 

BURSCHENSCHAFT,  boor-shen -shift 
(Ger.),  an  association  formed  in  1815  among 
students  in  German  universities  for  the  libera- 
tion and  tmion  of  Germany. 

.BURSBRACBX  (named  after  the  bot- 
intst,  Toachim  Bnrser),  a  family  of  dicotylcdon- 
ooi  phnts,  of  — •-'-^  '*■'-  ' — -^     -  " 


f  wUch  tkere  itre  about  13  genera 


and  300  species.     The   family  belong*  to  the 
tropics   and  yields    varieties   of    balsams   and 

BURSITIS,  inflammation  of  a  bursa,  most 
commonly  caused  by  injury.  The  well-known 
housemaid's  knee  is  a  good  example  of  bursitis. 
See  JoiWTs,  Diseases  of. 

BURSLEM,  England,  market  town  and 
municipal  borough  in  Staffordshire,  within  the 
parliamentary  borough  of  Hanley,  In  *The  Pot- 
teries.* It  is  the  oldest  of  the  six  towns  form- 
ing the  potteries  and  is  known  as  the  'Mother 
ofythe  Potteries.*  It  is  well  built,  chiefly  of 
brick;  has  electric  tramwavs,  a  fine  town-hall, 
covered  market,  public  baths,  hospital  and  the 
Wedgwood  Institute,  comprising  a  free  library, 
a  museum  and  a  school  of  art,  erected  in  honor 
of  Josiah  Wedgwood,  who  was  born  at  Burs- 
lem  in  1730.  The  building  is  an  excellent  ex- 
emplification of  the  structural  application  of 
ceramics.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of 
china  and  earthenware,  and  carries  on  coal 
mining.    Pop.  41,556. 

BURT,  MatT  Elizabeth,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Lake  Geneva,  Wis.  She  studied  at 
Oberlin  College  and  entered  the  teaching  pro- 
fession. For  three  years  she  was  a  member  of 
the  Chicago  board  of  education.  Later  she  un- 
dertook editorial  work  and  lecturing.  She 
edited  'Little  Nature  Studies  for  Little  People' ; 
'Seed  Thougjils  from  Robert  Browning,*  etc.; 
has  contributed  frequently  to  periodical  litera- 
ture and  is  the  author  of  'Browning's  Women' 
(1889);  'Literary  Landmarks*  (1889);  'The 
World's  Literature'  (1890);  'German  Iliad 
(Siegfried)'  (1892);  'Stories  from  Plato  and 
Other  Qassic  Writers*  (1893),  and  collabo- 
rated in  writing 'The  Literary  Primer'  (1901); 
'The  Boy  General'  (1901);  'Poems  Every 
Quid  Should  Know'  (1904);  'Prose  Every 
(niild  Should  Know*  (1907);  'Adventures  of 
Pinocchio'    (1908). 

BURT,  Thomaa.  English  labor  leader:  b. 
Northumberland,  12  Nov.  1837.  He  bi^  work 
in  the  coal  mines  at  10  years  of  age.  He  early 
became  immersed  in  the  labor  movement;  was 
secretary  for  the  Northumberland  miners  from 
1865-1913;  has  represented  Morpeth  as  a  Lib- 
eral since  1874*  was  parliamentary  secretary  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  from  1892-95,  and  in  1906 
was  made  a  privy  councillor. 

BURT,  William,  American  Mediodist  Epis- 
copal clergyman :  b.  Cornwall,  England,  23  Oct 
1^2.  He  was  graduated  at  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity in  1879  and^at  Drew  Theological  Seminary 
in  1881.  He  spent  five  years  in  churches  at 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1886  was  appointed 
presiding  elder  of  the  district  of  Milan  in  the 
Italian  conference.  He  was  in  Rome  from 
1890  to  1904,  and  there  founded  schools  and 
a  publishinjg  house.  In  1904  he  was  made  a 
bishop.  His  work  has  been  looked  upon  with 
disfavor  by  the  Papal  Curia  because  of  the 
proselyting  methods  adopted.  He  has  published 
•Europe  and  Methodism*    (1909). 


Justicej  1893.  He  was  ordained  a  Catholic 
priest  m  1898;  was  curate  at  Saint  Mary  and 
Midwefs,  London,  1896,  when  he  was  appointed 


v  Google 


to  the  staff  of  Saint  Edmund's  CoUeec,  Ware, 
becoming  vice-president  in  1902,  professor  of 
Church  history  in  1907  and  Weld  lecturer  in 
ascetic  theology  in  1909.  He  is  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Numismatic  Society,  the  Royal  Histor- 
ical Society  and  of  the  East  Herts  Archxolosi- 
cal  Society.  He  contributed  about  300  artidfes 
to  'The  Catholic  Encyclopedia,'  to  the  Dublin 
Review,  and  is  editor  of  The  Bdmundian.  He 
has  published  'Catalogue  of  Books  in  the  Li- 
braries at  Saint  Edmund's  College,  Old  Hall, 
printed  in  England,  and  of  Books  written  by 
Englishmen  printed  Abroad  to  the  Year  1640' 
<1902);  'Life  and  Times  of  Bishop  Challoner' 
(2  vols.,  London  1909) ;  'Meditations  on  the 
Passion  by  Richard  Rotle,  Hermit  of  Hatnpole, 
done  into  Modem  English'  (London  1006) ; 
co-author  of  'Biographies  of  English  Catholics 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century'  ;  'Lives  of  the  Eng- 
lish Martyrs'   (Vol.  I.  London  1913). 

BURTON,  Bmest  De  Witt,  American 
Biblical  scholar:  b.  Granville,  Ohio,  4  Feb.  1&S6. 
He  was  graduated  at  Denison  University  ifi 
1S76  and  at  Rochester  Theological  Seminary 
in  1882,  and  went  to  Europe  for  further  study 
in  Leipzig  and  Berlin.  From  1882-83  he  taught 
in  the  Rochester  Theological  Seminary  and 
from  1883-92  in  the  Newton  Theological  In- 
stitution, first  as  associate  professor  and  later 
a  professor  of  New  Testament  interpretation. 
In  1892  he  was  appointed  head  professor  of 
New  Testament  interpretation  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicaeo.  Among  his  works  are  'Syntax 
of  the  Moods  and  Tenses  in  New  Testament 
Greek';  'Harmony  of  the  Gospels  for  Histori- 
cal Study,'  and  'Handbook  of  the  Life  of 
Christ'  (in  collaboration  with  W.  A.  Stevens)  ; 
'Records  and  Letters  of  the  Apostolic  Age' ; 
'Handbook  of  the  Life  of  PauP  ;  'Constructive 
Studies  in  the  Life  of  Christ'  in  collaboration 
with  Shailer  Mathews  (1901)  ;  'Principles  and 
Ideals  of  the  Sun  day- School'  (1903)  ;  'Bibli- 
cal Ideas  of  Atonement'  (1909);  'Studies  in 
Mark'  (1904),  and  'Some  Principles  of  Lit- 
erary Criticism  and  their  Application  to  the 
Synoptic  Problem'  (1904).  In  1892  he  became 
associate  editor  of  the  Biblical  WorM  and  in 
1897  of  the  American  Journal  of  Theology. 

BURTON,  John  Hill,  Scottish  historian-. 
b.  Aberdeen,  22  Aug.  1809;  d.  10  Aug.  1S81. 
He  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school  and 
Marischal  College  in  that  city.  He  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831.  He  never 
succeeded  in  gaining  much  practice  and  soon 
turned  his  attention  to  literature,  contributing 
to  the  Westminster,  the  Edinburgh  and  North 
British  Reviews-  acted  for  a  short  period  as 
editor  of  the  Scotsman,  and  committed  that 
Journal  to  a  free-trade  policy.  With  Sir  John 
Bowring  he  edited  Benlham's  works,  as  well 
as  an  illustrative  'Benthamiana,'  with  the  aim 
oi  making  more  widely_  known  the  opinions  of 
the  great  apostle  of  utilitarianism  and  radical- 
ism. His  first  original  work  of  ittiportance  was 
the  'Life  and  Correspondence  of  David  Hume' 
(1846),  followed  next  year  by  the  'Lives'  of 
Lord  Lovat  and  Duncan  Forbes  of  Cnlloden. 
In  1849  he  published  his  'Political  and  Social 
Economy' ;  in  1852  he  compiled  'Narratives 
from  Criminal  Trials  in  Scotland.'  He  com- 
menced in  18S3  the  publication  of  his  chief 
work,  the  'History  of  Scotland,'  with  two  vol- 
umes covering  the  period   from  the  revolution 


of  1688  to  the  extinction  of  the  last  JacoUte 
rebellion  in  1746,  This  was  afterward  com- 
pleted by  seven  volumes  commencing  with  Ag- 
ricoU's  invasion  and  ending  with  the  revolution 
of  1688.  A  second  edilioD  of  the  complete  his- 
tory waa  published  in  ei^t  volumes  In  1873. 
A  series  of  literary  and  historical  sketches  con- 
tiibuted  to  Blctckwood's  iiagaoKt  formed  the 
basis  of  two  "of  his  best-known  books,  '"The 
Scot  Abroad'  and  'The  Book  Hunter.'  His 
last  important  historical  work  was  the  'History 
of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne'  (1880).  In  1854 
Mr.  Burton  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
Scottish  Prison  Board,  and  be  contmued  his 
connection  with  this  d«)artment  as  a  commis- 
sioner of  prisons  until  his  death.  The  succesi 
of  his  'Histonr  of  Scotland'  brought  him  the 
appointment  ot  historiographer  royal  for  Scot- 
land. Consult  article  in  Blackwood's  Magatine 
for  September  1881,  and  the  memoir  Oy  his 
widow  prefixed  to  'The  Book  Hunter.'  . 

BURTON,  Lewii  WilUun,  American  cler- 
gyman; b.  Cleveland,  Ohio,  9  Nov.  1852.  He 
was  first  honor  graduate  in  1873  of  Kenyon 
College,  with  A.B.,  later  A.M.  and  D.D.  from 
University  of  the  South.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  Philadel^ia  Divinity  School  1877; 
ordained  deacon  \&7  and  priest  in  1878,  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church;. was  successively 
in  chatge  of  parishes  in  Cleveland,  Richmond, 
Va.,  and  Louisville.  He  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  the  diocese  of  Lexington  (eastern  half  of 
Kentucky)  1896.  He  has  published  sermons. 
Episcopal  charges  and  addresses  and  was  au- 
thor of  'Annals  of  Henrico  Parish'  in  J.  S. 
Moore's  'Virginiana'  (1904).  He  traveled 
abroad  in  1880  ftnd  was  a  member  of  the  Lam- 
beth conferences  of  the  bishops  of  the  Anglican 
Communion  in  1897  and  1908.    He  is  a  member 


College  and  of  the  University  of  the  South. 
He  is  Episcopal  head  of  Margaret  Colle^  Ver- 
sailles, Ky.,  and  of  Saint  Jt^n's  Collegiate  In- 
stitute and  Industrial  School,  Corbiu,  Ky. 


Aug.  1874.  He  was  educated  at  Carleton  Col- 
lege and  at  Yale,  receiving  the  degree  of  Ph.D. 
from  the  latter  institution  in  1907.  He  became 
assistant  professor  at  Yale  tor  one  year  and  in 
1906  was  in  charge  of  the  churdi  of  the  Pil- 
grims, Brooklyn.  After  a  year's  travel  in  Eu- 
rope, he  was  inaugurated  president  of  Smith 
College,  Norttihmplon,  Mass.,  in  1910.  He  has 
written  'The  Problem  of  Evil'  (1909);  'The 
Secret  of  Achievement'  (1913);  'Our  Intel- 
lectual Attitude  in  an  Age  of  Criticism'  (1913)  ; 
'Life  Which  is  Life  Indeed'  (1914);  'First 
Things'  (19l5);  also  various  addresses  and 
reports. 

BURTOK,  lUchard,  American  poet  and 
journalist:  b.  Hartford,  Conn.,  14  March  1859. 
He  was  graduated  from  "Trinity  College,  Hart- 
fori  and  took  a  dmee  at  Johns  Hoplons  Uni- 
versity in  1887,  He  was  managing  editor  of 
the  Ckurckmm  1889-90,  litervy  eifitor  of  the 
Hartford  Courtmt  1890~97  and  professor  of 
English  literature  in  the  University  of  lillnne- 
sota  1893-1902 ;  now  in  charge  of  the  English 
deitartment  of  the  University  of  Minnesota.  He 
luB  published  'Dumb  in  June'  (1895);  'Me- 
morial Pay'  (1897);  'Uterary  I4angs>  (1896); 


.Google 


BURTON  ~  BURTON-UPON-TKENT 


(1900);  *  Forces  in  Fiction>  (1902);  'Message 
and  Melody*  (1903);  'Literary  Leaders  of 
America'  (1904);  <Three  of  a  Kind'  (1906); 
'Masters  of  the  English  Novel'  (1909):  <A 
Uidsuituner  Memoiy'  (1910);  'The  New 
American  Drama'  (1913);  'How  to  See  a 
Play'   (1914). 

BURTON,  Sis  Richard  Francis,  En^^sh 
traveler,  linguist  and  author :  b,  Barham  House, 
Hertfordshire,  19  March  1821 ;  d  Trieste,  Aus- 
tria 20  Oct.  1890.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford 
with  the  intention  of  entering  the  Church,  but 
in  deference  to  his  own  urgent  request  his 
father  obtained  a.  commission  for  him  in  the 
East  India  Company's  service.  He  joined  the 
army  in  18+2,  served  for  some  years  in  Sind 
under  Sir  C.  Napier,  explored  the  Neilgherry 
Hills^  published  an  important  work  on  Sind  ana 
acquired  a  complete  toiowledge  of  the  Persian, 
Afghan,  Hindustanee  and  Arabic  languages. 
Returning  to  England  in  1851,  he  soon  after- 
ward set  out  to  explore  Arabia,  disguised  as  an 
Afghan  pilRrim,  and  published  on  his  return  a 
'Personal  Narrative  of  a  Pilgrimage  to  HJ-Me- 
dinah  and  Mecca*  (1855)  as  the  result  of  this 
daring  adventure.  His  next  expedition  was  into 
the  Somali  country  in  East  Africa,  from  whence 
he  proceeded  to  the  Crimea,  where  he  was  chief 
of  the  staff  of  General  Beatson,  and  organized 
the  irregular  cavalry.  After  peace  was  pro- 
claimed. Burton  set  out  in  1S56  along  with 
Captain  Speke  to  explore  the  lake  region  of 
central  Africa.  The  expedition  was  absent 
three  years,  and  during  that  lime  the  great 
Lake  Tanganyika  was  discovered  ly  Burton. 
Subsequently  be  made  a  journey  in  the  West- 
ern States  of  North  America  and  published 
an  account  of  the  Mormon  settlement  at  Utah 
in  his  'City  of  the  Saints.'  In  1861  he  mar- 
ried, and  he  received  the  same  year  an  appoint- 
ment as  consul  at  Fernando  Po.  While  ful- 
filling his  duties  there  he  explored  the  Bight 
of  Biafra,  visited  the  Kamerun  Mountains  and 
conducled  a  dangerous  mission  to  the  King  of 
Dahomey.  Afterward  he  was  transferred  to 
the  consulate  of  Santos  in  Brazil,  and  here  he 
explored  his  own  province,  visited  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  crossed  the  continent  to  (Siile 
.  and  Peru,  returned  home  after  exploring  the 
Pacific  coast  and  published  his  'Explorations 
of  the  Highlands  of  the  Braril.'  He  was  now 
(1871)  made  consul  of  Damascus  but  was  soon 
recalled,  and  in  the  following  year,  after  a 
journey  to  Iceland,  an  account  of  whidi  he 
wrote,  he  was  appointed  consul  at  Trieste. 
While  occupying  this  position  he  led  two  expe- 
ditions into  Midian  (1^6-78),  and  in  company 
with  Commander  Cameron  be  conducted  an 
expeaition  into  the  gold- producing  country  be- 
hind the  Gold  Coast.  He  remained  English 
consul  at  Trieste  until  his  death.  In  his  latter 
years  his  services  to  geographical  science  were 
acknowledged  by  the  gold  medals  of  the  French 
and  English  (geographical  societies,  while  in 
1886  his  services  to  his  country  were  tardily 
recognized  W  the  honor  of  K  CM.G,  Besides 
the  books  oi  travel  already  mentioned,  he  was 
the  author  of  many  others,  such  as  'Sind,  or 
the  Unhappy  Valley'  (IKI);  'Goa  and  the 
Blue  Mountains'  (1851)  ;  'Falconry  in  the  Val- 
ley of  the  Indos*   (1852);  'First  Footsteps  in 


East  Africa'  (1856) ;  'The  Lake  Regions  of 
Equatorial  Africa'  (1860)  ;  'Abeokuta,  or  an 
Exploration  of  the  Kamerun  Mountains' 
(1863);  'Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  the  King 
of  Dahomey'  (1864) ;  'The  Nile  Basin'  (1864) ; 
'Vikram  and  the  Vampire'  (1869);  'Zaniibar' 
(1872);  'Gorilla  Und'  (1875);  "Ultima  Thule, 
or  a  Summer  in  Iceland'  (1875);  'Etruscan 
Bologua'  (IS76) ;  'Sind  Revisited'  (1877),  and 
'The  Gold  Mines  of  Midian'  (1878).  In  1885- 
88  he  published  a  remaricable  literal  translation 
of  the  'Arabian  Nights'  entitled  'Ten  Thou- 
sand Ni^ts  and  a  Night,'  on  which  his  repu- 
tation is  firmly  established.  His  manuscript 
translation,  with  notes,  from  the  Arabic  of 
'The  Scented  Garden,'  of  great  value  to  schol- 
ars, was  burned  by  his  widow,  who  deemed  it 
an  immoral  work.  Consult  'Lives'  by  Hitch- 
man  (1887),  Lady  Burton  (1893),  Stisled 
(1897),  Wright  (2  vols.,  1906). 

BURTON,  Robert,  English  clergyman  and 
author:  b.  Lindley,  Leicestershire,  15/7;  d.  1640. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  took  orders  and 
became  rector  of  Seagrave  in  Leicestershire. 
His  learning,  which  was  varied  and  extensive, 
is  copiously  displayed  in  the  'Anatomy  of  Mel- 
ancholy, by  Demoeritus  Junior,'  first  published 
in  1621  and  repeatedly  reprinted.  He  was  a 
man  of  integrity  apd  benevolence  hut  subject 
to  strange  fits  of  hypochondriac  melancholy 
which  rendered  his  conduct  flighty  and  incon- 
sistent He  is  reptited  to  have  undertaken  the 
composition  of  his  'Anatomy  of  Melancholy' 
with  a  view  to  the  dissipation  of  his  morbid 
feelings.  Among  those  who  have  been  most 
deeply  indebted  to  Burton  is  Sterne,  as  may  be 
seen  tn  his  'Tristram  Shandy.'  See  Anatomy 
OF  Melancholy. 

BURTON,  Theodore  EBjah,  American 
statesman :  b.  Jefferson,  Ohio,  20  Dec.  1851.  He 
received  his  education  at  Ohio  College  and  at 
Oberlin;  entered  the  practice  of  law,  which  he 
later  abandoned  for  the  political  field.'  In  1889- 
91  he  was  in  Congress  and  again  in  1895-1909. 
He  was  re-elected  in  1909-1!  but  resigned  lo 
become  senator.  While  in  the  House  he  ren- 
dered important  services  as  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Harbors  and  Rivers.  He  served 
as  delegate  to  the  Republican  conventions  of 
1904  and  1908,  nominating  William  H.  Taft  to 
^e  Presidency  at  the  latter.  In  1913  he  became 
chairman  of  the  senatorial  Committee  on  Can- 
adian Relations  and  has  also  been  president  of 
the  American  Peace  Society.  His  published 
works  are  'Financial  Crises  and  Periods  of- 
Commercial  and  Industrial  Depression'  (1902)  j 
'Corporations  and  the  State'  (1911);  'Life  of 
John  Sherman'   (1906). 

BURTON,  a  special  form  of  tackle,  known 
either  as  lop  burtoa  or  sail  burton.  The  for- 
mer are  used  aboard  ship  lo  support  the  yards 
when  these  are  rigged  for  hoisting  heavy  loads: 
the  latter  are  used  to  hoist  sails  up  to  the  yard 
where  they  are  to  be  bent  They  consist  of  a 
guide-block,  fastened  to  the  under  purchase- 
block  and  traveling  on  the  hauling  line.  They 
help  keep  the  tackle  straight  ana  prevent  the 
sail  from  yawing  as  it  is  hoisted  aloft.  See 
Tackle. 

BURTON-UPOH-TRBNT,  Endani  a 
municipal  and  county  borough  in  Staffordshire, 
11  miles  southwest  of  Derby,  on  the  north  baulc 


.Google 


BURT8CHKID — BURT 


of  the  Trent,  in  a  low,  level  l__ 
substantially  built.  Malting;  and  iron -founding 
are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  it 
is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  excellent  ale,  of 
which  vast  quantities  are  made  for  both  home 
consumption  and  exportation.  For  nearly  three 
centuries  Burton  ale  has  been  known  and  cele- 
brated, but  the  latter-day  development  of  the 
trade  dates  from  the  opening  of  the  Midland 
Railway  in  1839.  There  are  about  30  breweries 
at  work,  giving  employment  in  the  various  de- 

C.rtmcnts  of  the  trade  to  about  5,000  men.  The 
rgest  brewing  establishmenti  are  those  of 
Messrs.  Bass  £  Co.  and  Uessrs.  Allsopp,  the 
•  former  of  which  covers  cMisiderably  more  than 
500  acres  of  ground,  brews  1,400,000  barrels 
of  ale  and  stout  annually  and  employs  3,000 
meiu  Contrary  to  common  usage,  the  brewers 
employ  hard  water  obtained  from  wells  instead 
of  soft  water.  There  are  in  all  about  50  places 
of  worship  in  the  town,  which  also  possesses 
a  grammar  school,  girls'  hi^  school,  alms- 
houses, a  dispensary  and  infirmary,  a  public 
library  and  reading- rooms,  school  of  science 
and  art,  handsome  public  baths,  etc.  A  bridge 
of  M  arches,  built  in  pre~ Norman  times,  was 
replaced  in  1864.     Pap.  48,266. 

BURTSCHEID,  birt'shtd,  Germany, 
southern  suburb  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  until 
1897  an  independent  munidpality  of  the  Rhine 
proviuce.  It  IB  noted  for  its  thermal  springs 
and  has  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  needles 
and  woolen  goods.  The  woolen  industry  is  the 
largest  of  all. 

BURTSBLL,  Richard  Lalor.  American 
dergyman:  b.  New  York.  14  April  1840;  d 
Kingston,  N.  Y.,  4  Feb.  1912.  He  studied  in 
Rome  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in 
1862.  After  returning  to  the  United  States 
and  having  charge  of  parishes  in  New  York 
he  was  appointed  'defender  of  (he  marriage 
ti^"  being  the  first  to  fill  this  ofEce,  which  in 
1884  was  insliluted  in  the  Catholic  Church  in 
the  United  Slates.  Having  become  connected 
with  the  movement  headed  by  Ren.  Dr, 
McGIynn,  he  was  retired  from  his  parish  to  one 
of  less  promLoence  in  1890.  In  1904  he  was 
elevated  to  the  dignity  of  domestic  prelate  by 
Pope  Pius  X,  and  in  1905  was  made  rector  of 
Saint  Mary's  Church,  Kingston,  N.  Y. 

BURU,  one  of  the  Dutch  East  India  island^ 
in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  west  of  and  belong 
to  the  residency  of  Amboyna.  It  is  oval  in 
^ape,  92  miles  long  and  70  broad,  and  an  area 
of  3,400  square  miles.  It  has  several  ba^s,  of 
whidi  Cajeli  is  the  largest,  and  contains  a 
safe  harbor  sheltered  from  the  monsoons. 
Viewed  from  this  bay  the  island  has  a  very  fine 
appearance.  In  the  foreground  the  minarets 
and  native  houses  are  seen  through  the  Open- 
ings of  the  rich  tropical  vegetation ;  while  lofty 
mountains,  wooded  to  their  summits,  shut  in  the 
view.  The  island  is  watered  by  125  streams, 
large  and  small.  On  the  northwest  side  there 
are  vast  swamps  swarming  with  crocodiles.  The 
island  contains  some  high  mounlains  —  Mount 
Tumahu  having  an  altitude  of  8,530  feet.  Bum 
produces  a  variety  of  valuable  woods,  balsams, 
resins  and  odoriferous  flowers.  The  chief  arti- 
cle of  export  is  cajeput  oil,  of  which  about 
$50,000  worth  is  exported  yearly;  most  being 
sent  to  Java.  The  tree  from  which  it  is  ob- 
tained   {Uelaituta  cajepuli)   grows  also  upon 


islands  of  Atnboyna,  Ceram,  Celebes 
_  -jatra;  but  the  best  oil  is  procurM  in  R 
The    population    (about    15,000) 


Chinese  in  the  interior,   and   Malays   < 

BURWASH,  Nathaniel,   CanadUn  educa- 


during    the    American    Revolut 

was  educated  at  Victoria  College,  Cobourg;  and 
Yale  University,  and  enterea  the  Methodist 
ministry  in  1860.  He  was  professor  in  Victoria 
College.  1867-73;  dean  of  faculty  of  theology 
in  18/3,  and  has  been  president  and  chancellor 
of  Victoria  University,  Toronto,  from  1887. 
He  was  secretary  of  education  for  the  Metho- 
dist Church  in  Canada,  1874-86,  and  devoted 
much  time  toward  bringing  about  university 
federation  in  the  province  of  Ontario.  He  has 
published  'Wesley's  Doctrinal  Standards' 
(1881)  ;  'Handbook  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans' (1887) ;  'Inductive  Studies  ia  Theology' 
(1896) ;  'Manual  of  Christian  Theology' 
(1900);  'Edgerton  Ryerson'   (1902). 

BURY,  SiK  George.  Canadian  railway  offi- 
cial :  b.  Montreal,  6  March  1866.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Montreal  College,  entered  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  service  in  1883  as  clerk  in  the 
purchasing  department,  rose  to  be  general 
superintendent  of  the  Central  Division,  Winni- 
peg, and  in  1911  was  appointed  vice-president 
of  the  company  and  manager  of  their  western 
lines.    He  was  knitted  in  1917. 

BURY,  John  B..  Irish  scholar:  b.  16  Oct 
1861.  He  was  graduated  from  Trinity  College. 
Dublin,  in  1893  became  professor  of  modem 
history  in  Dublin  University,  professor  of 
Greek  there  in  198,  and  Regius  professor  of 
modem  history  at  Cambridge  University  since 
I9CC.  He  has  written  'History  of  Greece  to 
Death  of  Alexander  the  Great'  (1902)  ;  and 
has  edited  Pindar's  'Isthmian  Odes' ;  and  'Ne- 
mean  Odes';  Freeman's  'History  of  Federal 
Government  in  Greece  and  Italy' ;  and  Gibbon's 
•Decline  and  Fall*;  'Life  of  Saint  Patrick' 
(1905)  ;  'The  Ancient  Greek  Historians'  (Har- 
vard Lectures  1908)  ;  'Constitution  of  the 
Later  Roman  Empire'  (1909)  ;  'History  of  the 
Eastern  Roman  Empire'  (1912);  'History  of 
Freedom  of  Thought*  (1913)  ;  and  Freeman's 
'Historical  Geography  of  Europe'   (1913). 


northwest  of  Manchester.  It  is  well  situated 
on  rising  ground  between  the  Irwell  and  the 
Roche,  and.  being  much  improved  in  recent 
times,  now  presents  the  appearance  of  a  clean 
and  well-bmit  town.  It  has  a  handsome  town 
hall  and  athensum,  a  technical  Kfaool  and  art 
gallery,  Trevelyan  Club,  and  Philips  Hall,  etc 
Among  the  churches.  Saint  Mary's  (the  parish 
church)  and  Saint  Thomas'  arc  perhaps  the 
finest,  being  highly  ornate  Gothic  buildings 
with  tower  and  spire.  Bury  was  at  one  time 
the  seat  of  a  woolen  industry  introduced  by  the 
Flemings  in  the  14th  century.  The  Staple  manu- 
facture is  that  of  cotton,  and  it  was  here  that 
John  Kay  invented  the  fly-shuttle.  There  are 
also  large  woolen  factories,  bleachit^  and  print- 
ing  works,    dyeworks,    fouBdrie\  etc        The 


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BURY  SAINT  BDMUND8  —  BUSBBCQ 


71 


borough  owns  'ftnd  operated  the  water  supply, 
gas  and  electric  undertakuiRS.  Sir  Robert  Peel 
was  born  at  Chamber  Hul  in  the  vicinity  in 
1788;  and  a  bronze  statue  of  him  adorns  the 
town.  Bury  returns  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment.    Fop.  59,040. 

BURY  SAINT  EDMUNDS,  EoeUnd, 
flarliamentary  and  municipal  borough  in  West 
Sufloll^  situated  on  the  Lark,  26  miles  north- 
west of  Ipswich.  It  contains  two  fine  churches, 
those  of  Saint  James  and  Saint  Mary.  Among 
other  buildings  a  shire-hall,  a  guild-hall,  a  com 
exchange,  athenxum  with  library,  etc  Agricul- 
tural implements  are  manufactured,  and  there 
is  a  large  trade  in  agricultural  produce.  Of 
many  benevolent  institutions  the  principal  is  a 
free  grammar  school  founded  by  Edward  VI, 
Bury  Saint  Eldmunds  sends  one  member  to 
Parliament.  It  is.  an  ancient  place,  and  de- 
rived its  name  from  Saint  Edmund,  a  Idng  of 
the  East  Ancles,  who  was  buried  here.  The 
barons  in  John's  reign  met  here  and  swore  to 
.  obtain  the  ratification  of  Magna  Charta.  Bury 
Saint  Edmunds  contains  the  remains  of  an 
abbey,  once  the  .most  wealthy  and  magnificent 
in  Great  Britain,  of  which  all  that  remains  is 
the  noble  Nonnan  tower  or  Church  Gate,  one 
of  the  best  specimens  of  early  Norman  archi- 
tecture in  England,  and  the  western  gate,  deco- 
rated in  style.    Pop.  16,785, 

BURYING-BBSTLES,  coleopterous  in- 
sects of  the  family  Silfhider.  The  carrion  or 
sexton  beetles  are  useful  in  burying  decaying 
bodies  of  birds,  mice,  etc.,  in  which  they  lay 
their  eggs.  The  larva:  are  crostaceous,  flat- 
tened, with  the  sides  of  the  body  often  serrated, 
black  and  of  a  fetid  odor.  Th^  undergo  their 
transformations  in  an  oval  earthen  cocoon.  In 
NecTophonti  the  antennae  have  10  apparent 
joints,  and  the  rounded  club  is  four-tointed. 
The  genus  Silpha,  of  which  S.  lapfomca  is  a 
common  species,  differs  in  the  third  joint  of  the 
antenna  being  no  longer  than  the  second  but 
shorter  than  the  first.    In  Necrophilus  the  third 

('oint  is  as  long  as  the  first.  N.  svrinamfnsis 
las  a  yellow  thorax  with  a  central  irregular 
black  spot.  Catobs  and  its  allies  live  in  fun^, 
carrion  and  ants  nests,  and  are  small,  black, 
oval  insects.  There  are  between  800  and  900 
species  of  the  family,  many  of  which  are  small 
and  live  in  caves  (see  Cave-Dweujkg  Ami- 
UALS)  or  in  nests  of  ants. 

BURYING-PLACES,  localities  of  sepul- 
ture of  the  dead.  The  custom  of  burying  the 
dead  in  public  places  prevailed  among  Ae  most 
ancient  nations,  including  the  Romans,  who 
afterward,  in  the  flourishing  periods  of  the 
republic,  burned  their  dead  and  kept  the  ashes 
in  tombs,  collected  in  urns.  The  ancient  Ger- 
mans buried  their  dead  in  ^oves  consecrated 
^  their  priests.  With  the  introduction  of  the 
Oiristian  religion  consecrated  places  were  ap- 
propriated for  the  purpose  of  fjeneral  burial ; 
and  it  was  regarded  as  ignominious  not  to  be 
buried  in  consecrated  earth.  The  deprivation 
of  the  rites  of  burial  was  therefore  part  of 
the  punishment  of  excommunication.  The 
Romans  provided  their  gravestones,  upon  which 
were  inscribed  the  name  of  the  deceased,  and 
the  wish,  SH  Hit  terra  levis  ("May  the  earth 
rest  lightly  upon  him").  This  custom  was 
preserved  by  the  Christians.  The  Egyptians, 
Greeks  and  Romans  erected  over  the  graves. 


of  men  of  rank,  or  persons  otherwbe  remark- 
able, pyramids,  miausoleums  or  temples.  After 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  little  churches, 
called  chapels,  were  erected  over  the  dead. 
Early  Chnstian  martyrs  were  often  buried  in 
caverns,  which  by  degrees  were  enlarged  to 
spacious  subterranean  vaults.  Subsequently 
others  considered  thamselves  happy  if^  their 
bones  were  allowed  to  repose  near  the  ashes  of 
a  martyr.  As  early  as  the  4th  centurv  the 
Christians  built  churches  over  the  sepulchres 
of  the  holy  martyrs;  and  in  the  belief  that 
a  i)lace  was  sanctified  by  their  ashes  th<^ 
anxiously  sou^t  out,  on  the  erection  of  new 
churches  in  cities,  or  the  transformation  of 
heathen  temples  into  Christian  churches,  the 
remains  (relics)  of  the  martyrs,  and  buried 
them  under  the  altar  of  the  new  church  to 
communicate  to  it  a  character  of  greater  sanc- 
tity. The  Emperor  Constantine,  who  died  in 
337.  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  person 
who  ordered  his  tomb  to  be  erected  in  a  uiurch. 
This  wag  done  in  the  Church  of  the  Apostles 
at  Constantinople,  of  which  he  was  the  founder, 
and  therefore  probably  considered  himself  as 
peculiarly  entitled  to  this  privilege.  He  was  soon 
imitated  by  (he  bishops,  and  later  all  those  who 
had  enriched  the  Church  were  distinguished  by 
this  honor.  The  Emperors  Thcodosius  and  Jus- 
tinian, indeed,  forbade  the  erection  of  sepul- 
chres in  churdies,  but  in  vain,  Leo  the  Philoso- 
pher again  permitted  them  to  everybody.  At 
present  interment  in  churches  is  almost  every- 
where suppressed,  or  at  least  permitted  only 
under  certain  restrictions.  Even  in  Naples  and 
Rome  the  general  practice  of  erecting  sepul- 
chres in  churches  was  forbidden  in  1809,  and 
the  foundation  of  burial  places  without  the 
city  was  provided  for.  The  custom  introduced 
by  the  communities  of  Moravian  Brothers,  who 
form  their  burial  places  into  gardens,  is  now 
becoming  general ;  and  cemeteries,  instead  of 
exhibiting  merely  dull  ranges  of  tombstones,  are 
adorned  with  (lower  plots  and  ornamental 
shrubbery.  The  celebrated  burying-place  of 
Pire  la  Chaise,  near  Paris,  is  one  of  the  most 
beautlfnl  and  interesting  spots  in  the  world. 
See  also  Burial;  Cremation;  Catacombs, 

BU8AC0,  boo-salcg,  a  hamlet  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Beira,  on  the  north  side  of  the  river 
Mondego.  It  is  memorable  for  the  battle,  27 
Sept.  1810,  between  Wellington  and  Massina. 
Wellington,  with  about  40,000  men  on  a  retreat 
before  Massina,  with  a  force  of  65,000;  availed 
himself  of  the  favorable  position  of  the  sierra 
or  ridge  here  for  checldng  the  pursuit. 

BUSBECQ,  or  BUSBEQUIUS,  Ogier 
Ghlalaln  de,  Flemish  diplomatist  and  author: 
b.  Comines  1522:  d,  1592,  After  having  studied 
in  the  most  celebrated  universities  of  Flanders, 
France  and  Italy,  he  entered  the  service  of 
Ferdinand,  King  of  the  Romans,  who  in  1555 
sent  him  as  Ambassador  to  Constantinople.  In 
1562  he  returned  home,  after  spending  several 
years  as  tutor  and  guardian  to  the  sons  of  Max- 
imilian II,  was  sent  to  accompany  the  Arch- 
duchess Elizabeth  (who  was  to  be  married  to 
Charies  IX)  on  her  joumey  to  France.  Bus- 
becq  lived  there  as  steward  W  Elizabeth,  and 
when  she  left  France,  after  the  death  of  her 
husband,  he  remained  as  Ambassador  of  Ru- 
dolph II.  Two  important  works  of  his  Sur- 
vive, 'Leptioni^  Turcicie  EgistoLe  Quatuor,* 


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Va 


BUSBY— BUSH 


in  -which  the  policy,  the  power  and  the  weak- 
ress  of  the  Porte  are  so  profoundly  and  clearly 
explained  that  even  at  present  informatior  may 
be  drawn  from  them;  and  'Epistolse  ad  Ru- 
dolphum  II,'  a  very  important  work  for  the 
history  of  those  times.  His  style  is  pure,  ele- 
gant and  simple.  During  his  stay  in  Turkey 
he  collected  Greek  inscriptions  and  manu- 
scripts. Consult  Forster  and  Dan  Lei  1,  'The 
Life  and  Letters  of  Oeier  Ghiselin  de  Busbecq' 
(London  Iffll),  which  contains  his  most  im- 
portant writings:  De  Thou,  'Mistoiire  de  mon 
temps*  (Paris  1604) ;  St.-Genois,  *Les  voya- 
geurs  bclzes*  ^Brussels  1847);  Dupuis,  (Etude 
sur  rambassaae  d'Au^er  de  Busbeoiues  en 
Turquic'  (in  'Memoires  de  la  Societi  des 
Sciences  de  Ulle'). 

BUSBY,  Richard,  English  schoolmaster: 
b.  Lutton  or  Sutton,  Lincolnshire,  22  Sept.  1606; 
d.  6  April  1695.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster School  and  at  Oxford,  where  he  en- 
tered Christ  Church  in  1624  and  was  graduated 
B.A.  four  years  later,  and  received  his  M.A.  in 
1631.  He  became  a  tutor  of  his  college  and  at 
the  age  of  33  was  appointed  prebendary  and 
rector  of  Cudworth,  in  Somersetshire.  In  1638 
he  was  provisionally  appointed  headmaster  of 
Westminster  School  and  two  years  later  was 
confirmed  in  this  appointment,  which  he  held 
continuously  till  his  death.  He  was  strict  in 
discipline  and  a  successful  teacher,  and  among 
his  pupils  were  maiiy  of  the  greatest  men  of 
his  time — Dryden,  Locke,  Altcrbury,  South. 
Henry,  Hooper  and  others.  His  published 
works  were  mainly  school  books,  now  long  out 
of  date.    He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Aobey. 

, ^ Q.-cers.   conr'"* -* 

i  fur  hat,  with  a  bag  of  the  _  ... 
facings  of  the  regiment  hanging  from  the  top 
over  the  right  side.  The  style  and  material  of 
the  busby  vary  in  the  different  branches  of  the 
military  service.  The  bag  appears  to  be  a  relic 
of  a  Hungarian  headdrcs^  from  which  a  long 
padded  bag  hung  over  and  was  attached  to  the 
right  shoulder  as  a  defense  against  sword  cuts. 
It  is  worn  only  in  times  of  peace. 

BUSCH,  Moriti,  German  publicist :  b. 
Dresden,  13  Feb.  1821;  d.  1895.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Leipzig  and  in  1847  began  his  literary 
work  by  transiting  a  number  of  the  novels 
of  Dickens  and  Thackeray.     As  a  member  of 


failure  of  the  revolutionary 
and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1851,  but  re- 
turned to  Germany  in  1852.  He  also  traveled 
in  the  Orient  in  behalf  of  the  Austrian  Lloyds. 
In  1856  he  became  editor  of  the  Grcmhoien, 
and  in  this  paper  defended  the  policy  of  Bis- 
marck. In  April  1870  he  was  appointed  to  a 
position  in  the  Foreign  Oflice  and  accompanied 
Bismarck  to  France  at  the  time  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  as  reporter  for  the  press.  In 
1873  he  gave  up  his  official  position  to  become 
the  editor  of  the  Hattnaverscken  Kvriers,  but 
continued  to  be  a  confidant  of  Bismarck  and 
strongly  advocated  the  Chancellor's  policy  in  his 
articles  for  the  press.  After  his  visit  to  the 
United  States  he  wrote  'Wanderungen  zwischen 
Hudson  und  Mississippi*  (1853),  and  'Die 
Mormonen'  (1857).  Other  works  of  his  are 
'American  Humorists*  (translations  of  sclec- 
rions   from   Mark  Twain,   Bret    Harte,   etc.) ; 


<The  History  of  the  International*;  'The 
Humor  of  the  German  People' ;  'Oiunt  Bis- 
marck and  His  People  During  the  War  with 
France' ;  'Our  Chancellor'  (a  Ufe  of  Bis- 
marck), and  'Bismarck;  Some  Secret  Pages  of 
His  History*   (translated  into  English  1898). 

BUSCHING,  Anton  Friedrich,  German 
geographer:  b.  Stadthagen,  Schaumburg-Lippe, 
27  Sept.  1724;  d.  Berfin,  28  May  1793.  He 
studied  theology  in  Halle  from  1744  and  was 
for  a  time  mimster  of  a  Protestant  church  in 
Saint  Petersburg.  When  acting  as  a  traveling 
tutor  he  became  convinced  of  the  defects  of 
existing  geographical  treatises  and  resolved  to 
write  a  new  ont  which  he  began  on  his  return 
to  Germany  in  1752  by  publishing  a  short  de- 
scription of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  as  a  speci- 
men. In  1754  he  was  made  professor  of  philos- 
ophy in  Gottin^en.  In  1766  he  was  made  direc- 
tor of  the  united  gymnasiums  of  Berlin  and 
the  suburb  Kolln.  Before  his  great  'Erdbe- 
schreibung,*  which  he  began  to  publish  in  1754 
in  separate  volumes,  and  which,  thou^  not  en- 
tirely completed  1^  the  author,  passed  through 
eight  editions  dunng  his  life,  neither  the  Ger- 
mans nor  any  other  nation  had  a  thoroughly 
scientific  geographical  work.  Another  of  bis 
important  writings  is  the  'Magaiin  fiir  Histori- 
ographie  und  Geographie'   (25  vols.,  1767-83). 

BUSBNBAUM,  Hennann,  German  Jesuit: 
b.  Nottcln  1600;  d.  Miinster,  31  Jan.  16^  He 
taught  moral  philosophy  at  Cologne  and  was 
rector  of  the  Jesuit  Colle^  at  Munster,  He 
is  best  known  throurfi  his  casuistical  work, 
'Medulla  Theologix  MoraHs,  Facili  ac  Per- 
spicua  Methodo  Resolvens  Casus  (^nscientix,* 
in  which  he  treats  of  the  principles  of  the  Jesuit 
morals  in  a  detailed  and  systematic  manner. 
This  book  passed  through  45  editions  between 
1645  and  1^0,  and  has  been  reprinted  in  mod- 
em times.  After  Damiens'  attempt  to  assassi- 
nate Louis  XV  of  France,  the  charge  was  made 
that  it  had  taught  the  Jesuits'  approval  of  mur- 
der and  regicide,  it  was  therefore  publicly  con- 
demned hy  the  order  and  burned  by  the  Par- 
liament of  Toulouse, 

BUSH,  Katharine  JeanetM,  American 
zoologist :  b.  Scranton,  Pa.,  30  Dec.  1855.  She 
received  her  education  in  public  and  private 
schools  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  studied  zoology 
under  the  direction  of  Verrill  at  Yale  Univer- 
sity and  in  1879  was  appointed  assistant  of  the 
Yale  Zoological  Museunt  She  became  a  mem- 
ber of  die  United  States  Fish  (Commission,  also 
of  the  American  Society  of  Naturalists  and  the 
American  Society  of  Zoologists.  She  was  joint 
editor  of  'Webster's  Dictionary*  (1890  ed), 
and  is  the  author  of  'The  Tubiculous  Annelias 
of  the  Tribes  Sabellides  and  Serpulidcs*  (in 
Harriman  Alaslra  Expedition  Series,  Vol.  XII, 
190S);  'Deen  Water  MoUusca*  (ISS.'i) ;  'New 
Species  of  Turbonilla*  (1899).  and  contribu- 
tions to  the  principal  scientific  jonrnals. 

BUSH,  Hans,  English  lawyer:  b.  1815;  d. 
1882.  He  received  his  education  at  King's  Col- 
lege, London,  and  at  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He 
attracted  public  notice  through  his  advocacy 
of  the  establishment  of  rifle  clubs  as  a  means 
of  defense  of  the  nation.  While  still  at  the 
university,  he  published  'The  Rifle  and  How 
to  Use  It*  and  instituted  a  rifle  chib  among 


Google 


BUSH-BROWN  —  BUSHMAH 


T8 


great  bobby.    To  hitn  belongs  the 

Tst  suggesting  U£e-saving  st    ' 
id  of  organizing  a  moael  station,     iils 


boDor  of  first  suggesting  U£e-saving  stations 
and  of  organizing  a  mooeJ  station.  His  _pr~ 
cipal  work  is  'The  Navies  of  the  World:  Tl 


Present  State  and  Future  Capabilities'  (1859). 
BUSH-BROWN,  Hearj  Kirke,  American 
sculptor:  b.  Ogdensburp,  N.  Y.,  21  April  1857. 
He  studied  art  in  Pans  and  Italy  and  has  a. 
studio  in  New  York.  His  most  important  works 
are  equestrian  statues  of  Generals  Meade  and 
Reynolds  and  the  Lincoln  Memorial  at  Gettys 


New  York;  'Indian  Buffalo  Hunt,'  Chicago 
World's  Fair;  statues  for  Hall  of  Records, 
New  York.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
National  Sculptural  Society  and  was  prominent 
b  the  movement  for  municipal  art. 

BUSH  CRKBPERS,  the  English  name  of 
the  Uncoliltitue,  a  subfamily  of  the  Sylviidet. 
These  birds  have  sharp,  conical  bills  and  lon^ 
pointed  wings.  They  are  usually  diminutive  in 
siie.  active  in  habits,  have  a  twittering  note  and 
build  their  nests  in  thickets,  solitary  bushes  or 
trees.  They  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
both  hemispheres,  some  of  them,  however,  being 
migratory. 

BUSH-DOG,  a  small  wild  dog  (Iclicyon 
venalicus),  resembling  a  fox  in  appearance 
found  in  Guiana  and  Brazil.  It  is  distinguished 
bv  its  one  molar  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw,  has 
close  hair  and  a  short,  stubby  tail.  Compare 
Fox-ux;. 

BUSH-HOG.    See  River-hog. 

BUSH-QUAIL,  the  Anglo-Indian  name 
for  the  button^uail  (q.v.). 

BUSHBUCK,  any  of  several  African  ante- 
lopes,  frequenting  thickets   and  bushy  regions. 


:  applie; 


especially  to  the  di 


antelopes  of  the  genus  Ceph'alolofhus,  which  the 
Dutch  of  South  Africa  called  ■duykers'  (q.v,). 
These  include  the  smallest  members  of  their 
race,  some  of  them  standing  only  13  inches  high 
at  the  shoulders.  They  haunt  the  rocky  hill- 
aides,  leajnng  with  extraordinary  agility  from 
stone  to  stone  and  diving  into  the  thickets  at 
the  first  alarm.  They  feed  upon  berries,  leaves, 
buds  and  similar  food,  rather  than  upon  grass, 
and  their  flesh  has  a  delicate  flavor.  The  name 
iKishbiick*  is  also  given,  especially  in  South 
Africa,  to  the  larger  antelopes  ot  the  genus 
TrogelapfiKi,  more  distinctivelv  known  as  "har- 
nesied*  antelopes,  because  their  hides,  often 
richly  colored,  are  conspicuously  marked  with 
whitish  stripes,  suggesting  a  harness  thrown 
over  the  back.  The  largest  of  these  handsome 
antelopes  is  the  West  African  bongo  (T.  eury- 
ttros),  of  the  forests  of  the  Gaboon  region, 
which  stands  nearly  four  feet  high  and  has 
bonis  30  inches  long.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  continent  the  nyala  (7*.  angasi)  frequents 
the  fever-stricken  swamps  of  the  East  African 
coast  Another  well-known  species  of  the 
swamps  of  Eouthem  and  eastern  Africa  is 
Speke's  antelope  (7".  spekei),  native  names  for 
which  are  'nakong*  and  'sititunga.'  It  differs 
from  its  fellows  in  having  a  uniform  grayish- 
brown  silky  coat,  without  any  •harness,"  but 
the  young  are  faintly  striped  and^potted.  This 
ipedes  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  African  an- 


telopes wherever  rivers  or  swamps  occur,  and 
still  survives  in  considerable  niunbers.  That 
species  most  often  called  *bu£hbuck*  is  the 
giiib  (7".  scriptus),  still  to  be  found  in  the 
jimgles  along  the  African  rivers  from  Abys- 
»nia  to  the  Cape.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  m- 
ferior  siie,  which  is  about  that  of  a  goat,  and 
for  the  variability  of  its  markings,  which  has 
led  to  much  confusion  in  describing  it.  The 
variety  most  common  in  Cape  Colony  is  uni- 
formly dark  brown,  with  no  stripes  whatever, 
and  only  a  few  spots  on  the  haunches.  This 
genus  of  antelopes  is  closely  allied  to  that  of 
Uie  koodoos  (q.v.),  and  resembles  them  in  that 
the  females  are  hornless  and  usually  differ  in 
color  '  from  the  males.  Consult  Lyddeker, 
'Game  Animals  of  Africa'   (London  1908). 

BUSHEL,  a  di?  measure  containing  eight 
gallons  or  four  pecks.  The  standard  bushel  in 
the  United  States  (originally  known  as  the 
Winchester  bushel)  contains  2150.42  cubic 
inches,  and  holds  77.627  pounds  of  pure  water 
at  a  tem^rature  of  39.8°  F.,  and  30  inches  at- 
mosphenc  pressure.  '  The  English  standard,  the 
imperial  bushel,  has  a  capacity  of  221820  cubic 
indies  and  holds  SO  pounds  of  pure  water  at 
62°  F.    See  Weights  and  Measures. 

BUSHIDO,  boo-she'do  '(•the  way  of  the 
warrior*),  the  ethical  code  of  the  Samurai,  the 
Japanese  order  of  knighthood.  It  is  in  some 
ways  like  the  code  of  the  knights  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  demanding  courage,  honor  and  loyalty 
to  country  and  rulers;  it  also  enjoins  the  duty 
of  suicide  by  hari-kari  (q.v.)  to  avoid  loss  of 
honor.  Although  the  formal  code  was  given  up 
when  feudalism  was  abolished  in  Japan,  its 
ideals  still  have  great  influence  on  the  people, 
and  many  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  nation 
were  educated  according  to  its  principles.  It 
has  given  women  a  remarkable  position  in 
Japan  and  even  yet  instills  in  the  young  loftier 
ideals.     See  Sam  us  a  l 

BUSHINO,  a  piece  of  metal  placed  in  ma- 
chinery to  reduce  the  wear  of  the  major  parts 
of  the  machine.  It  is  also  used  to  decrease 
die  size  of  perforations  and  generally  to  re- 
duce friction,  eliminate  rapid  wear  of  moving 
pans  and  to  prevent  clogging.  Bushings  gen- 
erally are  inserted  in  the  machine  frame  at 
those  points  where  axles  or  other  moving  parts 
are  to  be  inserted  and  are  made  of  a  harder 
material  than  the  machine  frame. 

BUSHMAH,  or  BOSJBSMANS,  a  dwarf 
African  race  inhabiting  the  Kalahari  Desert  and 
some  of  the  more  northerly  portions  of  Cape 
Colony.  Their  average  height  seems  to  be 
rather  less  than  five  feet,  but  the  Bushmen  of 
the  Cape  are  more  stunted  than  those  living 
farther  north.  The  skin  is  of  a  dirty  yellowi^ 
color,  and  they  have  repulsive  countenances, 
with  a  somewhat  prominent  forehead,  thick 
lips,  large  ears  and  small,  deep-se^  restless 
eyes.  They  are  essentially  a  nomadic  people, 
neither  tilling  the  soil  nor  rearing  domestic 
animals,  but  subsisting  on  the  flesh  of  various 
wild  animals,  and  on  wild  bulbs,  roots,  fruits, 
etc.  They  live  in  rocky  caves  or  in  nide  nest- 
like  structures  in  a  bush.  Consult  Bleek,  "Rey- 
nard the  Fox  in  South  Africa'  (London  1S64)  ; 
Stow,  'Native  Races,  of  South  Africa'  (New 
York  1905) ;  Bleek  and  Lloyd,  'Specimens  of 
Bushman  PoIHore'   (London  1911). 


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74 


BUSHHASISR  — BUSINESS   SCHOOLS 


BUSHHASTBR,  a  laiKc  pit-viper  (Lac- 
hesis  mulus)  of  the  rmttlesnake  family,  numer- 
ous in  northeastern  South  America,  and  called 
by  the  natives  •surucucu."  It  is  the  Urgesl 
and  most  venomous  snake  known,  sometimes 
reaching  a  length  of  nine  feet  Its  eround 
rolor  is  pale  yellow,  darker  on  the  bade,  and 
marked  with  a  chain  of  jan;ed  brown  spots, 
and  lighter  on  the  belly.  It  has  no  rattle,  but 
its  tail  terminates  in  a  horny  spur,  which,  when 
the  tail  is  vibrated,  strikes  against  the  ground, 
producing  a  rattling  noise,  which  can  be  heard 
several  feet.  It  is  similar  to  the  rattlesnake  in 
its  habits,  dwells  wholly  upon  the  ground,  and 
its  poisonous  apparatus  is  greatly  developed, 
making  it  a  very  deadly  serpent,  and  one  much 
feared.  Consult  Hopley,  'Snakes'  (Loadon 
1882)  ;  Bates,  <A  Naturalist  on  the  River  Ama- 
Mn>  (New  York  1884);  Moles  and  Urich, 
'Serpents  of  Trinidad*  in  Proceedings  Zoolop- 
ieal  Society  of  London  (London  1894)  ;  Dit- 
mars,  'Reptiles  of  the  World'  (New  York 
1910). 

BUSMNBLL,  Horace,  American  theolo- 
rian:  b.  Litchfield.  Conn..  14  April  1802;  d. 
Hartford,  1?  Feb.  1876.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1827,  engaged  in  journalistic  and  edU' 
cational  work,  thep  studied  law  and  theology 
at  Yale,  where  for  a  time  he  was  tutor,  and 
in  1833  he  began  his  brilliant  pastorate  of  the 
North  Congregational  Church  in  Hartford, 
from  which  he  retired  owing  to  failing  health 
in  18S3.  His  writings  on  theological  subjects 
were  as  remarkable  for  the  interest  and  dis- 
cussion which  they  aroused  among  religious 
scholars  and  thinkers  as  for  their  originality 
and  independence  of  thought  and  vigor  of 
utterance.  Both  as  writer  and  preacher  he  was 
a  commanding  figure,  and  his  influence  was 
far-reaching.  His  works  include  'Principles  of 
National  Greatness;  Christian  Nurture'  (1847); 
<God  in  Christ'  (1849)  ;  "Christian  Theology' 
(1851);  'Sermons  for  the  New  Life'  (1858); 
'Nature  and  the  Supernatural'  (1858) ;  'Char- 
acter of  Jesus'  (1861)  ;  "The  Vicarious  Sacri- 
fice' (1865);  'Women's  Suffrage,  the  Reform 
Against  Nature'  (1869) ;  'Forgiveness  and 
Law'  (1874).  He  also  contributed  to  several 
periodicals,  and  propounded  many  original 
views,  even  to  the  extent  of  being  accused  of 
heresy.  However,  he  maintained  his  standing 
and  commanded  an  ever  increasing  influence 
until  his  death.  Consult  (Cheney,  Mary  B.,  'Life 
and  Letters  of  Horace  BushnelP  (New  York 
1880);  Hunger,  T.  T.,  'Horace  Bushnell, 
Preacher  and  Theologian'  (Boston  1899).  The 
public  services  of  Dr.  Bushnell  as  a  citizen 
were  such  as  to  make  him  long  remembered 
for  his  civic  pride  and  devotion  to  the  interests 
of  the  city  where  his  lifework  was  performed. 
Bushnell  Park,  Hartford,  named  in  his  honor, 
is  a  monument  to  his  initiative  and  ^rsistent 
efforts,  whereby  mainly  the  city  came  into  pos- 
session of  one  of  its  diief  adornments, 

BUSHNELL,  III.,  city  in  McDonoufsh 
County.  60  miles  west  of  Peoria,  on  the  Cihi- 
cago.  BurlinKton  and  Quincy  and  the  Toledo, 
Peoria  and  Western  railroads.  The  city  has 
manufactories  of  wood  and  steel  tanks,  pumps, 
wagons,  bu^es,  brick  and  garden  tools. 
Poultry  farming  is  an  important  source  of  em- 
ployment and  great  quantities  are  shipped 
annually   and   there   is   a   good   trade   tn   farm 


implements.  The  waterworks  are  the  property 
of  the  municipality.    Pop.  2,619. 

BUSHRANGERS,  a  name  originally  ap- 
plied to  desperadoes  in  Australia  who  took  to 
the  bush  and  supported  themselves  by  levying 
contributions  on  property  and  persons.  Not 
long  after  the  establishment  of  penal  settle- 
ments in  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  Southern 
Australia  by  the  British  government  the  bush- 
rangers be^n  to  make  conditions  disagreeable 
for  the  settlers  in  these  colonies  and  their 
operations  finally  became  so  bold  that  martial 
law'was  proclaimed  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  in 
1815;  and  15  years  later  a  veiv  stringent  act 
was  passed  in  New  South  Wales  to  do  away 
with  the  nuisance.  During  the  early  days  fol- 
lowing the  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia,  these 
desperadoes  obtained  immense  sums  by  robbing 
the  diggers,  stage  coaches  and  metal  convoys  on 
their  wav  from  the  mines  to  the  cities  and 
towns.  Jn  one  haul  a  notorious  gang  headed 
by  Capt.  Frank  Gardiner  gathered  in  £7,490 
in  bank  notes  and  more  than  5,000  ounces  of 
gold.  Gardiner  afterward  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1874.  "Jacky  Jacky*  in  Tasmania 
headed  several  hundred  escaped  prisoners,  es- 
tablishing something  very  like  a  reign  of  terror 
in  parts  of  the  island.  They  finally  made  an 
attack  on  the  governor's  quarters  on  Norfolk 
Island.  Hundreds  of  these  malefactors  were 
captured,  tried  and  executed  or  imprisoned; 
while  many  more  were  killed  by  the  govern- 
ment police,  troops  and  armed  citizens ;  out  the 
country  was  not  able  to  rid  itself  of  them  until 
roads  were  opened  up  and  railways  and  tele- 
phones came,  bringing  with  them  rapid  and 
sure  communication.  Consult  Boxall,  'History 
of  the  Australian  Bushrangers'  (London  1908). 

BUSHTIT,   a   very  small   titmouse  of   the 

Senus  Psaltriparui,  two  species  of  which  iijiabit 
le  western  United  Slates.  One,  the  least  bush- 
tit  (P.  minimus),  is  found  in  summer  from  the 
Rocln'  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  is 
noted  for  its  nest,  which  is  formed  of  moss, 
down,  lint  of  plants  and  similar  materials,  and 
is  shaped  like  an  old-fashioned  purse,  8  or  10 
inches  in  length,  suspended  from  the  branch  of 
a  bush,  and  entered  by  a  small  hole  near  the 
top.  The  lining  is  of  feathers  and  downy 
materials,  and  the  eggs  are  8  to  10  in  number, 
and  pure  white.  A  southern  variety  of  this  is 
the  lead-colored  bushtit  A  Mexican  species 
(,P.  meianotis)  is  distinguished  by  black  patches 
on  each  side  of  the  head.  .The  resemblance  in 
the  nesting  habits  of  these  birds  to  those  of  the 
European  titmouse  will  be  noted.  See  Tir- 
uouse. 

BUSHWHACKER,  a  term  appUed  during 
the  Civil  War  to  men  living  in  the  States  where 
military  operations  were  carried  on,  who  pro- 
fessed to  be  neutrals  and  to  be  solely  occupied 
in  their  ordinary  vocations,  hut  who  seiied 
opportunities  to  harass  or  attack  individual 
soldiers  or  small  bodies  off  their  guard. 

BUSINESS  COLLEGES.  See  Education, 
Commercial. 

BUSINESS  LIFE  INSURANCE.  See 
CoMMERaAi.  Lira  iNStniANCE. 

BUSINESS  HANAOER,  Honldpal.  See 
CiTV  Makageb. 

BUSINESS  SCHOOLS.    See  Education, 

COMMERCIAt- 


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BUSIRI8  — BUST 


BUSIRIS,  boo-sf-rls,  in  Egyptian  my- 
thology, a  being  of  whom  the  most  contndiC' 
loiy  accounts  are  given  by  ancient  writers, 
some  spcaldng  oi  Yam  as  a  idng,  others  ailinn- 
ing  that  the  name  meant  simply  the  tomb  of 

BUSKIN  (Utin  colhur«us},  a  kind  of 
high- so  led  shoe  or  half- boot,  worn  upon  the 
stage  by  the  ancient  actors  of  tragedy,  in  order 
to  give  them  a  more  heroic  appearance.  The 
Greek  word  kolhomos  denoted  a  sort  of  closed 
boot,  fitting  either  foot,  worn  by  women ;  the 
tragic  boot  bein^  the  embates  or  embus.  The 
word  is  figuratively  employed  by  the  Latin 
authors  for  tragedy  itself,  or  lor  a  lofty  and 
elevated  style.  Consult  Smith,  K.  K..  'The 
Use  of  the  High-Soled  Shoe  or  Buskin  in 
Greek  Tragedy  of  (he  Fifth  and  Fourth  Cen- 
turies B.C.'  in  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical 
Philology  (Vol.  XVI,  1905). 

BUSONI,  F«miccio  Benvenuto,  lulian 
composer:  b.  Empoli,  Florence,  1  April  1866. 
His  parents,  both  of  whom  were  skilled  musi- 
cians, superintended  his  early  musical  training. 
He  went  to  Leipzig  in  1886  and  in  1888  was 
appointed  teacher  at  the  Conservatory  of 
flelstngfors.  He  was  professor  at  the  New 
England  Conservatory,  Boston,  in  1891-43  and 
in  1894  settled  in  Berlin,  where  he  has  con- 
tinued to  reside.  He  made  several  verj;  suc- 
cessful concert  tours  of  Europe  and  also  in  the 
United  States  in  19I(>-1L  He  is  an  excellent 
performer  on  the  piano.  He  was  made  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  by  France  in  1913,  the 
ihird  of  his  race  thus  honored.  His  composi- 
tions  include  a  concerts Ack  for  piano  and 
orchestra,  concerto  for  violin ;  'Pojohlas' 
Dau^ter,'  a  symphonic  poem ;  two  suites  for 
orchestra;  'Lustspiel  Ouverlure* ;  two  string 
quartets,  and  the  opera,  'Die  BrautwahP 
(1912). 

BUSSA,  boos'sl.  or  BUSSANG,  British 
Xorthem  Nigeria,  central  Africa,  capital  of 
Borgu,  a  wall -encircled  town  on  the  Niger  at 


BUSSEY,  B«RJBiniii,  American  merchant: 
b.  Canton,  Mass.,  ]  March  1757;  d.  Roxbury,  13 
Jan.  1842.  He  was  a  soldier  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  became  a  silversmith  in  Dedham, 
aiterward  a  merchant  in  Boston,  where  he  ac- 
quired a  large  property,  from  which  he  be- 
queathed about  $350,000  to  Harvard  College, 
one-half  for  founding  the  Bussey  Institute. 
a  school  of  agriculture  and  horticulture,  ana 
one-half  for  the  support  of  the  law  and  divin- 
ity schools  of  the  college. 

BUSSI,  bii'sit  D'AMBOISE,  Louis  de 
Clermont  O'Amboise  (Sieur  de)  :  b.  1549;  d. 
19  Aug.  1579.  He  acquired  an  infamous  notori- 
ety by  the  prominent  part  he  took  in  the  mas- 
sacre of  Saint  Bartholomew.  He  afterward 
attached  himself  to  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  and 
obtaining  the  command  of  the  castle  of  Anjou, 
made  himself  universally  odious  by  his  pride  and 
oppression.  He  had  the  meanness  to  pander  to 
the  low  passions  of  the  Di^c,  and  undertook 
lo  seduce  the  wife  of  the  Count  of  Uontsoreau. 
The  intrigue  cost  him  his  life.     Moirtsoreau, 


at  the  castle  of  Con stanci ires,  Bussi  arrived 
with  a  single  confidant,  and  was  immediately 
met  by  Montsorean,  who  killed  him. 

BUSSON,  bu-s6A,  Charlea,  French  painter: 
b.  Montoire,  Loir-et-Cher,  15  July  1822;  d. 
1909.  He  studied  under  R*mond  and  Francois 
and  devoted  himself  to  landscape  painting.  His 
style  was  not  marked  by  the  cnaracterislics  of 
the  'open  air  school,"  but  recalled  the  canvases 
of  earlier  masters  in  his  chosen  branch  of  art. 
Among  his  paintings  are  'Les  Ruincs  du  cha- 
teau de  Lavardin'  and  'La  cfaasse  au  marais.' 

BUSSU  PALM,  a  plant  (Uanicaria  suc- 
cifera),  common  in  the  swamps  of  northern 
Brazil.  Though  it  rarely  exceeds  15  feet  in 
height,  it  has  huge  leaves,  said  to  be  the  largest 
undivided  leaves  produced  by  any  palm,  eves 
reaching  30  feet  in  lennh  by  4  or  5  feel  in 
width.  After  splitting  the  midrib  from  end  to 
end  the  leaves  are  laid  obliquely  noon  rafters 
to  form  thatch  for  houses.  Itiis  position  makes 
the  spaces  between  the  veins  act  as  gutters  to 
carry  off  water.  The  spathes  are  used  by  the 
Indians  for  caps  and  bags  and  for  cloth-making. 
The  large,  hard,  three-seeded,  olive-green  fruits 
do  not  seem  to  be  used  commercially. 


BUSSY-RABUTIN,  bA-se-m-bd-tiA.  or 
ROGER  DE  RABUTIN,  Comit:  sm  Bussy: 
b.  Epiry,  Nivernois,  1618;  d.  Autun  1693.  He 
entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  13,  and  made 
several  campaigns.  Turenne,  in  a  letter  to  the 
King,  describes  him  as  the  best  officer  in  his 
army  as  far  as  songs  were  concerned.  Hia 
scandalous  chronicle,  entitled  'Histoire 
Amoureuse  des  Gaules,'  cost  him  the  loss  of 
his  official  appointment  and  a  year's  imprison- 
ment in  the  Bastile.  He  was  a  correspondent 
of  Madame  de  Sivign^  and  is  often  mentioned 
in  her  letters.  He  bad  the  vanity  to  suppose 
that  he  excelled  her  in  her  peculiar  art,  and 
his  letters  were  afterward  published  in  seven 
volumes. 

BUST  (French  buste,  Italian  busto,  of  un- 
certain origan),  in  sculpture,  the  representation 
of  that  portion  of  the  human  figure  which  com- 
prises the  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 
The  bust  did  not  become  common  among  the 
Greeks  until  the  time  of  Alexander,  nor  among 
the  Ramans  till  the  time  of  the  empire.  Among 
the  Greeks,  the  portrait  busts  of  the  learned 
formed  an  important  branch  of  art.  Tlie 
artists  in  these  works  exhibited  a  singular 
power  of  expressing  character,  and  in  this  way 
we  possess  what  are  probably  faithful  likenesses 
of  Socrates,  Plato  and  other  distinguished  per^ 
sons.  The  first  ^oman  bust  that  can  be  de- 
pended upon  as  giving  a  correct  likeness  is  that 
of  Scipto  Africanus  Hie  elder.  The  number  of 
busts  of  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire  is  very 
considerable,  but  those  of  the  Roman  poets  and 
men  of  letters  have  not  been  preserved  in  so 
large  numbers  as  those  of  the  Gredcs.  A  col- 
lection of  drawings  of  antique  busts  was  made 
by  Fulvius  Ursinus,  and  published  with  the  title, 
<  Virum  Illustrium  Imagines'  ( Rome  1 569 ; 
Antwerp  1606)  ;  subsequently  a  sindlar  collec- 
tion was  published  in  the  'Iconographie 
Grecque'  of  Visconti  (Paris  18U),  which  was 
followed  by  his  'Iconographie  Romaine*  in 
1817. 


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BUSTAHANTB  —  BUTCHER-BIRD 


BU8TAMANTE,  boo-stf-min'tA,  Anaa- 
tiiio,  Mexican  statesman  and  revolutionist:  b. 
Tiqnilpan,  Michoacan,  27  July  1780;  d.  San 
Uiguel  Allende,  6  Feb.  1853.  In  1808  he  joined 
the  Spanish  army,  and  for  a  tine  fou^t  agpinst 
the  party  of  the  revolutionists,  but  in  1821  he 
acted  with  Iturbide,  He  was  made  Vice-Presi- 
dent and  commander  of  the  army,  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  Guerrero,  1829.  He  afterward 
revolted  and  led  the  Centralist  party,  and  in 
1830  became  acting  President  of  Mexico,  In 
1832  Santa  Anna  opposed  him  at  the  head  of  an 
army,  and  he  was  conquered  and  banished  1833, 
When  the  Centralist  party  returned  to  power  he 
was  recalled,  and  in  1837  was  elected  President 
of  Mexico.  In  1842  he  was  obliged  to  retire 
from  the  Presidency,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Santa  Anna.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  army 
in  the  war  with  the  United  States,  retiring  from 
military  service  in  1848. 

BUSTAMANTK,  C«rloB  Maria,  Mexican 
historian:  b.  Oaxaca,  4  Nov,  1774;  A  21  Sept 
1848.     He  studied  law  and  in  1801  began  its 

S'actice.  In  1805  he  became  editor  of  the 
iario  dt  Mijico.  He  held  a  command  under 
Morelos  in  18L2,  and  was  captured  at  Vera  Cruz. 
He  was  released,  and  became  a  member  of  Con- 
gress and  held  other  public  oEFices.  He 
founded  a  weekly  newspaper,  La  Avispa  de 
ChUpcmcingo,  whose  articles  twice  led  to  his 
imprisonment.  His  works  treat  of  various 
periods  of  Mexican  history,  and  are  of  special 
value,  as  he  was  an  eye-witness  of  much  that 
he  describes.  He  published  a  history  of  the 
Mexican  revolution  (1823-32),  and  histories 
of  the  times  of  Iturbide  and  of  Santa  Anna- 

BUSTARD  QUAIL,  the  name  given  by 
Anglo-Indians  to  the  button-quail  (q.v.)- 

BUSTARDS,  a  family  of  e^ame  birds 
{Otidida)  of  the  Old  World,  which,  however, 
are  not  gallinaceous,  but  are  related  in  structure 
on  the  one  hand  to  the  cranes,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  plovers.  They  are  inland  birds,  haunting 
fliy.  grassy  and  sandy  plains,  and  in  the  more 
settled  districts  resorting  to  stubble-fields  and 
pasture-land.  They  have  strong  legs  and  feet, 
as  well  as  good  wing-power,  and  spend  more 
of  their  time  on  the  ground  than  in  fught.  Most 
of  them  are  birds  of  handsome  plumage,  the 
upper  parts  being  mottled  with  brown  and  red- 
dish tints,  set  oS  with  white  and  black.  Orna- 
mental plumages  are  characteristic  of  the  group, 
and  often  form  crests,  or  ruffs,  about  the  head, 
neck  and  breast.  Bustards  are  known  in  the 
Mediterranean  regions,  and  throughout  south- 
ern Asia  to  China  and  Japan.  They  also  abound 
all  over  Africa,  and  one  species  (^Eupodotis 
australis)  inhabits  Australia,  where  it  is  called 
■native  turkey."  Those  of  North  Africa  and 
western  Asia  are  known  as  "houbaras,*  and 
form  the  favorite  ^mc-birds  of  that  semi- 
desert  region.  Certain  small  species  of  India, 
favorites  with  sportsmen,  arc  called  "floricans." 
The  typical  and  best-known  bustard,  however, 
is  Otis  taroa,  now  extinct  in  Great  Britain,  but 
numerous  throughout  the  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries. It  has  somewhat  the  size  and  form  of 
an  American  turkey,  and  is  the  largest  and  one 
of  the  most  valuable  of  European  game-birds. 
A  remarkable  feature  of  this  species  is  the  fact 
that  a  great  pooch,  opening  under  the  tongue, 
is  developed  m  the  throat  of  the  male  of  some 
examples    during   the   breeding    season.     This 


phenomenon  is  restricted  to  adult  birds,  and 
the  pouch  disappears  at  other  times  of  the  year. 
Its  utility  is  unknown,  A  much  smaller  but 
otherwise  similar  species,  die  little  bustard 
{Olis  letrax),  is  another  favorite  with  Euro- 
pean sportsmen.  The  term  is  sometimes  errone- 
ously applied  to  other  large  birds,  such  as  die 
Magellanic  goose  of  Argentina.  Consult 
Aflalo,  'Sport  in  Europe'  (London  1901)  ;  See- 
bohm,  'Birds  of  Asia'  (London  1901)  ;  Bryden, 
'Nature  and  Sport  in  aouth  Africa'  (London 
1897). 

BUSTO-ARSIZIO.  ar-sits'io,  Italy,  dty  in 
the  northern  division,  21  miles  northwest  of 
Milan.  It  contains  a  church,  designed  by  Bra- 
mante,  and  containing  frescoes  by  Gaudenrio 
Ferrari.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  goods 
and  a  trade  in  wine.    Pop.  25,992. 

BUSYBODY,  The,  a  pen  name  under 
which  Benjamin  Franklin  wrote  a  series  of 
papers,  modeled  on  'The  Spectator'  of  Addi- 
son; also  a  comedy  by  Mrs.  Centlivre,  1709. 

BUTADES.     See  Dibutades. 

BUTANE  and  ISOBUTANE.  two  gas- 
eous compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  with 
the  same  molecular  formula,  CliHu,  yet  difiering 
in  their  chemical  properties.  They  are  similar 
to  marsh  gas.  Crude  petroleum  contains  dis- 
solved butane. 

BUTCHER.    See  ABAnora. 

BUTCHER,  Samuel  Henry,  Irish  dasucal 
scholar:  b.  Dublin,  16  April  1850;  A  29  Dec 
1910.  He  was  educated  at  Marlborough  Col- 
lege, and  Trinity  College.  (Cambridge,  and  was 
a  lecturer  at  University  (College,  Oxford,  1876- 
82.  From  I882-I903  he  was  professor  of  Greek 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1906  he 
was  elected  one  of  the  members  for  Cambridge 
University.  In  1904  he  visited  the  United  States 
to  deliver  a  series  of  lectures  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity and  other  places.  He  has  published  a 
'Prose  Translation  of  the  Odyssey'  (with  A. 
Lang  q.v.)  (1879):  'Demosthenes'  (1881^; 
'Some  Aspects  of  the  Greek  Genius'    (1891); 


, Greek 

Subjects'    (1904). 

BUTCHER-BIRD,  a  shrike  of  the  family 
Laniida,  representatives  of  which  range 
throughout  the  northern  hemisphere.  They 
are  birds  of  moderate  size,  and  gray  and  white 
in  color,  with  black  markings  upon  the  head, 
wings  and  tail,  which  are  properly  included 
among  the  insect-eating  birds,  but  have  de- 
veloped certain  falcon-like  trails.  They  are  of 
powerful  build,  with  hooked  beaks,  and  strong 
claws,  and  in  winter,  when  insect  prey  is  not 
easily  obtained,  they  are  accustomed  to  strike 
down  small  birds,  and  to  seize  mice,  shrews,  etc 
These  they  carry  off  in  their  claws  to  some 
thorn-tree,  or  lo  a  fence  with  spikes,  and  impale 
them  one  by  one  upon  the  thorns,  or  other 
sharp  points,  in  order  to  fix  them  firmly  while 
they  feed  upon  their  fiesh.  It  often  luppens, 
however,  that  their  love  of  the  chase  exceeds 
their  appetite,  so  that  they  will  catch  and  store 
away  several  victims,  whose  frozen  bodies^  re- 
main hanging  upon  the  thorns,  like  meat  in  a 
butcher's   shop;   the   (jermans   have   a   popular 


belief  that  i 


:  tbtts  stored  a 

.Google 


d=,  Google 


d=,  Google 


BUTE — BUTBSHISB 


7T 


time,  and  call  die  birds  *nine-fciilers.»  These 
shrikes  make  rude  nests  in  trees  and  lay  four 
or  five  brownish  spotted  eggs.  They  feed  their 
young  upon  insects,  and  these  form  the  larger 
part  of  their  own  fare,  espeeialy  grasshoppers. 
A  t>yical  species,  common  over  northernmost 
North  America,  is  the  great  northern  shrike 
iLanius  borealis),  which  is  rarely  seen  in  the 
United    States,    except    in     winter.      Another 

rcies,  the  loggerhead  (L.  ludovicianus), 
etls  in  the  Southern  States  and  is  somewhat 
smaller  in  size.  Consult  Ingersoll,  'Wild  Life 
of  Orchard  and  Field'  (1902)  ;  Newton,  Alfred, 
<DicUonary  of  Birds'  (New  York  1896)  ; 
Evans,  A.  H.,  'Birds'  in  'Cambridge  Natural 
History'   (Vol.  IX,  ibid.,  1900).     See  Shrike. 

BUTE,  but,  John  Patrick  Crichton-Stuart, 
(3d  Marquis  of)  :  b.  Mountstuart,  12  Sept. 
1847;  d.  9  Oct.  1900.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
row and  Oxford.  He  was  mayor  of  Cardiff  in 
1891-^  and  did  much  to  advance  the  com- 
mercial prosperity  of  that  city.  From  1892  to 
16%  he  was  lord  i;pclor  of  Saint  Andrew's 
University,  which  benefited  greatly  by  bis 
munificence.  He  donated  Bute  Hall  to  Glasgow 
University.  He  was  deeply  interested  in  Scot- 
tish history,  and  was  the  author  of  'Early  Days 
of  Sir  William  Wallace' ;  'The  Burning  of  the 
Bams  of  ^r';  and  'Altus  of  Saint  Cfflumba.' 
His  secession  from  the  Scottish  Presbyterian 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1868  caused  a 
sensation  in  Scotland.  He  figures  as  the  hero 
in  Disraeli's  novel,  'Lothair.'  He  was  the 
author  of  an  adequate  and  scholariy  translation 
of  the  Roman  'Breviary.' 

BUTE,  John  Stturt  (3d  Earl  of),  British 
statesman:  b,  Ediuburgh,  25  May  1713;  d.  10 
March  1792.  His  grandfather  was  created  a 
peer  in  1703,  and  the  family  was  connected  with 
the  royal  Stuart  line.  In  1737  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  one  of  the  Scottish  representative 
peers,  but  was  not  re-elected  in  1741.  He  then 
'  retired  to  his  estates,  and  lived  there  wholly 
secluded  till  the  landing  of  the  Pretender  in 
Scotland  in  1745  induced  him  to  go  to  London 
and  offer  his  services  to  the  government.  He 
soon  gained  influence  with  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  succeeded  in  making  himself  indispensable 
to  him.  At  his  death^  in  1751,  he  was  appointed 
by  the  widowed  Pnncess  chamberlain  to  her 
son,  and  was  intrusted  by  her  with  his  educa- 
tion. Bute  never  lost  sight  of  his  pupil,  and 
possessed  so  much  more  influence  with  the 
Princess  of  Wales  than  her  son's  particular 
tutors,  the  Earl  of  Harcourt  and  the  bishop  of 
Norwich,  that  they  resigned  their  ofnces. 
George  II  died  25  Oct.  1760,  and  two  days  after 
Bute  was  appointed  member  of  the  privy 
council.  In  March  3761  the  Parliament  was  dis- 
solved and  Bute  was  made  Secretary  of  State. 
Pitt,  who  saw  his  influence  in  the  new  council 
annihilated,  resigned  the  same  year.  This  event 
made  an  unfavorable  imprcsrion  on  the  nation ; 
but  Bute,  possessing  die  unbounded  conJidence 
of  his  King,  stood  at  the  head  of  the  state. 
After  a  severe  contest  in  Parliament,  he  con- 
cluded a  peace  with  France.  The  terms  for 
England  were  perhaps  not  disproportionate  to 
the  successes  obtained  during  the  war;  but  Bute 
was  obliged  to  bear  the  most  bitter  reproaches. 
He,  however,  succeeded  in  winning  the  popular 
lavor,  and  eveiydiing  seemed  to  promise  the  ' 


power  of  the  minister  a  long  continuance.  The 
influence  of  Bute  seemed  unbounded,  when  it 
was  made  known,  contrary  to  expectation,  that 
he  bad  resigned  his  office  as  Prime  Minister,  and 
intended  to  retire  into  private  life.  In  1766 
Bute  declared  in  the  House  of  Lords  that  he 
had  wholly  withdrawn  from  public  business 
and  no  longer  saw  the  King;  still  it  was  not 
doubted  that  his  great  influence  continued.  It 
was  only  on  the  death  of  the  Princess  of  Wales, 
1772,  that  he  seems  first  to  have  given  up  all 
participation  in  the  affairs  of  government.  He 
spent  nis  last  years  on  his  estate.  A  costly 
botanical  garden,  a  librarv  of  30,000  volumes, 
excellent  astronomical,  philosophical  and  mathe- 
mathical  instruments,  aflorded  him  occupation. 
His  favorite  study  was  botany,  with  which  he 
was  intimately  acquainted.  For  the  (^ueen  of 
England  he  wrote  the  '  Botanical  Register, ' 
which  contained  all  the  different  kinds  of  plants 


excels  all  former  botanical  works,  and  for  its 
rarity.  Only  12  copies  were  printed,  at  an  ex- 
pense of  more  than  $50,000.  Consult  A.  von 
Ruville,  'William  Pitt  and  Grcf  Bute'  (Berlin 
1895) ;  Lovat-Fraser,  'John  Stuart,  Eari  of 
Bute'   (New  York  1912). 

BUTE,  Scotland,  an  island  in  the  estuary 
of  the  Qyde,  with  an  area  of  30,000  acres,  be- 
longing principally  to  the  Marquis  of  Bute.  It 
is  about  16  miles  long,  and  the  average  breadth 
is  3Vi  miles.  Agriculture  is  in  an  advanced 
State,  and  there  are  about  20,0(X)  acres  under 
cultivation.  The  herring  fishery  is  also  a  source 
of  considerable  profit..  The  only  town  is  Rothe- 
say, whose  ancient  castle  is  one  of  the  many 
interesting  antiquities  of  the  island  Mount 
Stuart,  the  seat  of  the  Marquis  of  Bute,  is  four 
miles  south  of  Rothesay.  The  climate  of  Bute 
is  milder  than  that  of  almost  any  part  of 
Scotland.  The  county  of  Bute  comprises  the 
islands  of  Bute,  Arran,  Great  Cumbrse,  Holy 
Isle,  Little  Cumbrs,  Inchmamock  and  Pladda, 
with  a  total  area  of  139,658  acres,  bnt_  only  a 
small  part  is  under  cultivation.  Arran  is  about 
double  the  size  of  Bute,  but  the  other  islands 
belonging  to  the  county  are  small.  The  county 
returns  one  member  to  Parliament.  Pop. 
of  Bute.  11,835. 

BUTEA,  a  small  genus  of  trees  or  woo^ 
vines  of  the  family  Fabacea,  natives  of  China 
and  India,  noted  for  their  racemes  of  large, 
rich,  usually  scarlet,  papilionaceous  flowers,  for 
which  thej  are  cultivated  in  warm  countries  and 
warm  greenhouses.    The 


S-. 


of  doors  in  California.  It  is  a  leafy  tree,  at- 
tains a  height  of  50  feet  and  bears  very  slowly 
orange-crimson  flowers,  which  are  used  in  the 
Orient  under  the  name  keesoo  or  teesoo  for 
dyeing  yellow  or  orange.    Its  fibrous  r 


India.     The  seeds  are  used  as  a  vermifuge. 

BUTESHIRE,  Scotland,  county  in  the 
West  Midlands  division.  It  includes  Bute, 
Arran,  Pladda,  Marnoch,  Cumbraes,  lona  and 
several  smalln  islands;  has  a  total  area  of  220 


d=,  Google 


BUnH—BUTLBR 


square  miles  and  >  populMion  of  18,186;  Agri- 
culture and  fishing  are  the  only  industries  of 
any  extent.    Rotliesay,  Bute,  is  the  county-seat. 

6UTIH,  bil-tSA^  Ulysae  Louis  Auroste, 
French  painter:  b.  Saint  Quentin  1838;  d.  Paris, 
9  Dec  1883.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Picot  and  Pils. 
His  subjects  are  mostly  from  the  life  of  the 
French  fishennen,  and  his  work  shows  remark- 
able truthfulness  to  nature.  Among  his  best 
paintings  are  'The  Departure';  'Fishing';  and 
<Burial  of  a  Sailor  at  Villerville.' 

BUTLKR,  Albtn,  English  writer  on  re- 
ligious topics:  b.  1711;  4  Saint  Omer  1773. 
He  received  his  education  at  that  famous  centre 
of  English  Catholicism,  the  En^sh  College  of 
Douai,  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  and  was 
successively  professor  of  ptiiloso[diy  and  the- 
ology at  Douai.  Later  he  traveled  throughout 
Europe  and  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk.  He  became  afterward  president 
of  the  College  of  Saint  Omer.     He  spent  30 

Gars  in  compiling  his  great  life-work,  'The 
ves  of  the  Saints.'  It  appeared  in  four 
volumes  (1756-59)  and  after  his  death  in  12 
volimies  with  annotations  omitted  from  the 
former  edition. 

BUTLER,  Amos  William,  American 
ornithologist,  sociologist  and  philanthropist :  b. 
Brookville.  Ind.,  1  Oct.  186a  He  was  educated 
at  Hanover  College  and  at  Indiana  University ; 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Indiana  Acad- 
emy of  Science,  and  became  its  president  in 
1895 ;  became  general  secretary  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  1891 ; 
vice-president  of  the  section  of  Anthropology, 
1900;  president  of  the  National  Conference  of 
Charities  and  Corrections,  1906-07;  president 
of  the  American  Prison  Association,  1909-10; 
chairman  of  the  American  Committee  on  In- 
ternational Prison  Congress,  1909-10;  vice- 
president  of  the  International  Prison  Congress, 
1910;  secretary  of  the  Indiana  Board  of  State 
Charities  since  1897.  He  has  pubhshcd  'Birds 
of  Indiana'  (1891)  and  many  other  ^ajiers  on 
ornithology,  anthropology  and  chanties  and 
correction,  which  have  appeared  in  the  publica- 
tions of  scientific  societies. 

BUTLER,  Andrew  Picketis,  American  poli- 
tician: b.  Edgefield  District,  S.  C.  7  Nov.  1796; 
d,  near  Edgefield  Court-hous^  S  May  18S7.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1819.  and  in  IS34 
was  elected  to  the  legislature  as  the  representa- 
tive of  his  native  district.  In  1831,  a  period 
marked  by  the  apprehended  collision  of  South 
Carolina  with  the  Federal  government,  on  the 
nullification  issue,  he  was  elected  colonel  of  a 
regiment  of  cavalry.  In  1833,  still  a  member  of 
the  legislature,  be  was  made  a  judge  of  the 
Courts  of  Creneral  Sessions  and  Cx>mmon  Pleas. 
Subsequently,  when  a  change  was  made  in  the 
judiciary  ^stem,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
supreme  bench  of  the  State,  where  he  continued 
until  1S46,  when  he  was  elected  a  senator  m 
Congress.  Soon  after  taking  his  scat  in  this 
body,  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  Judi- 
ciary Committee.  One  of  his  earliest  speeches 
was  against  making  Colonel  Benton  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  army.  The  Kansas  question,  the 
action  of  the  nava!  retiring  board,  the  abolition 
question  and  all  others  affecting  the  peculiar 
interests  of  South  Carolina,  and  the  geneisl 
welfare  of  the  South,  engaged  faim  in  frequent 


debate,  in  whidi  be  always  took  a  coiu|»ctKius 
part.     His   last   tpeech  was  in   r«ly  to    Mr. 
Sumner,  and  in  defense  of  South  Carolina. 
BUTLER,  Benjamin  Franklin,  American 


Colby  University) ;  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1841,  and  beginning  practice  at 
Lowell,  Mass.,  became  distiiu^ished  as  a  crim- 
inal lawyer  and  politician.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Slate  legislature  in  1853,  of  the  Slate 
senate  in  1859-6CL  and  a  delegate  to  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  of  1860,  which  met 
at  Charleston  and  adjourned  to  Baltimore.  He 
supported  the  nomination  of  John  C.  Brecken- 
ridge,  which  rendered  him  so  unpopular  in  the 
North  that  he  was  defeated  for  governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  that  year.  Butler  had  risen 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-jgjeneral  of  miUtia;  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Qvil  War,  he  marched 
with  the  8th  Massachusetts  Regimeiit,  and, 
after  a  check  at  Big  Be(hel,  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  Baltimore  and  of  eastern 
Virginia,  with  his  headquarters  at  Fort  Mon- 
roe. In  February  1862  he  commanded  the  mil- 
itary forces  sent  from  Boston  to  Ship  Island, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi;  and,  after 
New  Orleans  had  surrendered  to  the  naval 
forces  under  Farra^t,  he  held  miiitary  posses- 
sion of  the  city.  His  adrmnistration  was  vigor- 
ous and  while  mostlj|  just  was  severely  criti- 
cized. Especial  notoriety  attached  to  his  order 
directing  that  women  who  should  publicly  insult 
United  States  officers  be  regarded  as  womien  of 
the  street.  The  order  was  bitterly  resented  in 
the  South  and  caused  Jefferson  Ifevis  to  order 
that  Butler  be  considered  a  felon  and  if  cap- 
tured, that  he  be  hanged.  Relieved  of  his  com- 
mand, he  acted  under  General  Grant  in  his 
operations  against  Petersburg  and  Richmond 
in  1864.  Returning  to  Massachusetts  at  the 
end  of  the  war.  he  took  an  active  part  in 
politics  as  an  extreme  radical,  advocated  the 
impeachment  of  President  Johnson,  and  in 
1866-75  was  a  member  of  Congress.  In  1877  and 
1879  he  was  defeated  as  candidate  for  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  but  in  1882  was  elected  by 
a  large  majority.  In  1884  he  ran  tor  the  Pres- 
idency as  the  candidate  of  the  Greenback  and 
An ti- Monopolist  parties,  but  was  defeated,  caT- 
rjdng  no  State.  He  published  'The  Auto- 
biography and  Personal  Reminiscences  of  Maj.- 
Gtn.  Benjamin  F.  Butler'  (1892).  Consult 
Parton,  'Butler  in  New  Orleans'  (New  York 
1863)  ;  Bland,  'Life  of  Benjamin  F.  Butler' 
(1879)  ;  'Private  and  Official  Correspondence 
of  General  Benjamin  F,  Butler;  During  the 
Period  of  the  Civil  War'  (5  vols.,  1918).  Con- 
sult also  Rhodes,  James  F.,  'History  of  the 
United  States,  from  the  Compromise  of  1850' 
(Vol.  V,  New  York  1902). 

BUTLER,  Charl«a,  English  Roman  Cath- 
olic historian;  b.  London,  15  Aug.  1750;  d. 
there,  2  June  1832.  He  was  nephew  of  the 
Rev.  Alban  Butler  (q.v.).  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1791,  and  was  the  first  Roman 
Catholic  who  was  admitted,  after  the  passing 
of  the  relief  bill  of  that  year.  He  wrote  'Hone 
Bibliae,'  ^ving  a  history  of  the  original  text, 
early  versions  and  printM  editions  of  the  Old 
and  New  Teslamonta,  and  al*o  of  the  'Koran,' 


d=,  Google 


•Zend-Aveslai  and  the  'Edda.*  This  first  ap- 
peared in  1797,  and  was  followed  by  "Hora; 
JuridicK  Subsedvae,'  a  connected  series  of 
notes  respecting  the  geojpaphy,  chronology  and 
literary  history  of  the  principal  codes  and  orig- 
inal documents  of  the  Grecian  Roman,  feudal 
and  canon  law.  He  continued  and  completed 
Hargrave's  *Coke  Upon  Littleton';  supervised 
the  6th  edition  of  Feame's  <Essay  on  Con- 
tingent Remainders'  ;  wrote  a  history  of  the 
geographical  and  political  revolutions  of  Ger- 
many, and  a  'Historical  and  Literary  Account 
of  the  Formularies,  Confessions  of  Faith,  or 
Symbolic  Books  of  Roman  Catholic,  Greek  and 
Principal  Protestant  Churches.'  During  the 
last  25  years  of  his  career  he  principally  de- 
voted his  pen  to  the  vindication  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Oiurcfa.  He  published  numerous  biog- 
raphies of  eminent  Roman  Catholic  divines  and 
authors;   continued  his  uncle's    'Lives  of   the 


olics.'  When  Southey's  ultra- Protestant  'Book 
of  the  Church'  appeared,  it  was  replied  to  in 
Butler's  *Book  of  the  Roman  Cathohc  Church,' 
which  gave  rise  to  six  answers  on  the  Prot- 
estant side,  two  of  which  were  responded  to 
by  Butler.  His  'Reminiscences'  appeared 
1822-27.  As  a  constitutional  lawyer  his  repu- 
tation was  very  high. 

BUTLER,  Ellis  Parker,  American  humor- 
ist :  b.  Muscatine,  Iowa,  5  Dec.  1869.    His  first 
<Pigs  is  Pigs'    (1906),  was  fol- 


kiwed  by  others  equally  successful.    These  in 
dude  'The  Incubator  Baby'    (1906)  ;   'Perkins 
d'     (1906) ;    'Great   American    Pie 
(1907)  ;  'Confessions  of  a  Daddy' 
(190?):    'Kilo'    (1907);    'That  Pup'    (1908); 


'Cheerfal  Smugglers  (1908);  'Mike  Flannery' 
(1909) ;  'Thin  Santa  Qaus'  (1909) ;  'Water 
Goats'  (1910)  ;  'Adventures  of  a  Suburbanite' 
(1911);  'The  Jack-Knife  Man'  (1913);  <Dom- 
ine  Dean,  A  Tale  of  the  Mississippi'  (1917). 
He  is  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  Authors' 
League  of  America. 

BUTLER,  Howard  Croaby.  American 
educator :  b.  Crolon  Falls,  N.  Y..  7  March  1872. 
He  was  educated  at  Princeton  University,  al 
the  Columbia  School  of  Architecture  and  at 
the  American  schook  of  Classical  Studies  in 
Rome  and  in  Athens.  In  1899,  19(H  and  1909 
he  led  three  ardiKologicai  expeditions  in 
Syria.  In  1905  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
the  history  of  architecture  at  Princeton,  His 
publications  are  'Scotland's  Ruined  Abbeys' 
(1900)  ;  <The  Story  of  Athens'  (1902)  ;  'Archi- 
tecture,' Part  I!  of  'Publications  of  American 
Expedition  to  Syria'  (1903);  'Ancient  Ar- 
chitecture in  Syria,'  in  Division  II  of  'Publica- 
tions of  Princeton  Expedition  to  Syria' ;  also 
papers  in  archxological  journals. 

BUTLER,  James  (Duke  or  OsMoifDE), 
English  statesman;  b.  London,  19  Oct.  1610;  d. 
Kingston  Hall,  Dorsetshire,  21  July  1688.  When 
Strafford  became  lord- lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
Butler  was  made  commander  of  the  army,  but 
as  it  consisted  of  only  3,000  men,  and  he  was 
overruled  by  the  lords  justices,  he  could  do 
little  more  than  keep  the  enemy  in  check,  and 
wasobli^^d  to  a^ee  to  a  cessation  of  hostilities; 
after  which,  having  been  created  a  marquis,  he 
was  appointed  lord-lieutenant.  On  the  ruin  of 
the  royal  cause  he  retired  to  France.     After 


LBK  n 

tiie  execution  of  Charles  he  returned  to  Irdand 
with  a  view  to  raising  the  people;  but  on  the 
landing  of  Cromwell  returned  to  France.  While 
abroad  be  exerted  himself  to  further  the  res- 
toration of  Charles;  and  when  that  event  was 
brought  about  by  Monk,  returned  with  the 
King.  Before  the  coronatio.i  he  was  created 
duke,  and  assisted  at  that  ceremony  as  lord 
high- steward  of  Elngland.  In  1662  he  was 
again  appointed  lord-ilievtenant  of  Ireland, 
which  country  he  restored  to  comparative  tran- 
quillity, and  was  an  active  benefactor  of  it  by 
encouraging  various  improvements,  particularly 
the  growth  of  flax  and  manufacture  of  linen. 
On  the  exile  of  Lord  Qarendon,  his  attach- 
ment to  tiiat  nobleman  involved  Butler  in  much 
of  the  odium  attached  to  him,  and  although,  on 
his  recall  from  Ireland,  nothing,  on  the  most 
rigorous  inquiry,  could  be  proved  a^fainst  him, 
he  was  removed  through  the  machinations  of 
Bucldngham.  For  seven  years  he  was  deprived 
of  court  favor,  but  at  length  was  a^ain  ap- 
pointed lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  place 
he  held  until,  shortly  before  the  death  of 
Charles,  he  was  recalled  in  order  to  make  way 
for  Rochester.    He  died  at  his  seal  in  Dorset- 


BUTLER,  Jamea  Glentwortb,  American 
Presbyterian  clergyman:  b.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  3 
Aug  182! ;  d.  Boonlon,  N.  J.,  28  Dec.  1916.  He 
was  the  son  of  one  of  the  five  founders  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Chufch  in  Brooklyn.  He 
educated  at   Yale,   the  Union  Theological 


He  served  in  Williamsburg  and  then  at  the 
Walnut  Street  Presbyterian  Church  in  Phila- 
delphia from  18S2  to  1868.  Next  he  became 
secretary,  treasurer  and  editor  of  the  American 
and  foreign  Christian  Union,  remaining  in  that 
field  11  years.  He  spent  the  following  20  years 
compiling  a  series  of  11  volumes  entitled  'The 
Bible  W'ork,'  which  constitute  what  some  au- 
thorities regard  as  the  most  comprehensive  and 
valuable  commentary  on  the  Bible  that  has  ever 
been  written.  It  had  a  wide  circulation  in  many 
languages.  Other  works  issued  by  Dr.  Butler 
are  ''Topical  Analysis  of  the  Bible'  (1896): 
'Vital  Truths  Respecting  God  arid  Man' 
(1904);  and  'Present  Day  Conservatism  and 
Liberalism'  (1911). 

BUTLER,  John,  American  royalist  leader 
in  the  American  Revolution:  b.  Connecticut;  d. 
Niagara  1794.  He  became  a  leading  resident 
of  Trjfon  County,  N.  Y. ;  commanded  the  In- 
dians in  the  Niagara  campaign  (1759)  and  in 
the  Montreal  expedition  (1760).  At  the  out- 
break of    the    Revolution    he   sided   with    the 


chiefly  Indians,  and  fought  the  battle 
of  Oriskany  (1777) ;  in  July  1778,  he  ctrai- 
manded  at  the  brutal  Wyoming  massacre.  In 
1780  he  took  part  in  Sir  John  Johnson's  raid  on 
the  Mohawk  settlements.  At  the  end  of  the 
war  he  Hed  to  Canada,  and  was  appointed  In- 
dian agent. 

BUTLER,  JoKpfa,  English  philosopher  and 
theologian;  b.  Wantage,  Berkshire,  Enf^and, 
1692;  d.  1752.    Although  reared  a  Prestqrterian, 


,  Google 


so  but: 

he  became  a  member  of  tfac  EiMscopal  Church, 
and  entered  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  in  1714. 
After  receiving  his  degree  he  took  orders  and 
was  appointed  preacher  at  the  Rolls  Chapel, 
where  he  preached  the  famous  "Sermons  on 
Human  Nature"  which  have  given  him  a  lead- 
ing place  amone  moral  philosophers.  These 
(of  which  the  first  three  are  of  fundamental 
importance)  were  published  in  1726.  Ten 
years  later  (1736)  appeared  his  famous  *  Anal- 
ogy of  Religion,  NaturaJ  and  Revealed,  to  the 
Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature.*  .  He 
gained  the  friendship  of  Queen  Caroline  who 
at  her  death  left  a  request  that  he  should  re- 
ceive promotion  in  the  Church.  In  1738  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Bristol,  and  in  1750 
was  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Durham. 

Butler's  "Sermons  on  Human  Nature*  have 
given  him  a  foremost  place  among  ethical 
writers,  and  have  had  an  important  i>lace  in  the 
instruction  at  the  English  universities.  His 
ethical  teachings  are  directed  at  what  might  be 
called  the  'naturalistic"  view  which  was  formu- 
lated with  great  clearness  by  Hobbes  in  the 
previous  century  and  which  still  seemed  suE- 
cicntly  dangerous  in  the  18th  century  to  require 
repeated  refutation.  The  doctrines  of  HtAibes 
as  against  which  the  more  "orthodox*  writers 
directed  their  attacks  were:  (1)  That  moral 
distinctions  are  not  "natural^*  founded  in  the 
nature  of  things,  but  conventional,  resting  upon 
the  authority  of  a  state  founded  b^  social 
contract ;  and  (2)  that  human  nature  is  essen- 
tially egoistic.  These  positions  had  been  con- 
troverted by  Cud  worth,  Samuel  Oarke  and 
others  who  sought  to  show  that  moral  relations 
belong  to  the  very  nature  of  things.  Butler 
chose  a  more  concrete  method  of  inquiry.  There 
are  two  ways,  be  says,  in  which  moral  questions 
can.be  treated.  "One  begins  from  inquiring  into 
the  abstract  nature  of  things,  the  other  from  a 
matter  of  fact,  •  namely,  what  the  particular 
nature  of  man  is,  its  several  parts,  their 
economy  or  constitution;  from  whence  it  pro- 
ceeds to  determine  what  course  of  life  it  is 
which  is  correspondent  to  this  whole  nature.* 
It  was  this  psychological  method  which  Butler 
adopted.  Human  nature,  he  maintains,  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  whole  or  system^  which  is  made 
up  of  parts,  but  which  cannot  nghtly  be  under- 
Stood  until  we  consider  "the  relations  and 
respects  which  these  parts  have  to  each  other.* 
In  addition  to  particular  affections  and  in- 
stincts, Butler  finds  that  there  is  in  man  a 
natural  instinct  which  makes  for  his  own  pres- 
ervation and  happiness,  and  also  a  natural 
principle  of  benevolence  whose  object  is  the 
good  of  others.  These  are  the  two  general 
principles  which  he  names  self-love  and  be- 
nevolence. Against  Hobbes,  he  argues  that  the 
latter  is  just  as  fundamental  and  natural  as  the 
former.  The  constitution  of  our  nature  proves 
therefore  that  we  are  made  for  society.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  Butler  will  not  deny  the  legiti- 
macy of  self-love,  or  identify,  as  had  been  done, 
the  content  of  morality  with  benevolence.  The 
self-love  which  is  approved,  however,  is  not 
a  particular  affection,  hut  a  general  jirinciple 
of  regard  for  one's  own  happiness  and  interests. 
It  is  "cool*  or  "rational*  self-love  which  is 
justified.  This  principle  may,  however,  become 
perverted  into  selfishness  or  egixsm  by  being 
allowed  to  operate  without  due  reference  to 
the  elements  of  human  nature.    It  then  loses  its 


_.  any  vagrant  inclination,  and  thus  i 
their  nature  no  less  in  regard  to  their  individual 
than  to  their  social  end.  Self-love  has  accord- 
ing]]/ a  regulative  control  over  the  particular 
passions  and  inclinations:  it  possesses  higher 
authority,  and  this  authority  is  something  quite 
distinct  from  the  question  as  to  which  in  any 
given  case  happens  to  be  stronger.  There  are 
some  passages  in  which  it  mi^t  seem  that 
Butler  intends  to  identify  morality  with  what 
he  calls  "rational  self-love,*  and  to  subordinate 
benevolence  as  a  particular  affection  to  it.  Yet 
it  is  evident  from  the  whole  context  of  his 
ethical  system  that  he  rather  intends  to  show 
that  self-love  and  benevolence  are  co-ordinate, 
but  not  contradictory  principles,  bath  superior 
to  what  he  calls  the  "particular  affections,"  and 
both  in  turn  harmonized  and  systematized  in 
human  nature  by  the  supreme  pnacipte  of  con- 
science. "There  is  a  natural  principle  of  be- 
nevolence in  man,  which  is  in  some  degree  to 
society  what  self-love  is  to  the  individual.* 
By  insisting  as  he  does  upon  the  presence  in 
human  nature  of  these  two  principles,  and  their 
necessary  harmony,  Butler  avoids  the  extremes 
of  making  one  or  other  of  these  principles 
supreme  in  conduct,  as  well  as  the  necessity  of 
denying  or  explaining  away  the  other.  He 
transcends  the  fundamental  conflict  between 
•interested*  and  "disinterested*  conduct,  in 
which  his  predecessors  and  many  of  those  who 
came  after  him  found  themselves  involved;  and 
he  goes  far  in  suggesting  the  conception  of  the 
complementary  character  and  essential  unity  of 
these  principles  in  the  idea  of  a  "social  self.* 

But  Butler's  ethical  system  receives  its  com- 
pletion in  the  idea  of  conscience  as  the  supreme 
authoritative  principle  to  which  both  self-love 
and  benevolence  are  subordinate.  He  defines 
conscience  as  that  'principle  of  reflection  in  men 
by  which  they  distinguish  between,  approve  and 
(fisapprove  their  own  actions.*  Moreover, 
•conscience  not  only  offers  itself  to  show  us  the 
way  we  should  walk  in,  but  it  also  carries  its 
own  authority  with  it,  that  it  is  our  natural 
guide.*  The  conclusion  is  Aat  from  the  very 
make  or  constitution  of  man  he  is  in  the 
strictest  sense  a  law  unto  himself.  "Had  con- 
science strength,  as  it  has  n^ht ;  had  it  power, 
as  it  has  manifest  authority,  it  would  absolutely 
govern  the  world.'  Two  objections  have  been 
brought  against  Butler's  view  of  conscience  by 
modem  writers.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  urged 
that  it  involves  a  falling  back  ufKin  mere  intui- 
tion, upon  a  principle  that  can  give  no  account 
of  itself  or  of  its  mode  of  operation.  There 
are  doubtless  some  passages  in  his  writings 
whidL  taken  by  themselves,  might  seem  to  jus- 
tify tnis  interpretation.  But  it  is  necess&ry  to 
remember  that  for  Butler  conscience  is  reason 
or  reflection,  that  is,  that  it  is  the  action  of  the 
whole  moral  constitution  of  man,  and  that  in 
following  its  requirements  we  arc  acting  in  the 
light  of  the  whole.  The  second  criticism  is  that 
for  him  conscience  seems  to  pronounce  in- 
fallible judgments,  taking  no  account  of  cir- 
cumstances, and  not  providing!  for  the  growth 
or  development  of  ethical  judgment  It  is 
doubtless  true  that  Butler  was  concerned  to 
defend  the  •absolute*  authority  of  conscience 
as  a  principle  of  human  nature.    Yet  it  is  not 


=,  Google 


for  him  any  mechanically  acting  faculty:  the 
due  proportion  between  self-love  and  benevo- 
lence is  different  in  different  cases,  and  'can  be 
judged  only  from  our  condition  and  nature  in 
this  world.*  Conscience  itself  develops  with 
use  and  practice,  becoming  more  and  more  ade- 
quate to  deal  with  the  changing  conditions  of 
life,  and  giving  rise  to  virttiaua  habiti  and 
fixed  modes  of  character.  Uorality  for  him  is 
no  set  of  fixed  axiomatic  truths,  infallibly  per- 
ceived once  for  aJl;  but  it  is  what  the  moral 
reason  perceives  in  particular  situations  to  be 
correspondent  to  man's  nature  and  constitution 
when  this  is  seen  in  its  true  perspective. 

Butler's  ^Analogy'  is  the  most  famous  and 
most  carefully  reasoned  defense  of  revealed 
religion  which  appeared  in  Ejizland  durins  the 
18th  centuiy.  It  was  directed  against  deism 
((f.v.)  and  sought  lo  meet  the  attacks  which 
this  school  of  writers  brought  against  the  tra- 
ditional view  of  theology.  Butler  undertakes 
to  show  that  the  course  of  nature  suggests  not 
only  the  conclusions,  which  the  deists  admitted, 
of  the  existence  of  God  and  the  duw  of  wor- 
shippii^  Hin;  but  also,  when  looked  at  more 
closely,  natural  occurrences  and  laws  seem  to 
iurnisb  evidence  for  the  .doctrines  of  revealed 
reli^on  which  the  deists  discarded  and  denied 
as  unmoral.  Butler's  candor  in  pointing  out 
what  might  be  called  imperfections  and  injus- 
tice in  nature,  which  the  deists  were  inclined  to 
neglect,  has  led  to  the  remark  that  his  treat' 
ment  tends  to  raise  doubts  rather,  than  to  settle 
them,  and  that  his  conclusions  might  be  read  by 
a  sceptical  mind  in  a  different  w^.  However 
this  may  be,  one  can  say  that  Butler's  'An- 
ajogy'  together  with  Hume's  'Dialogues  on 
Natural  Religion'  served  to  undermine,  long 
before  the  appearance  of  Kant's  systematic 
criticism,  the  rationalistic  conclusions  of  'natu- 
ral reli^on.*  It  should  be  noted  that  Butler 
did  not  profess  to  furnish  a  demonstration  for 
4e  doctrines  of  revealed  religion,  but  only  to 
jhow  tbdr  probability  by  pointing  out  their 
analogy  with  the  course  of  nature.  For  man, 
as  he  says,  in  all  such  matters,  "probability  is 
the  very  guide  of  hfe.' 

BiblioETmphy. — There  are  many  editions  of 
Butler's  works ;  the  most  recent  Ming  that  of 
Gladstone  in  two  volumes,  2d  ed..  1898.  Ur. 
Gladstone  also  published  a  volume  entitled 
'Subsidiary  Studies  on  Butler.'  Consult  also 
Collins,  W,  L.,  <Butler'  (Blackwood's  'Philos 
Classics');  Stephen,  LesUe,  "^ English  Thought 
in  the  18th  Century'  (Vol.  I);  Sidgwiek,  H„ 
'History  of  Ethics' ;  Lefevre,  A.,  articles  in  the 
Ph^otophieal  Rtview,  Vols.  VIII  and  IX. 

James  E.  Cbeighton, 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  Cornell  Universily. 

BUTLKR,  Jouphine  Grey,  Enslish  i^tlan- 
ihropist ;  b.  Milfield,  Gloucestershire,  about 
ia28;  d.  30  Dec.  1906.  Married  George  Butler, 
iflcrward  Canon  Winchester,  1852,  She  was 
prominent  in  efforts  for  the  higher  education  of 
women,  and  for  moral  reform,  and  published 
'Life  of  John  Grey  of  Dilston' ;  'Life  of  Calb- 
erine  of  Siena' ;  'Recollections  of  (^rge  But- 
ler' ;  'The  Lady  of  Shunem' ;  'Personal  Remi- 
mscences  of  a  Great  Crusade* ;  'PrmJiets  and 
ProiAetesses* ;  'Nature  Races  and  the  War*; 
•Silent  Victories' ;  'The  Hour  Before  the 
Dawn';  'Goverament  by  Police';  'The  Con- 


stitution Violated' ;  'Women's  Work  and 
Women's  Culture';  'Life  of  Oberlin';  <A 
Voice  in  the  Wilderness.' 

BUTLBR,  HarioD,  American  legislator:  b. 
Sampson  County,  N.  C.  20  May  1863.  In  1889 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  practised  suc- 
cessively in  Raleigh  and  Washington.  He  was 
elected  to  the  senate  of  North  Carolina  in  the 
late  ei^ties  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  rail- 
way regulation  legislation.  He  abandoned  the 
Democratic  party  in  1892,  became  one  of  the 
organizers  of  the  Populist  party  and  from  1896 
to  1904  served  as  chairman  of  its  executive  com- 
mittee. In  1896  he  was  elected  United  Slates 
senator,  serving  until  1902.  He  successfully 
piloted  through  the  Senate  a  hill  providing, for 
rural  free  delivery  in  the  postal  service.  He 
also  advocated  the  establishment  of  postal  sav- 
ings banks.  Being  defeated  for  the  Senate  in 
1902,  he  thereafter  allied  himself  with  the  Re- 
publicans. 

BUTLER,  Matthew  Calbraith,  American 
army  officer :  b.  near  Greenville,  S.  C,  8  March 
1836;  d.  1900.  He  studied  law  at  Stonelands, 
near  Edgefield  Court-house,  and  was  admittefl 
to  the  bar  in  December  1857.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  in  I860: 
entered  the  Confederate  service  as  captain  of 
cavalry  in  the  Hampton  Legion  in  June  1861, 
and  became  a  major-general  throueh  the  regu- 
lar grades;  lost  his  right  leg  at  die  battle  of 
Brandy  Station  on  9  June  1863.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  in  1866; 
was  United  Stales  senator  in  1877-95;  com- 
missioned a  major-general  of  volunteers  for  the 
war  with  Spain.  28  May  189S;  and  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  tke  American  commisnoners  to 
arrange  and  su^rvise  the  evacuation  of  Cuba. 

BUTLER,  NIchoIiB  Murray.  American 
educator:  b.  Elizabeth  N.  J.,  2  April  1862.  In 
1882  he  was  graduated  at  Columbia  University 
with  the  highest  honors.  In  1882-84  he  served 
as  fellow  in  philosophy  and  studied  in  Berlin 
and  Paris  for  one  year.  In  1885  he  became 
assistant  professor  of  philosophy  and  in  due 
time  held  the  chair  of  philosophy,  psychology 
and  ethics.  In  1890  on  the  reorganization  of  the 
university  he  became  dean  of  the  faculty  of 
philosophy.  He  founded  the  New  York  Col- 
lege for  Training  Teachers,  in  1887,  which 
later  became  Teachers'  College,  and  is  now 
known  as  Hunter  College,  under  Columbia 
Universi^.  In  1901  Dr.  Butler  succeeded  Seth 
Low  as  president  of  ColumUa.  i£s  administra- 
tion has  been  most  successful  in  extending  the 
influence  of  the  university  in  the  educational 
field  and  in  its  relation  to  the  life  of  the  coun- 
try at  large.  Dr.  Butler  has  taken  a  deep  in- 
terest in  politics  and  in  1912  was  the  Republi- 
can party's  camfidate  for  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  on  the  ticfcrt  with  William  H. 
Taft.  He  has  done  much  for  the  cause  of 
education,  founding  the  Educalitttiat  Review  in 
1891  and  editing  it  for  the  intervening  interval 
as  well  as  'The  Great  Educator  Series,*  'The 
Teachers*  Professional  Library*  and  'Columbia 
University  Contributions  to  Education  and 
Philosophy.'  Dr.  Butler  has  been  decorated  by 
several  foreign  rulers  and  is  the  recipient  of 
honorary  degrees  from  a  very  great  number  of 

Cminent  universities  at  home  and  abroad.    He 
pabtished    'The  Meaning   of    Education' 
(1896;    rev.   enlarged   ed,    1900);    'True   and 


d=v  Google 


False  Democracy'  (1907) ;  'Philosophy'  (1906, 
M  ed.,  1911)  ;  'The  American  as  He  Is>  (1908)  ; 
'The  International  Mind>  (1912) ;  'Why 
Should  We  Change  our  Form  of  Cktvenunent' 
(1912);  'Progress  in  Politics'  .(1913^;  'Mono- 

E-aphs  on  Education  in  the  United  States,'  ex- 
bit  at  the  Paris  Exposition  (1900)  ;  *A  World 
in  Ferment'   (1917). 

BUTLER,  Samiid,  Ejifdish  satirical  poet: 
b.  Strensham,  Worcestershire,  12  Feb.  1612; 
d.  London,  25  SepL  1680.  He  passed  some 
time  in  his  youth  at  Cambridge,  but  tiever 
matriculated  at  the  university.  He  was  after- 
ward clerk  or  steward  to  several  coimtry  gentle- 
men, and  later  lived  in  London.  He  resided 
some  time  with  Sir  Samuel  Luke,  a  commander 
under  Cromwell.  In  this  situation  Butler  ac- 
quired materials  for  his  'Hudibras'  (q.v.)  by 
study  of  tiiose  around  him,  and  particularly  of 
Sir  Samuel  himself,  a  caricature  of  whom  con- 
stituted the  celebrated  kni^t  Hndibras.  The 
first  edition  of  'Hudibras'  was  published  in 
1663  and  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  the 
court  by  the  well-known  Eart  of  Dorset.  It 
immediately  became  hi^ly  popular  with  the 
prevailing  party  in  Church  and  state,  and  served 
as  a  general  source  of  quotation;  the  King 
himself  perpetually  answering  his  courtiers  out 
of  'Huaibras.'  Celebrated  as  it  rendered  its 
author,  it  did  nothing  toward  extricating  him 
from  indigence.  He  was  buried  in  Saint  Paul's 
Church,  Covent  Garden,  at  the  expense  of  his 
friend,  Mr,  Longueville,  of  the  Temple,  and  a 
monument  was,  40  years  after,  erected  to  his 
memory,  in  Westminster  Abb^'i  by  Alderman 
Barber,  the  printer.  'Hudibras,'  both  in  its 
style  and  matter,  is  one  of  the  most  ori^nal 
and  witty  works  that  were  ever  written.  As  a 
work  intended  to  ridicule  the  Puritans  its  at- 
traction was  great  but  temporary,  but  as  appli- 
cable to  classes  of  character  found  in  all  iwes, 
its  satire  will  always  be  relished.  Butler's 
'Remains  in  Verse  and  Prose'  appeared  in  17S9, 
BUTLER,  Samuel,  English  author  and 
composer ;  b.  Langar,  4  Dec.  1835 ;  d.  London, 
18  June  1902.  He  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury 
School  and  Cambridge  University.  After  grad- 
uation in  preparation  for  the  ministry  he  did 
parish  work  among  the  poor  of  London.  In 
1859  he  sailed  for  New  Zealand  and  became  a 
successful  sheep  farmer.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1864  and  studied  art.  With  Henry 
Festing  Jones  he  composed  many  gavottes,  fig- 
ures, etc,  and  the  cantata  of  'NattiSMS.*  He 
WIS  also  an  artist  of  merit,  and  for  several  years 
exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy.  _  He  is  best 
loiown  as  a  brilliant,  original  writer  in  more 
than  one  field,  and  as  a  master  of  irony  had 
few  equals  among  his  contemporaries. 


First  Ypar  in  Canterbury  Settlement'  (1863)  ; 
'Erewhon,  or  Over  the  Range' ;  'Fair  Haven,' 
an  ironical  defense  of  Christianity  (1873) ; 
'Life  and  Habit'  (1877);  'Evolution.  Old 
and  New'  (1879) ;  'Unconscious  Uemory' 
(1880);  'Alps  and  Sanctuaries  of  Piedmont 
and    the    Canton   Ticino'    (1881) ;    'Luck 


Dr.  Samuel  Butler,  Bishop  of  Lidifield' 
(1896)  ;  'The  Authoress  of  the  Odyssey' 
(1897) ;     'The     Iliad    of    Homer,     Rendered 


into  English  Prose'  (1900);  'Erewhon  Re- 
visited' (1901);  and  'The  Way  of  All 
Flesh'  (New  York  1903),  pubtished  post- 
humously, his  best  and  most  popdlar  work. 
Consult  Harris,  John  F.,  'Samuel  Butler:  the 
Man  and  His  Work'   (New  York  1916). 

BUTLER,  WiUUm,  English  polemical 
writer:  d.  about  1410.  He  was  the  30th  pro-  ' 
vindal  of  the  Minorites  in  England.  At  Ox- 
ford in  1401  he  wrote  a  tract  against  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  the  vulgar  tongue.  He 
also  wrote  a  tract,  'De  Indulgentiis,'  four 
books  of  commentaries  on  the  'Sentences  of 
Peter  Lombard'  and  several  tracts  against  the 
Wycliffites.  He  removed  to  Reading  from  Ox- 
ford. Consult  Brewer,  'Monumenta  Francis- 
cana'    (London  1858). 

BUTLER,  Williun  Archer,  Irish  clergy- 
man and  philosopher :  b.  Annerville  about  1814 ; 
d.  5  July  1848.  He  was  baptized  and  educated 
as  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  became  a  convert  to 
the  Established  Church  before  entering  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  He  was  graduated  in  1834  and 
spent  the  next  two  years  in  residence  as  a 
scholar.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  to  the  new 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  at  Trinity,  was  or- 
dained a  minister  of  the  Established  Church 
and  was  presented  to  the  prebend  of  Oonde- 
horka,  Donegal.  In  1842  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rectory  of  Raymogby.  He  was  an  able 
preacher  and  an  indefatigable  pastor.  In  1845 
the  Roman  Catholic  controversy  occunied  But- 
ler and  he  contributed  to  the  Iruh  Ecciesiatlieai 
Giuette  a  series  of  'Lettera  on  Mr.  Newman's 
Theory  of  Development'  During  the  famine 
years  of  1846-47  Butler's  efforts  were  untiring 
as  relief  officer  of  his  parish.  His  lectures 
were  issued  after  his  d^tfa  as  'Lectures  on 
the  History  of  Ancient  Philosophy*  (2  vols., 
Cambridge  1856).  Other  works  are  'Sermons, 
Doctrinal  and  Practical'  (3d  ed.,  Cambridge 
1855);  'Eternal  Life  of  Christ  in  Heaven' 
(1845).  Consult  the  memoir  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Woodward  (Dublin  1849)  and  Ditblin 
Vnivertily  RtvUw  (July  1849). 

.  BUTLER,  Sir  WUUam  Francis.  British 
general:  b.  Tipperary  County,  Ireland,  31  Oct. 
l&38:d.London.  7;une  1910  He  was  educated 
at  Dublin,  and  jomed  the  army  in  1858.  In 
1863  he  became  heutenant,  and  in  1874  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  major.  He  served  on 
the  Red  River  expedition  of  1870-71,  and  about 
the  same  time  was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to 
the  Saskatchewan  territories.  He  accompanied 
the  Ashantee  expedition  in  1874,  and  in  1879 
acted  as  staff  officer  in  Natal.  He  also  served 
in  Egypt  in  18^  and  held  important  commands 
under  Lord  Wolseley  in  the  Sudan  campaign 
of  1884-85.  From  1890  till  1893  he  was  in  com- 
mand at  Alexandria,  and  in  1892  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  major-general:  He  had  com- 
mand of  the  2d  Infantry  Brigade  at  Aldershot. 
1893.  and  of  the  southeastern  district  at  Dover, 
1896-98,    In  1898  he  became  commander  of  the 


..le  was  strongly  opi>osed  to 
Mitner's  policy  with  regard  to  the  rights  of 
the  'outlanders*  in  the  Transvaal,  and  refused 
to  transmit  their  petition  to  the  home  govem- 
ment_,—  an  action  which,  among  other  causes  of 
friction,  led  to  his  recall.  He  nad  command  of 
the  western  district,  1899-1905,  and  concurrently 


d=y  Google 


BUTLER  -"  BUTSCHLI 


that  of  the  AUer^ot  diUrict,  1900-01.  He  pub- 
lished 'The  Great  Lone  Land:  A  Narrative  of 
Travel  and  Adventcre  in  the  Northwest  of 
America'  <1872);  *The  Wild  North  Land' 
(1873),  the  story  of  a  winter  journey  across 
northern  North  America;  *Akim-Foo'  (1875), 
a  story  of  the  Ashantee  War ;  'Far  Out' 
(1880);  <Red  Cloud,  the  Solitary  Sioux' 
(1882);  'The  Campaign  of  the  Cataracfs* 
(1687).  He  was  created  K.C.B.  in  1886  and 
in  IQOO  was  appointed  lieutenant-general.  His 
wife  (n^  ElizalKth  Thompson)  is  famous  as  a 
painter  of  battle  scenes.  His  autobiography, 
edited  by  his  daughter,  was  published  in   1911. 

BUTLER,  William  Morris,  American 
physician :  b.  Maine  1850.  He  was  educated 
at  Hamilton  College,  the  New  York  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  and  at  the  £cole  de 
Medicine,  Paris;  has  been  professionally  con- 
nected with  several  homceopathic  hospitals,  and 
has  been  professor  of  nervous  diseases  at  the 
Melropolitan  Postgraduate  School  of  Medicine, 
New  York;  is  professor  of  mental  diseases  at 
Flower  Hostntal,  New  York,  consultinp:  alienist 
at  the  Middtetown  State  Insane  Hospital.  He 
has  published  'Home  Care  for  the  Insane'  and 
'Mental  Diseases  and  Their  Homceopathic 
Treatment.* 

BUTLE]^,  William  Orlando,  Atnerican 
general  1  b.  jessamine  County,  Ky.,  1791;  d. 
Carrolltoi^  Ky.,  6  Aug,  1880.  He  was  about 
devoting  himself  to  the  legal  profession  when 
the  War  of  1812  broke  out.  Enlisting  as  a 
private  soldier  in  Captain  Hart's  company  of 
Kentucky  volunteers  he  gained  distinction  in 
the  battles  ai  Frenchtown  and  the  river  Raisin, 
Subsequently  he  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
battles  of  Pensacola  and  New  Orleans,  was 
brcvetted  major.  23  Dec  1814,  acted  as  aide-de- 
camp to  General  Jackson  from  17  June  1816  to, 
31  May  1817,  when  he  tendered  his  resignation, 
resuming  for  the  next  25  years  the  profession 
of  the  bw.     From  1839  to  1843  he  served  as  a 


tucW  in  1844, 

of  day.  Crea'te'd  major-generic  29"  June  1846'. 
he  led  with  great  spirit,  the  daring  charge  at 
Monterey,  and  although  wounded  on  that  occa- 
sion,  still  remained  for  several  months  with  the 
army.  On  18  Feb.  1848  he  succeeded  General 
Scott  in  command  of  the  anny  in  Mexico.  The 
most  important  operation  during  his  tenure  of 
this  office  was  the  defeat  of  Padre  Jarauta  and 
his  guerrilla  forces  by  General  Lane.  His 
military  administration  m  Mexico  was  brought 
to  a  close  on  29  May  1848,  when  he  announced 
the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  peace.  After 
his  return  to  the  United  States  ne  was  nom- 
inated in  1848  by  the  Democratic  party  as  candi- 
date for  the  vice- presidency.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  'The  Boatman's  Horn  and  Other 
Poems.'  Consult  Blair,  'The  Life  and  Public 
Service  of  William  O.  Butler'  (Baltimore 
1848). 

BUTLER,  Zebnlon,  Ahierican  mUitary  offi- 
cer:   h.  Lyme.  Conn.,  in  1731  ;  d.  Wilkesbarre. 
1  July  1795.     He  served  w  the  French  and 


Indian  War,  and  in  the  Revolutionary  War 
also.  He  commanded  the  garrison  at  Wyoming 
Valley  at  the  time  of  the  massacre  of  3  July 


1778,  and  in  1779  served  in  Sullivan's  ex)»edttion 
against  the  Indians. 

BUTLER,  Mo.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Bates  County,  75  miles  southeast  of  Kansas 
City,  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad.  Agri- 
culture and  coal-mining  are  the  principal  in- 
dustries. The  city  owns  and  operates  the 
sewerage  ^rstem  and  the  electric-lighting  plant. 
Pop.  2,894. 

BUTLER,  Pa.,  borough  and  county-seat  of 
Butler  County,  situated  on  the  Conequessing 
Creek,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  other 
railroads,  30  miles  nordi  of  Pittsburg.  It  is 
the  centre  of  a  fegion  having  coal,  iron,  oil 
and  natural  gas.  The  chief  mdustry  is  glass 
manufacture,  and  there  are  also  flouring  and 
[danins  mills,  oil- well  supply  manufactories, 
also  ol  silk,  buttons,  carriages,  paint,  beds  of 
metal.  Its  noteworthy  buildings  are  a  hospital, 
courthouse  and  public  library,  Butler  was  first 
settled  in  1778  and  was  incorporated  in  1803. 
The  ^vemment  is  vested  in  a  burgess  and 
coimcil,  the  former  being  chosen  for  a  three- 
year  term.    Pop.  20,728. 

BUTLER  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeducational 
(non-sectarian)  institution  in  Irvington,  a  sub- 
urb of  Indianapolis,  Ind. ;  or^^nized  in  1855  as 
Northwestern  Christian  University.  Its  de- 
partments include  an  undergraduate  college,  a 
normal  course,  departments  of  art  and  educa- 
tion, a  siunmer  school  and  extension  courses. 
It  has  about  540  students,  19  instructors,  a 
library  of  13,000  volumes,  an  endowment  of 
$395,000,  an  income  of  $45,000  and  property 
valued   at  $212,000. 

BUTLEROV,  Alexander  Mikhailovich, 
Russian  chemist;  b.  Tchislopol,  Kazan,  1828; 
d.  Saint  Petersburg  1886,  He  received  his  uni- 
versity training  at  Kazan,  and  was  successively 
professor  of  chemistry  and  rector  there  after 
1858.  After  10  years  at  Kazan  he  removed  to 
Saint  Petersburg  as  professor  of  chemistry  at 
the  university  there.  He  did  very  important 
work  in  organic  chemistry,  discovered  the  ter- 
tiary alcohols  and  wrote  a  masterly  treatise  on 
organic  chemistry.  He  believed  in  spiritualism 
and  is  the  author  of  a  French  work  entitled 
'Etudes  psychiques.*  He  also  contributed  to 
the  literature  of  apiculture. 

BUTO,  an  Egyj)tian  goddess  whom  the 
Greeks  identified  with  Leto  or  Latona.  She 
was  represented  under  the  guise  of  a  serpent, 
and  the  city  of  Buto,  which  look  its  name  from 
her,  is  supposed  to  have  occupied  a  site  on  an 
island  in  the  modern  Lake  Burlos  in  the  delta 
of  the  Nile. 

BUTON.  boo'ton,  BOETON.  or  BU- 
TUHG,  an  East  Indian  island,  southeast  of 
Celebes,  belonging  to  Holland.  Its  area  is 
about  1,700  square  miles.  It  is  fertile  and 
densely  wooded,  and  is  governed  by  a  native 
chief,  subject  to  the  Dutch  government.  The 
chief  products  are  tropical  fruits,  rice  and 
maize.  The  population,  mainly  Malays,  is  about 
lOOpOOa  The  chief  town  is  Buton  at  the  south- 
western end  of  the  island. 

BtJTSCHLI,  biit'shte.  Otto,  German 
zoologist:  b.  Frankfort-on-the-Main  1848, 
Stnoe  1876  he  has  been  professor  of  loology  in 
llle  University  of  Heidelberg.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  establish  knowle<^  of  nucleus  and 
cell  division,  and  his  writings  upon  (mrtoplasm 


d=,  Google 


BUTT  — BUTTER 


and  bacterid  have  b«en  widely  read  and  dis- 
cussed. He  has  published  'Protoioen' ;  'Un- 
tersuchungen  iiber  mikroskopische  Scbaume  und 
das  Protoplasma*  (1892)  ;  ' Unteisuchungea 
iiber  die  Miktostructur  kiinstlicher  und  natur- 
licher  Kieselsauregallerlen'  (1900);  'Mechanis- 
mus  und  Vitalismus>  (1901);  Worlesungen 
iiber  vergkichende  Anatomic'  (1910). 

BUTT,  Archibald  Willingham,  American 
army  ofHcer:  b,  Augusta,  Ga.,  26  Sept.  1866; 
d.  IS  April  1912.  He  received  his  education  at 
the  University  of  the  South,  became  a  newS' 
paper  correspondent  for  some  years  and  in 
1900  was  made  captain  of  volunteers.  After- 
ward he  received  a  commission  in  the  regular 
army,  served  as  quartermaster  in  the  Philip- 
pines, Washington  and  Havana.  In  1911  he  was 
made  a  major.  He  was  personal  aide  to  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  in  1908.  and  to  President  Taft 
from  1909  till  his  death  on  the  Titanic,  return- 
ing from  Europe.  Washin^on  is  graced  with 
a  fountain  in  memory  of  him. 

BUTT,  lauc,  Irish  politician;  the  first  to 
make  pohtical  use  of  the  phrase  'Home  Rule* ; 
was  the  son  of  a  Protestant  rector:  b.  County 
Donegal,  16  Sept  1813;  d.  5  May  1879.  Edu- 
cated at  Raphoe  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
he  gained  a  brilliant  reputation  for  his  accom- 
plished scholarship.  In  1852  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament  as  a  Liberal  Conservative  for 
Youghal,  for  which  constituency  he  sat  until 
1865.  He  defended  Smith  O'Brien  and  others 
in  the  state  trials  of  1848,  and  with  equal  fear- 
lessness and  self-devotion  all  the  Fenian  pris- 
oners between  the  years  1865  and  1869.  In  1871 
he  was  elected  for  the  city  of  Limerick  to  lead 
the  Home  Rule  party.  He  published  'History 
of  Italy'  (1860)  and  'The  Problem  of  Irish 
Education'    (1875). 

BUTTB,  but.  Moat.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Silverbow  County,  on  the  Great  Northern, 
the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  Saint  Paul  and  other  railroads.  It  is  on 
the  hi^  plateau  between  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  5,800  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  The  dty  is  well-built,  the  more 
imposing  buildings  being  the  city  hall,  court- 
house and  jail,  opera-house,  the  Federal  building 
and  a  fine  pubhc  high  school,  completed  at  a 
cost  of  $125,000.  The  Montana  State  School  of 
Mines  is  located  here.  It  has  several  fine  thea- 
tres and  a  good  public  library.  The  Columbia 
Gardens  also  deserve  mention.  The  public 
school  system  is  excellent,  and  there  is  a  public 
library  of  more  than  35,000  volumes.  Butte  is 
the  largest  miring  town  in  the  world,  employ- 
ing thousands  of  persons  in  this  industry  alone. 
Copper  is  the  chief  production,  altfaou^  there 
are  valuable  deposits  of  gold  and  stiver,  lead 
and  zinc.  The  Great  Anaconda  Copper  mine 
is  here,  and  many  other  valuable  mining  prop- 
erties arc  within  a  radius  of  a  few  miles  of  the 
city.  The  copper  production  alone  is  about  25 
per  cent  that  of  the  United  States  and  13  per 
cent  that  of  the  world,  and  the  total  annual 
mineral  output  is  estimated  at  more  than  $60,- 
000.000.  Probably  no  city  of  equal  size  in  the 
country  is  so  exclusively  given  over  to  a  single 
industry.  It  has  also  manufactories  of  candy, 
cigars,  mattresses  and  other  minor  industrial 
interests.  In  1914  there  were  lOB  establishments 
with  $2,393,000  capital,  emptying  904  persons. 
The  salaries  and  wages  amounted  to  $890,000. 


■The  products  were  valued  at  $^907,000  and 
were  made  from  materials  costing  $1,317,000. 

Butte  is  the  trade  and  jobbing  centre  for 
southern  and  western  Montana;  has  an  ex- 
tensive trolley  system;  gas  and  electric  lights; 
national  and  other  banks;  ^nd  several  daily  and 
weekly  newsp^ters.  Butte  is  governed  by  a 
mi^r,  elected  biennialh^and  a  city  council.  It 
spends  annually  about  $200^000  for  schools,  and 
about  $5(^000  each  for  the  fire,  police  and  street- 
cleaning  departments.  Butte  was  settled  as  a 
gold-placer  camp  in  1863,  laid  out  as  a  town  in 
1866,  and  grew  rapidly  after  the  siKcessful 
opening  up  of  quartz  mining  in  1875.  It  was 
incorporated  by  the  territorial  legislature  in 
1879.  and  reincorporated  in  1888.  In  1881  it 
was  made  the  county-seat  of  Silverbow  County. 
Pop.  in  1870  about  300;  (1880)  3,363;  (1890) 
10.723;  (1900)  30,470;  (1910)  39,165;  (1918) 
about  75,000,  if  suburbs  are  incluaed.  Consult 
Davenport,  'Butte  and  Montana  beneath  the 
X-ray'  (Butte  1909)  ;  Freeman.  'A  Brief  His- 
tory of  Butte'  (Cnueago  1900). 

BUTTE,  a  hill  which  rises  abruptly  from 
the  surrounding  ground.  Such  hills  are  com- 
mon in  the  regnon  of  the  American  Rockies, 
and  the  term  ia  sometimes  applied  to  hi^ 
mountains  which  are  more  or  less  isolated  from 
other  peaks.    See  Mesa. 

BUTTER,  a  product  of  milk.' particularly 
cow's  milL  consisting  chiefly  of  its  fatty  con- 
stituent. It  is  obtained  by  churning  or  other- 
wise violently  agitating  milk  or  its  cream,  and 
working  the  product  to  remove  water  and  other 
constituents.  Butter  fat  is  not  a  simple  fatj  but 
is  a  mixture  of  several  fats,  which  are  indi- 
vidual compounds  of  glycerine  and  several  dis- 
tinct fatty  acids.  The  principal  fats  in  butter 
arc_  olein,  which  constitutes  35  per  cent ;  pal- 
mitin,  26  per  cent;  and  myristin,  20  per  cenL 
Launn,  butyrin  and  caproin  are  present  in 
much  smaller  proportions,  and  there  are  also 
very  small  percentages  of  caprin,  stearin,  capry- 
lin  and  other  constituents.  It  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  0.91  and  a  melting  point  of  about 
92"  F. 

Butter  has  been  in  use  from  eartv  historic 
days.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  in  Gen. 
xviii,  8.  It  was  used  as  food  and  medicine,  as 
an  ointment  and  for  burning  in  tamps.  The 
Greeks  probably  learned  of  it  from  the  Scy- 
thians or  Thracians,  and  the  Romans  from  the 
Germans.  It  was  made  from  the  milk  of  sheep 
and  goats^  and  later  of  cows,  the  method  of 
makine  being  to  jar  the  milk  roughly  by  placing 
it  in  skin  bags  or  pouches  hung  over  the  backs 
of  trotting  horses.  Formerly  butter  was  pre- 
pared by  direct  churning  of  the  whole  milk; 
this  was  both  laborious  and  wasteful  of  butter- 
fat.  To  reduce  labor  and  loss  the  system  of 
setting  the  milk  and  skimming  off  the  cream 
was  evolved;  since  1877  this  method  has  given 


0  theu 


ofct, 


igal   force  for  the  separation  of  the  c 
and  milk. 

The  making  of  good  butter  begins  with  the 
cow.  She  must  be  healthy  and  oe  well  fed. 
The  essentia)  next  in  importance  is  absolute 
cleanliness  in  the  care  of  the  milk.  The  dairy 
utensils  should  be  of  tin,  and  never  used  for 
any  but  dairy  purposes.  They  should  not  be 
continued  in  use  after  the  tin  plating  begins  to 
wear  off.    They  should  be  wasbed  with  a  bni5h, 


d=,  Google 


nevcr'with  a  doth,  and  with  hot  water  and  sal 
ioda  or  borai^  and  not  with  soap.  The  final 
rinsing  sboutd  be  with  boiling  water,  after 
which  they  should  be  drained  and  allowed  to 
dry  without  wiping.  The  process  of  inakiog 
butter  is  divided  into  the  operations  of  cream- 
ing, cbunung,  working  and  finishing.  The  fat 
m;ts  in  thelorm  of  small  globules  in  the  milk, 
in  suspension.  In  the  setting  system  the  milk 
ii  placed  in  shallow  pans  about  four  inches 
iuab,  or  in  deep  ones  of  about  18  inches,  and 
a^ntage   is   taken   oC    Ae    fact   that    the   fat 


B  rapidly  than  small  ones,  and  the  size 
of  the  ^obules  varies  with  different  breeds  of 
cattle.  In  the  milk  of  Jersey  cattle  they  are 
1/6000  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  in  Holstein  cat- 
tle 1/12000  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  the  shal- 
low-pan system  the  milk  is  set  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  it  b  drawn,  and  the  cream  is 
ddmmed  off  in  24  to  36  hours.  This  system  is 
wasteful  in  that  the  sldm-milk  often  contains  0.5 
W  1.5  per  cent  of  fat.  The  deep-getting  system 
is  less  wasteful,  the  fat  in  the  skim'mtlk  being 
often  reduced  to  02  per  cent.  The  new-drawn, 
wann  milk  is  placed  in  cans  surrounded  by  or 
submerged  in  water  of  about  40°  F.,  and  the 
rapid  reduction  in  temperature  causes  the  glob- 
ules to  rise  quickly.  It  is  best  to  skim  the 
cream  at  30  to  40  lactometer:  that  is,  10  gallons 
of  milk  should  yield  1  to  IJ-J  e;aHons  of  cream. 
The  cream  is  removed  by  dipping  it  off,  or  the 
skim-milk  is  drawn  off  from  the  bottom  of  the 
on.  The  fat  left  in  the  skim-milk  consists  of 
ih«  snuJlcst  fat  globules. 

The  introduction  of  the  separator  and  use 
of  centrifugal  force  has  resulted  in  a  more  per- 
fect and  rapid  separation.  This  force  exceeds 
that  of  gravity  a  thousand- fold.  The  system  of 
separation  is  continuous,  a  constant,  uniform 
flow  of  milk  being  conducted  into  a  bowl  or 
drum  revolving  at  from  5,000  to  9,000  or  more 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  inlet  tube  is  in  the 
ctntre  of  the  bowl  and  reaches  almost  to  the 
bottom;  here  the  constituents  in  the  milk  sepa.- 
rate,  the  heavier  serum  gravitating  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  bowl,  the  fat  —  the  lightest 
portion  —  remaining  in  the  centre.  These  are 
forced  upward  by  the  incoming  milk,  and  the 
separated  milk  escapes  through  a  ^de  tube, 
voile  the  cream  passes  throtwh  a  small  outlet 
m  the  centre.  This  last  outlet  can  be  closed 
or  opened  in  some  machines,  thus  regulating 
the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  cream,  'Hie  ma- 
chines are  of  various  sizes,  from  those  worked 
by  hand  power  and  doing  200  to  500.  pounds 
of  milk  per  hour,  to  power  machines  of  2,000 
pounds  and  over  per  hour  capacity.  Some 
makes  have  appliances  within  the  bowl  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency.  A  good  separator,  well 
nm,  will  not  leave  more  man  from  0.05  to  0.1 
per  cent  of  fat  in  the  separated  milk.  The 
temperature  should  be  kept  between  85°  and  95° 
F.  ^r  the  best  results  and  the  speed  should  not 
Ug. 

The  cream  may  be  churned  at  once  if  sweet 
cream  butter  is  desired,  or  ■ripened'  or  soured. 
The  aim  of  ripening  is  to  develop  certaid 
flavors  in  the  butler,  and  a  certain  degree  of 
addily  which  aids  in  churning  and  innuoKes 
the  lextura  Since  the  discovery  that  the 
danges  which  commonly  take  place  in  milk  are 


dne  to  the  action  of  micro-organisms,  it  has 
become  a  part  of  the  butter  maker's  task  to 
make  use  only  of  such  organisms  as  will  aid 
in  his  work,  and  eliminate  those  which  tend  to 
impair  the  product  It  has  been  found  thai  the 
flavor  of  butter  depends  in  very  large  degree 
upon  the  kind  of  bacteria  which  accomplishes 
the  souring  of  the  cream  preliminary  to  churn- 
ing. The  sdentitic  butter  maker,  therefore, 
prepares  a  ^'culture*  of  the  beneficial  bacteria, 
keeping  it  free  from  all  others.  In  the  usual  pro- 
cedure of  butter-making  on  the  farm,  a  "starter," 
used  to  start  the  acid  fermentation  in  the  sewly- 
sldmmed  cream,  is  saved  from  the  preceding 
batch  of  sour  cream,  or  from  the  buttemulk 
of  the  preceding  churnina.  This  naturally  con- 
tains a  mixture  of  many  hacterial  ferments,  and 
too  often  a  large  proportion  of  those  which  are 
injurious  to  butter  quality.  It  is  advisable  to 
make  the  starter  out  of  sweet  sldm-milk,  two  or 
three  gallons  for  each  10  gallons  of  the  cream 
to  be  soured.  Place  it  in  a  covered  vessel  in  a 
temperature  between  75°  to  85°,  U  will  require 
from  18  to  24  hours  to  become  thick.  It 
should  be  distinctly  but  pleasantly  acid.  The 
top  inch  should  be  rejected,  as  it  contairis  the 
undesirable  bacteria.  It  is  not  always  easy  to 
obtain  the  starter  from  the  milk  of  a  mixed 
herd.  In  this  case  it  is  best  to  make  the  starter 
from  the  milk  of  one  cow  chosen  after  experi- 
ments as  to  which  milk  makes  the  finest- 
flavored  butter.  Or,  as  is  the  habit  in  many 
dairies,  a  pure  culture  may  be  purchased  (by 
mail)  from  the  nearest  agricultural  experi- 
ment station  and  a  "mother  culture*  established 
from  that.  One  of  the  essentials  in  making 
good  butter  is  the  proper  care  of  the  cream 
after  churning:  if  it  is  to  be  churned  the  next 
day  it  should  be  mixed  at  once  with  the  starter 
and  placed  in  a  temperature  of  65°  to  70°,  If 
it  is  to  be  churned  the  second  day,  it  should  be 
cooled  to  55°  to  60° ;  and  if  not  till  the  fourth 
day,  it  should  be  cooled  to  40°  F,  Warm  creaoL 
fresh  from  the  separator,  should  never  be  added 
at  once  to  the  cooled  cream :  it  should  first  be 
cooled  to  the  proper  keeping  temperature.  The 
starter  shonla  be  mixed  in  at  such  a  time  that 
the  cream  will  reach  the  desired  degree  of 
acidity  1^  (he  time  it  is  desired  to  chum.  The 
degree  of  acidity  may  be  determined  by  various 
tests.  The  most  effective  acidity  is  from  0.6  to 
0.7  per  cent.  When  possible  it  is  advisable  to 
pastcuriie  the  mUk  or  cream.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  heating  the  milk  or  cream  to  145°  F. 
tor  3D  minutes,  then  rapidly  raising  it  for  a 
moment  to  IBS',  and  then  as  rapidly  cooling  it 
to  75°  or  80°.  This  destroys  about  98  per  cent 
of  all  the  bacteria.  It  does  not  however,  de- 
stroy the  spores,  and  when  making  pure  cul- 
tures of  lactic  acid  bacteria,  it  is  the  rule  to 
repeat  the  pasteurization  daily  for  four  days. 
Into  the  pasteurized  cream  is  stirred  the  starter, 
18  to  24  hours  before  the  churning  is  plaimed, 
the  cream  meanwhile  being  held  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  52'  to  54°  in  summer,  and  58°  to  62°  in 
winter.  The  cream  should  be  strained  into  the 
chum,  and  the  chum  should  be  not  more  than 
one-third  full.  A  box  or  barrel  dium  is  the 
best,  and  the  churning  should  not  be  too  fast, 
the  idea  being  to  keep  the  liquid  measurably  in 
one  -body  which  is  uirown  tordbly  from  one 
end  of  Qie  chum  lo  the  other.  In  the  dasher 
chums  much  of  the  cream  is  overchumed.  pro- 
ducing a  greasy  butter.    When  the  granules  of 


[ig 


v  Google 


butter  are  fairly  uniform  in  size  and  have  Ok 

general  appearance  of  cracked  com,  the  chum- 
ing  is  done.  It  takes  about  30  minutes.  The 
buttermilk  should  be  strained  away,  and  the 
butter  washed  with  about  the  same  quantitj;  of 
water  as  there  was  cream  in  the  beginning. 
Too  much  water  will  yield  a  tasteless  butter. 
The  butter  is  then  to  he  worked  by  pressure, 
never  tw  a  rubbing  motion,  which  destroys  the 
^rain.  A  wedge-shaped  or  square  butter- worker 
IS  preferable.  The  butter  is  usually  salted  im- 
mediately after  washing,  and  before  working, 
the  amount  of  salt  usea  being  about  one  and 
one-half  otinces  to  the  pound  of  butter.  When 
the  washing  is  done  in  the  chum,  the  salt  is 
sometimes  added  in  the  form  of  brine  composed 
of  one  pound  of  salt  to  two  pounds  of  water  for 
each  10  pounds  of  butter.  The  chum  is  then 
set  in  operation  for  two  or  three  minutes,  and 
the  butter  is  allowed  to  stand  15  minutes  in  the 
brine  before  working. 

The  most  common  defects  of  farm-made 
butter  are:  (I)  Rancidity,  due  to  the  cream 
being  too  old,  or  too  sour,  or  having  been  kept 
too  warm  before  churning;  (2)  foul  flavor, 
from  having  been  allowed  to  absorb  bad  odors; 
and  (3)  "mottles,"  from  buttermilk  being 
worked  into  the  butter  instead  of  having  been 
worked  out.  Scrupulous  cleanliness  and  atten- 
tion to  details  from  the  feeding  of  the  cows  to 
the  placing  of  the  product  on  the  market  are 
imperative.  See  Buttef  Worker;  Chukn; 
Dairy  iNouSTKY. 

The  composition  of  butler  varies.  It  ranges 
from  78.88  per  cent  to  88.41  per  cent  of  milk 
fat;  7.22  per  cent  to  15.62  per  cent  of  water; 
1.03  per  cent  to  3.32  per  cent  of  casein,  and  1.34 

Eer  cent  to  4.16  per  cent  of  salt.  The  best 
utter  has  a  content  of  8S  to  86  per  cent  of 
milk  fat  and  from  13  to  14  per  cent  of  water. 
The  quality  of  butter  is  judged  by  its  flavor, 
texture,  color,  amount  of  salt  and  general  ap- 


markets  require  a  mild,  delicate  butter;  for  the 
supply  of  such  the  cream  is  often  pasteuriied; 
others  require  a  high  flavor,  almost  verging  on 
rancidih-.  Whatever  is  desired,  that  flavor 
should  be  pronounced,  with  an  absence  of  ran- 
cidity or  other  flavors.  Texture  carries  25  per 
cent  of  the  points  and  depends  upon  the  granu- 
lar condition  of  the  fats.  The  more  distinctly 
the  granules  show  up  when  the  butter  is  broken 
the  Setter  the  texture.  The  right  color  depends 
upon  the  market  requirements;  usually  a  bri^t 
golden  yellow,  as  naturally  gelded  when  cows 
are  on  grass,  is  considered  ideal.  It  should  be 
uniform.  To  ensure  this,  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  use  some  butter-color:  formerly  the 
main  one  used  was  arnotto;  now  the  coal-tar 
colors,  aniline  yellow  and  butter  yellow  are 
used.  The  vegetable  coloring  matter  is  nsoally 
dissolved  in  some  oil,  and  this  often  gives  B 
peculiar  flavor  to  the  butter,  so  that  the  coal- 
tar  colors  are  preferred.  Some  South  Ameri- 
can countries  require  the  butter  to  be  a  deep 
orange  or  red  color.  A  small  quantity  of  salt 
is  often  added  to  improve  the  palatability ;  it  has 
liltle  influence  on  the  keeping  qualities.  The 
amount  varies  with  trade  requirements.  Un- 
salted  or  slightly  salted  butter  is  largely  used 
in  Europe  and  the  United  Kingdom.  The  finish 
and  pacldng  of  the  butter  should  be  attractive 
and  neat. .   The  styles  are  numerous,  but  at- 


tempts are  being  made  to  standardize '  them. 
The  American  butter-tub  is  generally  used  here. 
It  holds  from  50  to  70  pounds.  In  Canada  and 
Australia  a  box  holding  56  pounds  is  used  for 
the  export  trade.  The  Danes  ship  their  butter 
in  firlans  containing  112  pounds.  For  local 
trade  the  standard  rectangle  pound  print  is 
45<X2HX2j^  inches.  These  are  wrapped  in 
parchment  paper  and  packed  in  specially  made 


Oleomar^rine   is   the   most   t _..    

terant,  and  its  detection,  especially  when  pres- 
ent in  only  small  amounts,  is  difficult.  Cotton- 
seed and  other  oils  have  fceen  used.  Glycogen 
has  been  added  to  increase  the  water-holding 
capacity  of  the  butter,  and  in  butters  for  South 
America  glucose  has  teen  added  as  a  preserva- 
tive. The  various  preservatives,  as  borax, 
boracic  acid,  etc.,  sold  under  their  own  and 
other  names,  are  now  prohibited  as  adulterants. 

Renovated  or  process  butter  is  generally 
low-grade  butter  which  has  been  melted  and 
put  throng  a  chemical  process  to  remove  the 
disagreeable  odors  and  taste;  sometimes  it  is 
then  mixed  with  soured  separated  or  whole 
milk  or  cream  and  churned  until  granulated. 
If  the  primary  article  is  not  too  inferior,  the 
resulting  product  can  be  sold  as  good  creamery 
butter;  generally  its  keeping  qualities  are  im- 
paired. In  some  States  and  in  the  United  King- 
dom all  butter  so  treated  must  be  distinctly 
branded  'Renovated." 

During  the  year  1850  the  amount  of  butter 
made  on  farms  In  the  United  States  was 
313,345,306  pounds.  As  reported  by  the  United 
States  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  the  pro- 
duction of  butter  in  that  year  amounted  to 
786,013,489  pounds,  valued  at  $223,179,254,  as 
compared  with  627,145,865  pounds,  valued  at 
¥180,174,790,  in  1909,  representing  an  increase 
of  25.3  per  cent  in  quantity  and  23.9  per  cent 

The  farm  production  of  butler  (including 
that  made  for  home  consumption)  is  probably 
greater  than  the  factory  output,  and  a  relatively 
small  quantity  of  cheese  is  also  manufactured 
on  farms.  Statistics  in  regard  to  the  farm  output 
of  these  commodities,  however,  are  collected  only 
once  in  10  years.  At  the  census  of  1909,  994.- 
650,610  pounds  of  butter  were  reported  as  made 
on  farms.  These  amounts  represented  de- 
creases in  the  decade  of  7.2  per  cent  and  42.6 
per  cent,  respectively,  as  compered  with  1899. 
The  value  of  that  made  on  farms  ranged  in 
1915  from  21  cents  to  32  cents  per  pound,  de- 
pending on  location  more  than  upon  quality. 
Creamery-made  butter  brought  from  24  cents 
for  ordinary  to  38  cents  for  extra  fancy.  The 
lower  prices  were  generally  those  of  the  sum- 
mer months  and  the  highest  ones  of  midwinter. 
The  cost  of  transporting  the  milk  to  factories 
is  about  1.5  cents  per  pound  of  butter.  Den- 
mark is  at  present  the  leading  butter-exporting 
country  of  the  world,  with  a  record  of  almost 
165,000.000  pounds,  valued  at  $37,000,000,  the 
average  price  being  the  highest  on  the  market 
The  butter  exports  of  the  United  States  in  1915 
amounted  to  9^50,704  poimds. 

The  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  butter-tat 
is  98  per  cent  or  over.  It  is  well  assimilated, 
and,  like  other  fats,  is  a  source  of  heat  and 
energy.  Its  value  as  a  food  and  methods  of 
usage  are  well  known.  Butter  containing  S2.4 
per.cent. butter-fat. has. a  fuel  value. per  pound 


.Google 


BUTTBR  —  BUTTBRFIBLt) 


of  3,475  calories,  and  in  a  number  of  dietary 
studies  butter  furnished  1.9  per  cent  of  the  total 
food,  and  19.7  per  cem  of  the  total  fat  of  the 
daily  food.  Further  information  is  given  in 
Professor  At  water's  reports  on  dietary  studies. 
Fresh  and  salt  butter  are  equally  valuable. 
Garified  butter  is  used  in  cooking.  It  is  or- 
dinal^ butter  freed  from  water  by  heating. 

Bibliography. —  McKay,  G.  L.,  and  Larsen, 
C,  'Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-Making* 
(New  York  1905) ;  Meyer,  M.  H.,  'Treatise  on 
Commercial  Starters  in  Butter  and  Cheese 
Making'  (Little  Falls.  N.  Y.,  1910);  Micheis. 
J.,  'Market  Dairying  and  Milk  Products' 
(Wauwatosa,  Wis.,  1913)  and  'Creamery  But- 
ter-Making* (Farmingdal^  N.  Y.  1914) ;  Mon- 
rad,  J.  R,  'The  A  B  C  of  Butter- Making' 
(New  York  1905)  ;  Wing.  H.  H.,  'Milk  and  Its 
Products*  (Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1913)  ;  United  States 
Animal  Industry  Bureau,  'Circular  Zoo* 
(Washington,  D.  C,  1912)  ;  Illinois  Agrricultural 
Experiment  Station,  'Bulletins  131,  137,  138, 
139^  (Urbana  1909). 

BUTTBR,  ArtificiaL    See  Oleouasoauhe. 

BUTTER-BUR  (Pelasiles  pclaiiles).  a 
composite  plant,  with  large  rhubarb-like  leaves 
and  purplish  flowers,  growinK  by  the  side  of 
streams,  allied  to  coltsfoot  The  flowers  ap- 
pear before  the  leaves.  It  is  a  native  of  Eu- 
rope, but  has  become  naturalized  in  a  few 
localities  in  the  eastern  United  States. 

BUTTER-COLOR,  a  preparation  cm- 
ployed  to  color  butter  and  its  imitations,  An- 
natto  was  formerly  largely  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  is  now  superseded  by  coal-tar  colors 
and  other  coloring  substances  such  as  tumeric, 
laflron,  marigold  leaves,  carrot  juice  and 
chrome  yellow.  Owing  to  the  small  Quantities 
used  in  coloring  butter  they  are  quite  harmless. 

BUTTER  AND  EGGS,  a  troublesome 
weed.    See  Toad-Flax. 

BUTTER-FISHES.  The  two  test  known 
butter-fishes  in  American  waters  are  denizens 
of  the  Atlantic.  One  (Poronolus  triacanthus) 
is  the  butter-fish  or  dollar-fish  of  the  coast  ol 
Massachusetts  and  New  York,  the  harvest-fish 
of  New  Jersey,  the  dollar-fish  of  Maine,  the 
sheepshead  of  Cape  Cod,  the  pumpkinseed  of 
Connecticut  and  the  star-fish  of  Norfolk,  It 
swims  mostly  in  company  with  large  jelly-fish, 
whose  streamers,  while  often  protecting  it  from 
other  depredators,  are  frequently  the  cause  of 
its  death  from  their  stings.  The  body  is  ovate 
and  flat,  the  dorsal  and  anal  Rns  are  each  veiy 
pointed,  and  the  tail  is  long  and  widely  forked. 

The  harvest-fish  (PeprUus  paru)  is  another 
*butter-fish'  found  from  Cape  Cod  southward 
to  Brazil  but  it  is  most  abundant  about  the 
mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  where  it  is  locally 
called  'whiting.'  It  has  the  habit  of  swimming 
beneath  the  Portuguese  man-of-war.  It  is  a 
delicious  little  pan-fish,  about  six  inches  long. 
On    the   Paci6c   coast    there   are   three   species, 

e  of  which   (P.  sitnillima)  is  the  Califo     ' 


.  /  prized  for  its 
rich  and  delicate  quality,  and  reaches  10  inches 
in  length.  Consult  Jordan  and  Evermann, 
'Amencan  Food  and  Game  Fishes'  (1902), 

BUTTBR-MAKIHG.    See  Bititer. 

BUTTBR-TRBB,  various  tropical  or  sub- 
tropical   tree*   of    dilTerent   genera    and   even 


families.  Their  seeds  yield  fixed  oils  which 
resemble  butter  and  are  similarly  used  or  are 
emplo3^d  for  lifting.  The  leading  group  is 
perhaps  the  genus  Bnlyrospennum  of  the  family 
Sapotacea.  Of  this  genus  the  best-known 
species  are  B.  hngifoUvm,  the  Indian  oil-tree, 
whose  wood  resembles  teak,  and  is  in  use  in 
the  E^st ;  B.  butyracevm,  the  Indian  butter-tree, 
whose  light  wood  is  of  no  commercial  import- 
ance ;  and  B.  lalifolivm,  the  East  Indian  Ma- 
howa,  Mahwa  or  Madhuca.  Besides  the  <m1 
obtained  from  each  of  these  trees,  B.  butyra- 
ceum  yields  an  edible  fruit,  and  the  corollas  of 
B.  iatifolium  are  either  eaten  raw  or  are  used 
for  making  a  liquor  or  for  distilling  their  es- 
sential oil.  Bulyrojpermttm  parkii  is  the  butter- 
tree  of  central  Africa.  It  yields  the  galam  or 
shea  butter,  obtained  by  boiling  the  seeds,  which 
is  locally  an  important  article  of  commerce. 
The  oil  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  kernels  of 
the  sun  or  kiln-dried  seeds  in  water.  It  pos- 
sesses long  keeping  qualities.  Various  species 
of  the  genus  Caryocar  (q,v,),  natives  of  South 
America,  are  known  as  butter~trecs. 

BUTTER-WORKER,  a  machine  designed 
to  unite  the  small  particles  of  butter,  remove 
the  buttermilk  and  water  and  incorporate  the 
salt,  giving  the  product  a  uniform  appearance. 
Hand  and  power  machines  are  made,  the  large 

Kwer  workers  being  also  used  for  blending 
Iters  to  make  them  uniform.  The  makes  are 
variable  and  numerous;  some  being  combined 
with  a  churn,  the  butter  not  being  removed 
until  it  is  finished  The  former  method  of 
working  by  the  hands  injured  the  texture  of 
the  product  and  was  too  slow.  With  the  pres- 
ent machinery  the  butter  is  untouched  by  hand, 
can  be  held  at  a  tem^rature  of  45°  to  55°  F. 
during  working  and  is  handled  expeditiously. 
They    are    a    necessity    i'        " 


BUTTERPIELD,  Daniel,  American  sol- 
dier: b.  Utica,  N,  Y,.  18  Oct  1831;  d.  Cold 
Spring.  N,  C,  17  July  1901.  In  1849  he  was 
graduated  at  Union  College,  and  for  some 
years  engaged  in  the  transportation  and  express 
business.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Gvil  War  he 
was  colonel  of  the  12th  New  York  Militia.  He 
served  in  the  Peninsular  campaign  and  under 
Pope  and  McClellan  in  1862,  At  Fredericks- 
burg he  commanded  the  5th  Corps,  and  at 
Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg  was  chief  of 
staff.  He  served  as  chief  of  staff  to  Hooker 
at  Lookout  Mountain,  and  Ringgold  and  Pea 
Vine  Creek,  and  commanded  a  division  at 
Buzzard's  Roost,  Resaca,  Dallas.  New  Hope 
(Hiurch,  Kenesaw,  Lost  Mountain  and  other 
battles.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  in  the 
re^lar  army.  He  resigned  in  1869,  and  became 
chief  of  the  United  Slates  sub-treasury  in  New 
York.  He  organized  and  commanded  the 
Washington  centennial  parade  in  New  Yorit 
city  in  1889.  in  which  over  100,000  persons  took 
part.  He  was  author  of  'Camp  and  Outpost 
Duty*  (1862),  He  is  buried  in  the  West  Point 
military  cemetery,  an  elaborate  and  costly 
marble  tomb  marking  the  spot.  Consult  Butter^ 
field,  (Mrs.)  J.,  'Biogi^hical  MciBor^'  (New 
Yort  19M>., 


Digit  zed 


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BUTTBRFIBLD  —  BUTTERFLY 


BUTTBRFIELD,  Keoyon  Leech,  Ameri- 
can educator:  b.  Lapeer,  Mich.,  II  Tune  1868. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Michigan 
and  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  and 
became  assistant  secretary  at  the  last-named 
institution.  In  1S92  he  be^n  to  edit  the  Michi- 
gan Orange  Visitor  and  m  1896  became  head 
of  a  department  of  the  Michigan  Farmer,  From 
1895  to  1899  he  also  served  as  superintendent 
o(  the  Michigan  Farmers'  Institute  and  field 
agent  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 
In  1902-03  he  was  instructor  in  rural  sociology 
at  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  named  president  of  the  Rhode  Island 
College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanical  Arts. 
In  1906  he  was  made  president  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Colleee  of  Massachusetts.  He  published 
'Chapters  in  Rural  Progre33>  (1908) ;  'The 
Country  Church  and  die  Rural  Problem' 
(1911)  and  contributions  on  professional  topics 
in  agricultural  periodicals. 

BUTTKSFIELD,  WiUlsm,  Endish  archi- 
tect: b.  7  Sept.  1814;  d.  London,  25  Feb.  1900. 
He  first  attained  distinction  by  the  introduction 
of  color  into  ecclesiastical  buildings  with  the 
aid  of  bricks  and  mosaic  Among  the  notable 
structures  designed  by  him  are  Saint  Augus- 
tine's College  at  Canterbury;  Keble  Collie, 
Oxford;  All  Saints'  Church,  Margaret  street, 
London;  and  the  cathedral  at  Melbourne. 

BUTTERFLY,  one  of  the  day-flying  Upi- 
dopUra  of  the  sub-order  Rhopalocera  (compare 
Moth),  This  group  is  distinguished  from  the 
moths  by  the  slender,  knobbed  antennae,  which 
are  never  hairy  or  pectinated.  The  body  is 
small,  but  there  is  a  greater  eaualify  in  the 
siie  of  the  three  regions  (heai^  thorax  and 
abdomen)  than  in  the  moths,  the  abdomen  being 
much  shorter  and  smaller,  as  a  general  rule, 
than  in  the  lower  families  of  LepidopUra.  The 
ocelli  are  usually  wanting;  the  spiral  tongue  b 
long,  and  the  broad  wings  are  carried  erect 
when  in  repose,  and  are  not  held  together  dur- 
ing flight  by  a  bristle  (frenum)  and  socket  as 
in  most  of  the  moths. 

The  caterpillars  (larvae)  vary  greatly  in 
shape  and  in  their  style  of  ornamentation,  hut 
they  uniformly  have,  berides  the  thoracic  legs, 
five  pairs  of  abdominal  legs.  The  pupa  is 
called  a  •chrysalis*  or  'aurelian,"  from  the 
bright  golden  hues  that  adorn  it  in  many  species, 
but  disappear  as  the  wet  tissues  beneath  the 
pupa-skin  harden,  just  before  the  fly  appears. 
A  few  species,  such  as  those  of  the  genus 
Vanessa,  hibernate,  while  several  species,  such 
as  V.  antiopa,  are  social  as  young  larvc  But- 
terflies also  occasionally  swarm  while  in  the 
perfect  state,  such  as  species  of  Calias,  Cynthia 
and  Danais,  multitudes  of  which  are  sometimes 
seen  passing  overhead  in  long  columns.  One 
of  the  North  American  species,  And  others  else- 
where, are  migratory,  flying  southward  in 
autumn.  _ 

Butterflies  are  found  in  all  parts  "of  the 
world  except  the  coldest,  wherever  plants  exist 
suitable  for  food  for  the  caterjiillars,  but  they 
are  most  numerous  both  in  species  and  in  indi- 
viduals within  the  tropics,  and  especially  in 
South  America.  About  13,000  species  have  been 
described,  and  it  is  believed  that  twice  or  three 
times  this  number  are  in  existence.  About 
1,000  species  inhabit  North  America.  Buttei^ 
flies  are  especially  liable  to  local  variation,  and 


to  seasonal  and  dimorphic  changes,  so  that 
entomologists  have  recorded  many  sub-species 
and  temperature- forms. 

Certain  Nymphalida  have  glands  at  the  end 
of  the  body  secreting  a  repulsive  fluid  (see 
MiuiCRV)  ;  in  others  there  arc  remarkable  dif- 
ferences between  the  sexes;  in  certain  butter- 
flies (Androconia)  some  of  the  scales  are 
battledore-shaped,  and  secrete  a  special  odor. 
The  species  of  A^eronia,  a  South  American 
genus,  make  a  clicking  noise  when  flying.  While 
caterpillars  are  plant'Caters,  those  of  several 
Lyctenida  are  known  to  be  carnivorous,  feeding 
on  plant-lice  and   scale-insects. 

The  eggs  of  butterflies  have  a  membranous 
shell,  and  exhibit  much  variety  in  form  and 
character  of  surface.  "Sometimes,*  says  Hol- 
land, "they  are  ribbed.  Between  these  ribs 
there  is  frequently  found  a  fine  network  of 
raised  lines,  variously  arranged.  Sometimes  the 
surface  is  covered  with  minute  depressions, 
sometimes  with  a  series  of  minute  elevations 
variously  disposed.*  The  color  is  most  often 
greenish  white,  but  many  are  brightly  colored, 
or  have  lines  and  dots  of  color.  Anottier 
peculiarity  is  the  minute  opening  (micropyle) 
m  every  egg,  by  which  the  spermatozoon  may 
enter.  The  eggs  are  laid  by  the  female  on  a 
plant  that  wiir  afford  suitable  food  for  the 
caterpillar  when  it  hatches.  They  may  be  de- 
posited singly  or  in  small  or  lat^e  masses ;  and 
those  that  will  not  hatch  until  after  the  follow- 
ing winter  are  protected  in  some  way,  as  by  a 
varnish,  or  otherwise,  against  the  weather. 
Some  bntterflies  are  "sin^e-brooded,"  others 
lay  eggs  twice  or  more  in  a  season,  the  early 
layings  hatching  quickly  and  the  last  lot  sur- 
viving the  winter  to  establish  the  species  in 
the  succeeding  spring.  Few  adult  butterflies 
survive  the  advent  of  the  cold  season  in  the 
North,  the  species  continuing  through  the  sur- 
vival of  eggs,  larvx  or  pupz,  the  last  some- 
times by  burial  in  the  ground. 

The  caterpillars  of  butterflies  are  typically 
cylindrical  and  worm-like  in  form ;  but  some 
are  short  and  slug-shaped,  or  irregular  in  out- 
line. The  head  is  disrinct,  often  large  and 
formed  of  hard  (chitinous)  material;  and  often 
it  bears  horn-like  projections  or  protrusile 
appendages.  The  thm  skin  is  in  many  cases 
brightly  ornamented  with  colors  similar  to 
those  worn  later  by  the  adult  fly  (imago); 
but  green  and  gray  prevail  —  tints  inconspicu- 
ous among  the  leaves  and  grasses  on  which 
most  of  the  species  feed.  Most  caterpillars  live 
solitary  lives;  but  in  some  species  they  are 
gregarious,  and  even  weave  large  silken  dwell- 
ing-ptaces  in  which  they  live  as  a  colony. 

Caterpillars  are  able  to  grow  by  sloughing 
the  skin,  which  from  time  to  time  cracks,  en- 
abling the  creature  to  crawl  out  of  it,  and  to 
begin  another  period  of  growth  with  a  new  and 
elastic  skin  that  has  formed  beneath  the  old 
one.  Four  or  live  of  these  molts  take  place 
as  a  rule.  When  the  larva  is  to  hibernate,  it 
usually  does  so  after  the  first  or  second  molt, 
and  resumes  feeding  and  growth  when  it  wakes 
up  in  the  spring. 

One  great  distinction  between  moths  and 
butterflies  lies  in  the  form  and  structure  of 
the  pupa  —  that  quiescent  stage  of  development 
in  which  the  caterpillar  is  transformed  to  the 
imago.  The  term  dirysalids  is  usually  applied 
to  the  pupK  of  butterflies,  becaase  no.  aicfa  « 


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BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS 


4  AUulhnMoth 


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BUTTERFLY-FISH 


80 


underside  of  some  support,  as  a  twig  or  stone, 
or  are  suspended  against  a  surface,  as  the  bark 
of  a  tree-trunl^  attached  to  a  l^utton'  of  silk, 
and  held  in  place  by  a  girdling  thread  of  silk. 
Chrysalids  are  usually  protectively  colored. 

The  families  of  butterflies  are  few,  atui  all 
of  them,  except  one  small  tropical  group 
{Libylheuiit)  are  represented  in  every  conti- 
nent. Following  is  a  list  of  the  iive  families 
recognized  by  American  entomoSogists,  begin- 
ning with  the  most  primitive  and  en^ng  with 
the  most  specialized:    (1)  Hesperiida,  (2)  Papi 


pair  of  legs  is  more  or  less  modified,  differing 
from  the  two  hinder  pairs,  especially  in  the 
male  nymphalids,  in  the  more  or  less  aborted 
tarsi,  or  toe-joints. 

The  Hesperiida,  or  "skippers,'  have  a  world- 
wide range  except  New  Zealand,  and  are 
largely  represented  in  the  United  Stales.  This 
family  contains  small,  prevailingly  brown  but- 
terflies, with  relatively  large  bodies  and  broad 
heads,  the  feelers  hooked  at  the  tip.  The  fore- 
wing  is  triangular  and  pointed  in  shap^  and 
the  prevailing  color  is  brown.  The  hesperiids 
are  remarkable  for  their  short,  jerky  flights. 
The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a  light,   silky  cocoon. 

The  Papitionida  are  a  very  populous  family 
of  larze  and  handsome  butterflies,  familiarly 
called  *s wallow-tails"  from  the  prolongation  of 
the  hind  wing  in  many  of  them.  Yellow  is  a' 
prevailing  color,  usually  ornamented  with 
blacl^  red-brown  or  some  other  dark  tint. 
The  wing-neuration  differs  characteristically 
from  that  in  other  families.  All  six  feet  are 
present  in  both  sexes.  The  caterpillar  is 
cj^indrical,  elongate  and  never  hairy,  but  often 
tnberculate  and  is  provided  with  a  retractile 
tentacle  behind  the  head,  which  in  some  species 
emits  a  highly  disagreeable  odor  of  protective 
value.  The  pupa  has  two  anterior  projections 
called  "nosehoma,*  and  hangs  to  its  food-^lant 
bjr    its    anal    extremity,    sustained    by    a    loose 

Srdle.  This  family  is  distributed  throughout 
e  world. 
The  Lycanida  are  a  verv  large  family  of 
small  or  moderately  sited  butterflies  with 
slender  bodies,  the  feelers  placed  close  together, 
and  the  front  feet  aborted  in  the  males.  The 
cateipillars  are  short  and  hairy,  resembling 
woocUice  in  shape.  The  pupa  has  a  well- 
ma  deed  *waist,^  is  clothed  with  hairs  or 
briBtles;,  is  attached  to  a  pad  of  silk  by  the 
cremaster  and  is  girdled  with  a  silken  thread. 
This  family  occurs  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  its  irtcmbers  are  known,  on  account  of 
their  prevailing  hues,  as  •bluea.^  "coppers"  and 
•hair- streaks.*  In  alighting  they  always  fold 
their  wings  upright. 

The  Lemoniida  are  a  small  family  related 
to  lycffinidsl  which  contains  brilliant  butterflies 
mostly  confined  to  tropical  America,  a  few 
bright-brown  species,  the  "metal -marks"  of  the 
subfamily  Efyci'tiiW,  occurring  in  the  south- 
western United  States. 

The  Nymphalida  embrace  a  group  called 
•four-footed"  or  "brush- footed"  butterflies,  be- 
cause the  foremost  pair  of  feet  in  both  sexes 
are  dwarfed,  hairy  and  held  folded  up  against 
the  body.    This  is  the  largest  and  mpst  promi- 


nent of  butterfly  families,  is  ytjy  ancient  and 
is  much  subdivided  in  classificaiion.  The 
caterpillars  varv  much  in  form,  and  some  are 
hairy,  or  armeo  with  spines  or  tubercles.  The 
pupa  hangs  by  its  "tail,*  but  is  not  sustained 
by  a  silken  girdle-thread.  The  nymphalids  are 
represented  in  all  countries  but  most  numer- 
ously and  strikingly  in  tropical  America. 


Society,  London  1893) ;  Doubledav  and  West- 
wood,  'Genera  of  IJiumal  Lepidoptera'  (ib. 
1862)  ;  Edwards,  'Butterflies  of  North  Amer- 
ica' (Philadelphia  186B-88)  ;  French,  G.  H., 
'Butterfles  of  the  Eastern  United  States' 
(Philadelphia  1895) ;  Holland,  W.  J,,  'The 
Butterfly  Book'  (New  York  1898)  ;  Kellogg, 
'American  Insects'  (Now  York  1908) ;  Kirby, 
W.  F.,  'Butterflies  and  Moths  of  Europe' 
(London  1907)  ;  Longstaff,  'Butterfly  Hunting 
in  Many  Lands'  (New  York  1912)  ;  Miller, 
'Butterfly  and  Moth  Book'  (ib.  1912)  ;  Pack- 
ard, A.  S.,  'Text-Book  of  Entomology'  (ib. 
1898)  ;  Scudder,  S.  H.,  <Butterfli«s  of  New 
Enrfand'  (3  vols.,  Cambridge  1889)  ;  id.,  'But- 
terflies, Their  Structure,  Changes  and  Life 
Histories*  (^ib.  1881)  ;  Strcckcr,  'Butterflies  and 
Moths  of  North  America :  Diurnes'  (Reading, 
Pa.,  1878) ;  Walker,  'British  Museum  Cata- 
logue of  Lepidoptera*  (London  1854-56)  ; 
Wood,  'Butterflies*  fNew  York  1910)  ■  also 
the  works  of  Boisduval,  Haebncr,  Elmer, 
Moore,  Niceville  and  Standinger. 

Ernest  Ingehsoll. 
BUTTERFLY-FISH,  or  CORAL-FISH. 
These  beautiful  fish  representing  the  large 
family  Ck<etodontid<B  and  its  allies  of  the  scaly- 
finned  group  (Squamipinnes)  of  marine  fishes, 
obtain  their  English  names  from  their  oval 
form,  brilliancy  and  their  quickness  of  move- 
ment, and  the  fact  that  their  principal  habitat 
is  in  and  around  the  tropical  coral-reefs.  They 
are  so  compressed  as  to  resemble  the  "pumpkin- 
seed"  sunfishes  of  the  ponds,  and  are  aided  in 
keeping  their  balance  by  a  very  high,  arched 
dorsal  fin  and  an  anal  fin  extended  beyond  the 
tail.  Their  colors  are  always  gay,  usually  rich 
orange-yellow,  as  a  ground  tint,  set  off  by 
broad,  black  bars  and  fin  ornaments  in  great 
variety,  besides  blue  and  red  touches.  The 
type-genus  Chatodon  is  represented  by  several 
species  in  the  West  Indies,  and  southward, 
some  of  which  occasionally  drift  northward  in 
the  path  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  More  numerous 
in  American  waters  is  the  •black-angel"  {Po- 
maraathui  arcualm),  common  around  Porto 
Rico  and  at  Key  West,  where  it  is  caught  in 
traps,  or  sometimes  speared.  The  "blue-angel" 
(Holacanthus  eiliaris)  represents  a  genus  con- 
taining several  West  Indian  species,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  the  "rock  beauty*  (H.  tri- 
color), often  exceeding  a  foot  long,  and  good 
food,  as  well  as  most  beautiful.  The  name 
■an^l-fish*  is  also  given  in  Bermuda  to  several 


carnivorous,  and  Jordan  remarks  that  their  ex- 
cessive quickness  of  sense  and  motion  enable 
them  to  maintain  themselves  in  the  struggle  for 
existence  in  the  close  competition  o£  the  coral 
reefs,  notwithstanding  that  they  are  made  so 
conspicuous  to  their  enemies  by  their  bright 
colors.  Consult  Jordan  and  Evermann,  'Food 
and  Game  Fishes  of  America*.  (19(G), 


Ge^oglc 


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BUTTBRPLY  PLANT  —  BUTTHANN 


BUTTERFLY  PLANT,  an  orchid  (OnH- 
dium  papilio)  brought  from  Trinidad.  It  is  so 
called  because  its  l^rKC  yellow  and  red  blossoms, 
poised  on  slender  flower-stalks  and  vibrating 
with  every  breath  of  wind,  resemble  butterflies 
hovering  on  the  wing.  It  ts  also  applied  to  the 
Indian  butterfly  plant,  Phalttnopsts  amabilis, 
which  is  another  orchid. 

BUTTKKPLY-WEED  (Pleurisy-root),  a 
handsome  American  perennial  herb  {AscUpias 
tuberosa)  of  the  family  Asclepiadacea,  com- 
mon in  dry  ground  almost  throughout  the 
United  States  and  southern  Canada.  The  large, 
irregular,  yellowish- brown,  tuberous  roots 
have  a  nauseous,  bitter  taste  when  fresh, 
merely  bitter  when  dried,  and  are  reputed  useful 
in  lung  and  throat  ttcubles,  rbeumatisin,  etc., 
but  seem  to  be  less  popularly  used  than  for- 
merly. It  is  usually  administered  as  a  decoc- 
tion, fluid  extract  or  at  times  as  a  powder. 
The  hairy  stems,  which  rise  to  a  height  of  two 
or  three  feet,  bear  alternate  oblong-lanceolate 
leaves,  and  several  umbels  of  sbort-peduncled, 
bright  orange-yellow  flowers  followed  by  erect 
pubescent  pods.  UnliJtt  other  members  of  the 
genus,  this  plant  has  not  a  milky  sap. 

BUTTERINE,  a  substance  prepared  in 
imitation  of  butter,  from  animal  or  vegetable 
fats.  The  fat  is  first  freed  from  all  impurities, 
and  by  heat  converted  into  olein.  The  olein 
is  then  transferred  to  a  chum  containing  a  small 
quantity  of  milk  and  churned  into  butterine. 
Sometimes  it  is  colored  in  imitation  of  butter. 
Freshly  prepared,  it  is  sweet  and  palatable,  and 
when  spread  on  bread  or  cold  toast  is  but 
slightly  inferior  to  a  fair  quality  of  butter.  The 
process  has  attained  such  perfection  in  the  mat- 
ter  of  manufacture  in  the  United  States  that  it 
takes  an  expert  to  distinguish  it  from  genuine 
butter,  and  laws  have  been  passed  compelling 
tradesmen  to  label  each  package  containing  h  so 
that  no  one  may  be  deceived.    See  Oleomak- 


^arying  between  1.032  and  1.035  per 
F.  It  may  be  fresh  or  sour,  a«:ording_  to  the 
method  of  churning.  It  should  not  contain  more 
than  0.5  to  0.6  per  cent  of  butter-fat.  Its  com- 
position is  vanable,  an  average  of  85  analyses 
being:   Water,  90.1  per  cent-  casein,  3.0;  fat,  l.l; 

Srotein,  4.0;  milk  sugar  and  lactic  acid,  4.0;  ash^ 
.7  per  cent  Its  dry  matter  is  practically  alt 
digestible,  and  it  is  a  healthy  and  nutritious 
beverage,  much  relished  by  many  people.  Its 
fuel  value  per  pound  is  165  calones.  It  has 
about  the  same  ^ue  as  skim-milk  for  pig- feed- 
ing, and  is  used  in  conjunction  with  com  meal 
or  some  other  grain,  excellent  pork  being  pro- 
duced. It  is  also  used  for  calf-feeding,  al- 
though failures  arc  reported  in  the  undertaking. 
In  fattening  poultry  it  is  hi^ly  esteemed.  See 
Butter. 

BUTTERNUT  (White  Walnut)  a  latKe 
spreading  tree  iJugtans  cinerea)  of  (he  famQ^ 
Jaglandaccee,  native  of  America,  where  it 
ranges  from  New  Brunswick  to  Georgia  and 
westward  to  the  Dakotas  and  Arkansas.  It 
sometimes  attains  a  height  of  100  feet  but  usu- 
ally varies  from  50  to  80.    It  has  smooth,  gray 


bark,  large  compound  pubescent  leaves,  small 
flowers,  followed  by  oblong  pointed,  ribbed 
green  nuts  covered  with  visad  hairs.  The 
ripe  nuts  when  dried  have  very  hard  shdis 
and  are  highly  prized  for  dessert  in  regions 
where  the  trees  grow ;  and  the  green  nuts 
are  used  for  making  pickles.  The  bark  of 
the  stems  has  been  tised  in  dyeing  and  that 
of  the  root  in  medicine.  The  wood  is  used 
to  some  extent  for  cabinet  work  and  in- 
terior finish  of  houses,  but  is  less  popular 
than  black  walnut.  An  inferior  sugar  can 
be  made  from  the  sap.  The  tree  is  not  quite  so 
attractive  as  the  walnut  and  is  less  densely  cov- 
ered with  foliage;  but  is  less  attacked  by  insects. 
BUTTKRWORT,  a  genus  of  about  30 
species  of  small  succulent  plants  {Pinguic^da) 
of  the  family  Lentibitlariacea,  widely  distribu- 
ted tbrouehout  the  world  in  bogs  and  other  wet 
Kround  The  species  have  rosettes  or  tufts  of 
leaves,  from  among  which  single-flowered 
scapes  rise  to  a  height  of  a  foot  or  less.  The 
short,  thick,  sticfc-haired  leaves  attract  small  in- 
sects which  are  covered  bv  the  in-roUing  leaf- 
mar^ns  and  digested.  Tne  leaves  of  certain 
species,  especially  of  the  common  butterwort 
(P.  vulgaris)  are  used  like  rennet  to  coagulate 
ilk,  and  thus  form  a  favorite  food  in  Lapland 


lowed  to  stand  48  hours,  or  until  creamy  and 
somewhat  acid,  when  it  is  ready  for  use  as  food 
or  for  impregnating  other  milk  for  the  same 
purpose.  This  property  b  said  by  some  authori- 
ties to  account  for  the  English  name,  but  others 
attribute  the  name  to  the  buttery  feeling  of 
the  leaves.  Several  species  are  cultivatea  for 
their  dainty  flowers,  and  as  curiosities  on  ac- 
count of  their  carnivorous  habits,  but  they  are 
rather  diflicult  to  manage  unless  conditions  are 
naturally  right.  They  are  less  i>opuiar  in 
America  as  greenhouse  plants  than  in  Europe. 
Several  species  are  natives  of  the  United 
States. 

BUTTERWORTH,  Hczeki&h,  American 
stoiy  writer  and  poet :  b.  Warren,  R.  I.,  22  Dec. 
1839;  d  there,  5  Sept.  1905.  He  was  editor  of 
the  Youth's  Companion.  1871-74.  He  published 
many  popular  juvenile  stories  and  travels,  in- 
eluding  'Zig-Zag  Journeys'  (1876-90);  *Songs 
of  History;  Poems  and  Ballads  upon  Important 
Episodes  in  American  History'  (1887);  'The 
'Yampum  Belt,  or  the  Fairest  Page  of  History' 


land*;  'Traveler  Tales  of  China':  'Over  the 
Andes' ;  'Great  Composers' ;  'Soutn  Atnerica' ; 
and  many  others. 

BUTTHANN,  PhiUpp  Karl,  German 
scholar:  b.  Frankfort-on-Main  1764;  d.  Berlin, 
21  June  1829,  He  was  educated  atthe  Univer- 
sity of  Gottingen  and  in  1789  was  made  assistant 
at  the  Berlin  Royal  Library,  later  becoming 
secretary  and  librarian.  From  1796  to  1808  be 
also  held  a  chair  in  the  Joachimsthal  Gymnasium 
at  Berlin  and  on  the  establishment  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin  he  was  appointed  a  professor 
there.  He  published  'Griechische  Grammatik* 
(1792;  22d  ed.,  1869);  Griechische  Schulgram- 
matik'  (Uth  cd.,  1862)  ;  'Texilogus'  (1818;  2d 
ed,     18o0) ;    a    glossary   of   difficult    Homerit 


words;  *Aiisftihrliche  griechtsche  Sprachlehre' 
(I8Z7>:  <Mythologus>  (1828);  a  continuation 
of  Spalding's  edition  of  Quintilian,  and  editions 
oE  various  Greek  classics. 

BUTTON,  Sir  Thomas,  English  navigator 
in  the  early  part  of  the  I7th  century,  (he  suc- 
cessor of  Hudion  in  exploriciK-  the  northeastern 
coast  of  North  Amenca.  He  sailed  in  1612 
with  two  vessels,  the  Hesolnlion  and  the  Dii- 
eovery,  pasKd  through  Hudson  Strait,  and  was 
the  first  to  reach  land  on  the  western  coast  of 
the  bav.  The  point  which  he  touched  was  in 
lat  62  .and  was  named  by  him  Carey's  Swan's 
Nest  fieins  obliged  to  winter  in  this  r^on, 
he  sekcted  a  position  near  the  mouth  of  a 
liver,  first  named  by  him  Nelson's,  after  the 
master  of  his  ship.  Every  precaution  was  taken 
against  cold  and  icebergs,  yet  the  severity  of  the 
cnmate  occasioned  much  suffering  to  his  crew, 
and  was  fatal  to  a  few  of  them.  During  the 
next  summer  be  explored  and  named  several 
places  on  the  coast  o!  Hudson  Bay,  and  advanc- 
ing to  lat.  65°,  became  convinced  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  Northwest  Passage. 

BUTTON,  a  small  circular  disc  or  knob  of 
mother  of  pearl,  horn,  metal  or  other  material, 
with  a  shai^  or  perforations  through  its  centre 
for  attachment  to  an  object,  and  made  to  fit 
into  a  hole  formed  in  another  one  for  its  re- 
c^don,  the  two  fastening  the  objects  together. 
its  chief  use  is  to  nnite  portions  of  a  drtss  to- 
gether. The  ancient  method  of  fastening 
dresses  was  by  means  of  pins,  brooches,  buckles 
and  tie-strings.  Buttons  of  brass  are  found  on 
dresses  of  the  I6th  century.  Gilt  buttons  were 
first  made  in  1763  and  those  of  papier-mach^ 
in  1778.  Buttons  of  vegetable  ivory  are  now 
all  but  universally  used  for  tweed  coats  and 
vests.  The  palm  fruit  which  yields  it  is  called 
corou)  nut.  It  is  not  unlike  true  ivoiy  but 
softer,  and  is  easily  turned  and  dyed.  These 
buttons  are  often  mottled  with  some  stain  to 
suit  the  common  patterns  of  tweed  stuffs. 
Recently  a  substitute  vegetable  ivory  has  been 
found  in  the  seeds  of  a  common  palm  of  north- 
em  Africa  {Hyphenit  thebacia).  These  seeds 
arc  known  to  the  trade  as  gingerbread  doum, 
doom  or  dum  nuts.  They  are  much  cheaper 
Aan  the  tagua,  coro£o -or  South  American  ivory 
nuts,  and  are  available  in  much  larger  quantities. 
The  difficultv  at  present  is  the  adaptation  of 
existing  machinery  to  the  manufacture  of  but- 
tons from  this  African  nut,  but  it  is  believed 
that  within  a  short  time  manufacturers  will  see 
the  advisability  of  installing  machinery  espe- 
dalW  designed  to  make  buttons,  trinkets  and  toys 
in  the  most  tdBcient  manner  from  this  new  and 
less  expensive  material.  Mother  of  pearl  but- 
tons are  formed  of  the  beautiful  substance  of 
which  the  large  flat  shell  of  the  pearl  oyster 
consists,  and  this  has  long  been  a  favorite 
material  for  buttons.  Small  cylinders  are  first 
cut  out  of  the  shells  with  a  tubular  saw.  These 
are  then  split  into  discs,  which  are  shaped  by  a 
steel  tool,  drilled  with  holes,  and  finally  polished 
with  rotten  stone  and  soft  soap,  or  by  a  more 
recent  method  with  ground  charcoal  and  turpen- 
tine. Shirt  studs  as  well  as  flat  and  globular 
buttons  with  metal  shanks  are  also  ma.de  of  this 
substance. 

Among  other  animal  substances  used  for  but- 
tons are  ivory,  bone,  ham,  and  hoof.  From  this 
last  so-called  horn  buttons  were   some  years 


..  heated  dies  in  which  the  design  was 

cut  There  are  many  kinds  of  Composition 
buttons.  Glass  buttons  are  made  in  great 
variety.  For  pinched  buttons  small  ro^  of 
colored  glass    are  heated   at    the    ends,    and 

tireised  into  shape  by  means  of  a  pair  of  rather 
ong  hand  pliers,  on  the  ends  of  which  are  a 
die  and  its  counterpart,  likewise  kept  hot. 
Other  kinds  are  cut  out  of  colored  sheet  glass, 
which  is  coated  on  the  back  with  tin  amalgam 
like  a  mirror.  With  other  varieties,  some  beau- 
tiful glass  buttons  are  made  in  Bohemia,  either 
partly  or  wholly  of  aventurine  glass;  and  of 
this  gold-spangled  material  artistically  in- 
wrought with  other  colors,  studs  and  solitaires 
still  more  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and 
minute  patterns  are  made  at  Venice.  Porce- 
lain buttons  were  a  few  years  ago  nearly  all 
of  French  manufacture,  but  are  now  made 
principally  at  Prague.  The  plastic  clay  is 
pressed  into  molds  of  plaster  of  Paris  in  the 
same  way  as  small  objects  are  usuallv  produced 
in  earthenware.  Some  are  plain  and  others  are 
painted  or  printed  with  patterns.  More  or  less 
expensive  buttons  are  made  of  ornamental 
stone,  such  as  agate,  jasper  and  marble.  Oc- 
casionally they  are  formed  of  amber,  jade  or 
of  still  more  costly  materials,  ,as  pearls  and 
gems.  In  recent  years,  improved  methods  and 
machines  have  been  introduced  for  the  shap- 
ing as  well  as  for  the  polishing  and  finishing  of 
bone,  corozo  and  wood  buttons.  In  England, 
Birmingham  is  the  scat  of  the  button  trade, 
which,  however,  is  much  more  largely  de- 
veloped in  France.  Brass  buttons  were  made 
in  Philadelphia  in  1750,  and  hard-wood  but- 
tons were  made  there  soon  after.  The  button 
factory  in  Waterbury,  CouHt  now  the  seal  of 
the  metal  button  manufacture,  was  established 
about  1800.  Horn  buttons  were  made  in  the 
United  States  as  early  as  1812,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  buttons  covered  by  machinery  was  be- 
gun at  Easthampton,  Mass.,  by  Samuel  Willis- 
ton  in  1827.  The  making  of  composition  but- 
tons was  begun  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1862,  and 
there  have  De«i  about  1,500  patents  for  but- 
tons issued  by  the  patent  office  of  the  United 
States.  In  l&SO  there  were  in  the  United  Slates 
59  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  but- 
tons, with  an  output  whose  value  was  placed  at 
$964,359.  According  to  the  returns  of  the  United 
States  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  the  but- 
ton industry  comprised  517  establishments,  pro- 
ducing in  uiat  year  60,6CC3S9  gross  of  butttms 
valoed  at  $16,233,198. 

The  most  important  branch  of  the  button 
industry  was  the  nanufacture  of  pearl  buttons, 
either  from  mother  of  pearl  or  ocean  pearl  or 
from  the  shells  of  the  Unios  or  fresh-water 
pearl. 

In  1914  there  were  manufactured  26^181,405 
gross  of  pearl  buttons,  with  a  value  of  £7,369,- 
208,  representing  43.2  per  cent  of  the  total  quan- 
tity and  45,4  per  cent  of  the  total  value.  Of 
this  amount,  21,664,436  gross,  valued  at  $4379,- 
844,  were  made  from  fresh-water  pearl  and 
4,516,969  gross,  valued  at  $2,489,364.  from 
mother  of  ^arl  or  ocean  pearl. 

Next  in  importance  was  flie  manufacture  of 
buttons  from  vegetable  ivory  the  output  of  this 
kind  amounting  to  5,128,005  gross,  valued  at 
J2,885,503,  or  8.5  and  17.8  per  cent  of  the  total 
m  quantity  and  value,  respectively. 


Google 


BUTT0H-BU8H  —  BUTTZ 


"The  others  of  the  more  important  classes  in 
point  of  value  were  covered  buttons,  $1,600,178; 
celluloid,  $724,354:  shoe,  $610,796;  bone,  $329,- 
934;  horn.  ?299,487;  and  ivory,  $283,484.  In 
addition  various  other  kinds  and  parts,  having 
a  total  value  of  $2,130,254,  were  manufactured. 

Of  the  517  factories  reporting  in  1914,  there 
were  224  located  in  New  York,  81  in  Iowa,  60 
in  New  Jersey,  31  in  Illinois,  21  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, 18  in  Connecticut,  14  in  Massachusetts, 
12  in  Indiana,  9  each  in  California,  Missouri 
and  Ohio,  5  in  Arkansas,  4  in  Kentud^,  3  each 
in  Minnesota  and  Washington,  2  each  in  Michi- 
gan, Rhode  Island,  Tennessee,  West  Vii^^nia 
and  Wisconsin,  and  1  each  in  Colorado,  Kan- 
sas, New  Hampshire  and  Oregon. 

Statistics  compiled  in  July  1916  by  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce 
showed  that  American  export  trade  in  but- 
tons indicated  an  increase  of  79  per  cent  and 
prospects  of  further  advancement  This  was 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  normal  European 
production  of  buttons,  the  largest  in  the  world, 
was  curtailed  hy  the  war.  Under  usual  con- 
ditions the  United  States  manufactures  enough 
to  meet  about  nine-tenths  of  its  own  require- 
ments and  more  than  half  the  supply  of  Can- 
ada, which  has  some  factories  of  its  own,  and 
ranks  next  to,  the  European  nations  in  produc- 
tion. The  American  export  trade  in  buttons 
amounting  to  $654,372  in  1914,  more  than  half 
of  which  was  with  Canada,  expanded  to  $1,- 
171,232  in  1915,  with  England,  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia and  Cuba  the  largest  purchasers.  The 
bibliography  of  the  button  industry  is  varied 
and  interesting;  Consult  *The  Button  Industry 
in  Europe' — Conmiar  Reports  Vol,  58,  pp. 481- 
91  (Washington  D.  C,  1898) ;  'The  Emilio 
Collection  of  Military  Buttons,  American, 
British,  French  and  Spanish,  with  some  other 
countries'  (Essex  Institute,  Salem,  Mass., 
1911);  Rathbonc,  R.  L.  B.,  'Buttons,'  An 
Journal.  Vol.  71,  pp.  7-14  (London  1909); 
Smith,  H.  W.j  <Thc  Pearl-Button  Industry  of 
the  Mississippi  River,'  Scientific  American,  Vol. 
81,  pp.  86-87  (New  York  1899) ;  Petrie,  W.  F., 
'Buttons  from  Egypt,'  Antiquary,  Vol.  32,  pp. 
134-37  (London  1896)  ;  Skeel.  R.,  Jr.,  'Cov- 
ered and  Celluloid  Button  Factories  in  New 
York  City,'  New  York  Commission  Report 
(Albany  1915);  'Art  in  Buttons'— German- 
American  Button  Company  (Rochester  1906- 
16). 

BUTTON-BUSH,  HONBY-BALL,  or 
GLOBE-FLOWER,  a  North  American  shrub 
iCefhalantkus  occidenlalis)  of  the  madder 
family,  which  grows  in  wet  tJaces,  and  bears 
extremely  fragrant  flowers  whose  small  florets 
are  folded  or  packed  into  balls,  while  *lhe  long 
styles  and  capitate  stigmas  remind  us  of  pins 
Stuck  in  a  cushion.* 

BUTTON-QUAIL,  &  small  quail-like  bird 
of  the  genus  7i4rni.r,  family  Turnicida,  order 
Hemipodii,  of  which  there  are  some  20  species 
in  various  parts  of  the  Old  World,  some  of 
which  are  termed  bustard-quail,  bush-quail 
ortygan  and  hemipode.  They  frequent  wooded 
nbces  and  afford  good  sport  for  the  gunner. 
The  females,  as  well  as  the  males,  are  brightly 
colored.  They  are  one  of  the  smallest  game 
birds  known,  inhabit  woody  places  and  feed 
generally  on  berries  and  insects. 


BUTTONWOOD,  a  name  oftra  given  to 
the  North  American  plane  (,Plaltm»s  occide»- 
lolis).    See  Plane. 

BUTTRESS,  in  architecture,  a  structure  of 
masonry  used  to  resbt  the  thrust  of  an  arch  or 
vault.  It  takes  the  form  of  a  great  proportion- 
ate thickening  of  the  walls  at  the  point  where 
the  thrust  affects  the  wall,  the  thidoiess  some- 
times increasing  until  the  mass  of  masonry  is 
set  across  the  general  direction  of  the  walL 
Thus  in  the  developed  Gothic  style  it  nearly  re- 
places the  wall,  because  all  the  space  between 
buttress  and  buttress  is  occupied  by  a  ffreat  win- 
dow. In  the  case  of  an  archway  in  a  single  wall 
it  often  happens  that  the  two  sides  or  outer 
edges  of  the  wall  are  carried  up  in  such  a  way 
that  they  are  spread  wider  toward  the  base  and 
approach  one  another  at  the  top,  by  means  of 
certain  offsets  or  steps,  and  these  extensions  of 
the  wall  are  called  buttresses,  although  they  are 
mere  widenings  of  the  wall.  In  l^e  manner 
some  English  Gothic  church  towers  have  curious 
diagonal  spurs  projecting  on  the  four  corners, 
in  the  form  of  short  pieces  of  wall  built  on  a 
prolongation  of  a  diagonal  of  the  square  plan, 
and  these  are  considered  as  buttresses,  although 
they  have  very  rarely  any  thrust  to  resist,  be- 
cause the  tower  is  not  often  occupied  by  vaulted 
chambers,  and  because  the  meeting  of  the  two 
walls  would  provide  sufficient  masonry  for  the 
practical  purpose.  It  is  a  vice  in  that  style  that 
these  considerations  are  lost  sight  of. 

Historically,  the  real  buttress  begins  to  show 
itself  in  Romanesque  work  along  the  walls  of 
the  aisles,  and  is  at  first  a  sli^t  projecting 
pilaster-like  thickening  of  the  wall,  or  a  rounded 
projection  like  an  engaged  shaft  of  a  column. 
These  are  called  by  special  names,  as  buttress- 
pier,  pilaster- St  rip,  etc.  They  were  very  inade- 
quate for  their  purpose  (see  Romanesque 
AKCHriECTUKE)  aod  their  presence  shows 
the  uneasiness  of  the  early  tuilders  in  try- 
dispense    with    the    precautions    taken 


would  do  the  work.  As  the  vaulting  within 
became  concentrated  on  certain  points,  when 
groined  vaults  superseded  barrel- vaults  tor 
the  aisles,  the  need  of  the  buttress  became  more 
evident,  and  in  some  Romanesque  churches 
tht^  have  been  built  up  afterward,  ihe  walls 
being  stayed  up  with  great  cost  and  trouble  after 
they  bad  begun  to  spread  under  the  thrust  of  the 
vault.  It  was  not  until  the  ribbed  vault  came  in 
and  the  (jothic  style  came  into  being  that  the 
buttress  took  its  permanent  shape  of  a  piece 
of  wall,  fhin  in  comparison  to  projection;  that 
is  to  say,  having  by  far  its  greatest  dimen- 
sion in  the  direction  of  the  thrust  of  the  vault 
and  therefore  at  right  angles  with  the  wall  of 
the  church.  Except  in  modem  Gothic  exterior 
buttressing  is  seloom  empfoyed  nowadays.  It 
is,  however,  employed  in  railway  stations  and 
factories,  where  strong  vibration  of  the  floors 
necessitates  the  reinforcement  of  the  walls  at 
regular  intervals.    See  Flying  Buttress. 

BUTTZ,  Henry  Anson,  American  educa- 
tor: b.  Middle  Smithfield^  Pa..  18  April  183S. 
He  was  graduated  at  Pnnceton  in  1858,  and 
entered  the  Methodist  ministry  the  same  year. 
He  was  president  of  Drew  Ijieological  Scmi- 


d=y  Google 


BUTYRIC  ACID  — BUXTORF 


nary,  1880-1912,  president  emeritus  since  1912, 
and  has  written  much  on  polemics,  exegetics 
and  hermeneutics. 

BUTYRIC  ACID,  an  add  obtained  from 
butter;  it  also  occurs  in  perspiratiot),  in  cod  liver 
oil  and  other  fats,  and  in  meat  juice.  When 
obtained,  as  it  may  be  from  butter  and  from 
su^r,  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  clear,  oily,  volatile 
fluid  It  combines  with  bases,  and  forms  crys- 
lalline  salts,  which  ffossess  no  taste.  Butyric 
acid  is  a  colorless  liquid,  having  a  smell  like 
that  of  rancid  batter:  its  taste  is  acrid  and  bit- 
ing, with  a  sweetiM  after-fiavor.  Formula, 
normal  butyric  acid  CH^CH^CH^COOH. 

BUTYROSPERMUM,  a  genm  of  tropi- 
cal trees  found  in  the  East  Indies  and  Africa, 
of  the  family  Sabotacea.  One  species  (B.  parka) 
is  supposed  to  be  the  shea-tree  of  Park,  the 
fruit  of  which  yields  a  kind  of  butter  that  is 
highly  valued  and  forms  an  important  article 
of  commerce  in  the  interior  of  Africa.  There 
are  several  other  species,  of  which  B.  longi- 
folium,_  or  Indian  oil-tree,  and  B.  butyraceum, 
or  Indian  butter-tree,  arowell-known  examples, 
yielding  a  large  quantity  of  oleaginous  or  buty- 
raceous  matter.  The  wood  is  as  hard  and  in- 
corruptible as  teak.    See  also  BurTES-TREE. 

BUXAR,  buks'ar.  or  BAXAR.  a  town  of 
British  India,  in  the  district  qI  Shanabad,  presi- 
dennr  of  Bengal,  situated  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  aDout  60  miles  below  Benares.  It 
is  celebrated  for  a  victory  which  confirmed  the 
British  in  the  possession  of  Bengal  and  Bahar, 
23  Oct.  1764. 

BUXTBHUDE,  buk»-tS-hoo'de,  Dietrich, 
German  organist:  b.  Helsin^or  1637;  d.  9  May 
1707.  His  father  was  orgamst  at  Helsingor  for 
32  years,  and  no  doubt  imparted  the  art  to 
bis  son.  In  1668  Buxtchnde  was  appointed  to 
the  important  post  of  organist  at  the  Marien- 
fcirche  (Mary's  Church)  in  Lubeck.  In  1673  he 
introduced  special  church  concerts  after  the 
evening  services  on  the  five  Sundays  before 
Christmas.  He  wrote  the  music  for  these  con- 
certs, producing  new  compositions  with  much 
raiudi^.  The  great  Bach  tramped  a  long  dis- 
tance  m  1705  to  hear  Buxtehude  play  and  to 
leftm  from  him. 

BUXTON,  Sidney  Chmrlea,  1st  Viscount 
of  Newtimber  ^cr.  1914),  G.C.M.G.,  LL.D.,  1916; 
high  commissioner  and  governor-general  of 
South  Africa  since  1914:  b.  October  1853.  He 
was  educated  at  Qifton  College  and  Trinity 
CoUegt  Cambridge;  was  member  of  the  Lon- 
don school  board  from  1876  to  1882;  of  the 
Conciliation  Committee  of  the  Dock  Strike, 
1889;  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Education, 
1886-89-  of  the  Income  Tax  Committee,  1904; 
Under-Secretary  for  the  colonies,  1892-95 :  M.P. 
for  Pefersborough,  1883;  and  from  1905-10 
he  was  Postmaster- General.  While  in  this 
latter  office  he  succeeded  in  introducing  penny 
postage  to  the  United  States  and  reduced  maga- 
zine postage  to  Canada.  The  Insurance  Act 
and  the  Cofnright  Act,  both  passed  in  1911, 
were  largely  nis  work,  as  were  the  Bankruptcy 
Act  and  Extension  of  Trade  Boards  Act,  1913, 
and  the  Pilotage  Act  of  1912  He  was  M.P.  for 
Populate  1886-1914.  His  published  works  in- 
clude 'Handbook  to  Political  Questions'  (Uth 
ed.);  'Political  Manual*  <5th  ed.);  'Finance 
and  PoUtics'  (1783-1885)  ;  'Handbook  to  Death 


Duties';  'Mr.  Gladstone  as  (^ncettor  of  the 
Exchequer';  'The  Fiscal  Question';  'Fishing 
and  Shooting';  'Recreations.' 


1786-  d.  19  Feb.  1845.  He  was  educated  j. 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  in  1808  joined  the 
firm  of  celebrated  brewers,  Truman,  Hanbury 
&  Company,  and  took  an  active  share  in  carry- 
ing on  the  business.  In  1816,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  Spitalfields  distress,  he  made  his  first 
public  effort  in  a  speech  at  the  Mansion  House, 
and  afterward  succeeded  in  organizing  an  ex- 
tensive system  of  relief.  He  next  proceedecL 
in  concert  with  his  sister-in-law,  the  celebrated 
Mrs.  Eliiabeth  Fry  (q.v.),  to  examine  into  the 
state  of  prisons;  and  as  the  result  of  his 
inquiries  produced  in  1818  a  work  entitled  'An 
Inquiry  Whether  Crime  and  Misery  are  Pro- 
duced or  Prevented  by  Our  Present  System  of 
Prison  Discipline,'  which  attracted  great  at- 
tention, and  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Prison 
Discipline  Society.  In  1818  he  was  elected 
member  of  Parliament  for  Weymouth,  and  con- 
tinued to  sit  for  it  in  successive  Parliaments 
till  1837.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  en- 
lightened zeal  in  the  cause  of  humanity,  and  was 
long  the  right-band  man  of  Wilberforce,  wh(^ 
on  retiring  from  public  life,  selected  Buxton  as 
the  person  best  qualified  to  cariy  out  those 
of  his  benevolent  schemes  which  remained  un- 
completed. In  1823  he  moved  and,  with  a  slight 
modification,  carried  a  resolution  to  the  effect 
that  slavery,  being  repugnant  to  the  Christian 
religion  and  the  British  constitution,  ought  to 
be  abolished.  Subsequently  in  1831  be  made 
such  an  impression  on  the  House  and  country 
by  an  admirable  speech  that  the  government 
were  glad  to  take  the  matter  into  their  own 
hands  and  give  full  effect  to  emancipation. 
Aftec  his  retirement  from  Parliament  the 
slave  trade  occupied  much  of  bis  thoughts,  and 
he  pubLshed  in  1839  a  work  entitled  'The 
Slave-trade  and  Its  Remedy.'  In  1840  he  was 
created  a  baronet.  Consult  'Memoirs  of  Sir 
T.  F.  Buxton,  Bart.'   (1872). 

BUXTON,  England,  a  town  in  Derbyshire^ 
36  miles  northwest  of  Derby,  and  25  south- 
southeast  of  Manchester.  The  highest  town  in 
England  and  the  centre  of  the  Peak  District. 
Buxton  has  long  been  famous  for  its  calcareous 
springs,  the  waters  being  taken  for  indigestion, 
gout,  rheumatism  and  nervous  and  cutaneous 
diseases.  The  locality  was  known  to  the 
Romans,  who  had  baths  here.  The  season  ex- 
tends from  May  to  October.  The  town  is  1 025 
feet  above  sea-level  and  is  situated  in  a  aeep 
valley.  Much  of  the  splendor  of  Buxton  is  due 
to  the  Dukes  of  Devonshire,  one  of  whom,  in 
1780,  at  the  cost  of  £600.000,  erected  an  immense 
three-storied  pile  of  buildings,  called  the  Cres- 
cent. Near  Buxton  is  the  Diamond  Hill,  famous 
for  its  ciystals;  and  Poole's  Hole,  a  ^s-lit 
stalactite  cavern  770  yards  long.  Mary,  Queen 
of  Scots  made  several  visits  to  the  bauis  at 
Buxton  while  a  prisoner  in  the  custody  of  Che 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury.     Pop.   {1911)   10,024. 


1564;  d.  Basel,  13  Sept.  1629.  He  spent  bis 
student  years  at  Marbut^,  Herborn,  Heidelberg, 
Basel,  Zurich  and  Geneva.  Being  very  learned 
in  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic,  in  the  acquirement  of 


d=,  Google 


BUXTORF — BYBLOS 


which    he    obtained    the    uuiUnce    of    many 


languages,  which  he  tau^t  with  great  success. 
His  cEiei  works  are  'Lexicon  Chaldaicum, 
Talmudicum  et  Rabbiiucum'  (1639) ;  'The- 
saurus Lingux  Hebraiue' :  'Biblica  Hebraica 
Rabbinica' ;  'Synagoga  Judaica  hoc  est  Schala 

{ud{Eon]in>  <i604):  'Institutio  Epistolaris  He- 
raica' ;  'Concordantise  Bibliorum  Mebrai- 
corum.'  Consult  Kautsch,  'Johann  Buxtorf  der 
Altere*  (Tiibingen  1880). 

BUXTORF,  Johann  (The  Youngeb), 
German  Hebraist:  b.  Basel,  13  Aug,  1599;  d. 
there,  16  Aug.  1664;  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
entered  the  University  of  Basel  at  12,  Mcame 
master  of  arts  at  16,  and  proceeded  to  Heidel- 
berg and  afterward  to  Geneva.  In  1629  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at 
Basel,  and  occupied  it  for  34  years,  until  his 
death.  The  same  chair  was  filled  by  his  son 
and  his  nephew  successively  during  68  years 
longer,  making  a  combined  occupancy  of  this 
professional  chair  by  the  Buxtorf  family  for  an 
unbroken  period  of  140  years.  He  spent  a 
great  part  of  his  life  in  controversy  with  other 
scholars  regarding  disputed  biblical  and  theo- 
logical questions,  and  especially  regarding  the 
antiquity  of  the  vowel  system  in  Hebrew.  He 
completed  and  published  two  of  his  father's 
principal  works,  the  'Lexicon  Chaldaicum, 
Talmudicum,  et  Rabbinicum'  (Basel  1639)  and 
'Concordantije  Bibliorum  Hebraicorum'  (Basel 
1632),  the  most  important  publication  of  his 
own  being  the  'Lexicon  Chaldaicum  et  Syria- 
cum>  (Basel  1622). 

of 

BUYS-BALLOT.  bu-is-ba-l6,  Chriato- 
phorna  Henricua  Dldericua,  Dutch  meteor- 
ologist: b.  Kloetinge,  Zecland,  10  Oct.  1817;  d. 
Utrecht,  2  Feb.  1890.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Utrecht,  where  he  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  1847,  and  professor  of  ex- 
perimental physics  in  1870.  In  1854  he  re- 
ceived the  appointment  of  director  of  the 
Royal  Meteorological  Institute  at  Utrecht.  He 
was  one  of  the  initiators  of  the  new  sys- 
tem, under  which,  by  daily  synoptical  weather 
reports,  and  simultaneous  observations  by  land 
and  sea,  materials  are  collected  for  forecasting 
changes.  His  own  observations  have  resullea 
in  the  determination  of  a  general  law  of  storms, 
known  as  the  Buys-Ballot  law.  The  inventor 
of  a  system  of  weather  signals,  he  was  largely 
instrumental  in  bringing  about  an  international 
nniforrnity  in  meteorological  observations. 
His  works  include  'Changements  piriodiquea 
de  la  temirfrature*  (1847)  ;  'Eenige  r^en 
voor  te  wachten  van  weerverandering  in  Nedcr- 
Und  1860>;  in  English,  'Sugg;estions  on  a  Uni- 
form System  of  Meteorological  Observations' 
(1872-73) ;  and  40  volumes  of  the  AnmuU  of 
die  Meteorological  Institute. 

BUYUKDKREH.  bi-ytooVde-rt,  a  little 
town  on  the  western  side  of  the  Bosporus  10 
miles  noith-northeast  of  Constantinople,  situ- 
ated in  the  midst  of  a  large,  deep-bosomed  val- 
ley. It  is  the  summer  residence  of  the  Euro- 
pean embassies  at  Constantinople,  and  its  gar- 
dens and  palaces,  not  less  than  its  natural  beauty 
and  coolness,  make  it  a    favorite  promenade 


ground.  The  tradition  Hiat  (lodfrey  of  Bouil- 
lon encamped  here  with  his  army  is  not  alluded 
to  in  the  original  records  of  the  Crusades. 

BUZFUZ,  Sargcaat,  a  character  introduced 
by  Dickens  in  the  'Pickwick  Papers.'  He  is 
the  barrister  who  becomes  counsel  for  the 
plaintiff  in  Mrs.  Bardell's  breach  of  promise 
suit  against  Mr.  Pickwick,  and  is  remarkable 
for  the  ingenuity  he  displays  in  drawing  in- 
criminating inferences  from  ordinary  and  in- 
consequential occurrences. 

BUZZARD,  a  term  ^ven  in  America  to 
two  distinct  groups  of  birds  —  buizard-hawks 
of  the  genus  BaUo  and  its  allies,  also  familiar 
to  Europeans,  and  the  turicey-buziard — a  vul- 
ture. The  buzzard-hawks  are  closely  related  to 
the  eagles,  from  which  they  are  distinguished  by 
the  smaller  size  in  the  majority  of  casea,  the 
smaller  and  rounder  head  and  a  slow  and 
heavy  manner  of  flieht  They  feed  chiefly  upon 
the  smaller  mammals  and  reptiles,  seldom  catch- 
ing or  disturbing  poultry,  although  popularly 
accused  of  it  and  styled  "hen-hawks.*  Iinport- 
ant  North  American  species  of  the  genus  Buteo 
are  the  red-tailed,  red- shouldered.  Swainson'a, 
and  broad-winged  hawks,  all  of  which  are  else- 
where described  under  their  names.  The  most 
important  of  the  genus  Archibuleo  is  the  rou^ 
legged  hawk  (q.v.),  and  the  handsomest  one^ 
the  squirrel  hawk  of  California.  In  the  south- 
em  United  States  the  name  usually  refers  to 
the  common  black  vulture  (CatftartM  OHro). 
See  TimKi:Y-Bl.'ZZAkD. 

BUZZARD'S  BAY,  on  the  southeast  coast 
of  Massachusetts,  is  about  30  miles  long,  and 
has  a  mean  breadth  of  seven  miles.  It  is 
sheltered  from  the  ocean  and  separated  from 


ham,  Mattapoisetl,  Nasketucket  and  Sippican. 

BUZZING,  the  sounds  produced  by  many 
insects,  other  than  by  mechanical  means,  that 
is,  by  friction.  How  the  buzzing  of  bees,  flics, 
etc.,  is  produced  has  been  a  distruicd  question. 
Two  distinct  sounds  may  be  distinguished  — 
one,  a  deep  noise,  is  due  to  the  vibration  of  the 
wings,  and  is  produced  whenever  a  certain 
rapidity  is  attained;  the  other  is  an  acute  sound, 
and  is  said  to  be  produced  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  walis  of  the  thorax,  tct  which  muscles  are 
attached ;  this  sound  is  specially  evident  in 
Diptera  and  Hymenopiera,  because  the  integu- 
ment is  of  the  right  consistence  for  vibration. 
In  both  of  these,  observers  agree  that  the  spi- 
racles are  not  concerned  in  the  matter.  Laudoia 
tells  us  that  the  wing-tone  of  the  honev  bee  is 
A';  its  voice,  howeveivis  an  octave  higher  and 
often  goes  to  B"  and  C".  The  sounds  produced 
by  the  wings  are  constant  in  each  spedes,  ex- 
cept where,  as  in  Bomhus,  there  are  individuals 
of  different  sizes;  in  these  the  larger  ones  gen- 
erally give  a  hi^er  note.  Thus,  the  compara- 
tively small  male  of  S.  terreslris  hums  on  A*, 
while  the  large  female  hums  an  entire  octave 
higher.  Consult  Sharp,  'Insects'  (New  York 
1899) ;  Packard.  'Textbook  of  Entomology' 
(New  York  1898). 

BYBLOS,  bibles,  an  ancient  maritime  city 
of  Phienieia,  more  properly  Gyblos.  now  called 
Jebail.  a  little  north  of  Beyrout.  It  is  often 
mentioned  in  inscriptions  under  the  form  G  B  L 
and  it  also  appears  in  cuneiform  documents  U 


:,  Google 


BYBRLY— BYLAW 


early  u  the  ISth  century  b.c  either  as  Gubli  or 
Gubal,  It  was  the  chief  scat  of  the  worship 
of  Adonis  of  Thanunuz,  and  of  Ajtarte  as 
Baaht-GubliL  In  Eiek.  xxvii,  9  the  town  is 
called  Gebal.  To  Strabo  and  the  Greek  authors 
it  was  always  Byblos.  Philo  Byblius  was  born 
there.  There  are  extensive  remains  dating  from 
the  Roman  period  and  from  the  times  of  the 
Crusades. 

BYBRLY,  William  Blwood,  American 
mathemaadan;  b.  Philadelphia^  13  Dec  1849. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1871 ; 
was  assistant  professor  of  mathemabcs  at  Cor- 
nell University  from  1873-76  and  at  Harvard 
from  IS76^\,  when  he  became  professor.  He 
became  professor  emeritus  in  1913.  He  is  a 
fellow  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences.  Among  his  works  are  'Elements  of 
Differential  Calculus'  (1879);  'Elements  of 
Integral  Calculus'  (1881)  ;  'Problems  in  Differ- 
ential Calculus'  (1895).  and  a  'Treatise  on 
Fourier's  Series  and  Spherical,  Cylindrical  and 
Ellipsoidal  Harmonics'   (1893).     ■ 

BYBRS,  Sunnel  HnwUas  BfarthaU, 
Amerifac  writer:  b.  Pulasld,  Pa.,  23  July  1838. 
Educated  at  public  schools  in  Iowa.  He  served 
four  years  in  Union  army;  was  captured  at 
battle  of  Chattanooga.  While  in  prison  at 
Columbia,  S.  C,  he  wrote  'Sherman's  Uarch 
to  the  Sea,'  a  song  that  gave  "  '     ■■^- 


rejotned  the  army  and  served  on  General  Sher- 
man's staff  in  the  Carolinas ;  was  sent  down  to 
Cape  Fear  River  and  broui^I  the  first  newt 
north  of  Sherman's  success.  After  the  war  be 
was  anointed  consul  to  Switterland  1869-84; 
promoted  consul-general  to  Rome  in  1884. 
Later,  he  was  consul-general  to  Switzerland 
under  President  Harrison.  Alto^ther  he  was 
some  20  years  in  the  forei^  service.  He  wrote 
'Switzerland  and  the  Swiss'  during  this  tim^ 


'Iowa  in  War  Times' ;  'The  March  to  the  Sea, 
or  the  story  of  the  Great  Campaign,'  in  verse; 
'The  Honeymoon,'  a  volume  of  verse;  'With 
Fire  and  Sword,'  a  prose  account  of  his  adven- 
tures in  the  Civil  War;  <A  Layman's  Life  of 
Jesus' ;  "Twenty  Years  in  Europe,  or  the  Life 
of  a  Consul- General'  (1896),  Which  contained 
50  personal  letters  to  the  author  from  General 
Sherman:  'Complete  Poems'  (1914) ;  'The 
Bells  of  Capistrano'  (191S),  a  love  poem  of  the 
old  mission  days  in  (Jalifomia;  also  'Glorietta, 
or  The  Gty  of  Fair  Dreams'  (1916),  a  poeti- 
cal romance  of  Monterey,  Cal.,  in  the  Spanish 
days. 

BYESS,  William  Newton,  pioneer,  jour- 
nalist, publicist  and  capitalist :  b.  Madison 
(>)unty.  Ohio,  22  Feb.  1831;  d.  1901.  As  a  civil 
engineer  he  served  in  the  capacity  of  United 
States  deputy  surveyor  in  Iowa,  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington, Nebraska  and  Colorado.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  first  Nebraska  Slate  legislature 
and  of  the  first  Colorado  constitutional  con- 
vention. In  1864-66  and  from  1879-83  he  was 
postmaster  of  Denver.  In  1859  he  founded 
the  Rocky  Mottnlain  News,  of  which  he  was 
editor  and  publisher  for  20  years.  A  man  of 
modest  and  retiring  disposition,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  constructive  personalities  in  the 
history  of  Colorado. 


County  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  95  miles 
east  of  Columbus.  It  is  the  commercial  centre 
of  a  large  bituminous  coal  mining  region,  and 
has  manufactures  of  bricks,  tiles,  glass  and  gas 
enj^nes.    Pop.  3,1S6. 

BYINGTON,  CyrVM,  missionary  among 
the  Indian:  b.  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  11  March 
1793;  d.  Belprt,  Ohio,  31  Dec.  1868.  His  early 
educational  advantages  were  limited,  but  in  his 
youth  he  was  taken  into  the  home  of  JoseiiAt 
Woodbridge  in  his  native  town,  under  whose 
tuition  he  studied  Latin  and  Gredc  and  with 
whom  he  afterward  read  iaw.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1814  and  began  to  prac- 
tice, but  soon  after  entered  the  theological 
aelninary  at  Andover,  Mass.,  at  which  he  grad- 
uated in  1819.  Having  been  ordained  to  the 
ministry,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions (Congregational)  and  was  assigned  labor 
among  the  (Tboctaw  Indians  in  Mississippi, 
loumeying  overland  from  Massachusetts  to 
Pittsburgh,  be  descended  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers  in  a  flatboat  to  the  point  nearest 
his  destination.  After  working  among  the 
Choctaw  people  in  Mississippi  for  a  dozen 
years,  he  accompanied  them  on  their  westward 
migration  to  the  Indian  Territory,  opening  up 
and  building  a  new  mission  station  near  Eagle- 
town,  in  the  southeaSlern  part  of  the  Choctaw 
Nation,  which  he  named  in  honor  of  his  native 
town  —  Stockbridge.  His  health  failing,  in 
1851,  he  went  to  New  York,  but  later  returned 
and  resumed  his  work  among  the  Choctaw 
people,  which  he  continued  tmtil  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  put  an  end  to  all  mission- 
ary enterprises  in  that  section.  Early  in  his 
missionary  career  he  b^|an  to  make  an  ex- 
haustive study  of  the  Choctaw  language,  a 
grammar  of  which  was  completed  in  1834.  He 
also  compiled  a  Choctaw- English  dictionary, 
upon  the  seventh  revision  of  vvfaich  he  was  en- 
gaged at  the  time  of  his  death,  nearly  half  a 
century  after  the  beginning  of  his  missionary 
labors.  This  work,  entitled  "A  Dictionary  of 
the  Choctaw  Language,*  was  issued  as  Bulle- 
tin 46,  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
in  191S. 

BYLAW,  a  particular  or  private  law,  as 
the  local  or  subordinate  law  of  a  city,  town, 
private  corporation  or  other  organization.  The 
power  to  make  bylaws  is  usually  conferred  by 
express  terms  of  the  charter  creating  the  cor- 
poration ;  thou^,  when  not  expressly^  granteiL 
It  is  given  by  implication,  and  it  is  incidental 
to  the  very  existence  of  a  corporation.  The 
constitution  of  the  United  States  and  acts  of 
Confess  made  in  conformity  to  it,  the  con- 
stitution of  the  State  in  which  a  corporation  is 
located,  and  all  acts  of  the  legislature  constitu- 
tionally made,  together  with  the  common  law 
as  there  accepted,  are  of  superior  force  to  any 
bylaw ;  and  any^  bylaw,  when  contrary  to 
either  of  them,  is  void,  whether  the  charter 
authorizes  the  making  of  such  bylaw  or  not; 
because  no  legislature  can  grant  power  larger 
than  it  possesses.  A  valid  bylaw  of  a  miuuct- 
pality  is  a  true  law,  for  it  has  the  authority  of 
the  State  behind  it.  Bylaws  of  corporations 
and  societies  are  rather  woridng  agreements 
between  the  members  than  laws  in  the  true 
sense.     Consult  Boisot,    'By-Laws  of  Private 


d=,  Google 


BTLSS  — BYNO 


Corporations'  (2d  ed.  Saint  Paul  1902),  and 
Pollock  and  Maitland,  'History  of  En^shLaw' 
(2d  ed,  Boston  1899). 

BYLBS,  Mather,  American  clei^man :  b. 
Boston,  26  March  1706;  d.  thcre,_  5  July  1788. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1725 ;  was 
ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1733  and  was  placed 
over  the  church  in  Hollis  street^  in  Boston,  in 
the  year  1733,  and  obtained  a  distinguished  posi- 
tion among  the  contemporary  clergy.  He  was 
learned  after  the  manner  of  those  times,  and 
was  more  addicted  to  literary  recreations,  and 
had  a  keener  relish  of  the  later  humanities  than 
was  then  common  among  the  members  of  his 
profession.  As  a  proof  oi  his  recognized  excel' 
lence  in  polite  letters,  we  may  accept  the  fact 
that  he  was  the  correspondent  of  some  of  the 
chief  poets  and  authors  of  Eki^land.  He  was 
himself  a  votary  of  the  muses  in  a  small  way, 
and  a  volume  of  his  miscellaneous  poems  was 
published  in  1744.  He  gave  an  early  expression, 
too,  to  the  loyally  which  distinguished  his  char- 
acter through  lite,  in  a  poem  on  the  death  of 
George  I  and  the  succession  of  his  son,  in  1727, 
when  he  was  but  21  years  of  age.  He  also 
tempered  the  bereavement  which  Governor 
Belcher  had  suffered  in  the  loss  of  his  wife  in 
1734,  by  such  consolation  as  an  elepac  epistle 
could  convey.  It  is  not  likely,  however,  that 
his  name  would  have  been  preserved  to  this 
time  had  bis  reputation  depended  on  the  merits 
of  his  poetical  effusions.  The  cheerful  flow  of 
his  sinrits  and  frank  gaiety  of  his  conversation 
seem  to  have  been  something  out  of  the  com- 
mon way,  and  to  have  left  an  enduring  mark  on 
the  memories  of  that  generation.  His  piety  was 
tinctured  with  no  asceticism,  and  the  lively 
sallies  of  his  spri^tly  imagination,  always  kept 
within  the  limits  of  decorum,  were  restrained 
by  no  fear  of  injuring  his  personal  or  clerical 
dignity.  He  was  an  ardent  Royalist  and  in 
1777  was  sentenced  to  banishment,  but  was 
allowed  to  remain  under  guard  in  his  own 
house.  This  severity  was  soon  relaxed  for  a 
while,  and  afterward  renewed.  One  of  the 
stories  told  of  him  is,  that  wishing  to  have  au 
errand  done  at  a  distance,  he  asked  the  sentry 
to  undertake  it.  The  man  objected  on  the 
ground  that  he  could  not  leave  the  door  un- 
guarded; on  which  the  doctor  volunteered  to 
be  his  substitute,  and,  accordingly,  was  seen  by 
some  one  in  authority,  in  powdered  wig  and 
cocked  hat,  with  a  musket  on  his  shoulder, 
walking  up  and  down  before  his  house,  keeping 
guard  over  himself.  His  release  from  custody 
soon  followed,  on  which  occasion,  alluding  to 
these  changes  of  treatment,  he  said  that  he  had 
been  'guarded,  regarded  and  disregarded.*  His 
son,  Mather,  b.  1736;  d.  1814,  was  also  a 
clergyman  and  became  the  rector  of  the  Tories, 
who,  expelled  from  Boston,  founded  Saint 
John,  New  Brunswick. 

BYLLYNGE.  bnilng,  Edwsrd,  English 
provincial  governor:  d.  1^7.  He  became  joint 
purchaser  with  John  Fenwick  of  a  large  tract 
of  land  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  New  Jersey. 
Upon  the  occasion  of  a  dispute  between  the  two 
proprietors,  nine-tenths  remained,  by  Penn's 
decision,  with  6yllyng«  and  was  long  known  as 
■the  Byllynge  Tenths.*  He  was  governor  of 
the  province  of  West  Jersey  in  16/7.  Consult 
Taimer,  'The  Province  of  New  Jersey,  1664- 
1738'  (New  York  1908) ;  Myers.  'Narratives  of 


Early  Pennsylvania,  West  New  Jersey  and  Del- 
aware, 163a-1707>  (New  York  1912). 

BYNG,  George  Viscount  Torringtoti, 
English  admiral :  h.  Wrotham,  Kent,  27  Jan. 
1663 ;  d  17  Jan.  1733.  He  entered  the  navy  at 
the  age  of  15.  In  1688  he  recommended  him- 
self to  William  of  Orange,  and  for  his  pliant 
conduct  at  the  sea-fight  of  Malaga  was  knighted 
by  Queen  Anne.  In  1706  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament  from  Plymouth.  Two  years  later 
he  commanded  a  squadron  sent  out  to  OMWse 
the  Pretender's  invasion.  He  followed  the 
French  fleet  and  forced  it  to  take  refuge  at 
Dunkirk.  In  1718  he  commanded  the  Elnglish 
fleet  sent  to  Sicily  for  the  protection  of  the 
neutrality  of  Italy,  and  on  31  July  utterly  de- 
stroyed the  SpanisD  fleet  off  Messina.  Later  he 
became  naval  treasurer  and  attained  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral.  In  I7l5  he  was  created  Knight 
of  the  Bath  and  was  First  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty after  the  accession  of  George  II  in 
1727.  He  was  created  Viscotmt  Torrington  in 
1721. 

BYNG,  John,  English  admiral:  b.  1704;  d. 
14  March  1757.  He  was  the  son  of  Viscount 
Torrington,  and  by  his  own  merits,  as  well  as 
the  influence  of  his  name,  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  admiral.  His  attempts  to  relieve  Fort 
Saint  Philip,  in  Minorca,  when  blockaded  by  a 
French  fleet  nnder  La  Galissoniire,  proved 
abortive,  and  bis  hesitation  in  engaging  the 
enemy,  when  a  bold  attack  mi^t  have  perhaps 
gained  him  the  victory,  excited  the  clamor  of 
the  nation  against  him.  The  ministry,  who 
wished  to  avert  the  public  odium  from  their 
unsuccessful  measures,  beheld  with  seeming 
satisfaction  the  unpopularity  of  Byng,  and  when 
he    was   condemned    by    a    court-martial    they 


was  shot  at  Portsmouth.     The  historical  con- 
troversy as  to  his  guilt  is  still  undecided, 

BYNG,  Sir  Julian  Hedworth  George, 
K.C.B,,  1CCM.A.,  M.V.O.,  English  soldier^  Qie 
7th  son  of  the  2d  Earl  of  Stafford:  b.  11  Sept. 
1862.  He  passed  through  the  Staff  College  and 
became  lieutenant  in  the  10th  Royal  Hussars  in 
1883.  He  saw  his  first  service  in  the  Sudan 
campaign  1884,  was  present  at  El  Teh  and 
Tamai,  and  reopived  the  Khedive's  Star  for 
gallant  conduct.  He  rose  to  captain  in  1890^ 
major  in  1898,  served  through  the  South  Afri- 
can War  1899-1902,  during  which  he  com- 
manded the  South  African  Light  Horse  and 
several  frying  columns  in,  various  parts  of  Cape 
Colonv  and  Orange  Free  State.  He  was  "men- 
tioned in  despatches"  five  times,  received  the 
Queen's  and  King's  medals  with  ^x  clasps  and 
was  brevetted  colonel  in  1902.  For  the  next 
two  years  he  commanded  his  old  regiment;  was 
in  charge  of  the  Cavalry  School  at  Netheravon 
1904-^)5;  commanded  the  2d  Cavalry  Brigade 
1905-^;  the  1st  Cavalry  Brigade  in  1909;  pro- 
moted major-general  in  that  year  and  placed 
in  command  of  the  East  Anglian  Division  1910- 
12.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Eg5T)tian  army  under 
the  administration  of  Lora  Kitdiener,  who 
undoubtedly  influenced  the  appointment.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  European  War  he  was  recalled 
from  Egypt  and  given  the  command  of  the  3d 
Cavalry  Division,  which  was  attached  to  the 
7th    Division  of   the  4th  Army  Corps-     "Hie 


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v  Google 


BYHKERSHOBK  —  BYRON 


under  Colonel  Wellesley  (afterward  Duke  of 
Wellington)^  in  179S^5-  Over  120  vears  Ister 
Sir  Julian  Byng  stood  on  the  same  battlefields, 
but  at  the  side  of  his  grandfather's  enemies,  the 
French,  The  troops  under  his  command  cov- 
ered the  Bel^an  retreat,  checked  the  German 
onslaught  at  the  first  battle  of  Ypres,  and  'were 
repeatedly  called  upon  to  restore  the  situation 
at  critical  points,  and  to  fill  gaps  in  the  line 
caused  by  the  tremendous  losses  which  oc- 
curred' (Sir  John  French,  4th  dispatch,  20  Nov. 
1914) .  Genenil  Byng  commanded  the  9lh  Army 
Coips  in  the  GallipoTi  campaign  of  1915,  and  at 
the  end  of  Mav  1916  he  succeeded  Lieut.-Gen. 
Sir  Edwin  Alaerson  in  the  command  of  the 
Canadian  corps  on  the  western  front.  Under 
his  lead  the  Canadian  troops  performed  prod- 
igies of  valor  in  the  great  Somme  battles  (q.v.), 
and  again  in  the  dashing  capture  of  the  German 
stron^old,  Vimy  Ridge.  In  June  1917  (lencral 
Byng  was  placed  in  command  of  the  3d  Arw 
in  succession  to  (jcneral  Allenlnr,  and  on  20 
Nov.  1917  his  army  opened  what  has  been 
described  as  the  most  dramatic  episode  on  the 
western  front  since  the  battle  of  the  ((arne, 
tvimelr,  the  great  drive  on  Cambrai  (q.v.).  Be- 
fore the  enemy  realized  what  had  hapoened,  the 
so-called  impregnable  'Hindenburg  Line*  had 
been  shattered  and  thousands  of  plisoners. cap- 
tured. The  distinguishing  feature  of  this  bnl- 
liant  exploit  was  the  utter  absence  of  the  cus- 
tomary "artillery  preparation.*  Accompanied 
by  the  formidable  •tanks,"  the.  British  infantry 
advanced  at  dawn  and  stormed  the  enetmr's 
trenches  with  remarkably  few  Lasses.  See 
Was,  Eubofeak,  Westebh  Fbomt. 

BYNKERSHOEK,  blnlcirs-faook,  Cor- 
nelius van,  Dutch  jurist:  b.  Middlebni^,  Zea- 
land, 29  May  1673;  d.  16  April  1743.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Franeker,  and  after  prac- 
tising as  a  barrister  at  The  Hague,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Leyden,  and  president  of  the 
supreme  council  of  Holland.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  learned  among  modem  civilians. '  His 
books  are  in  Latin,  and  tus  treatise  'De  Foro 
Legatorum  Competente*  was  translated  by 
Barbeyrac  into  French  under  uie  ritle  of   'Du 

Iuge  Comp^ent  des  Ambassadeurs'  (1728). 
lis  most  unportant  writings  are  the  'Obser- 
vationes  Juris  Romani* ;  'De  Dominio  Maris*; 
'Quxstiones  Juris  Publici' ;  and  a  digest  en- 
titled 'Corpus  Juris  Hollandici  et  Zelandici.* 
A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published 
at  Geneva  in  1761,  and  at  Leyden  in  1766. 


BYHD,  herd,  William,  American  lawyer 
and  author:  b.  Westover  Va.,  1674;  d.  there,  26 
Aug.  1744.  He  received  a  liberal  education  in 
England,  possessed  one  of  the  largest  libraries 
in  the  colonies,  and,  having  a  large  property,' 
lived  in  a  splendid  style,  unrivaled  in  Vireiiua. 
He  was  a  member  and  a  last  president  of  the 
King^s  Council.  To  French  Protestants  fleang 
to  Virginia  from  persecution  in  France,  be  ex- 
tended  the  most  generous  assistance.  The 
towns  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg  were  laid 
out  by  him,  and  be  was  one  of  the  commission- 
ers for  establishing  the  boundaij  line  between 


Virginia  and  North  Oirolina.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Society,  and  as  a  patron  of 
literature  and  art  deserves  remembrance.  His 
own  writings  include  the  'Westover  Manu- 
scripts,* embracing  'The  History  of  the  Divid- 
ing Ljne'  ;  'A  Journey  Co  the  Land  of  Eden' ; 
and  'A  Progress  to  the  Mines.*  In  The  Vir- 
gmian  Magazine  of  History  and  Biography 
(1902)  appeared  his  letters,  revealing  much  of 
interest  concemitig  his  personality  and  career. 
Consult  Trent  'English  Culture  in  Virginia* 
(1889);  'A  History  of  American  Literature* 
(New  York  1903). 


BYRGIU8,  bir'ji-iis,  JustUB  (properly 
JOBET  Bt}SGi),  Swiss  mathematician:  b.  Lich- 
tensteig,  Canton  of  Saint  Gall,  Switierland,  28 
Feb.  1552;  d.  Cassel,  Germany,  31  Jan.  1632. 
He  was  invited  to  Cassel  by  the  Laod^ave  oi 
Hesse  to  superintend  the  observatory  which  he 
had  there  erected,  and  constructed  a  number  of 
rumcnts,   some  curious  clocks 


and  other 


ncluding  the  proportional 


compasses.  A  discovery  involving  that  of  the 
logarithms,  and  another  exhibiting  an  applica- 
tion of  the  pendulum  to  clocks,  have  been 
attributed  to  him.  He  is  eulogized  by  Kepler 
for  his  talents,  but  censured  for  his  indolence 
and  undue  reserve,  which  krot  back  his  dis- 
coveries from  the  public.  Consult  Gieswald, 
'Justus  Byrg  als  Mathematiker*  (Dantzig 
1856). 

BYRNE,  Thomas  SebaBtian,  American 
clergyman :  b.  Hamilton,  Ohio,  29  July  1841. 
He  was  graduated  from  Saint  Mary's  College 
of  the  West  in  1865.  In  youth  he  was  an  expert 
machinist,  but  deciding  to  enter  the  priesthood 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  he  went;^  after 
prewratory  training,  to  the  American  College 
in  Rome.  In  18©  he  was  ordained  in  Cincin- 
nati. He  devoted  himself  to  literature  and 
teaching  in  Mount  Saint  Mary's  Seminary;  for 
a  time  had  charge  of  the  Oacinnati  Ca^edral 
and  again  became  connected  with  the  seminary, 
acting  as  rector  until  1894.  He  wrote  'Man 
from  a  Catholic  Point  of  View>  (1903),  which 
was  read  at  the  Parliament  of  Religions  in 
Qucago.  He  has  published  many  other  re- 
ligiouE  works  and  pamphlets.  In  collaboration 
with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pabisch,  he  translated  Dr. 
Alzog-s  'Church  History*   (3  vols.,  1874-78). 

BYRNES,  Thomas,  American  detective  and 
chief  of  police:  b.  New  York  city  1842;  ±  there 
7  May  1910.  In  young  life  a  gasfitter,  he 
served  in  the  Civil  War  with  the  Ellsworth 
Zouaves,  in  1863  joined  the  police  force  of  New 
York  city,  was  promoted  captain  in  1870,  in- 
spector m  1860,  superintendent  in  1892  and 
diief  of  police  in  1895.  He  early  became  famous 
for  his  detective  work,  and  despite  great  cor- 
ruption in  the  police  department,  maintained  an 
unbesmirched  reputation.  The  nature  of  his 
work  is  well  brought  out  in  two  books,  one  Iw 
himself,  'Professional  Criminals  of  America' 
(New  York  1886),  and  in  collaboration  with 
Campbell,  H.  S.  T.,  and  Knox,  T.  W.,  'Dark- 
ness and  Daylight,  or  Lights  and  Shadows  of 
New  York  Life'  (Hartford  1899). 

BYROH,  George  Gordon,  6th  lord,  Eng- 
lish poet:    b,  Londotf,  22  Jan.  1788:  d.  Uisio- 


Googlc 


lon^  Greece.  19  April  1824.  He  was  the 
son  of  'Mad  Jack  Byron,*  a  good-looking 
proHiKate  soldier,  who  first  married  the  divorced 
Marcnioness  of  Carmarthen,  and  had  by  her 
a  daughter  Augusta,  later  Mrs.  Leigh.  CajMain 
Byron  became  a  widower  in  1784  and,  a  little 
more  than  a  ^ear  later,  married  a  Scotch 
heiress,  Cathenne  Gordon  of  Gight  Their 
only  child,  the  poet,  was  bom  at  No.  16  Holies 
street.  Cavendish  Square,  and  was  lame  from 
binh,  owing  to  a  defect  in  one  of  his  anldes. 
The  influences  surrounding  the  child  were  de- 

Elorable.  John  Byron,  to  escape  his  creditors, 
ad  to  flee  to  France,  where  he  died  in  1791. 
lifrs.  Byron,  with  a  much  reduced  income, 
resided  m  Aberdeen  and  proved  to  be  a  most 
indiscreet  mother,  now  fondly  petting  her  child, 
now  reviling  him.  She  was  actually  guilty  of 
reproaching  him  for  his  lameness.  The  bo_y 
himself  was  capable  of  great  affection  for  his 
nurse  and  for  a  cousin,  Mary  Duff,  and  his 
schoolmates  seem  to  have  regarded  him  as 
warm-hearted.  His  education  was  not  neglected 
during  his  early  years,  but  tutors  and  schools 
could  not  make  up  for  his  lack  of  training  at 
home.  He  learned,  however,  to  love  nature 
amid  the  Scotch  hills. 

In  1794  the  grandson  of  the  then  Lord 
BjTon  died,  and  the  six-year-old  boy  became 
heir  to  the  peerage,  which  he  inherited  in  1796. 
Then  his  mother  obtained  a  pension  and  left 
Scotland,  Byron  being  made  a  ward  in  chan- 
cery and  Lord  Carhsle  being  appointed  his 
Biardian,  diough  his  mother  s  lawyer,  John 
Einson,  really  looked  after  his  welfare.  A 
quack  tortured  his  foot,  and  schoolmasters 
tried  to  make  him  studious,  his  main  mental 
nutriment  consisting,  apparently,  of  the  Bible 
and  ^etry.  He  wrote  love  verses  to  a  young 
cousin,  endured  his  mother's  caprices  and  was 
doubtless  glad  to  be  entered  at  Harrow  in 
1801,  where,  however,  he  was  at  first  discon- 
tented and  not  liked.  He  could  not  make  a 
scholar  of  himself,  though,  as  Mr.  Coleridge  has 
shown,  his  classical  attainments  have  been  much 
underrated;  but  he  was  a  good  declaimer  and 
through  his  pluck  in  fighting  and  in  athletics, 
despite  his  deformity,  he  became  a  leader  in 
the  school.  He  was  romantically  devoted  to 
his  friends,  and  once  offered  to  take  half  the 
thrashing  a  bully  was  giving  to  the  boy  who 
later  was  known  as  Sir  Robert  Peel.  Impul- 
siveness diaracterited  both  his  insubordinate 
attitude  toward  the  school  authorities  and  his 
love  affair  with  his  cousin  and  senior,  Maiv 
Anne  Chaworth,  who  soon  married  and  left 
him  disconsolate.  His  affection  for  her  seems 
never  to  have  been  entirely  effaced.  Altogether, 
his  childhood  and  youth  were  well  adapted  to 
produce  a  wayward  roan. 

In  October  1805  he  went  into  residence  as 
a  nobleman  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    He 


year,  gambled,  consorted  with  pugilists,  won 
fame  as  a  swimmer,  traveled  about  in  style, 
and,  last,  but  not  least,  after  stormv  quarrels 
widi  his  mother,  successfully  asserted  hts  claim 
to  be  his  own  master.  He  formed  some  wann 
friendships  with  promising  students,  notably 
with  John  Cam  Hobhouse,  afterward  Lord 
Broughton  (q.v.)  ;  he  dabbled  in  literature  and 
wrote  verses,  and  he  received  his  M.A.  ■by 
special    privilege    as    a    peer.*    in    July    1808. 


Nearly  two  years  previously  he  had  printed 
'Fugitive  Pieces,'  a  volume  of  poetry,  but  had 
destroyed  all  save  two  or  three  copies  because 
a  clergyman  friend  had  objected  to  one  poem 
as  too  free.  A  small  edition  of  what  was  prac- 
tically the  same  book,  'Poems  on  Various  Oc- 
casions,' appeared  early  In  1807.  A  few 
months  later  this  was  reissued  with  consider- 
able alterations  as  'Hours  of  Idleness,'  which 
was  again  altered  in  a  second  edition  of  Mardi 
1806,  two  months  after  the  now  famous  slash- 
ing review  from  the  pen  of  Brotigfaam  had 
appeared  in  the  Edinbtirgk  Review. 

Byron's  youthful  volume  certainly  gave 
little  indication  of  the  genius  he  was  soon  to 
display,  but  il  called  for  no  severe  chastisement. 
Hence,  the  editor  of  the  Edinburgh,  Jeffrey, 
got  onljF  what  he  deserved  when  Byron  pil- 
foried  him  in  'fnglish  Bards  and  Scotch  Re- 
viewers,' which  appeared  anonymously  about 
die  middle  of  March  1809,  and  was  at  once 
successful.     It   is    still    decidedly   readable   in 

Eins  and  ranks  with  the  best  satires  of  its 
nd.  It  went  through  five  editions  in  two 
years,  the  last  being  suppressed  by  its  author, 
ttecause  he  had  become  Uie  friend  of  mu^  of 
his  victims. 

Meanwhile  Byron  had  settled  —  if  sudi  a 
wordimay  be  used  of  his  riotous  occupation  of 
his  domain  —  at  Newstead  Abbey,  and  had 
repaired  it  on  borrowed  money.  In  March  1809 
he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Then 
he  prepared  himself  for  a  tour  of  the  Con- 
tinent, which  was  begun  with  Hobhouse  and 
three  servants  in  July.  That  Byron  was  to  any 
marked  extent  as  dissipated  and  misanthropical 
as  his  Own  Harold  does  not  seem  likely. 

The  travelers  sailed  to  Lisbon  and  saw 
something  of  Portugal,  Spain,  Malta,  Albania 
and  Greece.  At  Athens  Byron  finished  the 
first  canto  of  'Chitde  Harold'  and  celebrated 
the  channs  of  his  landlady's  daughter,  Theresa 
Macri,  the  'Maid  of  Athens.'  Then  the  friends 
visited  Asia.  Minor  and  reached  Constantinople 
shortly  after  Byron's  famous  swim  from  Sestos 
to  A^dos  (3  May  1810).  About  two  months 
later  Hobhouse  returned  to  England  and  Byron 
to  Athens,  wherc^  after  a  tour  of  the  Morea, 
he  sjKnt  the  winter  of  1810-11  apparently 
studying  and  writing  and  making  excursions. 
He  reached  England,'  by  way  of  Malta,  about 
20  July  1811. 

Throughout  his  travels  he  had  been  in 
severe  financial  straits,  which  his  mother  had 
shared.  Immediately  an  his  return  she  was 
taken  ill,  and  before  he  could  reach  her  she 
died  '  He  mourned  for  her  in  a  passionate 
way,  and  the  practically  simultaneous  deadis 
of  three  friends  also  afflicted  him  and  gave 
him  an  excuse  for  writing  melancholy  verses. 
He  had  brought  to  England  the  first  and  second 
cantos  of  'Childe  Harold'  and  his  paraphrase 
of  the  <Ars  Poetica,'  the  'Hints  from  Horace,' 
The  latter,  which  he  is  said  to  have  preferred, 
was  immediately  accepted  by  a  publi^er,  but 
for  some  reason  it  did  not  appear  during 
Byron's  life.  'Childe  Harold,*  after  some  de- 
lay, was  the  means  of  uniting  its  author  with 
his  famous  publisher,  John  Murray.  It  ap- 
peared In  March  1812.  after  Byron  had  made  a 
successful  speech  in  the  House  of  Lords.  As 
all  the  world  knows  he  awoke  one  morning 
and  found  himself  famous  as  a  poet;  it  is  no 
irander  that  he  ptrt  a  parliamentary  career,  in 


vGoogIc 


wUdi  he  mi^t  hare  done  great  good,  forever 
behiad  him. 

It  has  been  for  some  years  {ashionable  to 
sneer  at  the  earlier  cantos  of  'Childe  Harold' ; 
but  thev  are  at  least  effective  poetiy,  and  their 
novel  theme  and  romantic  tone  fitted  them  for 
the  early  readers  who  went  wild  over  them. 
Melancholy  and  CToicism  in  a  youth  were  more 
likely  to  attract  than  to  shock  men  and  women 
who  were  subjects  of  the  Regent  and  contem- 
poraries of  Napoleon.  Byron,  who  had  pre- 
viously made  a  fast  friend  of  his  would-be 
adversary,  Thomas  Moore  (q.v.),  became  the 
social  Hon  of  the  day.  He  was  young  and 
rectdess,  and  unfortunately  gave  occasion  for 
scandal  through  his  relations  with  the  notori- 
ous Lady  Caroline  Lamb  and  the  equally 
frail  Lady  Oxford.  People  could  also  gossip 
about  his  handsome  face  and  his  drinking  and 
his  strai^e  diet  for  the  reduction  of  his  dis- 
figuring obesity.  His  pecuniary  difficulties,  too, 
and  his  folly  in  presenting  the  money  from  his 
copyrights  to  his  connection,  Dallas,  doubtless 
caused  tongues  to  wag.  He  enjoyed  his 
vogue,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as  to  grow 
idle.  After  the  failure  of  the  anonymous 
'Walti,'  he  gave  the  world  'The  Giaour'  in 
Uay  1S13.  'The  Bride  of  Abydos,!  in  Decem- 
ber of  the  same  year,  and  'The  Corsair*  two 
months  later.  All  were  dashed  off,  all  were 
veiy  popular,  all  deepened  the  atmosphere  of 
mysteiy  about  him.  Scott's  suprcntacy  as  a 
romantic  poet  passed  to  the  newcomer,  and 
although  the  lines  on  the  Princess  Charlotte 
caused  some  hard  feeling  and  he  threatened  to 
quit  poetty,  Byron  continued  for  two  years  to 
have  his  fling  both  as  a  poet  and  as  a  gay  r~~  ~ 


Siege  of  Corinth'  and  'Paiisina'  in  January 
and  Febraary  1816.  The  sums  paid  by  Murray 
for  these  poems  —  Byron,  harassed  by  debt,  at 
last  began  to  be  businesslike  —  show  plainly 
how  well  the  poet  continued  to  hold  his  pub- 
lic. Except  for  stKh  lyrics  as  'She  walks  in 
beauty  like  the  ni^ht,'  Uie  work  of  this  period 
has  in  the  main  failed  to  hold  later  generations. 
This  is  due  no  doubt  to  an  unwholesome  de- 
sire on  the  part  of  a  puritanical  race  "to  t^ce 
it  out'  imon  Byron's  far  from  impeccable  char- 
acter and  career,  as  well  as  to  a  natural  change 
of  taste  toward  greater  polish  and  refinement, 
and  to  the  etiect  of  such  a  story  as  that  its 
author  wrote  the  first  sketch  of  'The  Bride  of 
Abydos'  in  four  ni^ts  after  coming  home  from 
balls.  That  latter-day  criticism  has  been  alto- 
gether wrong  in  correcting  the  excessive  praise 
given  t^  Byron's  contemporaries  to  this  fadk 
group  of  poems  cannot  be  maintained;  but  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  copious  power  is  a  good 
sign  of  genius,  that  Byron  managed  to  put  into 
'The  Giaour'  not  a  little  narrative  vigor  and 
into  the  whole  group  of  Oriental  tales  much  of 
the  color  and  the  spirit  of  the  East,  and  that 
English  literature  would  have  been  deprived 
of  many  beautiful  lyric  and  descriptive  pas- 
sages if  he  had  allowed  society  completely  to 
torn  him  from  writing  verse. 

Meanwhile  Byron  had  seen  much  of  Moore 
and  Rogers  and  had  met  after  many  years,  his 
half-sister,  Mrs.  Leif^,  the  "Augusta*  of  some 
of  his  best  poems,  and  the  being  of  all  others 
to  whom  his  heart  went  out  most  fondly.  In 
after  years  his  memory  and  hers  were  to  be 


clouded  by  a  dark  s 

False,  would  probably  n 
the  ears  of  the  world  but  for  the  jealousy  of 
another  woman — his  wife.  Whether  the  scan- 
dal which  Mrs.  Slowe  (q.v.)  Spread  and  which 
Byron's  own  grandson.  Lord  Lovelace,  unac- 
countably revived  will  ever  be  substantiated  or 
laid  completely  to  rest  is  a  matter  upon  which 
the  data  for  a  decision  are  not  forthcominK. 
In  the  interim  .generous  minds  and  hearts  will 
prefer  to  believe  in  the  puri^  of  the  'Epistle 
to  Augusta.' 

The  story  of  Byron's  courtship  and  mar- 
ri^e,  while  less  mysterious  than  mat  of  Mil- 
ton, is  not  a  clear  one.  In  1812  he  seems'  to 
have  been  rejected  by  an  heiress  in  expectatioa, 
Miss  Anna  Isabella  Milbanke,  four  years  his 
junior  and  a  connection  of  Ins  flame.  Lady 
Lamb.  The  youi^  woman  appears  to  have 
been  fond  of  mathematics  and  theology,  to  have 
written  poems,  to  have  been  somewhat  priggish 
and  prudish  and  very  self-centred.     Some  cor- 

as  a  marriage  se  ,  , 

and  better  his  fortunes,  Byron  proposed  again 
by  letter  in  September  1814.  This  time  he  vras 
accepted  Miss  Milbanke  was  apparently  proud 
of  her  catch  and  Byron  of  bis.  They  were 
married  on  2  Jan.  181S  and  they  seem  to  have 
got  on  well  at  first,  thoutA  each  later  made 
reports  to  the  contrary.  "The  young  wife  soon 
inherited  money  and  promised  him  a  child; 
the  poet  behaved  himself  well  on  the  surface, 
took  an  interest  in  the  management  of  Drury 
Lane,  saw  something  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  (al- 
ways his  defender)  and  helped  Coleridge  to 
Sublish  'Christabel.'  But  the  pair  were  evj- 
ently  incompatible,  and  after  the  birth  of  their 
only  child.  Augusta  Ada,  on  10  Dec.  1815,  a 
separation  was  arranged  for,  Lady  Byron  be- 
lieving that  her  husb^d  was  insane  —  a  notion 
obviously  stupid,  but  possibly  charitable  from 
her  own  point  of  view.  The  doctor,  Che  lawyer 
and  the  lalber-Ln-Iaw  she  let  loose  upon  Byron 
may  have  irritated  him  into  conduct  that  did 
not  allay  her  suspicions.  It  is  all  a  tangle; 
perhaps  the  easiest  way  out  is  to  censure  Byron 
and  resolutely  refrain  from  admiring  his  wife. 
The  separation  was  followed  by  an  astonish- 
ing public  clamor  against  Byron,  whose  friends 
seem  to  have  tbou^t  his  life  m  danger.  Sir 
Leslie  Stephen  has  contended  that  the  public 
indignation  was  not  unnatural.  Perhaps  it  was 
not,  in  the  sense  that  it  represented  some  of  the 
worst  elements  of  human  nature.  For  a  socieW 
that  tolerated  the  Regent  and  his  boon  associ- 
ates to  fawn  upon  a  man  and  tlien  to  coodemn 
him  unheard  on  the  score  of  practically  unspeci- 
fied charges  was  simply  to  put  an  indelible  blot 
upon  Eliiglishmen  of  the  upper  and  middle 
classes  —  a  blot  the  blackness  of  which  may  be 
somewhat  gauged  from  the  depth  of  the  via- 
dictiveness  wiu  which  Byron's  fame  has  been 
since  attacked  by  main  of  his  countrymen.  It 
by  no  means  foUows,  however,  that  Byron  was 
at  alt  justified  in  writing  and  publishing  his 
Bumerotis  poems  and  passages  relating  to  the 
separation— though  literature  would  do  ill  with- 
out 'Fare  Thee  Well,'  and  would  like  to  have 
had  a  chance  to  see  his  destroyed  novel  on 
the  'Marriage  of  Belpheg^r'  —  or  that  he  can 
be  excused  for  much  of  his  conduct  during  tfaie 
exile  that  began  at  the  end  of  April  1816  and 
lasted  for  the  rest  of  his  spectacular  life.    One 


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can,  however,  pardon  his  constant  desire  to 
shock  the  Bntish  public;  and.  taking  account 
of  his  temperament,  one  can  understand  his 
varying  moods  of  condliatory  tenderness  and 
defiant  scom  toward  his  implacable  wife. 

Byron  first  visited  Belgium,  traveling  luxu- 
riously. Then  he  went,  by  the  Rhine,  to  Geneva, 
where  he  met  the  Shelleys  and  Claire  Qair- 
mont,  who  had  made  up  her  mind  in  London  to 
be  his  mistress.  She  bore  him  in  January  1817 
a  daughter,  Allegra,  with  whom  he  charged 
himself  and  whose  death  in  1822  grieved  him 
deeply.  The  intercourse  with  the  Shelleys  at 
Geneva  was  probably  more  beneficial  to  Byron 
than  to  Shelley.  'The  Prisoner  of  Chillon,> 
the  moat  popular  of  his  poems  of  the  type,  the 
third  canto  of  'Childe  Harold*  which,  thanks 
to  Shelley,  showed  the  influence  of  Words- 
worth,  the  stanzas  'To  Augusta'  and  other 
poems  are  memorials  of  the  period  and  proofs 
that  his  experiences  had  ripened  Byron's  poetic 
powers.  After  the  Shelleys  returned  to  Eng- 
land, Byron,  with  Hobhouse,  crossed  into  Italy. 

He  was  in  Milan  in  October  1816  and  then 
went  for  the  winter  to  Venice,  where  he  prac- 
tically ri^mained  for  three  years.  His  excesses 
in  the  Palazzo  Macenigo  are  unfortunately  but 
too  well  known  J  yet,  although  his  health  and 
his  character  suffered  from  them,  to  say  nothing 
of  his  reputation,  he  did  not  a  little  reading, 
and  his  poetical  genius  continued  active.  The 
fourth  cantos  of  'Childe  Harold*  and  'Man- 
fred,' which  date,  in  part  at  least,  from  1817 
and  reveal  the  effects  of  a  visit  to  Rome,  show 
his  genius  almost  at  its  zenith,  and  'Beppo,' 
suggested  by  Frcre's  'Whistlecraft  Cantos* 
preluded  the  greatest  of  his  works  —  perhaps 
the  greatest  of  modem  English  poems  — the 
incomparable  medley,  'Don  Juan,*  the  first 
canto  of  which  was  written  in  September  1818 
The  first  two  cantos,  between  which  he  wrote 
'Hazeppa,*  were  published,  without  indication 
of  either  author  or  publisher,  in  July  1819. 

Meanwhile  Byron  had  met  the  Countess 
Teresa  Guicdoli,  (he  young,  beautiful  and  ac- 
complished dau^ter  of  Count  Gamba  of  Ra- 
venna. They  became  passionately  attached  to 
each  other,  and,  aided  by  the  customs  of  the 
country,  were  constantly  together  at  Ravenna 
and  other  places,  Venetian  society  finally  giv- 
ing them  up  when  she  resided  under  his  roof. 
After  some  extraordinary  business  negotiations 
with  the  lady's  elderly  husband,  it  looked  as  if 
the  temporarily  weary  lover  might  regain  his 
freedom ;  but  finally  the  affection  of  the 
Countess  prevailed,  and  ^ron,  yielding  to  an 
influence  higher  and  better  tlun  any  he  had 
known  of  late,  established  himself  near  her  at 
Ravetma  at  the  end  of  1819.  Here  for  a  time, 
at  her  request,  he  gave  up  'Don  Jnan,*  and, 
after  some  translating  from  the  Italian  poets, 
began  to  write  dramas. 

His  first  play  was  'Marino  Faliero,'  in 
writing  which  Byron  departed  from  English 
models  and  made  a  diligent  study  of  authori- 
ties. It  was  finished  in  the  summer  of  1820 
and  played  unsuccessfully  at  Drury  Lane  the 
next  spring.  The  jrear  1821  saw  the  writing 
of  the  more  effective  'Sardanspalus,*  'The 
Two  Foscari,'  the  powerful,  thou^  not  stylis- 
tically adequate  'Cain:  a  Mystery,*  'Heaven 
and  Earth,'  another  'Mystery,'  and  the  in- 
ception of  'Werner,'  his  best  acting  play,  taken 
largely  from  Harriet  Lee's  (q.v.)  story  <Kruit«- 


ner.>  That  Byron  had  little  dramatic  genius 
is  generally  admitted;  the  literary  power  which 
he  could  not  avoid  putting  into  any  compo^tion 
is  not,  in  the  case  of  these  experiments,  suffi- 
ciently recognized. 

While  writing  his  drama^  Byron  had  more 
trouble  with  Count  Guiccioli,  who  was  finally 
separated  from  his  wife,  and  he  was  led  by  the 
Gambas  to  take  a  deep  interest  in  the  Car- 
bonari consinracies.  He  had  already  in  his 
poetry  given  evidence  of  liberal  political  senti- 
ments ;  now  he  subscribed  for  the  patriotic 
cause,  headed  a  section  of  the  conspirators,  and, 
but  for  his  birth  and  fame,  would  have  got  into 
trouble  with  the  Austrian  authorities.  The 
Gambas  and  the  Countess  were  exited  from 
Ravenna,    and    B^on,    after    some    lingering 

{'otned  them  at  Pisa  in  November  1821.  Here 
le  saw  much  of  Shelley,  Medwtn,  Trelawny 
and  other  Englishmen,  and  here  some  time  in 
1622  he  wrote  an  ineltective  drama,  'The  De- 
formed   Transformed.'      The    same    year    he 


tion  of  the  quarterly  journal,  Tki  Liberal,  l^e 
details  of  this  affair  are  too  complicated  to  be 
entered  upon  without  ample  space.  Shelley  was 
imprudent,  Byron  rather  brutal,  ^unt  exas- 
perating. Shelley's  death  complicated  matters 
still  further,  and  The  Liierai  expired  after 
four  ntmibers.  Its  most  memorable  item  was 
Byron's  masterly  satire  upon  Soudiey,  'A 
Vision  of  Judgment,'  written  in  18Z1.  This 
Murray  had  been  chary  of  publidiing  after 
the  trouble  he  had  had  with  toe  orthodox  on 
account  of  'Cain'— an  episode  which  had  a 
good  deal  to  do  with  Byron's  willingness  to 
establish  a  journal  the  chief  expense  of  which 
he  knew  would   fall  on  himself. 

Meanwhile  'Don  Juan'  had  been  taken  up 
once  more,  in  a  deeper  vein,  and  the  Giamlxis 
had  been  ordered  to  leave  Tuscany.  Byron, 
whose  health  and  spirits  were  impaired,  fol- 
lowed them  to  Genoa  in  the  autumn  of  1822, 
Here  he  wrote  his  satire  'The  Age  of  Bronze,' 
upon  the  political  reaction  of  the  time,  as  wdl 
as  his  poor  narrative  poem  'The  Island*  and 
the  later  cantos  of  'Don  Juan.'  He  was  grow- 
ing restless  and  feared  that  he  was  losing  his 
powers;  but,  fortunately,  for  his  fame  at  least, 
a  new  outlet  for  his  cner^es  was  at  hand.  A 
Whig  and  Liberal  committee  was  formed  in 
London  to  aid  the  Greek  revolutionists  and  at 
Trelawny's  suggestion  Byron  was  made  a  mem- 
ber. He  proposed  to  go  in  person  to  the  Le- 
vant, and  by  midsummer  of  1823  he  completed 
his  elaborate  preparations  for  the  expedition. 
Sailing  from  Genoa,  with  rising  spirits,  he 
reached  Cephalonia  early  in  August,  Here  he 
remained  four  months  writing  excellent  letters 
of  advice  and  sensibly  waiting  for  a  clear  op- 
portunity for  action,  not,  in  all  likelihood,  for 
an  offer  of  the  Greek  crown.  At  the  end  of 
December  1823  he  accepted  the  invitation  of 
Prince  Alexander  Mavrocordatos  to  co-operate 
in  the  organization  of  western  Greece  and 
sailed  for  Missolongfai,  where  he  was  cordially 
welcomed.  He  appears  to  have  shown  great 
tact  in  harmonizing  opjiosing  factions  and  con- 
siderable practical  genius  as  an  organizer.  He 
had  no  cnance  to  lead  into  action  the  wild 
troops  over  whom  he  was  ^aced  as  com- 
mander-in-chief, but  be  did  hold  out  success- 


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fatly  against  a  mutiny,  awina  by  his  couram 
the  Sultotes  that  broke  into  his  tent  while  ha 
was  ill.  He  recovered  somewhat,  but  exposurs 
to  fati^e  and  the  constant  rains  told  heavily 
upon  him,  and  he  took  no  care  of  himself.  At 
hut  he  was  prostrated  with  a^e  and  received 
only  the  crudest  medical  attention.  After  much 
delirium  he  passed  into  a  long  slumber,  which 
ended  in  his  death  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening 
of  19  April  1824.  The  news  was  a  shock  to  the 
world.  His  body  was  sent  to  England  and 
was  buried,  not  m  Westminster  Abbey,  but  at 
Hucknall  Torkard,  near  Newstead  Abbey.  The 
Greeks  would  have  liked,  more  appropriately, 
to  bury  him  at  Athens,  and,  fortunately,  they 
did  secure  his  heart  for  interment  at  Misso- 
longhi.  There  is  no  incongruity,  however,  in 
thinking  of  him  as  nposing,  after  his  stormy 
Hfe,  in  company  with  his  passionate  mother 
and  his  long  line  of  wild  ancestors. 

Byron's  position  in  Enf^lish  literature  is  a 
much  disputed  matter.  Foreigners,  influenced 
by  the  spell  cast  bv  his  genius  upon  the  ro~ 
maniic  writers  of  their  own  countries  as  well 
as  by  his  devotion  to  freedom  and  by  the  fact 
that  his  work  in  translation  does  not  offend 
by  its  slipshod  features,  almost  unanimously^ 
whether  the^  be  Frenchmen,  or  Germans,  or 
Italians,  or  Spaniards,  or  Russians, —  place  him 
only  below  Shakespeare.  The  Enghsh-speak- 
ing  world  knows  the  work  of  Chaucer,  Spenser 
and  Milton  too  well  to  admit  such  a  high  esti- 
mate of  his  genius:  but  it  seems  to  have  gone 
farther  astray  in  depredation  than  foreigners 
have  in  appreciation  of  bis  extraordinary  gifts 
and  achievements.  With  a  few  honorable  ex- 
ceptions like  Matthew  Arnold,  English  critics 
have  magnitied  Byron's  plain  moral  and  artistic 
delinquencies  and  have  minimized  his  powerful 
intclhgence,  his  great  range  of  work  —  he  is 
one  of  the  best  of  letter  writers  and  the  most 
brilliant  of  satirists,  as  well  as  the  arch-roman- 
tic and  revolutionary  poet,  and  a  notable  de- 
scriptive and  lyric  one  —  his  copius  creative 
power,  and  his  great  'sincerity  and  strength.* 
They  have  judged  him  as  somewhat  finicky 
connoisseurs  of  verse  rather  than  as  impartial 
appraisers  of  literature.  They  have  under- 
estimated the  hold  he  has  kept  upon  youth  and 
the  attraction  which  his  later  work,  especially 
'Don  Juan,*  so  frequently  exercises  upon  in- 
telligent men  of  mature  years.  Whether  he 
will  ever  receive  his  due  from  the  more  cul- 
tured of  his  countiymen  is  problematical ;  but 
there  have  been  indications  of  late  that  a  less 
banal  attitude  is  being  taken  toward  both  him 
and  his  works.  He  may  not  be  the  greatest 
English  poet  of  modem  times,  but  he  is  cer- 
tainly the  most  effective  of  all  the  enemies  of 
cant.  See  Chilbe  Harold's  Pilgrimage;  Doit 
Joan;  MAWFam;  Vision  (V  Judgubnt. 

Bibliography.— The  bibliography  of  Byron 
is  naturally  immense.  His  memoirs,  given  to 
Moore,  were  bamed,  after  manv  family  com- 
plications, in  1824.  Moore's  'Lite,  Letters  and 
Journals  of  Lord  Byron'  (1830)  is  the  stand- 
ard biography.  It  was  included  in  Murray's 
edition  of  Ihe  collected  "Life  and  Works' 
(1832-J5;  17  vols..  1837).  The  number  of 
aefarate  editions  of  the  poems  and  of  trans- 
lations is  enormous,  all  previous  editions  being 
superseded  by  Mumry's  edition  of  the  works 
in  13  volumes  (6  of  prose,  edited  by  R.  E. 
Frothero,    1898-1901;    7    of    verse,    edited    by 


E.  H.  Coleridge,  1898-1904).  The  best  onft- 
volume  edition  of  the  poems  is  that  by  Cole- 
ridge  (1905)  ;   the   [American]   Cambridge  edi- 


value  may  be  represented  here  by  Karl  Elze's 
'Lord  Byron'  (1870),  Emilio  Castelar's  'Vida 
de  Lord  Byron'  (1873).  J,  C.  Jeaffreson's 
'The  Real  Lord  Byron'    (1883),  John  Nichol's 


(Ife 


1  the  'Great 


Lady  Blessington,  Medwin,  the  Countess  Giuc- 
cioli,  E.  J.  Trelawny,  Hobhouse,  Leigh  Himt 
and  many  others  should  also  be  consulted.  Of 
critical  essays,  favorable  and  unfavorable,  those 
by  Matthew  Arnold,  Charles  Kingslej',  Maz- 
zini,  Macaulay,  John  Morley,  }.  A.  Symonds 
and  Swinburne  may  be  mentioned.  Among 
more  recent  studies  are  *6yron :  The  Last 
Phase,*  by  Richard  Edgcumbe  (1909)  and  a 
work  in  two  volumes  by  Ethel  Colburn  Mayne 
(1912-13).  The  mass  of  continental  criticism 
is  very  large  and  is  steadily  increasing. 

WlUJAM  P.  TlKNT, 

Professor    of    English    Literature,    Columbia 

University. 

BYRON,  Harriett  a  character  in  Richard- 
son's novel,  "Sir  Charles  Grandison.'  She  was 
attached  to  the  hero  and  was  the  writer  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  letters  comprising  the  novel. 

BYSON,  Hcnrv  James,  English  drama- 
tist and  actor:  b.  Manchester,  January  1834; 
d.  London,  11  April  1884.  He  studied  at  first 
for  the  medical  profession,  and  afterward  for 
the  bar, .  but  his  passion  for  the  stage  caused 
him  to  abandon  tnem.  He  was  the  first  editor 
of  Fun,  and  also  started  another  paper  en- 
titled the  Comic  Times,  which  soon  ceased  to 
appear.  He  wrote  an  immense  number  of 
pieces,    including   a    great    many    farces,    bur- 


'The  La(^  of  Lyons' ;  'Uncle  Dick's  Darling' ; 
•The  Prompter's  Box';  'Partners  for  Life': 
and  'Our  Boys'  (1878),  which  had  a  run  of 
four  years  and  three  months,  the  longest  on 

BYROM,  John,  English  naval  officer:  b. 
Newstead,  8  Nov.  1723;  d.  10  April  1786.  At 
the  age  of  17  he  sailed  with  Lord  Anson  on  a 
voyage  round  the  world,  but  was  wrecked  on 
the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  north  of  the  Straits 
of  Magellan.  Byron,  with  some  of  his  unfor-. 
timate  cotnpanions,  was  conducted  by  the  In- 
dians to  Cnile  and  remained  there  till  1744, 
when  he  embarked  on  board  a  ship  of  Saint 
MaJo,  and  in  1745  returned  to  Europe.  At  a 
subseauent  period  he  published  a  narrative  of 
his  adventures,  which  is  extremely  interesting. 
In  1758  he  commanded  three  ships  of  the  line 
and  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against 
France.  George  III,  who  wished  to  explore 
the  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  between  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  and  the  southern  part  of  Amer- 
ica, gave  Byron  command  of  a  frigate,  with 
which  he  set  sail  in  June  1764.  After  having 
circumnavigated  the  ^lobe  he  returned  at  the 
end  of  two  years  to  England,  where  he  arrived 
in  May  176o.  Although  Byron's  voyage  was 
not  fruitful  in  discoveiies,  it  still  deserves  an 


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jN   V-W-  '■   i/.iNr-f!K   AlU"     rfrCTUEK 


PVSyUS    !.■.,'--.■    ;i  k^iH    .1   fw. 


f---  ■■-^;-)l!--.'j  A-:Ci:.'iKC --L'RE  , 


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109 


BYRON  BAY— BYZANTIHE  AKCHITECTURS 


bonorable  place  in  the  history  of  voyases  round 
the  world,  since  he  was  the  first  of  those  re- 
nowned circumnavigators  of  the  globe,  includ- 
ing; Wailts,  Carteret  and  Co<^  whose  enter- 
pnses  were  not  merely  mercantile,  but  were 
directed  to  scientific  objects.  In  1769  Commo* 
dorc  Byron  was  appointed  to  the  govcminent 
of  Newfoundland,  which  he  hdd  till  1772.  He 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  in  1778, 
was  worsted  by  d'Estaing  in  an  indecisive  ac- 
tion off  Granada  in  1779  and  died  in  17S6. 
Such  was  his  general  ill  fortune  at  sea  that 
he  was  called  by  the  sailors  'Foul-Weather 
Jack.* 

BYRON  BAY,  a  bay  on  the  northeastern 
coast  of  Labrador,  situated  about  lat.  55°  N., 
and  long.  58'  W.,  and  north  of  Hamilton  InlcL 
The  width  of  the  bay  is  about  50  miles. 

BYRON  ISLAND,  Micronesia,  a  ^nall 
island  of  the  (Hlben  group,  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  about  12  miles  in  length,  abounding  in 
cocoanuts.  It  was  discoverer  by  Commodore 
Byron  in  1765,  and  belongs  to  Great  Britain. 

BYRON'S  LETTERS.  The  letters  of 
Lord  Byron  are  numerous.  In  Moore's  *Life 
of  Byron'  560  appear.  It  is  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  his  biographer  did  not  select  the  least 
interesting,  and  we  are  thus  able  to  form  a 
tolerably  accurate  judgment  of  Boon's  merits 
as  a  letter-writer.  The  chief  qualities  revealed 
in  these  letters  are  naturalness,  good  sense  and 
strai^t forward  sincerity.  He  writes  much 
about  himself,  as  every  good  letter-writer  must, 
but  with  no  more  egoism  than  is  usually  dis- 
played in  a  frank  communication  between 
friends.  The  character  thus  revealed  is  at  total 
variance  with  the  character  invented  for  him 
by  his  critics  and  his  enemies,  and  partially 
sustained  by  the  nature  of  his  poems.  He  ap- 
pears as  the  very  reverse  of  a  sentimentalist. 
There  are  few  passages  of  tenderness;  even 
when  he  speaks  of  the  death  of  his  daughter, 
AUegra,  for  whom  he  had  a  deep  affection,  he 
does  little  more  than  record  his  loss  in  the 
simplest  language.  In  speaking  of  the  death  of 
Shelley  the  same  restraint  is  practised;  beyond 
a  brief  picture  of  the  romantic  scene  on  the 
shore  at  Fisa,  where  the  body  was  burned,  there 
is  nothing  that  reveals  the  poet.  He  is  at  his 
best  when  describing  his  own  daily  life,  his 
literary  aims  and  ideals  and  his  opinions  of  his 
contemporaries.  In  describing  his  fellow- 
writers  he  sometimes  has  a  flash  of  true  illu- 
,   but   his  habitual   attitude  b  hostile 


contempt  —  "Southey  twaddling,  Wordsworth 
drivelling,  Coleridge  muddling,  Bowles  quib- 
bling, squabbling  and  snivelling  —  Barry  Oom- 
wairwill  do  better  by  and  by,  if  he  don't  get 

Xiled  by  green  tea  and  the  praises  of  Pentoo- 
e  and  Paradise  Row.* 
It  is  the  pervading  qualit^r  of  robustness 
which  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  'Let- 
ters.' There  is  nothing  of  the  delicate  word- 
felicity  of  Edward  Fitzgerald,  nor  of  his  fine 
literary  discrimination.  There  are  none  of 
those  passages  of  wild  imagination  and  pro- 
phetic passion  which  give  to  Carlyle's  tetters  a 
place  in  literature  equal  to  that  attained  by  his 
most  deliberate  essays  and  histories.  Never- 
theless he  can  strike  out  memorable  phrases, 
as  when  he  speaks  of  the  unpublished  letters 


of  Bums  as  revealing  a  strangely  antithetical 
mind— "dirt  and  deity  — a  compound  of  in- 
spired clay." 

Nor  are  his  thou^ts  upon  life  and  reli^on 
without  value,  though  to  the  modem  mind, 
familiar  with  the  problems  of  i^losophic  doubt, 
his  reflections  mav  appear  to  have  little  depth 
or  originality.  Tney  are,  however,  the  sincere 
utterances  of  a  mind  in  revolt  against  the  slug- 
gishness of  conventional  opinion,  and  intent 
upon  a  freedom  which  few  were  bold  enou^ 


his  letters  than  in  his  poetry.  We  cannot  read 
them  without  being  aware  of  a  mind  possessing 
great  natural  force,  characteriicd  by  a  trenchant 
sanity,  a  hard,  dear  vision  of  material  facts  and 
a  justness  of  apprehension  which  belong  more 
frequently  to  the  great  critic  than  the  popular 
poet 

W.  J.  DaWBOH. 

BYSSUS,  Ms'sfls,  a  kind  of  fine  flax,  and 
the  linen  made  from  it,  used  in  India  and 
Egy^it  at  a  very  early  date.  In  the  latter  coun- 
try It  was  used  in  embalming,  and  mummies 
are  still  found  wrapped  in  it.  As  an  article  of 
dress  it  was  worn  only  by  the  rich.  Dives,  in 
Christ's  parable  (Luke  xvi,  19),  was  clothed 
in  byssus,  and  it  is  mentioned  amone  the  riches 
of  fallen  Babylon  (Rev.  xviii,  12).  Byssus  was 
formerly  erroneously  considered  as  a  fine  Hnd 
of  cotton.  The  tine  stufi  manufactured  from 
the  byssus  is  called  more  particularly  "sindon.* 
Foster  derives  the  word  byssus  from  the  Coptic. 
Byssus  was  also  used  by  the  ancients,  and  is 
still  used  to  signify  the  hairlike  or  threadlike 
substance  (also  called  the  beard),  with  which 
different  lands  of  sea-mussels  fasten  themselves 
to  rocks.  Pinna  marina,  particularly,  is  distin- 
guished by  the  length  and  silkv  fineness  of  its 
Beard,  from  which  very  durable  cloths,  gloves 
and  stocking^  are  still  manufactured  (mainly  as 
curiosities)  in  Sicily  and  Calabria. 

BYSTROm,  Johan  Niklaa,  Swedish  sculp- 
tor: b.  Filipstad,  Wcrmland,  Sweden,  18  Dec. 
1783;  d  Rome,  11  March  1848.  He  studied  art 
under  Sergell  in  Stockholm,  and  in  1810  went 
to  Rome.  In  1815  he  returned,  and  winning 
the  favor  of  the  Crown  Prince  by  his  statue  of 
the  latter,  received  several  important  commis- 
sions. Several  years  before  his  death  he  again 
took  up  his  residence  in  Rome.  Among  his 
more    important    works    are     'Drunken    B^c- 


polychrome  marble  statue  of   'Victory*   __   . 

palace  at  Charlottenburg ;  a  statue  of  Lin- 
UKus  and  colossal  statues  of  Charles  X,  XL 
Xll,  XIII,  XIV,  and  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

BYWATER,  Ingram,  English  sdiolar ;  b. 
London,  27  June  1840;  d.  17  Oct.  1914.  He  vras 
educated  at  University  College  and  Kin^s  Col- 
lege schools,  L.ondon,  and  Queen's  College 
Oxford.  He  was  Regius  professor  of  Greek 
at  Oxford  University  1893-1908.  Amonghis 
works  are  "Fragments  of  Heraditus'  (1877); 
'Works  of  Priscianus  Lydus'  (1886) ;  '"reitual 
Critidsm  of  the  Nicomachean  Ethics'  (1892); 
'Aristotle  on  the  Art  of  Poetry,  with  Transla- 
tion and  Commentary'  (1909). 

BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE  desig- 
nates the  style  and  type  of  architecture  which 
were  developed  in  the  Byzantine  empire  after 


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PALATINE   CHAPEL    AT    PALERMO 


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BYZANTINE  AS(^HITBCTUKB 


the  fall  of  Rome,  and  w^ch  spread  thence 
westward  into  Italy  and  natthward  into  what  is 
now  Russia,  where  it  still  persists  in  atten- 
uated and  almost  grotesque  fonn.  The  pic- 
torial and  decorative  art  associated  with  this 
architecture  was  widely  diffused  through  Europe 
(see  Painting),  and  materially  affected  West- 
em  art.  With  the  final  division  of  the  Roman 
empire  between  Honorius  and  Arcadius  (395 
aJ)l),  Ginstantinople  became  not  only  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  empire,  but  the 
most  important  ci^  of  Christendom;  the  chief 
centre  for  centuries  of  Christian  art  and  learn- 
ing, especially  of  Greek  culture  as  distinguished 
from  the  Latin,  and  of  the  Eastern  Church  as 
distinguished  from  that  of  Rome.  Under  the 
great  Emperor  Justinian  (527-^5  A.D.I  there 
ensued  an  extraordinary  activity  in  the  building 
of  churches,  not  only  in  the  capital  but  in  Syria, 
Dalmatia  and  Macedonia  and  in  Ravenna,  the 
seat  of  the  Byzantine  Exarchate  of  Italy.  This 
architecture  was  chiefljr  the  work  of  Asiatic 
Greeks,  who  introduced  into  the  construction  of 
churches  certain  traditional  Asiatic  forms  and 


or  stone.    They  .... 

t3/pe  of  church — the  basilica,  with  its  three 
aisles  and  wooden  roof  —  and  substituted  for  it 
new  types  both  of  plan  and  construction,  of 
which  the  dominant  feature  was  invariabW  a 
central  dome,  raised  above  the  surrounding 
structure  and  pierced  by  a  ring  of  windows  at 
its  base.  They  revived  certain  features  of 
Roman  secular  vaulted  buvldit^^  and  blended 
with  these  an  Oriental  taste  for  applied  decora- 
tion in  color,  creating  out  of  this  combination 
a  wholly  new  style  and  new  effects.  The  st^le 
thus  evolved  matured  with  extraordinary  rapid- 
ibr  and  then  began  a  long  and  gradual  decline. 
Il  we  take  the  haptisterjr  of  the  Orthodox  and 
the  tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  both  at  Ravenna, 
and  dating  from  about  450  a.d,,  as  the  earliest 
examples  of  the  style,  less  than  a  century 
elapsed  between  its  birth  and  its  culmination  in 
the  unsurpassed  church  of  Hagia  Sophia  at 
Constantinople  (532-38  A.D,).  This  master- 
piece was  never  o^aled  in  scale  or  magnifi- 
cence thereafter.  Five  centuries  later,  how- 
ever, in  the  church  of  Saint  Mark  at  Venice 
(1047-71;  the  fa^de  later)  the  style  fiow.ered 
in  a  new  masterpiece  of  great  beau^,  at  the 
I  hands  of  Greek  and  Italian  artists.    No  other 

'  octant  example  approaches  these  two  in  mag- 

nificence ancf  artistic  merit.     During  the   reign 
'  of  Justinian   several  other   splendid  churches 

1  were  built  at  (Constantinople  and  Jerusalem,  but 

even  these  were  far  inferior  to  Ha^a  Sophia. 
Except  in  the  one  instance  of  Saint  Mark's,  all 
the  later  churches  were  relatively  small  in 
dimension  and  timid  in  construption. 

Chancteristica.— The  dominant  feature  of 
the  style  is   the  central  dome  on  pendentives. 
The  pendentive  is  a  device  by  whicn  a  circular 
i  dome  can  be  erected  upon  four  or  more  isolated 

sumorts,  instead  of  upon  a  continuous  circular 
I  wall.    It  consists  of  a  triangular  portion  of  a 

sphere  comprised  between  two  adiacent  arches 
and  a  horiiontal  circle  touching  tneir  summits. 
Four  such  surfaces  carried  by  four  arches 
boimding  a  square  meet  at  the  top  in  a  circle 
to  form  the  base  of  the  dome,  or  of  a  circular 
drum  upon  which  the  dome  is  to  rest.  By 
means  ot  eight  piers,  with  their  arches  and 
peDde^tive^    the    dome  may  be  btrilt  over  an 


between  the  piers 

extended  in  any  dir 

be  used  in  connection  with  almost  any  t^e 
round-pi f~        "" .   r  .   ■-  . 


that  the  dome  m^ 

ly  t^e  ol 

rhereas  in  previous  styles  it  had 


been  almost  wholly  confined  to  circular  struc- 
tures, as  m  the  Pantheon  at  Rome.  The  Byian- 
tine  plans  were  therefore  very  varied,  and  were 
vaulted  throughout  in  brick.  The  construction 
of  these  domed  and  vaulted  buildings,  which 
were  nearly  all  ecclesiastical,  was  based  gen- 
eralljr  on  the  Roman  principle  of  massive  inter- 
nal piers  and  intermediate  columnar  supports; 
but  the  Byzantine  columns  carried  arches  in- 
stead of  entablatures  like  the  Roman.  External 
buttressing  above  the  roofs  of  side-aisles  or  ' 
other  low  portions  was  another  Roman  feature 
derived  from  bath-halls  and  the  Basilica  of 
Maxentius.  Roman  also  were  the  system  of 
wall  decoration  by  incrustation  with  slabs  of 
richly  veined  marble,  the  use  of  marble  in  dec- 
orative patterns  for  floor-pavements,  and  the 
employment  of  monolithic  column-shafts  of 
pohshed  granite,  porphyry  and  marble,  at  once 
structural  and  decorative.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Byzantine  conception  of  interior  adornment 
as  a  covering  of  all  surfaces,  both  of  walls  and 
vaults,  with  a  veneer  ot  perfectly  fiat  decora- 
tion in  color,  broken  up  into  minute  units,  was 
distinctly  Oriental.  All  carving  in  high  relief 
was  replaced  by  delicate  all-over  patterning  in 
very;  flat  low  relief,  and  above  the  marble  wain- 
scoting the  walls  and  vaults  were  covered  with 
mosaic  of  minute  glass  tessera  (see  Mosaic) 
in  brilliant  colors  usually  on  a  gold  grouno. 
These  mosses  were  partly  pictorial,  represent- 
ing Christ,  saints,  apostles  and  other  religious 
or  Biblical  subjects, '  and  partly  convenUonal 
patterns.  The  Roman  types  of  capital  were 
replaced  generally  by  new  types  of  simpler 
mass  covered  with  flat-relief  carving  of  foliage 
and  basketwork,  and  impost-blocks  were  often 
introduced  between  the  caps  and  the  heavy 
arches  which  they  carried. 


History  and  Monuments. —  The  geims  of 
'  '  early  Oiristian 


the   stylt 


dome  over  an  octagonal  substructure  and  the 
tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  a  cruciform  edifice 
with  a  square  'lantern*  rising  above  the 
arms  at  their  intersection,  crowned  by  a 
dome  on  rudimentary  pendentives.  Doubt- 
less, however,  the  original  prototype  of  one 
class  of  Byzantine  churches  having  a  central 
square  or  octagon  surrounded  by  an  aisle  is  to 
be  found  in  two  Roman  buildings  erected  1^ 
Constantine  —  the  baptistery  of  the  Lateran  and 
the  tomb  of  C^nstantia  (Santa  Costanza). 
The  roof  of  the  high  central  part  of  the  former 
was  of  wood;  of  the  latter,  a  masonry  dome. 
The  evolution  of  the  central  space  with  a  dome 
on  eight  supports  may  be  traced  through  early 
examples  in  Syria  to  Saint  Sergius  at  Con- 
stantinople (520  A.D.)  where  alternate  sides  of 
the  octagon  were  occu[Hed  by  open  columnar 
niches  or  apsidioles  projecting  into  the  sur- 
rounding aisle,  thence  to  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna 
(525  or  527),  where  there  are  six  such  apsidi- 
oles; the  eastermnost  hay  being  in  both  tlwie 
dutches  extended  to  form  a  chancel  and  vgte ; 


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BTZANTIHB  AKCHITECTURE 


and  finally  to  its  culminatioii  in  the  new  tirpt 
o{  plan  seen  in  Hagia  Sophia  (The  Divine 
Wisdom,  often  calieB  "Saint  Sophia*;  now  a 
mosque).  This  extraordinary  edifice,  the  woric 
of  two  architects  from  Asia  Minor,  Anthemius 
and  Isodorus,  was  built  under  the  orders  of  Jus- 
tinian in  six  years  (532-n38)  to  replace  an 
earlier  church  destroyed  by  fire  during  a  race- 
course riot.  It  occupies  a  broad  rectan^e, 
measuring  nearly  3O0  ciy  240  feet,  and  consists 
of  a  central  nave  243  by  115  feel  covered  by  a 
dome  107  feet  in  diameter  and  180  feet  hi^, 
and  two  half-domes  of  100  feet  span  openmg 
into  the  two  transverse  arches  of  the  four  that 
carry  the  dome.  This  hall  is  flanked  by  two 
vast  aisles,  60  feet  wide,  eadi  divided  into  three 
parts  by  two  massive  buttresses  which  rise  above 
the  roofs  of  the  two-storied  aisles.  This  triple 
division  of  the  aisles  by  transverse  buttress- 
masses  which  rise  above  the  aisle  roofs  is 
plainly  derived  from  the  traditional  form  and 
construction  of  the  Roman  themwt  probably 
through  the  tnterme^aiy  Basilica  of  Maxentius 
of  the  early  4th  century.  A  narthex  across  the 
west  front  preceded  by  an  atrium  or  fore-court, 
and  the  projection  of  the  apse  at  the  east  end, 
make  up  the  total  length  of  300  feet.  Open 
columnar  apsidioles  expand  the  semi-circular 
ends  of  the  nave,  ana  recall  the  six  similar 
apsidioles  between  the  piers  of  San  Vitale  at 
Ravenna.  The  interior  is  resplendent  with  pol- 
ished columns  of  costly  marble,  verd-antique 
and  i>orphyry,  with  marble  wainscot  and  supeih 
mosaics,  though  all  human  figures  have  been 
concealed  by  gilding  and  paint  on  account  of 


dor,  disappeared  centuries  ago.  In  this  stupen- 
dous woix  we  seem  to  see  the  plan  of  Saint 
Serous  cut  in  two  and  between  toe  two  halves 
an  immense  square  interposed,  covered  by  a 
gigantic  dome  on  pendentives  rising  far  above 
the  rest  of  the  building.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  cruciform  type  first  shown  in  the  tomb  of 
Galla  Placidia  culminated,  also  in  Justinian's 
time,  in  the  church  of  the  Apostles  at  Constan- 
tinople. This  had  five  domes,  one  on  each  arm 
of  the  cross  and  a  central  dome  dominating  the 
whole.  This  splendid  church  was  demolished 
in  1463  by  the  conquering  Sultan  KTehemct  11, 
hut  it  had  already  served^ as  the  model  for  the 
builders  of   Saint  Mark's  at  Venice. 

With  the  exception  of  this  last  named 
church,  none  of  the  other  Byzantine  churches 
of  Constantinople  was  of  lar^e  siie.  The  only 
other  church  of  Justinian's  time  that  has  sur- 
vived to  our  day  is  that  of  the  Holy  Peace, 


poor  example,  destitute  of  all  embellishments, 
and  is  really  a  late  (8th  century?)  and  hasty 
reconstruction  of  the  original  edifice.  With  its 
two  domes  it  may  have  served  as  the  model  for 
the  Cathedral  of  Cahors,  France.  The  later  ex- 
amples of  the  style  in  Constantinople  were 
relatively  small  in  scale,  sometimes  eomplex  in 
^n,  with  small  domes  on  high  drums  (Saint 
Theodore,  Pantokrator,  Mone  tes  Choras,  etc.). 
About  40  of  these  small  churches  are  extant, 
mostly  transformed  into  mosques;  and  only  one 
of  them  retains  any  considerable  part  of  its 
original  decorations.  Tins  one  is  the  Mon6  tes 
Choras.  now  known  as  Kahrif  Jami,  dating 
prohab^  from  the  lltt  or  12th  century,  widi  a 


narthex  ado  tried  with  mosaics  and  frescoes 
which,  uncovered  about  1880,  the  Turics  have 
allowed  to  remain  exposed.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  late  Byzantine  churches  in  Athens  ^ — all 
of  singulariy  smalt  size-^and  at  Salonica  sev- 
eral of  various  dales  (Saint  Cieorge,  Saint 
Elias,  Saint  Bardias.  Saint  Sophia}  ;  besides 
interesting  monastic  groups  in  Macedonia,  at 
Meteora  and   on    Mount   Athos.     In   Rnssian 


jwra 

form  of  the  cupola  on  a  high  drum,  and  often 
with  bi^ly  interesting  carved  interlace  orna- 
ment The  singular  and  barbarously  fantastic 
fonns  of  shurches  at  Moscow,  Kiev  and  other 
Russian  cities  (e.g.,  the  Saint  Basil  in  the  Krem- 
lin in  Moscow)  are  remotely  derived  from  the 
tall- drum  domed  'lanterns"  of  the  late  Byzan- 
tine type.  Near  the  middle  of  the  llth  cen- 
tuiy  the  destruction  by  fire  of  the  church  of 
Saint  Mark  at  Venice  turned  the  attention  of 
the  Venetians  toward  Constantinople  as  the 
source  from  which  to  obtain  architects  and  dec- 
orators capable  of  rebuilding  worthily  the  ven- 
erated shrine  of  the  evangelist.  Architecture 
was  at  that  time  in  Italy  only  beginning  to 
revive  from  its  low  estate,  and  the  native 
artists  and  the  native  art  appeared  inadequate 
for  the  task  in  hand,  except  as  they  were  guided 
and  assisted  by  Byiantine  architects.  The  new 
church,  measuring  about  220  by  180  feet,  was 
erected  on  the  cruciform  plan  of  the  Holy 
Apostles'  Church  at  Constantinople,  with  five 
domes,  of  which  the  central  was  slightly  larger 
than  those  on  the  four  arms.  The  very  active 
Venetian  commerce  with  the  East  brought  in 
an  extraordinary  wealth  of  artistic  material  — 
antique  columns,  veined  marbles,  carvings  from 
ruined  or  dismantled  churches  —  and  with 
these  and  the  embellishments  of  mosaic  by 
Greek  artists  and  their  Italian  pupils,  as  well 
as  by  later  additions  of  sculpture  and  furnish- 
ings, the  interior  was  made  resplendent  beyond 
any  other  church  in  Italy  or  western  Europe. 
Lacking  the  overwhelming  majesty  and  unity  of 
Hagia  Sophia,  it  has  nevertheless  an  extraor- 
dinary beauty  of  its  own.  The  main  construc- 
tfon  was  completed  in  107! ;  the  domed  narthex 
dates  from  the  12th  century,  with  the  extraor- 
dinary and  marvelously  picturesque  fagsde ; 
the  wooden  exterior  domes  and  Gothic  pin- 
nacles were  added  in  the  15th  century;  some  of 
the  mosaics  are  modem.  Unlike  the  Byzantine 
chtirches  of  the  East,  which  almost  wholly  lack 
external  embellishment,  Saint  Mark's  is  revetted 
externally  with  paneling  of  fine  marble. 
Strange  to  say,  it  was  never  copied  or  imitated, 
except  in  the  Romanesque  cliurch  of  Saint 
Front  at  Pirigueux  (France),  which  however 
is  totally  lacking  in  the  embellishments  of 
marble  and  mosaic  that  make  up  so  much  of  the 
splendor  of  the  Venetian  model.  Quite  as  sur- 
prising is  the  fact  that  Hagia  Sophia,  the 
noblest  of  all  Byzantine  monuments,  remained 
absolutely  unique  and  unimitated  until  the 
Turkish  conquest.  It  was  the  Turkish  mosque- 
builders  who  seized  upon  its  superb  possibilities 
and  developed  from  them  a  new  and  splendid 
tvpe  of  architecture  for  their  own  requirements 
(see  Mohammedan  Art). 

An  interesting  lateral  branch  of  Byeantine 
architecture  is  seen  in  the  monasteries  erected 
by  Coptic  Christian*  in  Egypt,^in.  the  6th-9Ui 

D.,   _..     ,CiOO' 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTUHE 


Cathsdnl  dI  tts  Rtnimctiaii  at  Chiiit,  Pttrocnd 


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BYZANTINE  ART 


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centuries,  recently  eawlored  by  the  Metropolhan 
Museum  of  Art  of  New  YoriL  The  domes  and 
surface-carvinES  of  these  buildings  strongly  in- 
fluenced the  development  of  the  Arabic  art  of 
Cairo.  The  great  mosque  at  Jerusalem,  known 
as  that  of  Omar  (more  properly  the  Dome  of 
die  Rockj  Kubbet-es-Sakrah)  is  probably  a  re- 
construction of  the  church  built  on  Mount 
Moriah  by  Justinian.  The  decline  in  the  size 
and  splendor  of  the  Byzantine  churches  built 
after  the  6th  century  was  due  to  the  slow 
decay  of  the  empire  itself  in  both  political  and 
military  prestige  and  power.  Those  erected  in 
Greece  and  the  Danubian  provinces  were  often 
of  almost  microscopic  siie.  The  'Old  Cathe- 
dral" at  Athens  measures  37  by  32  feet;  the 
dome  of  another  church  in  the  same  city  is  but 
seven  feet  in  diameter.  Many  of  the  later 
churches  have  three  apses,  one  at  the  end  of 
each  aisle;  and  in  all  the  examples  after  the 
7th  century  the  dome  is  carried  on  a  high  drtmi 
pierced  with  windows,  forming  a  "lantern,* 
whereas  in  the  earlier  churches  the  windows 
penetrate  the  base  of  the  dome  itself.  Another 
innovation  was  the  introduction,  into  the  wall 
of  the  main  structure,  of  arched  windows 
coupled  in  pairs  under  a  discharging  arch,  often 
with  a  mullion  or  midwall  shaft  between  the  two. 
This  feature,  together  with  the  central  lantern 
or  high  cupola  over  the  crossing,  was  adopted 
bv  the  Romanesque  church-buitders  of  Italy  and 
France  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries,  and  both 
became  important  features  in  the  Western 
Romanesque  style.  The  partial  copying  in 
France  of  Saint  Mark's,  and  perhaps  of  Hagia 
Eirene,  at  Pfirigueux  and  Canors  has  been  re- 
ferred to.  Besides  these  there  are  in  Aquitania 
and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Loire  and  Charente  a 
large  number  of  domed  churches  of  the  12th 
century  due  to  Byzantine  influence,  partly  by 
way  of  Venetian  commerce,  partly  (according 
to  Entart)  by  way  ot  Cyprus  where  the  Crusad- 
ers established  important  Latin  Christian  com- 
munities. 

Of  the  Byzantine  secular  architecture  there 
are  hardly  any  remains.  Doubtless  the  payees 
of  the  emperors  were  of  great  splendor,  but 
the  only  extant  ruin  of  any  importance  is  that 
of  the  palace  of  the  Porphyrogenitus  near  the 
Blachems  at  Constantinople,  of  which  the 
walls  of  the  great  hall  are  still  standing,  but 
with  no  vestige  of  its  interior  decoration.  The 
vaulted  cisterns  of  the  city  are  still  intact,  and 
at  Ravenna  the  front  wall  of  the  so-called  pal- 
ace of  Theodoric.  There  arc  a  number  of 
Byzantine  fortifications  in  ruins  in  various 
cities  of  the  empire,  and  Byzantine  military 
architecture  was  of  great  importance;  but  these 
examples  are  so  ruinous  or  have  been  so  often 
and  so  completely  rebuilt  in  later  ages  that 
further  notice  in  this  article  is  unnecessary. 

Biblio^phy.— The  best  general  handbook 
of  Bjnantine  architecture  in  English  is  by  Sir 
T.  G.  Jadoon,  'Byzantine  and  Romanesque 
Arahitecture'  (Cambridge  1913).  There  are 
excellent  accounts  of  the  style  in  F.  M.  Simp- 
son's 'A  History  of  Architectural  Develop- 
ment* (Vol.  I,  London  1911);  in  R.  Sturgis' 
'Dictionary  of  Architecture'  (New  York  1901), 
and  in  Vol.  II  of  his  'History  of  Architecture' 
(ib.  190S).  Lethaby  and  Swainson's  'Sancta 
Sophia*  (London  1894)  is  an  authoritative 
woik.    Texier  and  Pnllan's  'Byzantine  Archi- 


tecture' is  chiefly  concerned  with  the  churches 
of  Salonica.  The  majority  of  the  most  import- 
ant works  on  the  subject  are  in  French, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned:  Bayet,  'L'Art 
byzantin'  (Paris) ;  Choisy,  A.,  'L'Art  de 
batir  chez  les  byzantins'  (Paris  1883);  Diehl^ 
Ch.,  'Manuel  d'art  byzantin'  (Paris  1910)  ; 
Hiibsch,  'Monuments  de  1' architecture  chrfc- 
tienne'  (Paris  1866) ;  Polgher,  'Les  iglises 
byzantines  de  Constantinople'  (Vienna  1878), 
and  de  Vemeilh,  'L' Architecture  byzantine  en 
France'  (Paris).  In  German:  Essenwein, 
'Auseangc  der  klassischen  Baukunst'  (in  the 
Handbuch  der  Arckitektur,  Darmstadt  1886), 
and  the  monumental  work  of  Salzenberg,  'Die 
altchristlichen  Baudetikmale  von  Constanti- 
nopel'  (Berlin  1854).  In  Italian  the  great  work 
of  Ongania,  <La  basilica  di  San  Marco'  is  au- 
thoritative. 

ALraED  DwiGHT  Foster  Hamlin, 
Professor  of  the  History  of  ArchilecUtre,  Co- 
lumbia University. 
BYZANTINE  ART,  The  style  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  Byzantine  or  Eastern  Roman  em- 
pire as  long  as  it  existed  (330-1453)  and  which 
has  prevailed  since  in  Greece,  in  the  Balkan 
Peninsula  and  in  Rumania,  southern  Russia 
and  Armenia,  with  other  parts  of  Asia  Minor. 
Byzantine  art  is  divided  into  four  periods;  (1) 
From  the  Foundation  of  Coastantinople  (330 
A.D.i  to  the  be^nning  of  the  Iconoclastic  Pe- 
riod.—  This  represents  the  experimental  period 
and  the  golden  age  of  Byzantine  achievement. 
Figure  sculpture  had  not  yet  become  dominated 
by  Eastern  ideals,  and  was  largely  realistic  in 
treatment,  but  by  the  6th  century  mosaics 
were  splendidly  conventionalized  and  attained 
great  beauty.  The  Byzantine  style  of  archi- 
tecture became  distinctive  about  the  year  450 
A.D.  The  great  development  of  trade  between 
the  East  and  the  West  led  to  its  rapid  develop- 
ment. The  great  buildings  of  this  period  were 
Holy  Wisdom  (Hagia  So^ia)  in  Constanti- 
nople, the  early  basilicfc  in  Rome  and  the  early 
churches  at  Ravenna,  etc.  The  artistic  centres 
of  the  Near  F.ast  were  at  first  Alexandria  and 
Antioch,  and  later  Byzantium  itself.  (2)  The 
second  period  is  that  known  as  the  Iconoclas- 
tic Period.— The  Emperor  Leo  HI  (717-40 
A.D.)  was  an  adventurer  from  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Isauria.  Gibbon  narrates  that  he 
was ' 'ignorant  of  sacred  and  profane  letters; 
but  his  education,  his  reason,  periiaps  hb  inter- 
course  with  the  Jews  and  Arabs  had  inspired 
the  martial  peasant  with  a  hatred  of  all  im- 
ages." One  reason  for  this  hatred  can  be 
found  iff  the  fact  that  many  of  the  people  were 
beginning  to  endow  the  images  with  mysterious 


saints.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  peo- 
ple, whose  sympathies  were  monastic,  and  who 
were  led  by  the  priests  themselves.  Leo  joined 
the  iconoclastic  party,  which  thought  the  grow- 
ing power  of  the  monks  a  danger  to  the  atato. 
He  began  to  wage  war  against  all  sacred  im- 
agery, causing  numberless  works  of  art  to  be 
destroyed,  and  prohibited  the  further  production 
of  religious  art  of  a  monumental  Idnd,  This  pro- 
scription did  not  have  for  art  the  disastrous  con- 
sctjuenccs  diat  one  might  have  expected.  Re- 
ligious art,  persecuted,  continued  to  increase 
despite  the   strife.     Hundreds  of   artists  and 


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BYZANTINE  AST 


ventional  decorative  design,  Eastern  in  inspira- 
tion. By  about  the  middle  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury mosaic  and  painted  fibres  began  to  be 
used  once  more  in  decoration,  and  a  general 
artistic  revival  set  in,  furthered  by  the  growing 
prosperi^  of  the  empire  under  the  Uacedonian 
Aynnsty.  (3)  The  third  period  dates  from  the 
beginnmg  of  the  Macedonian  Dynasty  (867  a.d.) 
to  the  sack  of  Constantinople  <1204  a.d.>. 
This  was  die  second  great  stage  of  B<^zantine 
art.  It  was  two-fold  in  character,  being  im- 
perial and  secular,  and  inspired  by  classic  tra- 
dition, while  at  the  same  time  the  monastic  art 
of.  the  times  continued  and  preserved  its  strict 
and  severe  traditions.  Masterpieces  of  each 
type  were'  frequent,  both  liistoric  and  ecclesias- 
tical. The  ^eatest  extant  monument  of  this 
style  and  penod  was  San  Marco,  Venice  (Uth 
century.  (4)  The  fourth  period  is  that  from 
the  Restoration  until  the  Turkish  Conquest  (14S3 
a.d), — Although  many  fine  works  of  art  were 
produced  during  this  period,  it  was,  on  the 
whole,  an  age  of  artistic  decline  and  slow  de- 
cadence. Ai  the  empire  was  impoverished 
fewer  works  were  executed  in  precious  metal 
and  ivoiy. 

Byzantine  art  had  no  period  of  stru^le 
and  slow  development,  and  passed  through  no 
archaic  stage.  It  represented  the  union  oi  the 
mature  styles  of  the  nearer  East  and  West,  and 
showed  small  desire  to  draw  fresh  truth  from 
nature,  be:n^  content  instead  to  blend  the 
stored  fruits  of  its  knowledge  for  the  produc- 
tion of  its  masterpieces.  Its  chief  element  was 
not  so  much  the  art  of  Rome,  but  of  Sassanid 
Persia  and  the  Helleniied  East.  It  was  from 
the  East  that  it  acquired  its  dislike  of  realistic 
representation,  its  love  of  domed  and  vaulted 
buildings  and  its  delight  in  Oriental  decorative 
pattern  and  sumptuous  richness  of  color.  It 
was  above  all  a  great  decorative  art — formal, 
Splendid,  ceremonial  and  reflecting  the  set 
ritual  of  the-  court  and  the  Church.  We  find 
the  key  to  it,  not  in  nature  and  the  spontaneous 
joy  and  beaufy  of  life,  but  in  some  such  scene 
as  Gibbon  has  described,  when  telling  of  the 
visit  of  Luitprand,  bishop  of  Cremona,  to  the 
Emperor  Constantine  VII  in  the  year  948  a.d.  : 
•When  he  (Luitprand)  approached  the  thf-one 
the  birds  of  the  golden  tree  began  to  warble 
their  notes,  which  were  accompanied  by  the 
roaring  of  two  lions  of  gold.  With  his  com- 
panions, Luitprand  wai  compelled  to  bow  and 
to  fall  jirostrate,  and  thrice  to  touch  the  ground 
with  bis  forehead.  He  arose^  but  in  the  short 
time  the  throne  had  been  hoisted  from  the  floor 
to  the  ceiling,  the  imperial  figure  appeared  in 
new  and  more  gomous  apparel,  and  the  in- 
terview was  concluded  in  haughty  and  majestic 
silence."  Here  we  have  all  the  set  nageantry 
and  conventionality  of  Byzantine  decoration, 
which  was  magiu5cent  for  its  purpose,  but 
which,  in  the  end,  wss  destined  to  lose  its 
power  and  force  owing  to  its  lack  of  fresh 
stimulus  and  inspiration,  and  its  divorce  from 
life. 

Byzantine  art  was  sternly  controlled  ty  the 
Eastern  Church  which  turned  in  perhaps  not 
unnatural  reaction  from  the  pagan  love  of 
form,  as  shown  in  the  sculptures  of  Greece  and 


Rome,  and  etnpk>yed  art  instead  in  a  decorative 
manner  only,  as  an  expounder  of  dogma,  and 
an  expression  of  East  Christian  ideas.  In  this 
way  it  forms  an  interestirw  contrast  to  Gothic 
art,  the  product  of  the  \^stem  Church  some 
centuries  later,  which  mirrored  faithfully  every 
ioy  and  sorrow  of  the  humoii  heart.  Oar 
knowledge  of  the  earliest  decorations  other 
than  mosaic  is  very  slight.  It  is  ^thered  from 
painted  manuscripts,  book  bindmgs  often  of 
metal  and  ornamented  with  precious  stones,  a 
few  enamels,  and  some  glassware,  and  a  very 
few  paintings  on  wood,  forming  parts  of  the 
iconostasis  or  choir  screen  of  this  or  tliat  church 
of  the  Greek  form  of  Christianity.  The  mosaics 
are  the  most  important  decorations  of  the 
earlier  art,  so  far  as  we  have  any  knowledge 
of  it,  and  these  are  more  familiar  to  Europe  as 
found  in  the  churches  of  Ravenna  than  in  any 
building  farther  East.  The  fact  that  Moslem 
rule  requires  the  covering  up  as  with  white- 
wash of  these  representations  when  a  church 
is  taken  over  for  a  mosque  makes  it  'probable 
that  at  some  future  time  many  fine  early  mo- 
saics will  be  uncovered. 

The  characteristic  of  Bytantine  art  is  rich 
decorative  effects  almost  to  the  exclusion  of 
accurate  drawing  or  modeling  of  the  human 
figure  or  faithful  representation  of  nature  in 
any  form.  Early  or  late,  the  attitudes  of  per- 
sonages represented  are  forma]  and  conven- 
tional, but  the  robes  are  splendid,  the  back- 
grounds are  rich  and  the  effect  is  that  of  a 
splendid  colored  pattern  with  but  slight  repre- 
sentative or  expressional  meaning.  '  Sculpture 
has  never  risen  to  excellence;  it  is  almost  lim- 
ited to  decorative  carvings,  of  book  covers  and 
sacred  objects,  reliefs  in  ivory  and  casting  of 
small  figures  in  bronzj.  The  earlier  statues  of 
emperors  and  the  Kke  are  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  lingering  Roman  traditions. 

MosaicB  una  Painting. —  In  the  second 
Council  of  Nicea  (787  a.d.)  the  following 
statement,  from  its  Acts,  shows  the  attitude 
of  the  Church  at  the  dme  toward  painting: 
■It  is  not  the  invention  of  the  painter  which 
creates  pictures  but  an  inviolable  law,  a  tradi- 
tion of  the  Church.  It  is  not  the  painters  but 
the  HoW  Fathers  who  have  to  invent  and  dic- 
tate. Tb  them  manifestly  belongs  the  compo- 
sition, to  the  painter  only  the  execution."  This 
Kragraph  is  interesting  in  connection  with 
th  Byzantine  mosaics  and  painting.  It  shows 
us  once  more  how  tradition  took  the  place  of 
nature,  and  led  to  both  the  greatness  and  the 
weakness  of  Bjfzantine  art. 

The  weakness  of  Byzantine  drawing  and 
Minting  became  apparent  after  die  Restoration. 
Byzantine  art  had  never  been  dramatic,  and 
had  never  been  filled  with  the  warmth  of  human 
ioys  and  sorrows,  an  >  vAen  the  artistic  creeds 
became  outworn  and  lifeless,  the  artists  had 
lost  their  imaginative  power,  and  were  con- 
tent to  copy  drawings  which  were  often  in 
diemsclves  copies,  and  to  accept  such  guidance 
as  has  been  preserved  to  us  in  the  'Guide  to 
Painting,'  a  collection  of  artistic  prece;^  col- 
lected by  the  monk  Dionysius,  in  the  16th  or 
early  17th  century,  from  the  works  of  an  earlier 
and  famous  Byzantine  painter,  Manuel  Panse- 
linos  of  Thessakinica,  who  may  have  lived  as 
early  as  ihe  13th  century.  In  this  guide,  exact 
directions  are  laid  down  for  the  execution  of 
all  well-known  scenes  from  Bible  history. 


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BYZANTJHB  BUPUtB 


ivr 


Byzantiiie  painting  wag  generally  executed 
in  tempera  upon  plaster  or  a  wooden  panel, 
die  outlines  ot  the  design  being  often  drawn  in 
with  gold.  Some  of  the  frescoes  are  stiU  e»st- 
ing,  and  the  paintings,  which  were  exported  liy 
die  merchants,  have  been  spread  far  and  wide. 
Numberless  minatures  were  also  produced  in 
the  monasteries,  and  these  and  the  panel  pic- 
tures  exerted  an  immense  influence  on  the  art 
of  other  countries,  particutarty  upon  Italian, 
art  which  was  brou^t  into  such  close  touch 
with  that  of  Byzantium.  Even  at  the  present 
day  the  Byxantine  tradition  is  the  chief  force 
in  the  painting  of  many  parts  of  Greece,  Rus- 
sia and  Asia  Minor. 

Mosaics  were  the  most  splendid  expression 
of  Byzantine  decorative  art  The  art,  which 
was  an  ancient  one,  had  probably  been  derived 
from  the  East,  and  was  raised  to  a  position  of 
importance  in  Egypt  in  Ptolemaic  times.  From 
diere  it  spread  boui  to  the  East  ^^in  and  to  the 
West,  where  in  Rome  it  grew  to  be  very  popu- 
lar. The  Byzantines  preferred,  however,  gk^* 
tessera  of  various  colors  to  the  small  cubes  of 
colored  marbles  commonly  employed  by  the 
Romans. 

Gold  and  silver  tessera  were  made  by  lay- 
ing gold  and  silver  leaf  upon  die  back  of  the 
elass  and  then  covering  the  leaf  by  a  second 
Uiin  fibn  of  glass  to  protect  it  The  mosaics 
were  placed  in  position  by  means  of  cement, 
and  the  glowing  richness  of  the  solemn  figures 
against  their  golden  backgrounds  formed  a 
sumptuous  and  splendid  decoration  to  dome  or 
wall. 

In  the  5th  and  6tb  centuries  Ravenna, 
then  the  artistic  centre  of  Italy  was  the  most 
famous  centre  of  the  mosaic  industry,  and  was 
renowned  for  the  magnificent  mosaic  decora- 
tions of  its  churches.  In  the  earh'  days  Venice 
was  under  artistic  alle^ance  to  Constantinople, 
■  and  among  later  mosaics  those  in  the  churches 
of  San  Uarco  and  the  cathedral  of  Torcello,  dat- 
ing from  the  11th  century,  may  be  mentioned 
Kne  mosaics  were  also  produced  in  the  Sicilian 
churches  in  the  12th  century,  although  in  Sicily 
the  Byzantine  craftsmen  were  probably  helped 
by  their  western  pupils. 

Sctdptore.— One  of  the  immediate  effects  of 
Christianity  was  a  distaste  on  the  part  of 
Christians  for  monumental  figure  sculpture, 
which  to  their  minds  was  associated  with  the 
rites  of  pagan  worship.  This  dislike  was  also 
ired  by  the  a  11 'Conquering  Arabs,  who  read 

the  preachings  of  Mohammed  a  prohibition 


in  the  preachings  o 


1  prohibition 
'ip,    a 

1  the 

Byzantines  who  were  in  constant  touch  with 
tbie  Mohammedans.  At  this  time,  also,  the  gen- 
eral trend  of  opinion  as  to  artistic  decoration 
in  the  Near  East  was  in  favor  of  elaborate  pat- 
.  tern  as  opposed  to  a  naturalistic  treatment  ot 
forms,  and  Byianline  art,  being  partly  Eastern 
in  spirit,  shared  to  a  certain  extent  the  common 
preference.  As  the  nude  was  not  studied  in 
classic  times  such  few  figures  as  were  carved 
soon  lost  their  close  relation  to  Ufe.  Figure 
sculpture  became  a  d^endent  of  architecture 
and  was  chiefly  concerned  with  the  depicting 
of  members  of  the  Imperial  family,  high  offi- 
cials or  famous  characters  from  sacred  story. 
Delicate  gradations  of  relief  were  avoided, 
and  carvings  were  largely  confined  to  two 
planes  so  tnat  a  strong  ^ect   of   U^   atu) 


shade,  without  halftones,  should  be  obtained, 
and  the  effect  of  strong  pattern  ^produced. 
Some  of  the  most  beautiful  Byzantine  sculp- 
tures are  on  the  capitals  of  columns  and  on  the 
Sulpits,  or  ambones,  in  the  churches.  Here  we 
nd  the  most  delicate  patterns  of  natural  forms, 
plants,  birds  and  animals,  and  also  entwined 
scroll-work  and  geometrical  designs.  Among' 
the  most  famous  of  the  carvings  are  those  in 
ivory,  the  diptyches,  ikoKS,  caskets,  book  cavers 
and  tablets,  many  of  which  were  originally 
colored  and  gilded.  The  goldsmith's  work, 
tapestry,  weaving  and  the  art  of  enameling 
also  attained  great  beauty,  and  served  to  keep 
the  Eastern  tradition  alive  in  Europe. 

Bibliography.— Browne,  'Earlv  Christian 
and  Byzantine  Architecture'  (New  York 
1912) ;  Errard  and  Gayet,  'L'Art  bvzantin> 
(Paris  1901);  Dalton,  'Byzantine  Art  and 
Archeeology*  (Oxford  1911);  Garrucci,  *Sforia 
dell'  arte  cristiana><Prato  187»-99)  ;  Kondakoff, 
'Histoire  de  I'art  byzantin  dans  les  miniatures' 
fParis  1891);  Labarte,  'Histoire  des  arts  in- 
dustriels'  (Paris  1873).  Consult  also  Brock- 
haus,  'Die  Kunst  in  den  Athos-fGdstem* 
(Leipzig  1891);  Choisy,  'L'Art  de  batir  chcr 
les  Braintins'  (Paris  1883) :  Texier  and  Piil- 
lan,  'Byzantine  Architecture'  (London  1884) ; 
'Monuments  de  I'art  byzantin'  (Paris  1900  et 
seq.) ;  also  Esscnwein,  'Byzantinische  Bau- 
kunst'  (Darmstadt  1886):  and  Kraus, 
'Geschichte  der  christlidien  Kunst'  (VoL  I, 
Freiburg  1896). 

John  B.  McDohitell, 
Editoriai  Staff  of  The  Americana. 
BYZANTINB  EMPIRB,  The.  Old 
Byzantium,  founded  about  688  B.C.,  lay  in  ruins 
after  its  destruction  in  196  aji.  until  Emperor 
Constantine  the  Great  rebuilt  the  city  and  made 
it  the  capital  of  the  Roman  empire  instead  of 
RcHne  (hence  called  also  Roma  Nova).  By- 
zantium was  chosen  on  account  of  the  excel- 
lence of  the  site.  On  26  Nov.  328  the  comer- 
stone  was  laid  for  the  extension  of  the  city 
walls,  and  on  It  May  330  the  solemn  dedication 
of  the  new  city  was  made.  Twer  large  tracts 
in  the  centre  were  adorned  with  colonnades 
and  statues,  while  in  the  hippodrome  was  placed 
the  famous  serpent-column  from  Delphi.  The 
whole  empire  was  robbed  of  its  finest  treasures 
of  art  to  embellish  the  new  residence.  The 
Emperor's  palace  was  a  magnificent  congeries 
of  buildings.  The  colonization  of  inhabitants 
was  promoted  b^  granting  the  privileges  of  Old 
Rome  to  the  citizens  of  New  Rome :  the  coun- 
cillors were  called  senators,  and  the  same  ad- 
vantages in  the  way  of  bounties  and  amuse- 
ments were  afforded  the  people  of  Byzantium  as 
had  been  enjoyed  by  the  Romans.  The  city 
soon  grew  in  territory  to  14  districts.  But  the 
people  lacked  unity,  for  the  population  consisted 
of  colonists  from  many  different  races.  Never- 
theless, Byzantium  was  destined  to  become  a 
seat  and  centre  of  leaminEt.  The  schools  of 
law  were  soon  in  a  flourishing  state.  The 
tttshop  of  Byiantiuin  acquired  the  rank  of  a 
patriarch  and  laid  claims  to  supremacy  over 
the  Oriental  (Hiurch.  Many  councils,  or  conven- 
tions, were  held  in  the  city,  the  most  renowned 
of  which  are  the  following:  in  381  against  the 
Macedonians,  in  553  for  the  settlement  of  the 
controversy  over  the  three  capitals,  in  ^0 
against  the  Monotholctcs,  G92  for  the  ratificar 


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lOS 


BYZANTINE  BHPIRE 


tion  of  the  older  ecclesustical  observances,  754 
against  the  adoration  of  images,  869  a^nst  the 
patriarch  Photius,  and  in  879  in  his  favor. 
After  the  partition  of  the  empire  in  395  Con- 
stantinople became  the  residence  of  the  Em- 
peror of  the  Eastern  em^re.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  an  immoral,  intriguing  court,  fond  of 
luxury  and  display,  the  people  degenerated. 
Living  in  idleness  on  the  bounties  of  bread,  and 
caring  for  nothing  except  to  gratify  their 
}>assion  for  the  hippodrome,  the  people  split 
into  two  factions,  who  named  themselves,  after 
the  color  of  the  charioteers,  the  "Blues'  and 
the  'Greens,*  and  utterly  devoid  of  higher 
aims  fou^t  each  other  with  passionate  hate. 
Under  Justinian  T  this  factional  strife  increased 
until  finally  what  is  known  as  the  Nika  insur- 
rection broke  out.  This  sedition  raged  from  13 
Jan.  to  20  Jan.  532,  and  ended  with  the  massacre 
of  at  least  30,000  human  beings  in  the  hipi)o- 
drome  by  Belisarius.  Justinian  rebnilt  the  dty 
with  great  magnificence  after  its  semi-destruc- 
tion by  fire  and  embellished  it  with  numerous 
richly  adorned  churches,  the  finest  of  which 
was  the  cathedral,  Saint  Sophia.  The  strong' 
fortifications  protected  the  city  against  the 
violence  of  enemies.  The  Avars,  strengthened 
by  Bulgarians  and  Slavs  in  626,  penetrated  sev- 
eral times  into  the  suburbs.  In  616  and  626  the 
Persians  under  Chosroes  appeared  before  the 
dty  walls.     The  two  sieges  of  the  Arabs  are 

Krticularly  celebrated :  from  April  to  Septem- 
r  673,  when  the  city  was  saved  by  the  Greek 
fire  of  the  Syrian  Kallinikos,  and  717-18,  when 
Leo  the  Isaurian  defended  it  In  1203  the 
soldiers  of  the  4th  Crusade  marched  before  the 
walls  of  the  dty  to  restore  to  the  throne  Isaac 
Angelus,  who  had  been  dethroned  by  Alexius. 
For  a  long  time  the  inhaWtants  defended  them- 
selves under  the  leadership  of  Theodorus  Las- 
caris;  but  when  Alexius  on  18  July  cowardly 
took  to  flight,  Isaac  was  released  from  prison 
and  restored  to  the  throne,  whereupon  the 
leaders  of  the  Crusade  marched  into  and  occu- 

g'ed  Galata.  Meanwhile  the  bitterness  of  the 
yzanlines  a^inst  the  Franks  led  to  an  insur- 
rection (February  1204J,  in  which  Isaac  and 
his  son  Alexius  were  killed.  The  new  emperor, 
Alexius  V.  Ducas  •Murzuphlos,"  was  immedi- 
ately defeated  by  the  Crusaders,  who  took  Con 
Stantinople  by  storm  on  12  April  after  a 
Stubborn  fight.  In  the  sacking  of  the  dty, 
which  followed  the  battle,  the  most  magnificent 
treasures  of  art  were  destroyed,  while  most 
of  the  rest  were  carried  ofl  to  adorn  Venice 
and  the  cathedral  of  Saint  Mark ;  and  an 
enormous  booty  was  taken.  On  9  May  the 
Crusaders  elected  Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders 
emperor.  But  the  Latin  empire  also  soon  sank 
into  a  mere  semblance  of  a  realm  in  consequence 
of  internal  strife  and  of  the  wars  with  the 
Bulgarians  and  Cumani  (who  under  Asin  II 
in  1236  besieged  the  city)  and  on  account  of 
the  rise  in  power  of  the  Greek  empire  of  Nicaea. 
Nevertheless,  the  Italian  commercial  cities  ac- 
quired in  Constantinople  a  great  influence,  es- 
pecially the  Genoese  and  the  Venetians,  who 
settled  permanently  in  Galata.  But  these  too 
grew  weak  though  factional  strife  and  jealousy. 
After  the  restoration  of  the  Greek  imperial 
throne  through  the  Palxolo^  in  1261  the 
Genoese  and  Venetians  came  to  open  hostilities. 
On  22  July  a  Venetian  fleet  of  75  vessels  ap- 
peared before  the  city,  burnt  the  residences  of 


the  Genoese  in  Galata,  and  even  fired  on  the 
town.  Ehiring  the  last  dajfs  of  December  the 
Genoese  of  Galata  in  retaliation  massacred  all 
the  Venetians. 

About  the  middle  of  the  Mth  century  the 
Otbmans  began  to  interfere  in  the  contests  for 
the  throne  of  the  Byzantine  empire  and  to 
threaten  Constanrinople.  After  the  battle  of 
Nicopolis  in  1396  Bajesid  besieged  the  city  with 
great  vigor.  In  1399  the  French  Marshal 
Boudcaut  came  to  its  aid,  but  had  to  giye  up 
in  1401  on  account  of  the  approach  of  Timur. 
A  fresh  appearance  of  the  Othmans  imder 
Murad  II  occurred  in  1422.  He  succeeded 
in  taking  the  outer  works.  Nevertheless, 
the  great  attack  of  24  August  was  repulsed, 
the  siege-works  destroyed  by  a  sally,  and 
in  1452  Mohammed  II  began  the  construc- 
tion of  a  coast-tower  which  closed  the  Bosporus, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1453  the  siege  ended. 
Enormous  machines  and  heavy  cannon  were 
brougfit  up.  The  arnw  numbered  200,000 
soldiers  and  the  fleet  2S0  ships.  To  oppose 
these  the  defender,  Constantine  XI  Dragades, 
had  only  11,000  Greeks  and  3,000  Italian  re- 
inforcements, which  the  Genoes^  Giovanni 
Giustiniani,  commanded.  In  addition  to  this 
great  disparity  in  numbers  was  a  further  dis- 
proportion consisting  in  the  unity  of  the  assail- 
ants and  the  division  among  the  defenders.  In 
Constantinople  embittered  religious  strife  ra^ed 
between  the  Orthodox  and  the  Unionists 
(Henotikoi).  But  in  spite  of  the  inequality  in 
strength  the  besieged,  supported  by  the  natural 
stren^  of  the  position  and  fortifications  of 
the  city,  repelled  the  most  violent  attacks  for 
40  days.  When  the  emperor,  Constantine,  re- 
fused a  voluntary  surrender,  even  with  the  per- 
mission of  a  free  withdrawal  of  his  forces, 
the  city  was  stormed  on  all  sides,  29  May,  and 
captured,  (^ustiniani  fled,  and  Constantine 
met  a  hero's  death  in  the  midst  of  the  battle. 
In  the  heat  of  the  conflict  the  conquerors  de- 
stroyed everybody  that  fell  in  their  path.  Those 
that  survived  were  sold  into  slavery.  The 
dty  was  completely  sacked  and  numerous 
treasures  of  art  destroyed.  At  mid-day  Mo- 
hammed marched  triumphantly  into  the  subiu- 
^ted  dty  and  offered  'up  pravers  of  thanks- 
giving in  Saint  So^a,  wnich  became  now  the 
principal  mosque.  Then  he  ordered  all  the  dig- 
nitaries of  the  empire  to  be  driven  into  one 
place  and  cut  down.  The  dty  was  rebuilt,  the 
fortifications  restored,  and  Constantinople  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

Given  in  more  chronological  detail;  after 
the  death  of  Tbeodosous  in  395  the  Roman 
empire  was  divided  between  his  two  sons. 
Arcadins  received  the  eastern  and  Honorius 
the  western  half.  The  former  (39S-408)  was 
a  weak  ruler ;  he  was  under  the  domina- 
tion of  his  successive  ministers  Rufinus. 
Eutropius  and  Gainas,  the  last  being  succeedea 
in  power  by  the  Empress  Eudoxia.  In  406  the 
seven-year-old  son  of  Arcadius  (Theodosius 
II)  ascended  the  throne.  He  ruled  from  40S 
to  4S0,  The  government  was  ably  carried  on  by 
his  sister  Pulcheria  during  his  whole  reign, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Huns  under 
Attila  exacted  contributions  of  money  and  pfls. 
Pulcheria  married  Mardanus,  who  ruled  from 
450  to  4S7.  This  strong  emperor  refused  to 
comply  with  Attila's  demands.  Leo  the  Thra- 
dan  became  tiie  next  emperor   (4S7-74),  and 


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BYZANTINE  BUPIRE 


U» 


was  succeeded  by  Zeno  (474-91),  after  whose 
death  Anastasius  I  (491-518),  who  married 
Zeno's  widow,  ascended  the  throne.  The  next 
emperor,  Jusuo,  was  an  lUyrian  peasant,  who  ' 
had  become  an  experienced  soldier.  He  reigned 
from  518  to  527.  By  ihe  conquests  and  able 
administration  of  the  next  emperor,  Justinian 
the  Great,  the  empire  reached  me  acme  of  its 
prosperity  and  power.  This  great  ruler  en- 
deavored to  bring  all  under  one  stale,  one 
church  and  one  taw.  He  had  the  Homan  law 
compiled  and  published  under  the  form  of  a 
monumental  code.  After  his  death  Ihe  empire 
began  to  decline.  His  successor,  Justin  II  ^565- 
78),  desired  to  emulate  the  great  Justinian 
and  win  even  greater  glory.  But  the  Persian 
War  exhausted  his  resources,  while  the  Avars 
and  Slavs  made  incursions  on  the  northern 
borders  and  the  Lombards  overran  Italy.  In- 
efficient  rulers  succeeded;  Tiberius  Constantinus 
(578-82),  Maurice  (582^602)  and  Pfaocas  (fOO- 
10).  Heractius  ascended  the  throne  in  610 
and  rtiled  till  641.  By  628  be  had  restored  the 
empire  to  its  old  supremacy.  But  the  provinces 
had  been  cmdied  l^  the  long  wars,  and  when 
the  Arabs  began  their  conquests  the  emperors 
were  too  weak  to  oppose  them  successfully. 
Constans  II  (641-68)  was  an  able  ruler,  as 
was  his  son  Constantine  (668-685),  who  fought 
bravely  against  the  Mussulmans.  But  the  reign 
of  Justinian  II  (665-95  and  705-11)  was  dis- 
astrous. Leo  the  Isaurian  (717-41)  preserved 
the  state.  He  defended  Ginstantinople  against 
the  Saracens  and  reorganized  the  empire.  Con- 
stantine Copronymus  (741-75)  was  a  ereal 
ruler  and  succeeded  in  enlai^ri^  the  bounds  of 
the  empire.  He  planted  colonies  along  the 
frontiers  and  encouraged  commerce.  The  next 
ruler  was  Leo  IV  (775-80),  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Constantine  (780-97),  a  boy 
of  nine.  His  mother,  Irene,  was  his  guardian 
until  he  became  of  age,  after  which  they  ruled 
conjointly;  but  in  797  Irene  had  her  son's  eyes 

Et  out  and  deposed  him,  so  that  she  ruled  in 
;  stead  tilt  8C2.  The  next  emperor,  Nice- 
phoms  I  (802-11)  paid  tribute  to  the  Caliph 
Harun-al-Rashid,  and  later  was  Idlled  by  the 
Bulgarians.  Leo  the  Armenian  (813-^)  de- 
feated the  latter  and  began  a  prosperous  reign, 
but  was  murdered  by  conspirators.  Under 
Michael  (820-29)  the  Saracens  conquered , 
Crete.  His  son,  Theophilus  (829-42),  was  con- 
stantly fighting  against  the  Caliphs.  He  was 
celebrated  for  his  justice,  and  he  won  great 
renown  for  the  magnificent  edifices  he  erected. 
Constantinople  was  now  the  centre  of  European 
trade,    Theophilus'  son,  Michael,  was  only  four 

J'ears  of  age  when  he  ascended  the  ttirone.  He 
ater  became  a  drunkard  and  was  put  to  death 
at  the  instigation  of  Basil,  who  succeeded  him 
(867-86).  Basil  was  the  first  of  the  Mace- 
donian line  of  emperors.  From  this  time  on  the 
government  was  good,  and  the  emjnre  continued 
to  be  prosperous  for  three  centuries.  Basil 
himself  was  a  man  of  great  ability.  His  son, 
Leo  the  Wise  (886-912)  and  his  grandson, 
Constantine  Porpbyrogenitus  (912-59),  were 
authors  of  considerable  ability.  Romanus  II 
(959-63),  son  of  Constantine,  reconquered  Crete 
ttnder  the  able  generalship  of  Nicephorus 
Fhocas,  who  married  the  sister  of  Romanus, 
and  became  emperor  in  963  nilmg  in  the  name 
of  his  two  stepsons  until  969.  The  first  of  these 
-was  Basil  H  (963~1025)  and  die  second  Con- 


stantine VIII  (963-1028).  Basil  defeated  the 
Bulgarians  and  extended  the  boundaries  of  the 
empire  further  than  any  emperor  since  Jus- 
tinian. On  the  death  of  Constantine  VIII  the 
busbands  and  creatures  of  his  daughter  Zoe 
ruled  for  26  years.  The  next  two  years  (1054- 
56)  her  sister.  Theodora,  who  was  virtuous 
and  able,  helo  the  reins  of  government.  In- 
significant rulers  were  seated  on  the  throne  for 
the  next  24  years.  The  Scljukian  Turks  had 
been  rapidly  conquering  all  the  Asiatic  posses- 
sions of  the  empire ;  and  the  next  emperor, 
Alexius  Comnenus  (1081-1118)  had  to  face 
also  new  dangers  from  the  attacks  of  the 
Normans  and  the  Crusaders.  But  the  finances 
of  the  empire  had  been  weakened  bv  the  growth 
of  the  Italian  cities  and  the  foundation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  Alexius  was  succeeded 
by  John  the  Good  (1118-43).  who  fought 
courageously  against  the  Turks,  Hungarians, 
Serbians  and  Armenians.  Manuel  Comnenus 
(1143-80)  undertook  many  wars,  but  ex- 
hausted the  resources  of  the  empire;  and  the 
weak  rulers,  of  the  next  24  years  brought  it 
almost  to  ruin.     Cj^rus  was  soon  lost,   Bul- 

?iri3  became  independent  and  the  Seljukian 
urks  menaced  Constantinople.  The  Venetians 
were  hostile  and  allied  themselves  with  the 
Crusadersj  who  coveted  the  riches  of  the  city. 
In  1204  (^nstantinople  was  captured,  and  the 
Latin  emjHre  established;  but '  it  lasted  only 
until  1261,  when  Michael  Paiaeologus  of  Nicxa 
drove  out  the  Latins  and  re-established  a  By- 
xantine  emmre,  though  smaller  than  it  was  in 
1204.  The  Palseologi  were  unable  to  strengthen 
the  empire  or  increase  its  bounds.  Michael 
VIII  (1261-82)  endeavored  to  win  allies  by 
oi^ering  to  bring  the  Greek  Church  under  the 
authority  of  the  Pope.  His  son,  Andronicus  II 
(1282-1328),  was  a  weak  ruler,  and  civil  war 
was  rife  at  the  close  of  his  reign.  Disaster  fol- 
lowed disaster.  The  finances  were  in  a  hope- 
less condition,  and  from  now  on  the  emperors 
were  incompetent.  The  command  of  (he  sea 
was  lo.st,  and  the  Ottoman  Turks  had  already 
gained  a  foothold  on  the  ruins  of  the  Seljukian 
realm  in  Asia  Minor.  They  conquered  the 
provinces  of  the  Byiantine  empire  one  by  one. 
Under  Jbhn  V  (1341-91)  the  Turks  gained 
their  first  foothold  in  Europe.  They  took 
GallipoU  in  1354.  Manuel  II  (1391-1425)  and 
John   VIII    (1425-28)    were  weak   rulers   and 

gactically  vassals  of  the  Sultan.  Constantine 
I  (1448-53)  contended  bravely  against  the 
Turks,  but  was  unable  to  check  the  invaders  and 
retain  his  capital  — the  only  part  of  the  empire 
left —  and,  finally,  in  1453  Constantinople  was 
captured  1^  the  Turks.  This  event  marked  the 
end  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 

Of  the  107  rulers  from  395  to  I4S3,  20  were 
assassinated,  18  had  their  eyes  put  out,  or  were 
otherwise  mutilatecL  12  died  in  a  monastery  or 

Crison,  12  abdicated,  3  died  of  starvation,  8  in 
attle,  or  as  a  result  of  accident.  Vice  and 
corruption  rejgned  supreme  in  some  periods; 
the  people  were  servile  and  superstitious,  the 
government  despotic;  yet  the  traditions  and 
civilization  of  Old  Rome  were  maintained. 
Frederic  Harrison  says:  "First  the  B}rzantine 
Empire  preserved  more  of  the  tradition,  civil 
and  military  organization,  wealth,  art  and  litera- 
ture of  the  older  Rcwne  than  existed  elsewhere; 
and,  secondly,  in  many  essentials  of  civilization 
it  was  more  modem  than  the  nascent  natioin  of 


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BYZAHTINB  LITBRATURB 


llie  West*  The  Corpus  of  Justinian  continued 
to  be  the  law  ai  the  Byxaotine  empire  until  the 
9th  century,  when  a  new  code  was  drawn  up. 
Examples  of  Byiantine  architecture  can  be 
found  in  every  Mohammedan  and  Christian 
land.  In  the  manufacture  of  mosaics,  silks  and 
embroidered  satins,  the  Byzantine  empire  sur- 
passed all  others. 

BiblioETsphy. —  Bury.  'The  Later  Roman 
Empire'  (London  and  New  Yorlc  1912)  ;  Diehl. 
<fitudes  byiantines'  (1905)  ;  id,  'lustinien  et  la 
civilization  byzantine'  <Faris  1901);  Dieterich, 
'Hofleben  in  Byzanz'  (Leipzig  1912);  Fridav, 
■'History  of  Greece  from  b.c.  146  to  a.d.  1864* 
(7  vols.,  Oxford  1877) ;  Gay,  J.,  <L'Italie  meri- 
dionale  et  i'empire  byzantine*  (Paris  1904) ; 
Gibbon,  'Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire' ;  Harrison,  'Byzantine  History  in  the 
Early  Middle  Ages'  (London  1900);  Heyd, 
'Histoire  du  commerce  du  Levant  au  Moyen 
Age'  (Dessau  188S);  Holmes,  W.  G.,  'Age  of 
Justinian  and  Theodora'  (New  York  1905); 
Oman,  'Byzantine  Empire*  (London  1892) ; 
Pears,  'Fall  of  Constantinople'  (New  York 
1885) ;  Rambaud,  'L'Empire  grec  au  X" 
Biicie'  (Paris  1870);  id,  'Etudes  i       


Iwiantine*    (Paris  1912) ;    'Corpus  Scriplorun 
HistoriK  ByzantiMt*   (Bonn  edition). 

JoSFPtt  &  Hamy, 


Author  of  'The  Greek  Tragic  Poets.'  etc. 
BYZANTINE  LITERATURE.  Byzan- 
tine literature  comprises  the  writings  of  the 
Greeks  from  Constantine  the  Great  (324  A.d.) 
to  the  fall  of  the  Byiantine  empire  (1453). 
The  period,  however,  down  to  ihe  time  of 
Justinian  (527)  is  generally  regarded  as  be- 
-  -  ■     '•  the  ancient  Greek  literature.    The 


,.    „ substantial!;^    the    ancient    Greek 

tradition  and  borrows  antique  forms.    Being  of 
a  learned  nature,  it  deals  in  large  measure  with 


Byzantines  preserved  the  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  world.  Even  dtfwn  to  the  10th  century 
men  were  keenly  interested  in  antiquity,  as,  for 
example,  Arethas  and  Photius  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury and  Emperor  Constantinus  VH  PoijAy- 
rogenitus  (945-59),  who  was  himself  a  political 
and  historical  writer,  and  established  commis- 
sions of  scholars,  who  had  compiled  encyclo- 
psedias  for  the  various  sciences.  To  the  same 
century  belongs  the  great  encyclopaedic  lexicon 
of  Suidas.  In  the  lollowinp  centuries  there 
came  about  a  revival  of  classical  studies,  which 
were  zealouslv  prosecuted,  thanks  to  the 
enthusiasm  and  activity  of  such  men  as  Psellus 
(11th  century),  Tieties,  Eustathius,  Gregory 
of  Corinth  (12th  century)  and  Planuses  (14th 
century).  With  these  scholars  many  Greeks 
associated  themselves  in  uninterrupted  succes- 
sion :  Theodorus  of  Gaza,  Lascans,  Musurus, 
who  introduced  the  epoch  of  "humanism*  in 


theological  literature  occupies  by 
small  space  in  Byiantine  literature.  This  is 
mainly  a  continuation  of  the  tradition  of 
the  Church  Fathers,  but  ii  also  unites  with 
ancient  philosophy,  and  reaches  its  summit 
in  the  Aristotelian  and  theologian,  John 
of  Damascus  (8th  century),  and  in  Psellus. 
After  the    11th   century  theological   literature 


was  revised  by  tite  controversy  with  the  'Latin- 
ists.'  Fully  developed  also  was  the  stHence  of 
writing  history,  which  dealt  with  universal  his- 
tory etUier  in  imitation  of  the  manner  of  pres- 
entation or  of  the  language  of  the  ancient 
models.  Special  attention  too  was  given  to 
Church  and  to  contemporaneous  history.  The 
former  is  represented  by  the  "Chroniclers,* 
that  is,  the  composers  of  world-chronicles,  such 
as  John  Malalas  (6th  century),  George  Syncel- 
lus,  Theophanes  Nicephorus  and  George 
Monacbus  (8th  century),  John  Scylizes  (lltb 
century).  John  Zonaras  (12  century),  Michael 
Glycas  (l2th  century).  In  the  foreground, 
however,  stand  the  historians,  who  treat  con- 
temporaneous history,  or  merely  a  section  of 
the  history  of  the  world.  If  we  count,  also, 
the  historians  of  the  5lh  century  (Eunapius, 
Zosimus,  Priscus),  who  lived  in  a  period  really 
prior  to  the  beginning  of  Byiantine  literature, 
then  we  should  reckon  as  the  first  of  the  early 
Byzantine  time  (to  thcdeathof  Heradius,  640), 
Procopius,  Agathias,  Petrus  Patricius,  Menan- 
der  Protector,  and  TheoiAylactus,  After  the 
two  following  centuries,  which  mark  a  period 
of  literary  barreimess,  we  find  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury a  revival  of  literature,  which  manifests  it- 
self particularly  in  the  manifold  and  varied  his- 
torical activities  of  the  patriarch  Photius,  and 
was  fuKher  promoted  t:^  (^nstantine  VII  of 
the  Macedonian  house,  and  continued  by  his- 
torians such  as  Joseph  Genesius  and  Leo  Dia- 
conus.  With  the  many-sided  Michad  Psellos 
-statesman,  philosopher,  philologian  and  his- 
torian—  be^ns  in  the  11th  century  another  rise 
of  Byzantine  literature  (Michael  Attaliates 
among  others),  which  reaches  the  summit  in 
the  12th  century  in  the  historical  works  of 
Nicephorus  Bryiennius,  of  Anna  Comnena, 
John  Cinnamus  and  Nicetas  Acominatus.  This 
period  is  also  separated  from  the  old  develop- 
ment by  the  form  of  the  language,  for,  while 
down  to  the  10th  century  concessions  were 
made  more  and  more  to  tne  spokm  language, 
with  the  revival  of  classical  studies  in  Byzan- 
tium the  authors  endeavored  also  to  approach 
the  antique  form  in  the  written  speech;  and  so 
the  gulf  widened  more  and  more  between  the 
language  employed  in  books  and  that  spoken  by 
the  people.  Consequently,  in,  the  12th  century 
a  reaction  set  in  also  against  this  current  in  the 
so-called  "vulgar  Greek*  literature,  which 
selected  the  popular  language  as  its  vehicle  of 
expression  (see  Greek  Literature).  This 
branch  of  Byzantine  literature  confined  itself, 
to  be  sure,  to  didactic  and  elegiac  poems,  epic 
and  romantic  verse  and  popular  books.  In  the 
ofRctal  literature  also  later,  the  archaizing  form 
of  speech  held  undisputed  sway,  for  example, 
in  the  historians,  especially  in  Qie  polyhistors, 
George  Acropolites  and  Pachymeres  (13th  cen- 
tury), Nicephorus  Grcgoras  and  Emperor  John 
VI  Ouitacuzenus  (14thcentury),Laonicus  Chal- 
condyles  and  George  Phranzes  (ISth  century), 
who  portray  the  downfall  of  the  Byzantine  and 
the  establishment,  of  the  Turkish  empire  in 
Europe.  The  Greek  authorship  of  the  follow- 
ing centuries  fdown  to  the  Greek  revolution) 
must  be  looked  upon  as  a  branch  of  Byxantine 
literature,  so  far  as  it  does  not  deal  with  the 
products  of  the  popular  language. 

The  poetry  of  the  Byzantines  has  nothing 
of  real  importance  to  show  except  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical   field.    Its    chief    representAtive    is    tbe 


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to  have  lived  in  the  6ch  ccniuty.    After  J(_ 

Damascus  (author  of  Sacra  Panllda)  and 
Cosmas  of  Jermalem  (7tJi  centuiv)  nothing 
important  and  individual  was  produced.  In 
smilar  poetiy  the  didactic  and  euloKistic  play 
an  important  part,  as,  ioi  example,  in  George 
Pi^des  (7tb  century).  The  sententious  and 
epigranunatic  poetry  is  represoited  by  the 
poetess  Casia  (9th  century)i  hy  John 
Gtometres  (10th  century),  Uirigtfqther  of 
Mityleoe  and  John  Mauropus  (lltb  century). 
The  single  drama  of  the  whole  period,  Chritt^s 
Patiens  (Uth  or  12th  centur^  scarcely  de- 
serves this  desi^iation,  for  it  is  merely  a  multi- 
tude of  reminiscences  from  ancient  Gredc 
tragedy.  Theodonis  Prodromus  (also  called 
Flochoprodromus,  "Beggar  Prodromus") 
showed  a  most  remarkable  activity  and  pro- 
ductivity, if  the  works  that  have  come  down 
to  us  under  his  name  are  the  productions  of 
one  individual  instead  of  sevei^  bearing  the 
same  name.  He  is  the  author  of  a  long 
romance,  in  verse,  as  well  as  satirical  poems, 
eulogies  and  epigrams.  In  some  of  his  works 
he  makes  use  of  the  Bulgarian  language  and 


Byzantine  historians,  'Historic  Byzantinx  scrip- 
tores,'  appeared  in  Paris  (1648-1711,  39  vols., 
rqirinted  m  Venice  1722ff.  in  28  vols.j.  A  new 
'Corpus  scriptonun  histoHK  Byzantime,'  was 
published  in  Bonn  (1828-97,  5  vols.)  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences, 
but  is  very  tmscholarly. 

On  the  whole  Byzantine  literature  is  almost 
without  originali^,  but  is  valuable  for  the  his- 
toncal  material  which  it  contains.  Besides  the 
authors  already  named  wo  might  mention  Theo- 
dorus  Prodromus,  who  wrote  a  long  romance, 
in  which  the  heroine  is  Khodanthe  and  the  hero 
Dosikles,  Nicephorus  Callistus  of  the  14Ui  cen- 
tury, a  writer  on  ecclesiastical  history,  John 
Doxopatcr  of  the  11th  century,  who  wrote  on 
rhetoric,  and  Michael  Bellus,  the  younger,  of 
the  same  century,  who  wrote  historical  and 
other  woilcs.  See  Greek  Litebatube,  and  con- 
sult works  there  referred  to. 

JoBEPH  E.  Habbt, 
Author  of  'Thi  Greek  Tragic  Poets,'  etc. 
BYZANTIUM,  bl-zan'shl-flm,  the  name 
of  the  city  of  Constantinople  before  its  name 
was  changed  by  Constantine  the  Great.  It  was 
founded  Sy  a  colony  of  Greeks  from  Megara, 
who,  under  a  leader  named  Byzas,  settled  on 
what  seemed  a  favorable  spot  at  the  entrance 
lo  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  in  6S8  B.C.  The  city, 
which  was  built  by  the  first  colonists,  was 
named  after  their  leader.  Other  colonists  fol- 
lowed from  different  quarter},  especially  from 
Uitetus,  and  Byzantium  v/as  already  a  flourish- 
ing town  when  it  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the 
Persians,  in  the  reiKn  of  Darius,  the  son  of 
Hystaspes.  After  the  retreat  of  the  Persians 
(479  ac.)  Byzantium  soon  recovered  itself. 
During  the  Pdoponnesian  War  it  acknowledged 
!or  some  time  the  supremacy  of  the  Athenians, 
but  afterward  fell  away.  Alcilnades  recovered 
it  (or  Adlens  (409),  but  it  was  taken  by  Ly- 
sander  in  405.  At  a  later  period  the  Byzantines 
received  supjwrt  from  Athens  in  their  resistance 
against  Philip  of  Macedon.  The  barbarian 
Thradans  who  occupied  die  neighboring  terri- 


tory, and  the  Celts  (Galatians),  in  tbeir  migra- 
tions to  the  East,  often  appeared  to  threaten 
the  safely  of  the  town;  but  in  spite  of  this, 
chiefly  owing  to  its  favoraUe  position  for  com- 
merce, it  continued  to  prosper,  and  survived 
the  decay  of  most  of  the  other  Greek  cities; 
and  even  under  the  Romans  it  was  left  free  . 
to  manage  its  own  afiairs,  and  was  allowed  to 
demand  dues  from  all  snips  passing  through 
the  Boroorus,  only  part  of  these  beinz  claimed 
by-  the  Romans.  At  the  end  of  the  2a  century 
of  the  Christian  era  Byzantium,  unfortunate^ 
for  itself,  sided  with  Fescennius  Niger  against 
SeptimiUB  Severus.  By  the  latter  it  was  be- 
sieged  for  three  years,  and  when  at  last  it  was 
forced  to  surrender  Severus  ordered  its  waJll 
to  be  razed  to  the  ground^  deprived  the  dty  of 
its  privileges  and  placed  it  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Perinthians.  For  a  time  the  pros- 
perity of  the  city  was  annihilated,  until  a  new 
and  more  brilliant  era  began  for  it  imder  Con- 
stantine the  Great,  after  the  defeat  of  Lidnius 
in  330  A.D.  Constantine  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  Roman  empire,  and  changed  its  name  to 
Constantinople  (see  Constamtine;  Constanti- 
tfOPLE).  Its  early  form  of  government  was 
that  of  an  aristocracy,  which  passed  into  an 
oligarchy.  In  the  year  390  b.c  it  received  from 
Thrasybulus  a  democratical  constitution,  closely 
TCsembliiig  that  of  the  Athenians.  Byiantium 
was  the  great  entrepot  for  the  grain  trade  be- 
tween the  cotmtries  bordering  on  the  Black 
Sea  and  (hose  bordering  on  the  j^lgean. 

BYZANTIUM.  Bank  of.  In  the  remotest 
historical  times  Byzantium  was  not  only  a  city 
of  commercial  importance,  it  was  the  feeder  to 
Ilion.  Tyre  and  Carthage,  and  the  port  throi^ 
whicn  flowed  not  merely  the  envied  products  of 
the  Orient,  but  also  its  science,  its  art  and  its 
delusions.  It  was  the  Baileys  of  Byiajitium  that 
first  bore  the  spices  of  India  to  the  .^ean,  its 
rich  carpets  and  metallic  wares  to  Tyre,  its 
Hyperborean  missionaries  ^peripheres)  to 
Delos,  its  sacred  hymn  (the  maneros^  to 
Esri  and  its  fame  to  Venice  and  Carthage. 
(Herodotus,  Mel,  32,  36).    The  Byzantines  cn- 

frossed  the  entire  trade  and  prolific  fisheries 
talamenes)  of  the  Pontic  sea ;  levied  tolls  upon 
all  vessels  passing  the  Bosporus ;  and  in  their 
proud  superiority,  jeered  at  the  Chalcedonians, 
who,  after  following  them  from  Fhr};gia  and 
arriving  at  the  Bosporus  too  late  to  seize  upon 
its  commanding  shore,  had  cami>ed  upon  the 
arid  point  now  known  as  Scutari,  It  is  true 
that  the  Greeks  claimed  to  have  founded  By- 
zantium; they  also  swore  to  their  lineal  descent 
from  the  "Eternal  Gods";  but  Grote  has  long 
since  pricked  these  bubbles.  Byzantium  was  in 
the  possesion  of  Cyrus,  who  died  520  blC  ;  and 
the  Ionian  Greeks  only  captured  it  from  the 
Persbns  in  478. 

Byzantium  was  probably  the  most  ancient 
city  of  the  Levant,  older  than  Colchis  or  Troy, 
and  richer  than  Tyre  or  Sidon.  To  the  former 
she  afforded  safe  passage  to  adventurous  Jason 
and  vengeful  Menelaus;  to  others,  the  com- 
merce of  the  Uediternutean.  Under  whatever 
name  —  Byzantium,  Nova  Roma,  Constanti- 
nople, Stamboul  —  she  remained  for  25  centuries 
the  mistress  of  two  seas ;  the  arbiter  and  in- 
terpreter of  two  continents;  the  most  inviting 
and  most  necessary  location  for  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  an  international  bank. 


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whose  installation  took  place  about  390  s.a, 
when  she  became  an  independent  state  and  shook 
off  the  restraints  imposed  upon  her  industries 
and  giuwth  by  the  successive  tyrannies  of 
Baby  1  OIL  Assyna,  Persia  and  Greece. 

At  this  period,  shortly  after  the  disastrous 
-  Peloponnesian  War,  Greece  was  much  ex- 
hausted;  its  industries  were  prostrated,  sup- 
plies annihilated,  and  the  mines  of  L^urium, 


were  boarded  In  407  b-C.  the  Athenians 
obliged  to  melt  down  the  statue  of  UJnerva 
Victoria  and  convert  it  into  those  base  ^Id 
coins  which  Aristophanes  satirises  in  "The 
Frogs.*      In   time,    even   the   base   minx   were 


*sbinp tasters'  and  *wild  cats*  of  a  disturbed 
and  suffering  state.  Prohibitions  against  ex- 
porting  the  precious  metals  had  been  followed 
py  the  usual  evasions  and  these  by  the  inevitable 
issuance  of  a  fiduciary  currency;  something  by 
which  to  trade;  something  by  which  to  count. 

When  this  makeshift  currency  was  es- 
tablished in  Athens  the  hoarded  coins  (chiefly 
silver  drachmas)  were  furtively  purchased  by 
brokers,  technically  at  risk  of  their  lives,  and 
.  sold  to  merchants  with  Oriental  connections, 
who  even  in  normal  times  profited  so  largely 
by  this  trade  that  now  the  shipment  of  silver 
to  the  Orient  is  said  to  have  yielded,  dear  of 
all  expenses,  profits  nearly  cent  per  cent:  a 
circumstance  due  to  the  superior  value  of  silver 
as  compared  with  gold,  over  and  agaitist  the 
same  relation  in  the  Occident. 

According  to  BoecWi,  772:  'The  money- 
changing  busmess,  which,  if  the  iron  coins  were 
at  that  time  in  existence,  must  have  been  of 
Special  importance,  was  farmed  in  Byzantine  to 
a  single  bank;  and  all  persons  were  prohibited 
from  buying  or  selling  money  elsewhere,  under 
penalty  of  forfeiting  the  sums  thus  bought 
or  sold.*  As  the  Hellespont  at  that  period  (5th 
and  4th  centuries  B.C.)  was  the  pnncipal,  al- 
most the  only  channel  tbrough  which  flowed  the 
trade  to  the  Orient ;  the  Bank  of  Byantium 
must  have  reaped  very  considerable  advantages 
from  this  monopoly,  even  when,  before  the 
independence  of  the  state,  such  monopoly  may 
have  been  acquired  through  Athens:  advan- 
tages that  were  doubtless  enhanced  when  By- 
zantium recovered  its  entire  liberty.  But  the 
•money-changing  business'  was  not  its  only 
source  of  profit.  The  bank  collected  the  Straits 
dues  and  farmed  the  customs ;  it  financed  the 
fisheries,  by  discounting  the  obligations  of 
merchant  adventurers  who  were  obliged  to 
provide  ships,  tackle  and  nets  and  yet  run  the 
risk  of  storms  or  a  bad  catch.  The  bank  also 
accommodated  the  foreign  merchants  who  came 
to  buy  or  sell  commodities  in  the  adjacent  fairs; 
of  wnich  a  great  number  were  held  within  a 
^ort  distance  of  Byzantium,  both  in  Greece, 
the  Isles  and  *  Syria,*  a  name,  that  according 
to  Herodotus,  went  at  that  period  for  nearly 
all  of  Asia  Minor  west  of  the  Halys, 

Among  the  banking  laws  enacted  while  By- 
zantium was  under  the  control  of  Athens  were 
the  following: 

I.  No  banker  shall  demand  (or  receive) 
more  interest  money  than  that  ^reed  tipon  at 
first.  See  "Banks,  Ancient  ant>  MEDi<ErAi^ 
for  a  shnilar  provision  in  ancient  India. 


2.  Nobody  who  had  put  in  stire^  for  any- 
thing may  sue  for  it,  he  or  his  hdn.  (*Put  in* 
is  here  probably  meant  for  ■4>)edged"). 

3.  Pledges  and  securities  shall  not  stand  but 

4.  Counterfeiters  and  debasers  and  diminish- 
ers  of  the  current  coin  shall  forfeit  their 
lives. 

5.  No  Athenian  or  sojourner  shall  lend 
money  to  be  exported,  unless  for  com  or  some 
such  commodity  allowable  by  law.  He  who 
sends  away  money  (out  of  the  country),  for 
other  uses,  shall  be  brou^t  before  the  master 
of  the  custom  house  and  prosecuted  criminally, 
after  the  manner  of  those  transporting  corn  un- 
lawfully. He  shall  have  no  writ  or  warrant 
against  his  correspondent^  nor  shall  the  archons 
permit  him  to  have  a  civil  trial. 

5.  Corporations  may  make  their  own  by- 
laws, provided  that  they  are  not  inconsistent 
with  the  public  laws  (Potter,  'Ajitiq.  Gr^ca,* 
II,  198-200). 

The  numismatic  collections  of  Europe  are 
so  full  of  Byzantine  coins  of  almost  every 
period  that  they  have  given  rise  to  numerous 
works  and  still  more  numerous  contentions. 
Briefly,  it  may  be  stated  that  before  the  plunder 
of  Persia  and  India  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
gold  was  valued  in  the  coinages  of  the  Greek 
states  at  10  times  that  of  the  same  weight  of 
silver.     After  his   soldiers  were  so  laden  with 


demanded  to  be  led  back  to  Greece  because  they 
could  carry  no  more,  their  leader,  in  his  capac- 
ity of  King  and  Basileus,  raised  by  decree  die 
value  of  gold  in  his  coinages  to  12  times  that 
of  silver;  and  so  it  remained  until  Byzantium 
fell  to  the  arms  of  Rome,  and  practically 
thronghout  the  entire  Roman  domination  down 
to  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latin 
forces  in  1204,  when  the  various  kingdoms  and 
principalities  which  arose  ujxwi  the  ruin  of  the 
eminre  struck  their  own  coins  and  fixed  their 
own  vahiation  upon  them. 

The  so-called  'leather  moneys'  of  Byzantium 
and  of  the  various  nations  which  throughout 
the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages  issued  fiduciary 
moneys  were  obligations  written  on  parchment 
and  attested  by  the  proper  authorities;  of  which 
moneys  but  a  single  specimen  is  knovm  to 
exist  at  the  present  time,  preserved  in  one  of 
the  great  national  cabinets  of  Europe.  For  the 
history  of  other  ancient  banks  see  Babcelona, 
Bank  of;  Fuccess,  Bank  of  the;  Genoa, 
Bank  of;  Medici,  Banks  of  the;  Tyre;  Bank 
of;  Venice,  Bank  of. 

BZOVIUS,  Abraham  (Pol.  BtowM), 
Polish  scholar  and  divine:  b.  Proszowice,  near 
Miechow,  1567;  d.  Rome.  31  Jan.  1637.  At  the 
request  of  Pope  Paul  V,  he  spent  several  years 
of  the  latter  part  of  his  life  m  die  Vatican,  as 
librarian  of  the  Virginui  dei  Urimi,  and  actively 
engaged  in  literary  pursuits.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  order  of  the  Dominicans,  one  of  the  most 
voluminous  writers  of  his  age,  gained  for  him- 
self a  hi^  reputation  as  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  theMogy  at  Milan  and  Bologna,  and 
crowned  die  labors  of  his  life  by  continuing  the 
celebrated  ecclesiastical  annals  of  CKsar  Baro- 
nius,  who  had  left  them  off  at  the  year  119^ 
and  completed  only  12  volumes.  Bzovius  car- 
ried them  to  the  year  1532,  in  nine  volumes. 


.Google 


Cthe  third  character  of  the  English 
alphabet  and  of  all  the  alphabets  de- 
rived from  the  Latin.  In  its  present 
form  it  is  a  modification  of  the 
primitive  Greek  gamma.  That  primitive  form 
was  <  ,  an  angle  with  vertex  pointing  to  the 
left;  it  is  the  reverse  of  the  ancient  Pncenician 


t^  the  Greeks  to  some  extent)  is  Uic  ancient 
Greek  <  retained  by  the  Greeks  of  Italy  and 
rounded^  just  as  the  later  Greek  gamma  sym- 
bol, r,  IS  the  aoKiilar  symbol  erected  by  the 
Eastern  Greeks.  The  Russian  alphabet  retains 
the  Gredc  symbol  T,  but  its  place  is  fourth, 
because  in  that  alphabet  the  sign  for  the  denti- 
labial V  holds  the  third  place.  The  Greek 
gamma  ( <  ,  T,)  seems  to  have  always  repre- 
sented  the  same  sonant  guttural  as  the  English 
g  in  'go."  In  the  Latin  alphabet  of  the 
Romans,  as  represented  in  their  earliest  in- 
scriptions, the  C  stood  for  the  same  sonant  gut- 
tural as  in  the  Greek,  g  bard;  for  example, 
Ucio^  later  written  legio  *  macistralui,  later 
magislraltts ;  yet  at  the  same  time  the  C  repre- 
sented also  the  surd  guttural  K,  as  it  still  does 
in  English  except  before  the  vowels  r  and  i 
and  the  dii^thongs  a  and  oe  in  words  from  the 
Latin.  Thus  the  early  Latin  alphabet  was  with- 
out the  symbol  K.  There  b  in  this  use  of  the 
character  C  in  ancient  Roman  eiugraphy  ground 
for  the  inference  that  the  early  Romans  con- 
founded the  two  gutturals  k  and  g  hard,  as  in 
some  localities  or  m  some  classes  of  people  the 
termination  ing  becomes  ink,  and  "somethinp* 
becomes  "somethink.*  But  at  a  later  period  the 
distinction  between  a  hard  and  b  was  recog- 
nized, and  then  for  tbe  designation  of  tile  mule 
guttural  the  kappa  (K)  of  the  Greek  alphabet 
came  into  use  in  Latin  writing.  But  the  k  was 
afterward  rejected,  and  its  only  use  in  Latin 
was  in  writing  the  word  Kalenitt  (abbreviated 
to  kid.  or  k.)  and  as  an  abbreviation  of  Car- 
thago (Carthage)  and  of  the  personal  name 
Caso.  No  doubt  the  persistence  of  i  in 
kaltndx  was  due  to  the  adherence  of  the 
Pontifices  to  the  antMue  forms  of  the  official 
calendars;  and  the  K  standing  for  the  fore- 
name Ckso  was  retained  as  a  means  of  abbre- 
viating that  name  and  distinguishing  it  from 
the  abbreviation  of  the  name  Caius :  C'  Julius 
Czsar  is  Gains,  but  K.  Fabius  Ambustus  is 
Ckso.  But  the  k  having  been  discarded  from 
the  Latin  alphabet,  its  function  was  assigned  to 
the  symbol  C  while  for  representation  of  the 
sonant  guttural  a  modified  form  of  C  was 
adopted,  namely,  the  G  with  the  value  of  p  in 
•go."  The  soft  g,  eoual  to  ;',  was  probably  un- 
known to  the  Romans  before  the  general  de- 
basement of  the  Latin  language.       After  the 

TOL.S— • 


symbol  k  had  been  discarded  and  been  super- 
seded by  C,  the  S}'mbol  C,  with  the  power  of 
gamma,  was  retained  as  an  initial  abbreviation 
of  Gaius,  name  for  a  man,  and  of  Gaia  (with 
C  reversed  3),  the  name  of  a  woman.  C  was 
also  retained  m  the  formula  Cn,  as  an  abbrevia- 
tion of  Gnaeus.  This  use  of  the  initial  C  as 
representing  g  hard  (sonant  guttural)  recalls 
the  primitive  equivalence  for  the  Romans  of 
the  two  gutturals  k  and  g  hard ;  but  the  modem 
Latinists,  unacquainted  with  such  use  of  C, 
have  usually  pronounced  Gaius  "Kaius'  and 
Cnxus  "Knicus,*  instead  of  'Gius*  and 
■Gnaius."  In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  its  .alphabet 
having  been  derived  from  the  Latin,  the  C  had 
everywhere  the  value  of  K,  and  the  s 


and  Germanic  races  with  men  of  Latin  speech 
the  C  in  all  situations  was  equivalent  to  k  in 
Latin ;  and  the  German  word  Kaiser  is  proof 
that  when  the  Germans  first  heard  of  Julius 
and  the  Cxsars  who  succeeded  him  the  head  of 
the  Roman  state  was  'Kaisar,'  not  'Casar* 
The  change  in  the  pronunciation  of  C  from  b 
to  J,  as  m  French  and  English,  to  ch  as  in 
Italian,  to  Is  as  in  German,  appears  to  have 
come  about  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire. 

In  An^o-Saxon  the  original  Germanic  K 
sound  of  C  undergoes  palatalization,  ending  in 
the  English  ch;  cf.  Germanic  bert,  A.  S.  eeort, 
English  ehurl.  In  some  cases  a  word  is  trans- 
ferred into  English  from  Scandinavian  or  a 
non-pal  a  talizine  dialect,  giving  us  a  k-sound  and 
a  ch-sound  side  by  side;  cf.  churl  and  carle, 
cheap  and  coper,  church  and  kirk.  In  words  of 
Indo-European  descent,  English  C  corre- 
■■  ■  iginal  g,  as  Eng.  tug,  Lat.  duco. 
C,  h  corresponds  in  Engll^  as 
canii,  Eng.  hound.  There  is  no 
q  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old  English,  so  ewao  is 
written  for  the  modem  quolh.  Similarly, 
cyning  is  written  for  biTu/. 

As  an  abbreviation,  C  stands  for  a  musical 
note,  for  Centigrade,  for  100,  for  the  name 
Gaius.  c.  stands  for  cent,  for  centime,  for 
circa  (about).  Cn.  stands  for  the  name  GnaiuS- 
B.  C.   stands   for  before  Christ. 


CA  IRA,  sa  e-ra^  a  popular  song  of  the 
great  French  Revolution.  The  origin  and  date 
of  this  song  are  both  uncertain,  and  there  are 
various  versions  of  the  words  claiming  to  be 
original.  The  words  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  written  by  Lad  re,  a  street  singer,  and 


d=,  Google 


114 


CAABA— CAB  AHI8 


1790.  French  writers  say  that  Benjamin 
Franklin,  in  spealdnK  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, frequently  used  the  expression  *Ca  ira* 
('it  will  succeed").  The  French  republicans 
caught  up  the  phrase,  and  "consecrated*  it  to 
their  own  revolution  in  a  popular  hymn.  The 
refrain  of  one  version  runs  thus: — 
"Ah  !  c«  ir«.  SI 
En  dipit  d' I- 


referring  to  the  rain  which  fell  during  the  tak- 
ing of  the  Bastile.  In  1797  the  song  was  banned 
by  the  Directory, 

CAABA.    See  Kaaba. 

CAAING-WHALB,  one  of  several  species 
of  pon)oise-like  cetaceans  of  the  Killer  family 
(Orciaa),  characterized  by  its  globose  head; 
properly  Clobiocephaius  melas,  of  the  north 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  from  16  to  24  feet  long, 
10  feet  in  diameter  at  its  thickest  part  and 
weighs  between  5,000  and  6,000  pounds.  Its 
pectoral  fins  are  about  5  feet  long  and  18  inches 
broad,  and  its  dorsal  fin  is  very  low.  With  the 
exception  of  a  white  streak,  which  begins  in 
the  form  of  a  heart  under  the  throat  and  gradu- 
ally narrows  to  the  vent,  the  whole  of  the  body 
is  of  a  glossy  black  color,  and  hence  the  fish  is 
frcqijently  blown  as  the  blackfish  (q.v.)  or 
black  dolphin.  The  teeth  are  arranged  at  con- 
siderable distances  in  the  upper  and  under  jaw 
in  such  a  manner  that  those  of  the  upper  jaw 
fit  into  the  spaces  left  in  the  lower  jaw,  and 
conversely.  Their  number  is  very  variable. 
They  are  conical  in  shape,  strong,  rather  long, 
and  end  in  a  i>oint  which  is  a  little  curved 
backward  and  inward.  The  caaing- whale  is 
yen  abundant  and  very  widely  distributed.  It 
is  found  in  the  whole  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and 
also  in  the  German  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans, 
and  even  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  gregarious  habits,  being  often 
found-in  schools  numbering  several  hundreds. 
which  are  led  by  an  old  and  experienced  male 
whom,  it  is  said,  they  never  abandon.  On  this 
account  its  pursuers  always  endeavor  to  force 
the  leader  on  shore,  and  when  this  is  accom- 
plished all  the  rest  follow  him  and  are  likewise 
stranded  — hence  the  Scotch  name  "caaing,* 
equivalent  to  "driving."  In  the  stomachs  of 
these  animals  are  usually  found  the  remains  of 
cod-fish  and  various  spedes  of  cuttle-fislvas 
well  as  of  herrings,  litig  and  other  fishes.  The 
caaing-whale  is  pursued  chiefly  on  account  of 
its  oil    See  Whale. 

CAAHA,  ka'ma.    Sec  Hartseest. 

CAB,  a  carriage  with  two  or  four  wheels, 
usually  drawn  by  one  horse,  and  plying  for 
hire;  a  hackney-carriage.  One  well -lai own  two- 
wheeled  variety  is  the  hansom  named  after  the 
inventor.  Public  cabriolets  —  hooded  chaises 
carrying  one  person  besides  the  driver — were 
introduced  in  London  in  1823,  and  the  name  waa 
soon    after     shortened    to    cab.     See     CoACH; 

H  ACKMEY-  C  A  BRI  ACE. 

CABAL,  an  English  ministry  under 
Oiarles  II  (1667-73),  composed  of  Oifford, 
Ashley,  Buckineham,  Arlington  and  Lauder- 
dale, the  initials  of  whose  names  form  this 
word,  whence  oerhaps  its  use  as  a  designation. 
But  the  use  of  this  word  to  signify  a  body  of 
intriguers  was  not  originally  derived  from  thij 


:,  as  sometimes  supposed,  for  the 
word  cabale,  derived  from  cabala  (q.v.),  was' 
used  in  that  sense  in  French  before  this  time. 

CABALA,  or  CABBALA.  See  Jews  and 
JoDAisK  — Thb  Cabala. 

CABALLERO,  Fem&n,  fer-nan'  ka-b^- 
lyfi'rS,  pseudonym  of  Cecilia  Bohl  von  Fabek, 
Spanish  novelist,  daughter  of  a  German  who 
settled  in  Spain  and  married  a  Spanish  lady;  b. 
Uorges  near  Lausanne  Switzerland,  25  Dec. 
1796;  d.  Seville,  7  April  1877.  Brought  up  in 
Germany,  she  went  to  Cadiz  with  her  father  in 
1813.  She  was  a  polyglot  writer,  publishing 
works  in  Spanish,  German  and  French.  Her  first 
novel,  <La  Gaviota,'  appeared  in  1S49,  and  was 
followed  by  'Elia,'  'Oemencia,*  'La  Familia 
de  Alvareda,'  etc,  as  well  as  by  many  shorter 
---'--     In  1859  she  published  a  collection  of 


appeared  in  English  translations,  including  'La 
GavJota^  (translated  as  'The  Sea-Gull,'  1867); 
'Elia:  or  Spain  Fifty  Years  Ago'  (1868); 
<Air-BuiIt  Castles';  and  <The  Bird  of  Truth' 
(1881).  The  chief  charm  of  her  writings  lies 
in  her  descriptions  of  life  and  nature  in  Anda- 
lusia. She  was  three'  times  left  a  widow ;  her 
last  husband  was  a  lawyer  named  Antonio 
Arron  de  Ayala.  Of  late  it  has  been  discovered 
that  she  was  a  very  excellent  letter  writer,  and 
critics  who  have  examined  her  correspondence 
with  Anloine  de  Latour  name  her  the  Madame 
de  Sevignf  of  Spanish  literature.  She  forms  the 
subject  of  one  of  the  'Six  Life  Studies'  (1880) 
of  M.  B.  Edwards.  Her  'Obras  CompIetas> 
were  published  in  18  volumes  (Madrid  1855-67), 
and  have  since  been  reprinted  in  the  'Colec- 
ci6n  de  escritores  castellanos.'  Consult  de 
Latour,  A,  'Etudes  littiraires  sur  I'Espagne 
contemporaine>  (Paris  1864);  and  'Espagne, 
traditions,  moeurs  et  littirature'  (Paris  1869); 
De  Gabriel  y  Ruiz  de  Apodaca,  F.,  'Oltimas 
producciones  de  FernSn  Caballero,'  with  a 
biography  (Seville  1878);  Josi  Maria  Ausen- 
sio,  'Femin  Caballero  y  la  novela  contem- 
pordnea'  (Madrid  1893)  ;  Morel-Fatio,  A., 
'Feman  Caballero  d'apres  sa  correspondence 
avec  Antoine  de  Latour'  (in  the  Bulletin  His- 
banigae.  Vol.  Ill,  Bordeaux  1901),  reproduced 
m  his  'Etudes  sur  L'Espagne,  3«  sine'  (Paris 
1904)  ;  Pitollet,  'Les  premiers  essais  de  Fer- 
nan  Caballero'  (Paris  1908)  ;  Coloma,  'Recuer- 
tios  de  Fernan  Caballero'  (Bilbao  1910).  See 
La  Familia  de  Alvabeda. 

CABANEL,  ki-ba-nil,  Alexandre,  French 
artist:  b.  Montpellier,  28  SepL  1823;  d.  Paris, 
23  Jan.  18S9.  He  studied  with  Picot,  and  after 
I860  gave  himself  mainly  to  portrait  painting. 
He  was  for  many  years  a  professor  of  the 
Academic  des  Beaux  Arts  and  was  especinlty 
popular  with  American  patrons.  Among  his 
many  portraits  of  Americans  is  that  of  Uiss 
Cathenne  Wolfe,  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum, New  York,  which  contains  also  his 
*Qucen  Vashti  and  King  Ahasuerus,'  and 
'Birth  of  Venus.'  See  Stranahan,  'A  History 
of  French  Painting'  (1899), 

CABANIS,  ki-b^-nes,  Jean  Louis,  Ger- 
man ornithologist:  b.  Beriin  1816;  d.  1906. 
He  made  an  ornithological  tour  through  North 
and  South  Carolina,  1839-41,  and  in  1849  be- 
came custodian  of   the  ornithological  depart- 


:,  Google 


CABAHIS — CABBAOB 


116 


ment  (ti  the  Berlin  Zoological  Musenni.  His 
investi^tions  were  largely  instrumental  in  es- 
tabtishitiK  a  natural  classification,  and  were 
puUished  in  Wiegmann's  'Archiv  fur  flaturge- 
schichte'  (1847),  and  in  the  'Museum  Heinea- 
Dum'  (1850-63).  C^banig  founded  (he  Jour- 
■  nal  fur  Omitkoiogit  in  1853,  and  continued  to 
edit  it  for  40  years.  He  was  a  most  prolific 
writer,  his  contributions  to  omitfaolo^  reacbr 
ing  a  total  of  400  and  embracing  the  birds  of  all 
countries. 

CABAHIS,  nerre  Je«n  Georee,  French 
physician  and  philosopher:  b.  Cosnac,  de- 
partment of  a>arente-Inf*rieure,  5  Tune  17S7; 
d,  Kuril,  near  Pari^  5  May  1808.  In  his  16th 
year  he  went  to  Warsaw  as  secretary  of  a 
Polish  lord,  where  the  proceedinf(s  of  the 
stormy  Diet  of  1773  filled  him  with  melan- 
cboiy  and  contempt  of  mankind.  He  began  at 
Parts  a  complete  translation  of  the  'Iliad'; 
became  acquainted  with  Madame  Helvetius. 
and  through  her  with  Holbach,  Franklin  ami 
JefEerson,  and  became  the  friend  of  Gmdillac, 
Tuivot  and  Thomas.  In  his  'Scmient  d'un 
Midecin'  he  formally  took  leave  of  the  belles- 
lettres.  He  was  a  leader  in  the  reformation 
and  reorganization  of  French  medical  schools 
and  tau^t  in  several.  He  professed  th« 
principles  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  inti- 
mately connected  with  Mirabeau,  and  made 
usic  of  his  ideas,  and  obtained  from  him  the 
work  on  public  education  which  Cabanis  pub- 
lished himself  in  1791,  after  the  death  of 
Mirabeau.  He  lived  in  still  closer  intimacy 
with  Condorcet.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
mber  of  the  Senate.     His   'Rapports 


work.  _     It     displays     considerable     power 

analysis,    and    advocates    the    mo3t    exti 

materialistic  doctrines.  Consult  Dubois,  'Ex- 
amen  des  doctrines  de  Cabanis'  (2  vc4s.,  Paris 
1842) ;  Labrousie,  F.,  'Quelques  notes  sur 
Cabanit>  (Paris  1903). 

CABARET,  ka-bar-a',  derived  from  the 
French,  signif^ng  inn  or  restaurant,  a  term 
generally  applied  in  the  United  States  since 
1910  to'  the  <£nners,  suppers  or  meals,  the  dan- 
sants  or  tea  dances  served  in  hotels  and  popu- 
lar restaurants  to  the  accompaniment  of  singing, 
instrumental  music  and  dancins.  It  is  an  elab- 
oration of  the  imported  cafi  chantant  of  Paris 
which  provided  vaudeville  entertainment  during 

CABAT,  ka-h4,  NicoUa  LoaU,  French 
artist:  b.  Paris,  1812;  d.  1893.  He  studied  with 
Flers  and  became  prominent  among  painters  of 
the  landscape  realistic  school.  Amang  his 
works  are  'Pond  at  Ville  d'Avray>  (183+)  ;  'A 
Spring  in  the  Wood'  (1864),  and  <A  Morning 
in  the  Park  of  Magnet'   (1877). 

CABBAGE,  a  biennial  plant,  too  well 
known  to  need  description,  and  constituting  one 
of  the  most  valuable  classes  of  vegetables.  The 
Brastiea  oleraeea,  the  original  species  from 
which  the  numerous  varieties  of  cultivated  cab- 
bages are  derived,  although  in  a  wild  state  very 
remote  in  appearance  from  the  ftdl,  roand  head 
which  our  plants  present,  is  scarcely  cnore  so 
than  the  kale,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  etc,  all  of 
which  belong  to  the  same  family.  There  are 
two  general  classes  of  cabbage,  .smooth~leaved 
and   wrinkle-leaved.     The  ,  smootb-lesvcd.:  are 


either  red  or  green  and  the  head  conical,  oblong, 
round  or  flat.  The  principal  varieties  are  known 
to  have  existed  at  least  as  far  back  as  the  16tfa 
century,  but  minor  varieties  are  being  con- 
stantly produced  b^  selection  and  intercrossing. 
The  parent  stock  is  of  highly  vegetable  char- 
acter, as  its  habitat  and  habit  alike  show ;  and 
placed  in  more  favorable  conditions^  its  growth 
becomes  luxuriant  More  normally  it  is  carried 
back  into  the  stem,' and  this  may  accordingly 
become  swollen  and  tnmip-likej  in  vThich  case 
we  have  the  kofai-raln,  of  which,  an  extreme 
lubterranean  and  almost  tumip^like  variety  has 
also  arisen;  or  it  may  be,  as  initheijersey  cab- 
bage, largely  applied  to  the  purpose  of  the 
growth  of  the  stem,  which  may  reach  a  bright 
of  8  to  10  feet,  and  furnish  not  only  walk- 
ing-sticks, hut  even  ^rs  for ; small  .thatched 
roofs,  etc.  The  vegetative  overplus  may,  bow* 
ever,  also  be  applied  to  the  formation  of  buds; 
whtui  accordingly  develop  with  peculiar  ex- 
nbeiaoce,  giving  us  Brtus^  sprouts.  The  most 
evolved  and  finjd  variety  is  Oie  cauUflower,  in 
which  the  v^etative  surplus  becomes  poured 
into  the  flowering  head,  of  which  the  floWir  is 
more  or  leas  cfaed[ed;'the  inflorescence  becom- 
ing a  dense  corymb  instead  of  an  open  panid^ 
asd  the  maiori^  of  the  flowers  aborting,  so  u 
to  becDHie  incapable  of  producing  seed.  Let  a 
^tfdally  vegetative  cabbage  repeat  the  exces- 
sive devekipmoit  of  its  itaS  tarencfayma,:  and 
wc  have  the  wrinlded  and  MistMed  savoy.  Agaia 
lly  vegetative  cauliflower  gives  us  an 
grown  and  hardy  winter  variety,  broccoli, 
which,  and  not  frtHn  the  ordinary  caiuli- 
flower,  a  sprouting  variety  arises  in  turn. 

The  common  cabbage  is  by  far  the  most  valt 
uaUe  to  both  man  and  beasL  It  is  also  the 
most  productive;  for  it  is  believed  that  an 
acre  of  ground  vrill  yield  a  greater  wei^t  of 
^reen  vegetable  matter  (and  thus  be  more  prof- 
itable to  the  farmer)  in  the  shape  of  cabbage 
than  in  that  of  any  other  vegetabh;  whatever. 
It  is  very  abundantly  produced  l^  clay  soils 
which  are  unfit  for  turn^s,  and  the  fanners 
who  cultivate  such  soils  will  find  it  a  vegetable 
worthy  of  much  attention.  The  cabbage  fur- 
nishes green  fodder  for  cows  and  sheep,  whidi 
is  M  least  as  good  as  turnips  or  carrots,  fat- 
tening tbe  animals  equally  last,  and  rendering 
their  milk,  butter,  etc.,  to  the  full  as  sweet, 
and  is  far  preferable,  as  it  keeps  later  in  the 
spring,  and  thus  supplies  green  food  when  no 
other  can  be  procured.  It  is  eaten  by  men  in 
three  forms,  all  of  which  have  thdr  admirers, 
hut  which  vary  much  in  respect  to  their  whole- 
someness  and  digestibility.  These  forms  are 
sliced  raw,  plain-loiled  and  salted  cabbage  or 
sauerkraut  (q.vj,  the  favorite  dish  of  the  Gkt- 
man  nation.  Raw  cabbage,  sliced  fine  and 
eaten  with  vinegar,  either  cold,  or  hot  enough 
merely  to  wilt  the  vegetable,  is  one  of  me 
ligfatest  and  most  wholesome  articles  of  vege- 
taMe  food,  and  in  this  shape  will  suoply  a  green 
summer  vegetable  throuMt  the  wnole  or  the 
winter.  Its  use  cannot  be  too  highly  recom- 
mended.  Boiled  cabbage  takes  longer  to  di- 
gest and  is  more  trying  to  a  weak  stomach. 

Caltiration. — The  cabbage  being  bioinial, 
the  main  croii  must  be  sown  tbe  autumn  pre- 
vtoBS  to  that  m  which  it  is  to  be  reaped.  Field 
cabba^  and  the  drum-head  varieties  that  are 
used  in  gardens,  being  late  in  character,  may 
be  sown  m  July,  o-  ' a.  ^  •  •        •     '  -^  ■ 


r  from  die  diird  wedc  of  that 


.Google 


lie 


C  ABBAQB-B  ASK  —  CABBIRI 


month  to  the  second  week  in  Ai^fust.  But  the 
smaller  and  earlier  sorts  used  in  gardens  should 
not  be  sown  before  the  first  week  of  August, 
nor  later  than  the  second  week  of  that  month. 
If  the  plants  are  reared  earlier,  they  are  apt  to 
run  to  seed  the  following  spring;  and  if,  on  the 
Other  hand,  they  are  reared  later,  they  will  not 
acquire  strength  enough  to  withsCano  the  cold 
of  winter  before  it  comes  upon  theni.  For  suc- 
cessive crops  to  be  used  in  the  shape  of  young 
summer  cabbages,  one  or  two  sowings  may  M 
made  from  the  beginning  of  March  to  the 
banning  of  April.  Autumn'sown  plants  may 
be  planted  out  in  rows  permanently,  as  soon  as 
they  arc  strong  enough.  Additional  plantations 
from  the  same  sowing  may  be  made  in  sprii% 
to  be  followed  by  others,  made  at  intervals,  np 
till  July,  from  spring-sown  plants.  Thus  a 
close  succession  of  usable  cabbages  may  be  ob- 
tained the  ^ear  round.  In  the  northern  parts 
of  the  United  States  cabbages  for  the  early 
summer  market  are  sown  about  September, 
kept  under  ^lass  or  frames  during  wiiUer  and 
planted  out  in  spring.  For  later  markets  the 
seed  is  sown  in  beds  as  early  as  possible  in 
spring  (about  March),  and  transidanted  later. 
Cabbages  are  sometimes  preserved  for  winter 
by  inverting  them  and  burying  them  in  the 
ground.  Cabbage  coleworts  may  be  obtained 
from  any  good  early  variety  of  cabbage.  They 
are  simply  cabbages  which  are  not  permitted  to 
form  hearts,  but  are  used  while  the  leaves  are 
yet  green  and  the  hearts  more  or  less  ofwn. 
Three  sowings  should  be  made  for  the  rearing 
of  these :  the  first  about  the  middle  of  June,  the 
second  about  the  same  time  in  July,  and  the 
third  about  the  last  week  of  the  latter  month, 
or  the  first  week  of  August.  These  sowings 
will  provide  crops  of  green  cabbages  from 
October  till  March  or  April,  if  the  winter  is 
not  destructive,  after  which  they  begin  to  run 

CABBAOB-BARK.    See  Akdira. 
CABBAGE-BUG.     See  Cabsagb-insects. 

CABBAGB-BUTTBRFLY,  a  name  given 
to  several  spedes  of  butterfly,  which  deposit 
their  eggs  on  cabbage-leaves,  hence  called 
Brassicarxa;  for  example,  Pierii  brastica. 

CABBAGE-FLY,     a     species     of     insect 

SAnlhgmyia  brasiica)  of  the  same  family 
Museida)  as  the  house-flv,  larvx  of  which 
prey  upon  the  roots  of  cabbages,  and  to  the 
same  genus  as  the  tumip-flif  and  the  potato-fly. 
The  Anthomyia  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  earth, 
and  the  different  species  receive  different  names 
according  to  the  particular  roots  upon  which 
the  larvae  feed,  in  which  they  produce  disease. 
CABBAGE-INSECTS,  certain  insects  in- 
jurious to  the  cabbage,  some  of  which  also  prey 
on  the  radish.  Tne  harlequin  cabbage-bug 
(Mur^antia  iustnonica')  destroys  in  the  South- 
eim  States,  by  its  punctures,  cabbages,  turnips, 
radishes,  mustard,  etc.  It  is  a  black  and  or- 
ange-colored bug.  The  newly-hatched  insect  is 
pale  green  marked  with  black,  but  with  succes- 
sive molts  takes  on  certain  orange  markings. 
The  eggs  hatch  on  the  third  or  fourth  day  after 
laying,  and  the  young  bugs  go  through  all  their 
molts  and  are  ready  for  reproduction  in  about 
two  weeks.  There  are  many  generations  in 
the  course  of  the  summer;  and  on  the  advent 


of  winter  the  adult  insects  crawt  under  rubbish 
to  hibernate.  The  earliest  specimens  in  the 
spring  congregate  upon  mustard  and  early  rad' 
isfaes,  flying  later  to  cabbages.  The  very  young, 
as  well  as  the  old,  combine  to  destroy  the  plant, 
which  wilts  as  if  poisoned.  The  insect  u  very 
diflicult  to  kill,  so  that  destruction  of  the  over- 
wintering individual  is  the  important  point  to  be 
striven  tor.  Diluted  kerosene  emulsion  must 
be  ai^lied,  not  too  strong  to  ruin  cabbages. 
The  cateii)il1ar  of  the  cabbage-moth  (Pieris 
rapa)  and  its  cotweners  prey  on  cabbage  and 
turnip  leaves.  Cabbages  are  more  or  less  in- 
jured by  the  web-motb  {Plutclla  xylostella), 
the  lebra  caterpillar  {Mamestra  picta),  the  cab- 
bage root  fly  (Phorbia  brasiica),  the  cabbage- 


ifected  leaves  should  be  destroyed. 
CABBAGE-MOTH.       See      Ca>&age-Iit- 

SECT3. 

CABBAGE-PALH,  a  name  given  to  va- 
rious species  of  the  palm-tree,  from  the  circum- 
stance that  the  terminal  bud,  which  is  of  great 
size,  is  edible  and  resembles  cabbage,  as  the 
Oreodoxa  oleraeea,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies, 
the  simple  unbranched  stem  of  which  grows  to 
a  height  of  ISO  or  even  200  feet.  It  is  crowned 
by  a  head  of  large  pinnate  leaves.  The  flowers 
are  placed  on  a  branching  spadix  and  orotected 
by  a  double  spatfae.  Tlie  unopened  bud  of 
young  leaves  is  much  prized  as  a  vegetable^  but 
the  removal  of  it  completely  destroys  the  tree, 
as  it  is  unable  to  produce  lateral  buds.  Plycho- 
sferma  elegant  is  the  cabbage-palm  of  New 
South  Wales.  The  name  is  also  given  to  species 
of  Euterpe,  and  to  Sabal  palmetto,  a  Florida 

CABBAGE-ROSE,  a  spedes  of  rose 
{Rosa  centifolia\  of  many  varieties,  supposed 
to  have  been  cultivated  from  andent  times,  and 
eminently  fitted,  from  its  fragrance,  for  the 
manufacture  of  rose-water  and  attar.  It  has  a 
large,  rounded  and  compact  flower.  It  is  called 
also  Provence  (or  more  correctly  Frovins) 
rose,  from  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Seine-et-Mame,  where  it  is  much  cultivated. 

CABBAGE-TREE,  a  name  given  to  the 
cabbage-palm,  and  also  to  a  tree  of  the  genus 
Andira  (q.v.). 

CABBIRI,  ka-brri,  or  CABIRI,  heroes 
or  divinities,  venerated  by  the  andenis  in  Samo- 
thrace,  Lemnos,  and  in  different  parts  of  the 
coasts  of  Greece,  Phcenicia  and  Asia  Minor,  as 
the  authors  of  religion  and  the  founders  of  the 
human  race.  The  multiplicity  of  names  ap- 
plied to  the  same  character,  the  interchange 
of  the  names  of  the  divinities  themselves  with 
those  of  their  priests,  the  oracular  law  which 
enjoined  the  preservation  of  andent  barbaric 
names,  and  thus  led  to  a  double  nomenclature, 
sacred  and  profane,  tc^fether  with  the  profound 
secrecy  of  the  rites,  have  involved  the  subject 
in  great  obscurity.  Some  have  thought  that 
the  Eastern  myuiolo^  and  the  Druioism  of 
western  Europe  contain  traces  of  the  (Zabeiri. 
Some  say  there  were  six,  three  male  and  three 
female,  children  of  Vulcan  and  Cabira,  dai^h- 
ter  of  Proteus.  Others  make  two  sons  of  Ju^- 
ter  or  Bacchus.    In  Samothrace  four  were  vene- 


Google 


CABBLL  — CABXZA  DE  VACA 


IIT 


rated.     Recent  excavations  i 


:  Hiebes  have 


brought  to  lipht  much  information  on  the  cutt 
of  the  Cabein,  one  of  whom  has  been  identified 
with  Demeter.  The  mysteries  celebrated  there, 
in  the  obscurity  of  night,  were  the  most  famoui. 
Consult  Lobcek,  'Aglaophamus'  (Kdnigsberg 
1829) ;  Schomann,  'Gnechische  Altertumer' 
{Vol.  II,  BerUn  1894);  Preller,  'Gnechische 
Mythologie>  (Vol.  I,  Berlin  1894) ;  Weldcef, 
'Gnechische  Gotterlehre'  (Vols.  I  and  111, 
Gottingen  1857-62)  ;  Lenormant,  in  Daremberc 
and  Saglio,  'Dictionnaire  des  antiquit£s'  (Vol. 
I,  Paris  1892);  Rubensohn,  O.,  'Die  Mysterien- 
heili^iimer  in  Eleusis  und  Samothrake*  (1892)  ; 
Robinson,  'Greek  Inscriptionsfrom  Sardis'  (in 
American  Journal  of  Arehaoiogy,  2d  series,  17, 
1913;  365,  for  etymology). 

CABBLL,  William,  American  statesman: 
b.  Licking  Hole,  Va,  13  March  1730;  d.  Union 
Hill,  Va.,  23  March  1798.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Burgesses  of  Virginia  upon 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution;  took  an  active 
part  in  the  affairs  of  the  new  nation,  and  be~ 
tore  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  constitution 
was  presiding  magistrate  for  the  United  States 
in  Vir^nia. 

CABSLLO.    See  Posro  Cakua 

CABER,  the  undressed  stem  of  a  tree,  20 
or  more  feet  lon^,  used  for  trial  of  strength 
in  Scottish  athletic  games.  Ii  is  held  uprig:ht 
against  die  chest,  by  the  smaller  end,  and  tossed 
so  as  to  strike  t^e  ground  with  the  heavier  end 
and  turn  over.  The  contestant  making  the 
tardiest  toss  with  the  straightest  fall  is  winner. 

CASES,  ka'bts,  or  GABES,  Africa,  a 
town  and  port  of  the  French  protectorate  of 
Tunis.  It  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  Jebel  Ham- 
arra-  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Wad-er-rif,  near 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Cabes,  and  may  be  said 
to  consist  of  several  villages.  It  contains  an 
Arabic  school,  a  French  gar  '  .  ■     .^ 


Gulf  of  Cabes  (Syrtis  Minor)  has  at  its  en- 
trance the  islands  of  Kerkenna  and  Jerba  Its 
chief  seaport  is  Sfax.    Pop.  of  Cabes,  20,000. 

CABBSTAING,  kaVs-tfin',  GnUlaame  de, 
Provencal  poet  and  knight:  d.  about  1213.  Ac- 
cording to  Boccaccio  in  the  ninth  tale  of  the 
fonrth  daj^  of  the  'Decameron,'  Cabestaing 
was  the  victim  in  the  legend  of  the  'eaten 
heart,*  which  originated  in  Oriental  literature, 
and  is  also  told  of  C3iatelain  de  Coucy,  a  French 
troubadour,  and  of  Reinmann  von  Brennenberg, 
a  German  minnesinger.  In  1212  Cabestaing 
fought  in  the  famous  Christian  victory  over 
the  Moors  at  Las  Navas.  He  loved  and  was 
beloved  of  Marguerite,  wife  of  Raymond  of 
Chiteau- Ron ssi lion.  In  jealousy  the  husband 
murdered  the  poet-knigfa^  tore  out  his  heart, 
had  it  cooked  and  served  in  a  meal  to  his  wife. 
When  he  told  her,  she  replied  'Since  I  have 
eaten  such  noble  food,  I  shall  never  eat  any 
other,*  and  leaping  from  a  balcony,  killed  her- 
self. A  selection  of  Cabestaing's  verse  is  found 
in  Raynouard's  collection. 

CABBT,  ka'-bS',  tftlenne,  French  com- 
munist: b.  Dijon,  2  Jan.  1788;  d  Saint  Louis 
Mo..  9  Nov.  1856.  He  was  brought  up  for  the 
bar,  and  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  Cor- 
sica, from  which  office,  however,  he  was  soon 
^smissed.     He  was   sent  to  the  Chamber  of 


Deputies  in  July  1831,  and  there  made  himself 
so  obnoxious  to  the  government  by  his  violent 
speeches,  and  at  the  same  time  by  his  inflamma- 
tory pamphlets  and  a  journal  entitled  La  Popn- 
loire,  that  he  was  indicted  for  treason,  and 
rather  than  subject  himself  to  the  imprisonment 
to  which  he  was  sentenced,  withdrew  for  five 
years  to  England.  While  there  he  published 
the  'Voyages  et  aventures  de  lord  Carisdall  en 
Icarie,'  in  which  he  elaborated  his  scheme  of 
communism,  which  from  1842  to  1848  passed 
through  five  editions.  He  began  again  to  pub- 
lish La  Populaire  in  1841,  and  circulated  it 
widely  among  the  working  classes.  He  also 
issued  an  Icarian  almanac,  several  pamphlets 
and  a  work  on  Christianiw,  which  would  restore 
social  equality  as  taught  by  the  early  Christians 
and  opposes  modern  ecctesiastidsm.  He  also 
wrote  a  history  of  the  French  Revolution  from 
1739  to  1830  which  appeared  in  five  volumes. 
On  2  Feb.  1848,  a  band  of  Icarians  left  France 
for  the  Red  River  in  Texas,  where  Cabet  had 
secured  a  tract  of  400,000  acres  of  land,  the  free 
use  of  which  was  open  to  the  settlers,  under 
condition  that  before  their  departure  they 
should  deposit  all  their  funds  in  the  hands  of 
Cabet,  who  assumed  the  financial  and  general 
control  of  the  expedition.  But  the  expedition 
turned  out  badly,  and  lawsuits  were  instituted 
against  Cabet;  and  on  30  Sept.  1849,  after  he 
had  left  Francw  for  Texas,  he  was  found  guilty 
by  default  of  swindUng  hia  disciples,  and  sen- 
tenced to  two  years'  imprisonment.  Meanwhile, 
with  his  colony  of  Icarians  much  reduced  in 
number,  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Nauvoo,  on  the 
Mississipi^  in  May  ISSO,  and  soon  after  re- 
turned )o  Paris.  There,  after  a  protracted  tfial, 
his  innocence  was  fully  established,  26  July  1851, 
tV    the    Court   of   Appeal,    and    the   judgment 

X'nst  him  canceled.  He  returned  to  Nauvoo, 
re  he  continued  to  preside  over  his  colony 
but  many  disappcuntments  and  cares  embittered 
his  Hfe  and  accelerated  Us  death.  In  justice  to 
Cabet  it  should  be  said  that  the  hi^est  moral 
tone  prevailed  in  Nauvoo,  and  whatever  may  be 
the  politico-economical  objections  to  his  sys- 
tem, the  colony  presented,  as  far  as  the  conduct 
of  the  settlers  was  concerned,  a  model  of  puripr 
and  industry.  Consult  Shaw,  'Icaria:  A  Stu<7 
in  Communistic  History'  (New  York  18S4) ; 
Lux,  'Etienne  Cabet  und  der  ikarische  Com- 
munisimus'  (Stuttgart  1897) ;  Prudhommeaux, 
'Icarie  et  son  fondateur,  E.  Cabet'  (Paris  1907). 
CABEZA  DE  VACA,  ka-ba'th^  dA  valca, 
Alvir  NnSez,  Spanish  explorer:  b.  Jerez  de  la 
Frontera  1490;  d.  about  1S64.  He  was  sec- 
ond in  command  in  the  ill-fated  en>edition  of 
Pinfilo  de  Narvacz  to  Florida  in  1528.  After 
the  loss  of  their  commander,  C^beza  de  Vaca, 
with  a  few  survivors,  landed  west  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  after  eight  years  of 
wandering  and  captivity  among  the  Indians 
reached  a  Spanish  colony  on  the  Pacific  He 
returned  to  Spain,  and  in  1540  was  appointed 
governor  of  La  Plata.  He  explored  Paraguay, 
but  became  unpopular  with  the  colonists,  and 
after  a  defeat  by  the  Indians  was  arrested  on 
the  charge  of  one  of  his  subordinates,  returned 
to  Spain  (1544),  found  guilty  and  banished  to 
Africa,  Ejght  years  later  he  was  pardoned  and 
made  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  at  Seville. 
He  has  left  an  account  of  his  travels  and  ex- 
plorations  in    'Relacion   de  las  nanfragios  j 


[ig 


v  Google 


»»» 


CABKZON— jCABlNBT  AlfO  CABIHBT  OOVERNMBNT 


comentarioft*  in  the  *Co)eccUni  de  libros  y  doco- 
mcDlos  rcfercates  a  la  historia  de  America* 
(Vols.  Vi  and  VII,  Madrid  1906).  An  English 
translation  by  Buclon^uun  Smith  of  the  North 
American  stoty  >>  found  in  J.  F.  Jamesoi^ 
'Original  Narratives  of  Early  American  His- 
tory' (Vol.  II,  New  York  19(P).  and  in  Fanny 
fiaudelier,  ^Tourney  of  AJvar  Nufiec  Cabe» 
de  Vaca'  (id.  1905).  The  South  American  ac- 
count was  translated  by  L.  L.  Dominguez  for 
the  Hakluyt  Society  Publications  (Vol-  LXXXI, 
London  1891}.  Consult  Femandes  de  Oviedo, 
G.,  'Historia  general  y  natural  de  las  Icdias' 
(Madrid  t8S3; ;  Bancroft,  H.  H.,  'Histonr  of 
North  Amcncan  States  and  Texas'  (San 
Francisco  1884)  ;  Texas  Slalt  Historical  Asso- 
ciation Quarterly  (Vols.  I.  n.  in,  IV,  X,  Aus- 
tin 189^-1907):  Lowery,  W.,  'Spanish  Settle- 
ments within  the  Present  Limits  of  the  United 
State*  1513-6P  (New  York  1901). 


■mits  hreviceps,  occurring  in  seas  from  the 
West  Indies  to  Braiil,  and  bclongit^  to  the 
family  of  croakers,  or  Scitmidir.  It  reaches  a 
lengw  of  10  inches.  2.  Scorfimichlhys  tiidrffti>- 
raius,  a  member  of  the  Cottidt,  or  sculpins. 
It  is  foand  from  Pi%et  Sound  to  San  Biegot 
reaches  a  length  of  30  inches,  and  is  a  conunm 
food-fish,  but  its  fle^  is  coKne  and  toi^.  1. 
The  amoodi  cabeson  ILeU^c^hu  armotiu), 
Ulao  %  tcnipiii  of  the  Pacific  coast  4.  Porick- 
tkys  notatus,  a  member  of  the  Balrachoidida, 
found  from  Puget  Sound  to  Lower  California, 
which  reaches  »  length  of  15  inches  and  is 
sometimes  called  'singing- fish.* 

CABILLONUH.    See  Cnkuott-svti-SA&in. 

CABINDA,  k9-ben'd4,  or  KABINDA, 
Portuguese  West  Africa  (also  called  Angola), 
a  seaport  town  north  of  the  Kongo  River  in 
lat  5  30*  S.  It  is  the  most  important  place  in 
that  portion  of  Angola  separated  from  French 
KonKo  by  the  boundaries  assigned  by  treaty 
of  12  May  1886,  and  from  the  Belgian  Kon^ 
hv  those  prescribed  25  May  1891.  Its  trade  is 
chiefly  in  such  products  of  the  region  as  sugar, 
coffee,  cocoanuis  and  vegetable  oils.  Number 
of  inhabitants  about  10,00a 
'  CABIHKT  AND  CABINET  OOVBRN- 
UBNT.  The  word  cabinet  was  originalljr  ap- 
plied to  the  small  chambers,  closets  or  private 
apartments  in  which  sovereicfns,  ministers  and 
other  high  officials  consnltcd  their  trusted  ad- 
.visers.  In  modem  times,  where  used  in  counec- 
tion  with  governmental  affairs,  the  word  is  a 
collective  name  applied  to  the  leading  officers 
■of  stale  in  a  nmnber  of  coiistitutionar  govem- 
mepts .  who  act  as  a  body  of  advisers  to  the 
head  of  ^e  state  and  in  some  countries  as  the 
chief  executive  council  and  controller  of  legis- 
lation as  well.  While  usually  confined  to  the 
ministers  or  .department  heads  of  a  constitu- 
tional govemnient,  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
term  should  not  be  applied  also  to  the  chosen 
advisers  of  an.  absplute  monarch. 

Statoa  and  Fnnctioiia  of  Porelgn  Cab- 
inets.—  Cabinets  are, widely  divergent  in  their 
.powers  and  functions.,  That  of  England,  which 
ii  the  earliest  cabinet,  is  the  direct  antithesis  of 
'the  President's  Cabinet  in  the  United  Slates, 
'which  is  the  next  oldest,  though  the  two  cabi- 
nets are  similar  iti  tnis  respect,  that  they  are 


composed  entirely  (save  on  rare  occasions)  of 
members  of  the  dominant  poUtical  party,  se- 
locted  by  the  actual  head  of  the  state.  The 
constitutional  govcmments  of  Europe,  the  self- 
governing  British  colonies  and  Japan  have 
completely  or  imperfectly  accepted  and  ap- 
plied the  British  ^pe,  while  Switzerland  and 
the  Latin-American  republics  have  patterned 
theirs  after  that  of  the  United  States.  France, 
which  has  completely  accepted  the  theory  of 
Cabinet  government,  b  the  most  important  re- 
public which  has  an  actual  Cabinet  government 
m  its  modem  highly  developed  form.  Cabinets 
based  on  the  British  type  may  be  loosely  de- 
scribed as  executive  committees  of  the  legisla- 
tive bodies,  in  which  their  members  have  seats, 
before  which  they  expound  and  defend  the  leg- 
islative measures  they  prepare,  and  to  which 
they  are  directly  responsible  —  m  fact,  they  are 
•the  government.^  The  Cabinet  must  not  be 
confused  with  the  ministry.  All  members  of 
the  Cabinet  are  of  the  ministry — of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Commons  and  Lords  who  hold  of- 
fice under  the  government  and  who  retire  from 
office  when  the  government  goes  out  of  power, 
but  all  members  of  the  ministry  are  not  of  the 
Cabinet  Members  of  the  ministry  must  sup- 
port the  policies  adopted  by  the  Cabinet  —  vote 
with  the  government  as  regularly  as  Cabiitet 
Biinulers  —  but  they  have  no  voice  in  determin- 
ing these  policies.  See  Gseat  Bbitaim  — 
Cbown  ano  Cabikei;  Italt  —  Pouticai.  Aj>- 
HiNisTBATioK  and  Crown  and  Pakuaiunt. 

The  British  Cabinet,  a  shortened  name  for 
'c^net  council'  —  that  is,  a  council  held  in  the 
King's  cabinet,  or  private  room  —  gained  its 
name  under  Ccarles  1,  between  163(M0,  when 
It  was  ostensibly  a  committee  of  the  privy 
council  to  expedite  business,  but  in  reality  a 
few  of  the  Kln^s  favorites.  The  sovereign 
presided  at  its  deliberations,  and  it  was  not  until 
George  I  ascended  the  throne  (1714)— this 
King  being  unable  to  speak  the  English  lan- 
guage— that  it  became  the  practice  for  the  mon- 
arch no  longer  to  preside  over  its  meetings. 
But  the  kings  did  not  give  up  their  control  over 
the  power  of  appointing  the  great  officers  of 
state  without  a  long  and  bitter  struggle;  and 
it  was  not  till  George  Ill's  insanity  loosened  his 
hand  that  effective  control  by  ministers  can  be 
said  to  have  won  the  final  vKtory.  Even  then, 
and  during  the  early  19th  century,  its  unitv  had 
by  no  means  become  so  rigid  ma  now-;  cfuring 
me  latter  period  many  instances  occurred  of 
Cabinet  .member*  oppostng  the  measures  of 
the  majority,  and  even  oi  the  Premier,  and 
still  retatning  their  portfolios.  But  by  the 
'thirties  it  had  pretty  much  settled  into  its  pres- 
oit  constitution  and  rules.  An  important 
change  was  made  in  1782,  just  after  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution,  when  its  honorary  members 
were  dropped,  and  the  membership  confined  to 
■efficient"  members. —  officers  of  state  so  im- 
portant that  they  cannot  be  excluded  from  it, 
or  personalities  so  powerful  that  moribund  of- 
fices are  kept  constructively  alive  to  make,  place 
for  them.  There  is  no  absolute  limit  .to  the 
number  of  members,  but  custom  dictates  not 
.less  than  II,  and  the  necessity  of  coming  to 
some  agreement  and  transacting  business  pro- 
jiibits  its  being  much  in  excess  of  15.  TJhe  As- 
.quith  Coalition  Cabinet'  of  1915  conlained.  22 
members.  As  the  Premier's  duties  are  of  a 
general  character,  it  Is  unusual  under  modern 


d  6,  Google 


CABINET  AND  CABINET  GOVERNMENT 


conditions  that  he  assume  control  over  a  de- 
partment, and  he  (renerally  takes  the  oSice  of 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  which  is  practically 
a  sinecure.  There  ate  also  the  four  other  chief 
secretaries  of  state  —  for  war,  for  home  af- 
fairs, for  the  colonies  and  for  India;  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  the  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  the  Lord  Privy  Seal,  the  Lord  Presi- 
dent of  the  Privy  Council,  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
and  the  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland.  Tfce  last- 
named  may  or  may  not  be  included,  antf  the 
heads  of  other  departments  may  find  places  if 
desired.  The  Prime  Minister  is  the  head  of  the 
Cabinet;  he  selects  his  ministers,  enforces  har- 
mony and  concert  of  action  among  them,  and 
by  retiring,  whether  voluntarily  or  not,  renders 
imperative  their  resignation.  He  presides  at 
all  Cabinet  meetings  (the  deliberations  of  which 
are  secret)  but  has  no  legal  control  over  that 
body  or  its  individual  members.  Besides  being 
Premier,  he  may  hold  (xie  or  more  Rovern- 
mental  offices.  The  ministers  are  usually  men 
of  affairs,  successful  politicians  and  able  de- 
baters. If  they  cannot  defend  the  ^vernment's 
policy  on  the  floor  of  the  legislative  body,  the 
ministry  may  be  turned  out,  and  practical  in- 
capacity may  render  all  defense  of  no  avail. 
The  defection  of  a  Cabinet  minister  not  only 
involves  his  retirement  from  the  Cabinet  but 
also  from  the  office  held  by  him.  All  ministers 
have  the  ri^t  to  appear  in  the  le^slative  cham- 
ber and  to  discuss  measures  under  considera- 
tion; they  introduce  most  of  the  important  1^- 
islative  proposals  and  also  quite  effectually  con- 
trol the  proposals  of  orivate  members  by  making 
them  questions  of  coniidence  in  the  government 
or  ministry.  While  ministers  are  present  on 
the  floors  of  the  le^slative  chambers  the  en- 
tire policy  and  admmistration  of  the  Cabinet 
may  be  subjected  to  the  most  searching  review 


pellations  put  to  the  ministers  in  open 
(See  Gbeat  Britain  —  Pakuauent;  France  — 
Govesnuent).  In  some  of  the  countries  whicK 
have  followed  the  United  States  form  of  gov- 
ernment the  Cabinet  members  are  granted  a 
seat  in  the  legislature  for  purposes  of  govern- 
ment, if  not  of  voting.  In  the  Cabinet  svstem 
the  bead  of  the  state  in  whose  name  all  acts 
of  government  are  [lerformed  is  legally  irre- 
sponsible, the  responsibility  for  such  acts  being 
assumed  by  the  ministers  who  countersign  or 
otherwise  attest  their  approval  of  such  acts. 
The  Cabinet's  responsiKlity  for  all  govern- 
mental acts  is  enforced  by  the  legnslative  body 
by  means  of  votes  of  censure  or  of  lack  of  con- 
fidence or  by  defeating  the  legislative  meas- 
ures or  program  advocated  by  the  ministry.  In 
the  event  of  an  adverse  vote  on  their  proposals 
the  Cabinet^  must  either  resign  or  dissolve  the 


tive  and  the  ministry  stands  or  falls . 

or  unit.  But  in  England  the  fate  of  the  Cabi- 
net can  only  be  affected  by  the  censure  of  the 
House  of  Commons ;  the  censure  of  the  Lords 
can  have  no  adverse  effect. 

Hence  in  governments  patterned  after  the 
British  system  the  Cabinet  is  the  dominant 
power  in  the  State  and  renders  wholly  impos- 
sible the  se|>aration  of  powers,  which  forms  the 
basicprinciple  of  constitutional  aove mm ent. 

The  Americui  Cabinet,  or  ■'President's  Cab- 
inet,* has,  of  course,  grown  with  the  growth  of 


the  departments.  There  were  but  four  CaUnet 
oSicers  at  the  outset,  the  Secretaries  of  States 
of  War  and  of  the  TreaauiY.  with  the  Attorney- 
General.  Of  these,  following  the  English  tra- 
dition, in  which  from  necessity  foreign  affairs 
bad  held  the  highest  place,  me  secretaryship 
of  state  was  regarded  as  the  most  important 
and  honorable,  and  its  incumbent  was  consid- 
ered to  be  in  the  line  of  succession  for  the 
Presidency,  as  for  several  administrationi 
proved  to  be  the  case.  John  Quincy  Adams 
was  the  last  of  these,  and  he  appointed  his 
chief  rival,  Henry  Clay,  Secretary  of  State 
with  the  presidential  succession  in  view.  The 
same  notion  has  lingered  to  our  own  day  and 
caused  the  Secretary  of  State  to  be  termed  die 
'Premier^  of  an  administration;  in  itadf  an 
absurd  and  meaningless  term,  but  with  color 
given  to  it  by  the  preference  for  this  poet 
among  some  of  the  ablest  party  leaders  ambi- 
tious of  the  Presidency.    The  next  ofiicer  added 


General  was  raised  to  the  Cabinet,  thou^  the 
office  had  existed  35  years;  in  1S49  the  Secre- 
taryshi)>  of  the  Interior  was  created  and  made 
of  Cabinet  rank;  in  1889  was  added  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  in  1903  the  Secretary  of 
Commerce  and  Labor.  The  last-named  office 
was  divided  in  1913  into  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce and  the  Department  of  Labor,  and  the 
executive  heads  of  each  accorded  Cabinet  rank. 
In  accordance  vrith  Congressional  action  in 
1886  the  Cabinet  officers  mnk  in  order  of  suc- 
cession to  the  Presidency  as  follows :  Secretary 
of  State,  Secretary  of  War,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  Attorney- General,  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Secretary  of 
Commerce  and  Secretary  of  Labor.  It  will  be 
noted  that  after  the  origmal  four  the  others  are 
named  in  the  order  of  the  creation  of  tbeir  de- 
partments, not  of  their  elevation  to  Cabinet 

The  President's  Cabinet  cannot  properly 
speaking,  be  called  a  cabinet,  in  the  sense  of  a 
unified  body,  and  only  once  has  it  been  recog- 
nized by  statute. —  in  the  General  Appropria- 
tion Act  of  26  Feb.  1907,  where  it  is  called  by 
name  in  the  clause  fixing  the  salaries  of  its 
-members.  It  does  not  act  as  a  imit  and  has  no 
responsibility  as  a  unit.  The  word  is  merely 
a  popular  name  for  the  group  of  officers  in 
charge  of  the  great  branches  of  administra- 
tion,- whom  the  President  consults  individually 
or  collectirely  at  will  or  not  at  all.  A  more  ap- 
propriate term  for  the  President  and  his  ad- 
visers would  be  'administration,'  nnce  this  of 
itself  indicates  that  the  group  is  restricted  to 
the  field  of  taw  operating  and  not  concerned 
with  law  making,  thus  distin^shing  the  group 
from  the  British  Cabinet  which  combines  both 
functions  and  thus  may  properly  be  called  the 
"government."  The  President  is  the  hrad  and 
centre    of    the    administration,    possessing    all 

Kwer  of  direction,  short  of  suspending  the 
vs,  and  usually  co-operates  with  the  depart- 
ment heads  to  enforce  the  principles  of  the 
party  in  power.  There  are  no  gradations  of 
authority,  the  departments  being  equal  in  their 
subordination,  and  no  means  of  inter-connection, 
save  as  they  grow  out  of  the  Cabinet  council. 
The  department  heads  have  nothing  to  do  with 
legislation,    and   \j   law   are  prohibited  from 


.Google 


180 


CABINBTICAKINQ 


bang  members  of  the  l^slative  bodv  (Art.  I, 
Sec  VI,  IT  2  of  tfae  Constitution).  Hetlce  the 
privilege  of  debate  and  even  of  personal  com- 
munication with  Congress  as  a  body  has  been 
withheld  from  department  heads. 

The  Cabinet  members  are  responsible  only 
to  the  President  in  the  sense  that  they  are 
called  to  office  by  him  and  are  subject  to  hi* 
dismissal  at  any  tinM,  whereas  the  President 
is  responsible  to  the  country  by  popular  elec- 
tion. The  President  very  seldom  endeavors  to 
direct  ordinary  department  operations,  but 
practical  necessity  has  clothed  the  secretaries 
with'  a  measure  of  authority  and  discretion. 
Hence,  as  department  heads,  the  Cabinet  offi* 
cers  are  morally  responsible  to  Congress  and 
indirectly  to  the  country  for  the  conduct  of 
the  affairs  of  their  separate  departments.  They 
are  liable  to  censure  and  impeachment,  and 
conviction  on  impeachment  means  removal 
from  office,  which  also  results  actually  thou^ 
not  technicallv  from  a  vote  of  censure.  Ap- 
poinbnents  of  Cabinet  officers  are  subject  to 
tlie  approval  of   the  Senate,  which  is   rarely 


the  Tenure-of-Office  Act  of  1867  (q.v.)  was 
an  exception  but  this  act  was  repeaied.  In 
forming  his  Cabinet,  the  President  usually  en- 
deavors to  strengthen  his  administration  po- 
litically by  observing  a  code  of  geographical 
and  other  rules,  distributing  his  appointments 
to  cultivate  doubtful  sections  or  to  reward 
party  strongholds.  In  early  times  the  Catunet 
changed  with  the  party,  but  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  powers  of  appointment  and  remo^ 
the  Cabinet  comes  into  office  with  the  Presi- 
dent and  retires  with  him.  While  in  foreign 
countries  abihty  to  debate,  personal  prestige 
and  political  sagacity  are  usuallj^  essential  to 
cabinet  appointments,  the  reverse  is  true  of  the 
President's  Cabinet.  The  President  may  fill 
the  various  portfolios  with  totally  unknown 
men,  in  reliance  on  their  unproved  abiUties, 
without  serions  rislc,  and  some  of  these  ap- 
pointments have  been  eminently  successfuL 
The  Secretary  of  State  is  usually  selected  with 
the  greatest  care,  since  he  is  regarded  as  the 
head  of  the  Cabinet  in  influence  and  follows 
the  Vice-President  in  the  presidential  succes- 
sion, but  be  has  neither  the  powers  nor  the  in- 
fluence of  the  European  Premier,  these  residing 
in  the  President  and  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Representatives. 

Cabinet  meetings  are  frequent,  occurring 
twice  a  week  (Tuesday  and  Friday)  when  the 
President  is  at  the  seat  of  government.  The 
procedure  resembles  a  conference  of  a  board 
of  directors,  the  nature  of  the  discussions  de- 
pending upon  the  President.  Sometimes  they 
degenerate  into  mere  discussions  of  routine 
afl^rs  connected  with  the  various  departments. 
There  is  no  question  as  to  what  officers  shall 
sit  in  the  Cabinet  nor  can  outsiders  mix  in  its 
councils;  at  times,  however,  outside  persons 
with  information  to  impart  have  met  with  it, 
but  this  is  regarded  more  as  a  special  consulta- 
tion than  as  a  Cabinet  meeting.  The  Presi- 
dent's position  as  head  of  his  party  necessibtea 
advisers  outside  his  official  household ;  and 
oftentimes  he  has  certain  intimates  not  con- 
nected with  the  ^vemment  on  whom  he  de- 
pends for  impartial  and  unbiased  opinions  on 
matters  of  special  importance  to  the  country. 


Since  Jackson's  time  these  advisers  have  not 
attained  such  infinence  as  to  receive  the  title 
■Kitchen  Cabinet.*  Cabinet  opinions  carry 
weight  according  to  the  personality  of  the 
President  and  secretaries  and  surroundic^ 
conditions.  As  previously  stated  the  President 
is  not  obliged  to  consult  the  Catunet  but  is 
expected  to  do  so.  As  a  rule,  however,  he 
consults  it  regarding  matters  of  grave  public 
importance  and  very  seldom  takes  action  re- 
garding departmental  affairs  without  first,  con- 
sulting the  several  department  heads. 

The  term  cabinet  is  sometimes  applied  in  the 
United  States  to  the  heads  of  State  departments 
advisory  to  the  governor,  but  this  is  even  less 
juitifiablc  than  its  apiriication  to  the  Presi- 
drat's  advisers,  since  the  State  officers  are 
elected  by  the  people  on  the  same  ticket  with 
the  ^vemor  and  the  latter  has  no  power  of 
appomtment  or  dismissal  Its  use  in  connec- 
tion with  the  municipal  officers  accessory  to  a 
mayor  has  some  justification,  as  many  of  these 
officers  are  appointed  by  him. 

The  histoiv  of  the  national  executive  de- 

ertments  ana  of  the  President's  Cabinet  will 
found  imdcr  the  title  United  States  — Be- 
GiNHiNG  OF  Executive  Departments  of  the 
and  The  Cabinet  of  the;  also  the  depart- 
ments by  name.  In  this  connection  see  also 
Congress;  Concession  at.  Goveenucnt;  Ex- 
ECtJTivE  AND  CONtaESs;  The  United  States  — 
The  PREsnwNT's  Office;  The  Vice-Presi- 
iWNCY,  and  The  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Refbesektattves. 

Bibliogrlphj.— Anson,  W.  R.,  'The  Law 
and  Custom  of  the  Constitution*  (4th  ed.,  Ox- 
ford 1909),  and  <The  Growth  and  Develop- 
ment  of  the  British  Constitution'  (Loadon 
1912);  Bagehot,  W.,  'The  English  (Jonstitu- 
tion>  (2d  ed,  London  and  Boston  1873)  ;  Blau- 
velt,  M.  T.,  'Development  of  Cabinet  Govern- 
ment in  England'  (New  York  1902)  ;  Bodley. 
J.  E.  C,  'France,*  Vol.  II,  Bk  3  (London 
1898)  ;  Bryce,  James,  'The  American  Common- 
wealtii'    (rev.   ed.,    New   York    1914)  ;    Knley, 

LH.,  and  Sanderson,  J.  F^  'The  American 
ecutive  and  Executive  Methods'  (New  York 
1906)  ;  Gamer,  J.  W.,  'Introduction  to  Political 
Science.  Op.  180-189  (New  York  1910)  ; 
Hinsdale,  U.  L.,   'History  of  the   President's 


England'  (London  1904) ;  Lowell,  A.  L., 
says  on  Government'  (Boston  1889),  'The 
Government  of  England'  (rev.  ed..  New  York 
1912),  and  '(governments  of  France,  Italy  and 
Germany'  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1914) ;  Toddi 
Alpheus,  'On  Parliamentary  (jovernmcnt  in 
England'  (London  1867);  Traill,  H.  D.,  'Cen- 
tral Government'  (2d  ed.,  London  1908);  Wil- 
son, Woodrow,  'Tile  President  of  the  United 
States'  {New  York  1916). 

Irving  K  Rines. 
CABINSTHAKIHG,  ffie  industry  of  mak- 
ing artistic  furniture,  fine  inlaid  woodwork, 
sucb  as  cabinets,  sideboards,  picture  and  photo- 
graphic frames,  tables,  ornamented  bedsteads 
and  other  articles  for  household  and  interior 
building  decoration,  cabinet  organs,  cabinet 
pianofortes,  cabinet  of  arms,  books,  etc.  A 
cabinet,  specifically,  b  a  piece  of  furniture  with 
shelves  or  drawers,  or  both,  or  umply  cup- 


[ig 


vGooglc 


CABIRI— CASLE 


121 


bo&rds  enclosed  vithin  doors ;  and  these  usually 
range  from  those  of  plain  and  chaste  style  to 
those  of  a  highly  ornamented  character,  dec- 
orated with  carving,  inlaying,  marquetry,  lacquer. 
painting,  porcelain  insets  and  medallions,  enamel 
or  metal  appliquts.  Cabinetmaking  also  com- 
prises fine  and  ornamental  joinery,  interior 
wood  finish,  paneling  and  lattice  work,  etc., 
with  thrir  adjuncts  of  varnishing  and  polishing. 
The  art  of  cabinetmaking  is  said  to  have  orig- 
inated in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  in  Italy 
and  soon  spread  to  France,  Germany,  the 
Netherlands  and  Spaki,  the  craftsmen  of  these 
nationalities  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries, 
and  English  cabinetmakers  in  the  18th  century, 
rivaling  each  other  in  the  design  and  production 
of  sumptuous,  monumental  and  costly  articles 
of  furniture,  Antwerp  notably  from  the  16th 
century  became  famous  for  its  output  Historic 
names  among  cabinetmakers  are  those  of 
fioulle,  Pierre  and  Andr6  Charles,  and  Jean 
Mace,  Frenchmen,  and  Chippendale,  En^ish. 
See  BUHLwoiK;  Joinery;  Wooo-CAKviMa 

CABIRI.     See  Cabeiri. 

CABLE,  Georffe  WMhington,  American 
novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer :  b.  New  Or- 
l^ns,  La.,  12  Oct.  1S44.  His  father  died  when 
he  was  14  years  of  age,  and  he  bad  to  leave 
school  and  seek  employment  as  a  clerk  in  order 
to  assist  in  the  support  of  his  mother  and  sis- 
ters. In  1863  he  joined  the  Confederate  aimy 
as  soldier  in  a  cavalry  regiment,  and  served 
tilt  the  conclusion  of  the  Civil  War,  when  he 
returned  to  New  Orleans  and  again  took  to 
commercial  life.  But  in  1879,  being  by  this  time 
a  practised  writer,  and  having  had  considerable 
success  with  his  literary  ventures,  he  decided  to 
devote  himself  entirety  to  authorship.  In  1684 
he  took  up  his  residence  in  Massachusetts, 
where  be  has  ori^nated  a  inrstem  of  *home 
culture  clubs,*  since  developed  into  the 
People's  Institute.  Mr.  Cable  is  a  member 
of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Let- 
ters and  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences.  His  first  important  book,  'Old 
Creole  Days'  (1879),  appeared  originally  in 
Scribner's  Magasine;  and  since  its  publication 
he  has  written  <The  Grandissimes'  (1880) ; 
•Madame  Delphine>  (1881);  'The  Creoles  of 
Louisiana*  (1884),  a  history;  'Dr.  Sevier* 
(1884) ;  <The  Silent  South'  (1885).  a  plea  for 
the  negro;  'Bonaventure'  (1888);  'The  Negro 
Question'  (1888);  'Strange  True  Stories  of 
Louisiana*  (1889);  'John  March*  (1894); 
'Strong  Hearts';  <The  Cavalier'  (1901);  'By- 
low  Hill'  (1902);  'Kincaid's  Battery'  (1908); 
<Posson  Jone>  and  Tin  Raphael*  (1909); 
•Gideon's  Band'  (1914);  'The  Amateur  Gar- 
den' (1914).  The  chief  interest  of  Mr.  Cable's 
novels  lies  in  their  excellent  descriptions  of 
Creole  life,  a  subject  which  he  may  be  said  to 
have  introduced  into  literature.  His  pictures  of 
negro  life  are  equally  effective,  and  tie  handles 
dialect  in  a  masterly  manner.  See  Grandis- 
81UES,  The;  Old  Cbeolb  Days. 

CABLE,    a    large, 

.Jiain  used  as  a  mooring  .._.     ..    ..    _ 

frequently  used  in  its  nautical  sense  to  desig- 
nate the  means  by  which  a  ship  is  connected 
with  her  anchor,  ilie  large  ropes  used  for 
towing,  or  for  making  a  vessel  fast  to  a  buoy 
or  pier,  are  commonly  known  as  hawsers.    In 


more  recent  times  the  term  cable  has  been  ex- 
panded to  include  also  the  large  suspensory- 
ropes  (usually  of  twisted  or  parallel  wires) 
from  which  suspension  bridges  are  hung;  the 
endless  ropes  used  to  operate  the  kind  of  street 
cars  commonly  called  cable  cars  or  grip  cars; 
the  suspended  wire  ropes  known  as  cableways, 
for  the  transport  of  goods,  building  materials, 
etc.;  the  groups  of  telephone  wires  placed  in 
underground  conduits  or  strung  overhead  in 
leaden  casings;  the  wires  for  bi^  voltage  elec- 
tric transmission;  the  undersea  telegraph  con- 
ductors, and,  in  fact,  any  very  strong  flexible 
tension  connection.  Rope  cables  are  made  of 
hemp,  manila  or  other  fibre,  or  of  wire,  twisted 
into  a  line  of  great  compactness  and  strength. 
The  circumference  of  hemp  rope  varies  from 
3  to  26  inches.  A  certain  number  of  yarns  arc 
laid  up  left-handed  to  form  a  strand;  three 
strands  laid  up  righi4ianded  make  a  hawser; 
and  three  hawsers  laid  up  left-handed  make  a 
cable.  The  strength  of  a  hemp  cable  of  18 
inches  circumference  is  about  60  tons,  and  for 
other  dimensions  the  strength  is  taken  to  vary 
according  to  the  cube  of  the  diameter.  Wire 
rope  has  within  recent  years  largely  taken  the 

Elace  of  hemp  for  tow  lines  and  hawsers  on 
oard  sbi^.  These  usually  consist  of  six 
strands,  laid  or  spun  around  a  hempen  core, 
each  strand  consisting  of  six  wires  laid  the 
contrary  way  around  a  smaller  hempen  core. 
The  wires  are  galvanized  or  coated  with  a 
preservative  composition.  Wire  ropes  are 
usually  housed  on  board  ship  by  winding  them 
round  a  special  reel  or  drum.  Hemp  cables, 
moreover,  have  for  long  been  almost  wholly 
superseded  by  chain  cables;  the  introduction 
of  steam  on  board  ship  having  brought  in  its 
train  the  powerful  steam  windlass  wherewith 
to  manipulate  the  heaviest  chains  and  anchors 
required. 

Chain  cables  are  made  in  links,  the  length 
of  each  being  {generally  about  six  diameters  of 
the  iron  of  which  it  is  made,  and  the  breadth 
about  three  and  one-half  diameters.  They  are 
generally  of  eight  lengths  of  15  fathoms  each 
connected  by  swivels  to  prevent  twisting.  There 
arc  two  distinct  kinds  of  chain  cables  —  the 
stud-like  chain,  which  has  a  tie  or  stud  welded 
from  side  to  side  of  the  long  link,  and  the 
short-link  or  unstudded  chain.  The  cables  for 
use  in  the  mercantile  service  are  made  in  15- 
fathom  lengths,  but  in  government  contracts 
chain  cables  are  required  to  be  made  in  12^- 
fathom  lengths,  with  one  swivel  in  the  middle 
of  every  alternate  length,  and  one  joining- 
shackle  in  each  length.  Besides  the  ordinary 
links  and  joining- shackles,  there  are  end-links, 
splicing-tails,  mooring- swivels  and  ben  ding- 
swivels.  The  sizes  of  chain  cables  are  denoted 
by  the  thickness  of  rod  iron  employed  in 
forging  the  links.  The  following  table  gives 
certain  ascertained  data  concerning  the  cables 
in  ordinary  use : 


"^f^: 

Wd^t 

^t&. 

Itnin 

11 : 

n  • 

.1? 

S  : 

Jtlta. 
St    • 

2  2     ' 

99     • 
126     ■ 

:,  Google 


Compared  with  the  strniKth  of  hempen 
cable,  a  chain  cable  of  one  inch  diameter  of  rod 
is  equivalent  to  a  hemp  cable  10{^  inches  in 
circumference;  IW  inches,  to  13J4  inches;  1J4 
inches,  to  16  inches;  IJi  inches,  to  18  inches; 
and  2  inches,  to  24  indies.  In  navigation  a 
cable's  Icng^  is  a  nautical  measure  of  distance 
e(|ualins  120  fathoms,  or  720  feet,  by  which  the 
distances  of  ships  in  a  fleet  are  frequently  esti- 
mated. This  term  is  often  misunderstood.  In 
aU  marine  charts  a  cable  is  deemed  607.56  feet, 
or  one-tenth  of  a  sea  mile.  In  rope-making  the 
cable  varies  from  101  to  US  fathoms;  cablet, 
120  fathoms;  hawser-laid,  130  fathoms,  as  de- 
termined by  the  British  Admiralty.  According 
to  Ure  a  cable's  length  is  100  to  140  fathoms  in 
the  merchant  service.  The  wire  rope  used  for 
submarine  telegraphy  is  also  called  a  cable.  See 
Gules,  Submarine. 

CABLE,  Snbmarine  specially  con- 
structed ropes  of  wire,  hemp  and  gutta-percha, 
or  other  waterproofing  and  protecting  materials, 
laid  on  ocean  or  river  beds  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  means  of  electrical  communication 
across  large  bodies  of  water. 

Until  the  discovery  of  gutta-percha  such 
communication  was  impossible,  as  water  is  so 
good  a  conductor  of  electricity  that  the  sub- 
mersion of  current-carrying  wires  was  de- 
pendent upon  complete  insulation.  In  this  gum, 
however,  such  a  perfect  insulator  was  found 
that  submarine  qommunication  all  over  the 
world  became  merely  a  question  of  time,  ex- 

Srience  and  necessity.  In  1843  Prof.  S.  F.  B. 
orsc  suggested  electrical  communication  be- 
tween the  Untied  States  and  Great  Britain,  but 
it  was  not  until  more  than  20  years  had  passed 
that  practical  telegraphy  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  was  established. 

Barly  Cables^- The  hrst  under-water 
cables  were  short  ones  laid  across  rivers ;  later 
the  English  Channel  was  electrically  ■bridged' 
in  this  manner.  In  1S52  Dover  and  Ostend 
were  connected  by  a  cable  75  miles  long  and 
containing  six  wires.  In  1854  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark, Italy  and  Corsica,  and  Corsica  and  Sar- 
dinia were  linked.  In  the  same  year  the  New 
York,  Newfoundland  &  London  Telegraph 
Company  was  incorporated,  mainly  through 
the  efforts  of  Cyrus  W.  Field  and  Peter 
Cooper,'of  New  York,  for  the  purpose  of  lay- 
ing a  cable  between  Newfoundland  and  Ireland, 
a  distance  of  about  2,000  miles.  It  received  a 
charter  from  the  Newfoundland  legislature, 
with  an  exclusive  ri^^t  for  50  years  to  establish 
a  telegraph  between  the  American  continent 
and  Europe  via  Newfoundland.  In  1856  Cape 
Ray  and  Cape  Breton  were  united,  as  well  as 
Prmce  EJlward's  Island  and  New  Brunswick. 
The  same  year  Mr.  Field  organized  the  Atlantic 
"Telegraph  Company.  It  was  supported  by  both 
the  United  States  and  British  governments,  but 
the  results  of  its  efforts  were  discouraging  for 
several  years.  In  August  1857  an  attempt  was 
made  to  lay  a  cable  bv  the  American  frigate 
Niagara  and  the  British  ship-of-war  Agamem- 
non, but  about  300  miles  from  the  Irish  coast 
the  cable  parted,  owing  to  a  strain  caused  by  a 
sudden  dtp  of  the  sea-bottom.  In  1858  the 
same  two  ships,  each  with  half  the  cable  on 
board,  steamed  to  a  point  in  the  Atlantic  mid- 
way between  Valcntia,  Ireland,  and  Heart's 
Content,   Trinity  Bay,   Newfoundland,  spliced 


the  cable,  and,  steering  in  opposite'  directions, 
safely  landed  the  ends  at  their  destinations  on 
5  August.  The  cable  was  2,500  miles  in  length, 
weighed  about  one  too  per  mile  and  cost  $1,^6,- 
250.  It  was  composed  of  seven  copper  wires 
encased  in  gutta-percha,  which  in  turn  was 
surrounded  by  a  covering  of  hemp  saturated 
with  oil,  pitch  and  beeswax;  the  whole  being 
protected  by  an  outer  sheath  composed  of  18 
strands  of  seven  iron  wires  each.  Despite  the 
success  in  laying,  however,  the  cable  was  prac- 
tically useless.  The  current  was  so  weak  that 
a  message  of  90  words  from  Queen  Victoria 
to  President  Buchanan  took  67  minutes  to  trans- 
mit, and  after  a  few  more  messages  the  cable 
ceased  to  transmit  signals.  Two  more  cables 
were  laid  in  diis  year  to  connect  Great  Britain 
with  the  Continent, —  one  to  Holland  and  the 
other  to  Hamwer;  and  1859  saw,  among  other 
cable  connections,  the  joining  of  England  with 
Denmark  and  France,  and  of  Malta  with  Sicily. 
Jn  1860  a  cable  was  laid  between  France  and 
Algiers,  and  in  1661  Malta  was  connected  with 
Alexandria  and  Batavia  with  Singapore.  Fail- 
ures were  met  with  in  attempts  to  lay  cables 
through  the  Red  Sea  and  from  Faltnouth  to 
Gibraltar,  and  these,  with  the  ill-success  of  the 
Atlantic  cable,  caused  great  disappointment  tp 
the  promoters  of  the  latter  enterprise.  Capitu 
seemed  to  have  made  up  its  mind  that  a  success- 
ful cable  across  the  Atlantic  was  impossible. 
In  1665,  however,  another  cable  of  2,300  miles 
and  weighing  4,000  tons,  was  shipped  on  the 
Great  Eaitem,  and  was  successfully  paid  out 
for  1,065  miles  from  Valentia,  when  it  broke, 
and  was  abandoned  after  vain  attempts  to 
grapple  the  lost  end.  The  following  year  the 
Great  Eastern  sailed  with  a  lighter  but  stronger 
cable  of  2,370  miles  and  laid  it  successfully. 
She  then  grappled  the  lost  cable  of  the  year 
before,  recovenng  it  from  a  depth  of  two  miles, 
spliced  it  and  completed  the  task  by  landing 
the  end  at  Heart's  Content. 

Adnjux  in  Cable-I^yinc. —  With  two 
cables  now  linking  America  and  Great  Britain, 
confidence  was  restored,  and  the  manufacture 
and  successful  laying  of  submarine  cables  went 
on  at  a  rapid  rate.  In  1860  a  line  was  laid 
from  Brest,  France,  to  Saint  Pierre,  New- 
foundland (a  distance  of  3,100  miles),  by  a 
French  company.  In  1873  a  cable  joined  the 
cities  of  Lisbon  and  Pemambuco,  and  in  1874 
and  1875  two  more  cables  were  laid  between 
Valentia  and  Heart's  Content.  The  latter 
weighed  less  than  900  pounds  per  mile.  Another 
line  from  Penzance,  Cornwall,  to  Saint  Pierre, 
2,920  miles,  was  laid  in   1879,  and  one   from 


Meanwhile  an  incident  had  occurred  which 
greatly  influenced  the  expansion  of  submarine 
cable  systems.  In  1870  the  British  govertiment 
purchased  the  entire  land  telegraph  system  of 
the  British  Isles,  and  the  capil^  thus  liberated, 
about  $50,000,000,  was  largely  reinvested  in 
submarine  cable  ventures.  In  1872  a  number  of 
small  competing  companies  with  Hnes  throui^ 
tbe  Mediterranean  were  consolidated  into  the 
Eastern  Telegraph  Company,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  the  Eastern  Extension,  Australasian 
&  Ctiina  Telegraph  Company  was  formed  by 
the  amalgamation  of  companies  owning  cables 
farther  east.  Since  then  the  Eastern,  Eastern 
Extension    and    Associated    Cable    companies 


d=,  Google 


have  become  practKaUy  one  immense  organize- 

In  1884  J<An  W.  Mackay  an4  James  Gor^ 
don  Bennett  organized  a  cable  system  across 
the  Atlantic  from  Valentia  to  Torbay,  N.  S.,  in 
the  interests  of  the  Commercial  Cable  Company 
and  the  New  York  Herald.  Consolidation  of 
competing  companies  fallowed  as  a  matter  of 
course,  and  now  there  are  practically,  besides 
the  French  lines,  but  two  cotopettng  cable  com- 
panies in  the  north  Atlantic  field  —  the  An^lo- 
American  and  the  Commercial  Cable  companies. 
There  are  now  IS  cables  between  North  Amer- 
ica and  Europe,  some  of  which  run  into  New 
York  harbor.  The  cables  of  1858,  1865  and 
1866  are  'dead,'  and  three  others  have  but  a 
brief    tenure   of    life.      Nine    are    "alive'   and 

About  1902  France  undertook  to  lay  cables 
to  connect  her  colonies,  and  now  has  over 
12.000  miles  in  operation.  A  little  later  the 
Commercial  Cable  Company  laid  its  fourth 
line  to  connect  New  York  and  Londoiy  by  way 
of  Rodqiort.  Mass.,  Canso,  N.  S.,  ana  Water- 
ville,  Iceland.  The  European  War  put  a  check 
on  cable-layins  for  several  years. 

Pacific  Cables.—  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
Commercial  Company  has  constructed  a  cable 
6,912  miles  long  and  costing  $12,000,000;  laid 
from  San  Francisco,  via  Honolulu,  the  Mid- 
way Islands  and  Guam  to  Manila,  in  the  Philip; 
pines,  with  an  ultimate  extension  to  Shanghai 
or  Hongkong.  The  .first  section,  from  San 
Francisco  to  Honolulu,  2,413  miles,  was  opened 
1  Jan.  1903.  This  section  is  the  most  hazardous 
on  the  route,  depressions  of  5,160  and  5,269 
fathoms  having  been  encountered,  and  the  pro- 
file displaying  mountains  o£  immense  elevation 
and  valleys  of  corresponding  dnith.  A  level 
plain,  with  an  average  depth  of  2,700  fathoms, 
extends  throughout  the  second  section,  from 
Honolulu  to  the  Midway  Islands,  the  bottom 
being  of  soft  mud  and  extremely  favorable  for 
cable-^ing.  Thence  toward  Guam  an  average 
o£  3,200  fathoms  is  found,  and  favorable  con- 
ditions are  maintained  throufriiouL  The  last 
section  is  similar  in  its  profile  to  the  first, 
though  the  depth  averages  less,  being  from 
1,400  to  2,700  fathoms.  The  sea-bed  is  ex- 
tremely irregular  in  outline,  with  many  reefs 
and  depressions. 

The  cable  is  built  around  a  core  formed  of 
coroer  wire  insulated  by  gutta-percha,  around 
wnich  layers  of  iute  yam  are  woimd.  This,  in 
turn,  is  sheathed  in  small  cables,  each  formed 
of  several  strands  of  steel  wire.  An  outer 
covering  of  jute  yam,  the  whole  saturated  with 
a  bituminous  compound,  binds  together  the  con- 
ducting and  protecting  wires  in  one  solid  mass. 
The  landii^  of  the  rfiore  end  of  the  cable  at 
San  Francisco  was  effected  thus;  A  section  of 
six  and  one-half  miles  was  cut  from  the  main 
cable  on  board  the  cable-steamer  Silvertown 
and  loaded  on  a  tender,  which  steamed  toward 
tixe  shore.  On  approaching  the  line  of  breakers, 
which  were  heavy,  the  shore  end  was  floated 
on  balloon  buoys  placed  every  tO  fathoms,  and 
a  team  of  12  horses  dragged  it  ashore,  where  it 
was  spliced  to  the  permanent  shore  connection, 
.and  the  tender  returned  to  the  SilvertoTvn,  on 
board  which  the  shore  section  was  respliced  to 
the  main  cable.  The  cable-ship  then  started  for 
Honolulu  in  the  evening  of  14  Dec.  1902. 

The  Silverloum  was  specially  built  for  cable- 


laying  purposes,  On  this  tri^  she  carried  2,413 
nautical  miles  of  cable,  wei^ng  4,807  tons. 
She  arrived  off  Honolulu  on  25  December  and 
landed  the  shore  end  by  buoying  the  cable;  - 
but  she  employed  no  tender  or  horses.  Two 
spider-sheaves  were  sent  ashore  and  fixed  by 
sand  anchors  about  60  yards  apart.  A  hauling- 
hne  was  paid  out  from  the  ship,  reeved  through 
the  sheaves  and  brought  on  board  again.    One 


.  _  _  started  and  the  cable  was  dragged  toward 
the  shore. 

Another  Pacific  cable  has  been  constructed 


Vancouver  to  Fanning  Island,  Fiji  Island^ 
Norfolk  Island,  and  thence  to  New  Zealand  and 
Australia.  It  is  practically  8,000  miles  long; 
and  the  3,600-mile  stretch  from  Vancouver  to 
Fanning  Island  makes  the  longest  single  sec- 
tion in  the  world.  This  cable  brought  the  Aus- 
tralasian colonies  10^000  miles  nearer  to  Canada 
than  they  were  before,  and  there  is  now  com- 
pleted a  British  telegraph  girdle  of  the  world 
which  touches  forei^  territory  only  at  Madeira 
and  Saint  Vincent,  in  the  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
both  belonging  to  Britain's  old  ally,  Portugal. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  con- 
solidation of  competing  lines  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  East  into  the  Elastem  Telegraph 
Company.  To  this  huge  organization  belongs 
a  marvelous  network  of  submarine  cables  — 
practically  all  the  cables  from  Land's  End,  in 
England,  through  the  Mediterranean  to  Suec, 
on  through  the  Red  Sea  to  Aden,  across  the  In- 
(Uan  Ocean  to  Bombay,  thence  linking  into  the 
system  Madras,  Singapore,  Hongkong,  Ma- 
nila, Australia  and  New  Zealand,  In  additioiL 
practically  all  the  cables  which  now  surround 
Africa,  and  many  of  those  which  cross  the 
ocean  and  follow  the  coast-line  of  South  Amer- 
ica, are  in  its  conlrgl.  To  such  an  organization 
the  laying  of  15,000  miles  of  cable  from  Eng- 
land to  Australia,  via  the  Cape  o£  Good  Hope, 
$15,000,000,  was  comparatively 
'  line  tnay  be  traced  from 
_  and  to  Adelaide  in  South 
Australia,  a  distance  wtuch  a  modern  Atlantic 
liner  would  take  six  weeks  to  steam  over.  The 
length  of  cable  is  more  than  half  way  round 
the  globe,  and  about  eight  times  longer  than 
the  first  Atlantic  cable. 

The  life  of  a  deep-sea  cable,  aside  from  in- 
juries by  ship's  anchors,  rocks,  sharks,  sawfish 
and  swordfisn,  has  been  variously  estimated  at 
from  30  to  40  years.  Sharks  occasionally  bite 
cables  and  leave  some  of  their  teeth  embedded, 
and  sawfish  and  swordfish  attack  them,  espe- 
cially in  tropical  waters,  but  on  the  level  plains 
of  ooze  two  miles  or  more  below  the  surface 
cables  seem  to  be  almost  imperishable.  In  shal- 
low water  they  are  most  exjiosed  to  damage. 
Deep-sea  cables  generally  weigh  from  one  to 
one  and  a  half  tons  per  mile,  but  the  portions 
lying  in  shallow  water  are  so  heavily  armored 
as  to  wei^  from  10  to  30  tons  per  mile.  The 
breaking  strain  is  about  seven  tons.  Yet  in 
year  the  ocean  cables   of  the  Commercial 


less  than  13  ship's  anchors  were  once  found 
entangled  in  a  length  of  four  miles  of  cable. 
The  deep-sea  cable  costs  about  $400  per  mik^ 


.Google 


IH  CAI 

is  made  in  lengths  of  iS  to  25  miles  and  stored 
in  coils  ia  a  cable-laying  steamship.  The  cost 
of  coast  cables  may  run  up  to  $5,000  a  mile,  as 
they  have  usually  paper  insulation,  covered  with 
a  lead  sheath,  and  heavily  artned  with  wire. 
Coast  cables  are  made  in  mile  lengths  and 
stored  on  large  reels. 

Cable  TaiiSs  and  Codes.— In  the  early 
days  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Company  started 
with  a  minimum  tariff  of  $100  for  20  words, 
and  $5  for  each  additional  word.  Later  this 
was  reduced  to  $25  for  10  words.  It  was  not 
till  1872  that  a  rate  of  $1  a  word  was  intro- 
duced. This  word  rate  system  proved  so  popu- 
lar that  it  was  soon  adopted  universally,  and 
since  1S88  the  cable  rate  across  the  Atlantic  has 
been  down  to  12^  cents  a  word.  Rates  now 
range  from  the  12^-cent  tariff  across  the  Atlan- 
tic to  $1.33  per  word  from  New  York  to  Japan. 
The  average  for  the  whole  world  is  roughly 
SO  cents  a  word.  The  cost  ot  cabling,  how- 
ever, is  greatly  infiuentcd  by  "coding,*  a  system 
by  which  business  men  use  secret  words  for 
commercial  messages,  and  which  has  developed 
to  an  extraordinary  degree  of  perfection.  One 
code  word  will  frequently  stand  for  10  or  15 
words,  and  there  are  instances  where  one  word 
has  been  used  to  represent  over  100  words. 
Practically  alt  commercial  cablegrams  are 
coded,  and  nearly  all  departments  of  commer- 
cial and  industrial  life  nowadays  have  their 
special  codes. 

Speed  of  Transmission. —  The  cost  of 
deep-sea  cables  makes  it  vitally  important  to 
get  as  much  work  out  of  them  as  possible.  In 
the  first  place  the  transmission  time  of  mes- 
sages has  been  greatly  reduced.  Formerly  from 
many  parts  of  the  world  it  took  5  or  10  hours 
to  deliver  a  cablegram  where  it  now  takes  from 
30  to  60  minutes,  and  across  the  Atlantic  the 
companies,  for  stock-exchange  purposes  at  any 
rate,  send  a  cablegram  and  get  a  reply  in  two 
or  three  minutes.  In  the  second  place,  where 
traffic  is  heavy,  speed  of  transmission  of  the 
signals  has  been  areatly  increased.  Across  the 
Atlantic  and  on  three  or  four  of  the  busy  lines 
of  the  Eastern  Company  the  art  of  cable  teleg- 
raphy has  been  highly  developed. 

On  the  first  Atlantic  cables  the  speed  was 
about  seven  words  a  minute  in  one  direction 
only.  The  speed  of  recent  Atlantic  cables  is 
as  fegh  as  from  40  to  45  words  a  minute  in  both 
directions  —  that  is,  from  80  to  90  words  a  min- 
ute. Thus,  compared  with  the  early  days,  the 
speed  and  therefore  the  value  of  the  best  cables 
has  been  multiplied  more  than  10  times  over  by 
means  of  some  of  the  most  ingenious  and  deli- 
cate machinery  in  modem  industry.  On  the 
first  Atlantic  cable  it  was  found  that,  using 
land  telegraph  methods  of  signaling,  the  speed 
was  only  one  or  two  words  a  minute.  The  first 
great  forward  step  was  to  send  exceedingly  fee- 
ble currents  ana  to  use  extremely  sensitive 
receiving  instruments.    Lord    Kelvin's   mirror 

filvonometer  supplied  the  instnmient  needed, 
y  this  means  the  speed  of  the  early  Atlantic 
cables  was  raised  to  seven  or  eight  words  a 
minute.  Subsequently,  when  heavier  cables 
were  laid,  the  speed  was  increased  to  as  much 
as  20  words  a  minute. 

The  Siphon  Recorder. —  In  1870  Lord  Kel- 
vin perfected  his  siphon  recorder  for  working 
long  cables,  and  it  at  once  supplanted  the  mirror 
instrument,  as  it  worked  just  as  well  with  fee- 


ble currents,  gave  a  written  record  of  signals 
received  and  enabled  one  man  to  do  the  woiik 
of  two.  An  exceedingly  light  coil  of  fine  wire 
(in  shape  and  size  like  me  long,  narrow  O 
which  would  be  obtained  by  winding  several 
hundred  turns  of  fine  silk  thread  around  the 

elm  of  the  open  hand)  is  delicately  suspended 
tween  the  two  poles  of  a  powerful  magneL 
As  the  electric  signals  from  the  cable  flow 
through  the  coil  of  wire,  it  swings  round  imder 
the  influence  of  the  magnet,  back  or  forward 
according  as  the  current  is  positive  or  negative. 
The  motions  ot  the  coil  are  transmitted  by 
silken  fibres  to  a  little  glass  siphon  about  as 
thick  as  a  needle  and  three  or  four  inches  long, 
suspended  so  as  to  swing  with  perfect  freedom. 
One  end  of  the  siphon  dips  into  a  pot  of  ink, 
and  the  other  end  hangs  close  above  a  moving 
strip  of  paper.  The  signals  are  so  feeble  that 
if  Uie  end  of  the  glass  siphon  rested  on  the 
paper  it  would  not  move  at  all,  but  by  causing 
(he  siphon  to  vibrate  continuously  against  the 
paper  the  free  motion  of  the  siphon  is  not  inter- 
fered witk  and  the  ink  is  spluttered  upon  the 
Saper  so  that  the  siphon  traces  a  line  of  very 
ne  dots  and  thus  records  the  signals  transmit- 
led  through  the  cable.  This  instrument,  thoudi 
crude  at  first,  has  gradually  been  perfected.  It 
is  now  the  most  important  part  of  modem 
cable  apparatus. 

The  Duplex  Syatem. —  The  next  improve- 
ment, undoubtedly  the  greatest  ever  made  for 
increasing  speed,  was  the  invention  of  a  success- 
ful system  of  •duplexing'  cables  by  Dr.  Alex- 
ander Muiiiead  and  Herbert  Taylor  in  1875. 
This  invention  rendered  it  possible  ^multane- 
ously  to  send  messages  both  ways  through  a 
long  ocean  cable.  In  1878  the  Direct  United 
Slates  cable  across  the  Atlantic  was  successfully 
duplexed,  and  a  speed  of  16  words  a  minute  otv 
tained  each  way  at  the  same  time.  Duplexing 
cables  has  now  become  such  a  fine  art,  chiefly 
through  the  labors  of  Dr.  Muirhead,  that  the 
capacity  of  cables,  and  therefore  their  commer- 
cial value,  has  been  practically  doubled.  Since 
1875  about  100,000  miles  of  ocean  cables  have 
been  duplexed  almost  entirely  on  the  Muirhead 
system. 

The  increasing  traffic  across  the  Atlantic  and 
the  pressure  of  competition  led  next  to  an  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  the  copper  "core*  which 
conducts  the  electric  sisals.  The  resistance  of 
a  vnte  delays  the  electric  current  and  therefore 
the  speed.  By  doubling  the  size  of  the  copper 
core  the  resistance  is  halved  and  the  speed 
greatly  increased.  The  copper  wires  used  for 
telegraphy  on  land  weidi  about  200  pounds  per 
mile.  In  1894  two  cables  were  laid  across  the 
Atlantic,  one  for  the  Commercial  Cable  Com- 
pany and  the  other  for  the  Anglo-American 
Company.  The  copper  core  of  the  former 
weighed  500  pounds  per  mile,  while  the  latter 
weighed  no  less  than  650  pounds  per  mile,  or  as 
much  as  three  ordinary  land  vrires.  The  result 
was  that  the  speed  obtained  with  these  two 
cables  was  as  high  as  40  to  50  words  a  minute, 
or,  working  duplex,  from  80  to  90  words  a  min- 
ute. On  previous  Atlantic  cables  25  to  28  words 
a  minute  was  the  maximum  each  way.  Owing 
to  the  reduction  of  rates  the  benefit  of  this  ten- 
fold increase  of  speed  since  the  early  days  has 
gone  almost  entirely  to  the  general  public. 

Automatic    Transmissioii. —  The    incr 

in    speed  brou^   up  another  difficulty. 


^Google 


ISB 


human  operator  can  send  so  Fast  The  \cej 
used  for  siEnaling  through  the  cables  by  hand 
is  practical^  the  same  as  the  ordinary  Morse 
key  used  for  land  telegraphy,  except  that  two 
keys  arc  used  side  by  side,  one  to  send  positive 
signals- and  the  other  negative  signals,  the  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet  being  indicated  by  various 
arrangements  of  the  two  kinds  of  signals. 
First-class  cable  operators  can  send  as  many  as 
30  words  a  minute  for  a  few  minutes,  but  a 
sustained  speed  of  20  words  a  minute,  when 
working  by  the  hour,  is  regarded  as  very  good. 
To  take  full  advantage  of  the  speed  of  a  mod- 
em Atlantic  cable,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  some  automatic  method  of  transmitting. 
The  advantages  of  automatic  transmission  are 
higher  speed,  greater  uniformity  of  signals, 
more  legitnlity  and  fewer  mistakes. 

The  method  adopted  is  simple  and  beautiful, 
—  a  modification  of  the  Wbeatstohe  system. 
The  message  is  first  jninched  as  a  series  of 
holes  in  a  paper  tape.  This  perforated  tape  is 
then  run  through  an  automatic  transmitter,  and 
by  means  of  a  system  of  small  levers  the  re- 
quired ^gnals  are  transmitted  at  any  desired 
Speed.  The  operator  has  a  wooden  stiuc  in  each 
hand  with  which  he  strikes  one  or  other  of  the 
three  keys  of  the  small  perforator  directly  in 
from  of  him.  One  key  punches  a  ri^t-hand 
hole,  another  key  a  left-hand  hole  and  the  mid- 
dle key  makes  a  sf>ace.  In  this  way  the  cable- 
gram before  him  is  transmitted  at  the  rate  of 
about  20  words  a  minute  into  a  perforated  tape. 
From  the  perforator  the  tape  runs  into  an  au- 
tomatic transmitter,  or  "auto."  There  is  a  row 
of  small  central  holes  in  the  tape,  and  on  each 
side  is  a  row  of  larger  holes.  The  latter  rep- 
resent the  message.  A  small  star  wheel  in  the 
'auto*  engages  with  the  central  line  of  holes 
and  feeds  the  tape  along  at  a  uniform  rate.  A 
couple  of  small  steel  rods  about  the  siie  of  a 
knitting-needle,  one  for  each  of  the  two  rows 
of  message  boles,  continually  vibrate  against 
the  paper.  When  either  of  them  enters  a  per- 
foration in  the  paper,  a  lever  connected  with 
it  moves  and  makes  an  electric  contact,  sending 
a  short,  sharp  signal  into  the  cable. 

Cable  Relays. —  Recenllv  several  still  more  * 
wonderful  inventions  have  been  perfected.  On 
land  relays  are  used.  For  instance,  messages 
from  New  York  to  Chicago  are  automatically 
repeated  at  Buffalo  or  Meadville  and  b^  auto- 
matic repeating  every  600  or  800  miles  it  is  an 
cvery-day  occurrence  to  telegraph  direct  be- 
tween New  York  and  San  Francisco,  A  relay 
capable  of  performing  similar  work  for  cables 
has  been  a  dream  of  cable  engineers  and  in- 
ventors for  years,  and  in  default  of  such  an 
instrument  "human  relays*  have  been  em- 
ployed; that  is,  at  the  end  of  one  section  of  a 
cable  an  operator  takes  the  paper  record  of  a 
cablegram  as  it  comes  from  the  siphon  recorder 
and  retransmits  it. 

.  But  the  cable  relay  is  now  an  accomplished 
fact.  The  only  hope  of  constructing  such  an 
instrument  was  to  utilize  the  siphon  recorder. 
One  difficulty  has  been  that  the  movements  of 
the  siphon,  as  shown  by  the  paper  records,  have 
till  recently  been  most  irregular.  There  has 
been  what  photographers  would  describe  as 
•lack  of  definition*  about  the  signals,  rendering 
it  hopeless  to  attempt  to  relay  them  automatic- 
ally by  machinery.  The  first  thing  to  do  was, 
therefore,  to  straighten  and  sharpen  up  the  sig- 


nals a  bit,  and  a  very  able  group  of  caUe  engi- 
neers,  including  H.  A.  C.  Saunders,  electrician- 
in-cbief  of  the  Eastern  and  associate  cable 
companies,  his  assistant,  Walter  Judd,  with  Dr. 
Muirhead,  inventor  of  the  cable  duplex,  and 
Messrs.  Brown  and  Dear  love,  succeeded  in 
sharpening  them.  They  secured  very  regular 
signals,  usually  described  as  "^square  signals.* 
This  result  was  obtained  by  means  too  techni- 
cal to  be  described  here,  but  the  chief  device 
used  is  loiown  as  an  "inductive  shunt."  Havii^ 
squared  the  signals,  it  was  now  possible,  though 
^  no  means  easy,  to  construct  a  cable  relay. 
Two  have  been  perfected.  One  is  known  as  .the 
Brown  &  Dearlove  relay,  the  principal  inventor 
of  it  being  S.  G.  Brown.  The  other  has  been 
invented  by  Dr.  Muirhead.  In  both  a  fine  wire 
terminating  in  a  platinum  contact-point  lakes 
the  place  of  the  ink  in  the  siphon  of  a  re- 
corder. The  contact-point  instead  of  resting  on 
the  paper  tape  rests  on  a  rapidly  moving  metal- 
lic surface  divided  into  two  parts.  In  the 
Brown  &  Dearlove  relay  this  contact-surface 
consists  of  a  constantly  revolving  metallic  drum 
or  wheel  The  siphon,  with  its  wire  and  con- 
tact-point, 'skates,'*  as  the  inventor  describes 
it,  with  the  utmost  freedom  on  the  periphery  of 
this  wheel.  The  drum  looks  like  a  phonograph 
cylinder.  As  the  siphon  skates  upon  the  right 
or  left  half  of  this  drum  it  makes  a  positive  or 
a  negative  electric  contact  and  automatically 
transmits  a  corresponding  signal  with  renewed 
enei^y  into  the  next  section  of  cable.  In  the 
Muirhead  relay  the  moving  metallic  surface 
consists  of  a  small  plate  vibrating  rapidly.  The 
result  is  the  same.  Able  in  this  way  to  make 
definite  electrical  contacts  through  a  long  ocean 
cable,  an  operator  can  easily  work,  by  means  of 
these  contacts,  local  apparatus  moved  by  more 
powerful  currents.  In  this  way  both  Mr. 
Brown  and  Dr.  Muirhead  have  devised  perfora- 
which  reproduce  at  ihe  receiving  station 


This  tape  is  available  for  . „._ 

an  "auto,*  this  plan  having  the  advantage  that 
the  signals  are  retransmitted  in  as  perfect  form 
as  the  original  signals;  and,  theoretically  at  any 
rate,  the  process  may  be  repealed  indelinitely, 
so  tnat  it  would  be  possible  to  send  a  cable  mes- 
sage automatically  through  a  dozen  stations 
from  England  to  Australia.  This  will  no  doubt 
be  done  in  time,  but  it  is  a  very  slow  process 
^ting  such  complicated  and  delicate  inventions 
into  commercial  use.  It  is  a  question  of  time 
and  growth.  The  Brown  &  Dearlove  relay  has 
been  adopted  by  the  Eastern  Company,  and  has 
been  in  commercial  use.  Dr.  Mmrhead's  relay 
has  also  proved  very  successful  in  several  long- 
distance tests. 

Cable  Sutlstics.-^  In  all  there  are  now 
about  291,000  nautical  miles  of  submarine  cables, 
enough  to  go  about  13  times  around  the  globe. 
They  have  cost  about  $250,000,000,  but  their 
market  value  is  considerably  higher,  as  deep-sea 
cables  are  solid  and  profitable  investments.  All 
told  there  are  about  50  cable  steamers  in  the 
world,  including  those  owned  by  the  cable-con- 
struction companies  and  governments,  with 
gross  tonnage  of  perhaps  8S,000  tons. 

The  Eastern  Telegniph  Company  owns  107 
ocean  cables  of  a  total  length  of  46,790  nautical 
miles.  Its  cables  extend  from  England  to 
Spain,  all  through  the  Mediterranean  and  Black 


Google 


CABOOL— CABOT 


seas,  to  most  important  poiiils  m  Afn 
on  to  Australia.  The  Eastern  Ext.  __  . 
Australian  &  China  Telesniph  C«tiipsii7  awB> 
37  cables  of  26^421  miles.  The  next  largest 
is  the  Western  Telezraph  Compaay,  with  30 
cables  of  a  total  length  of  23^36  miles,  extoid- 
in^  from  Portugal  across  the  Atlantic  to  the 
prmcipftl  ports  on  the  east  coast  of  Soutb 
Amenca.  The  Western  Union  Telegraph  Com- 
pany's system  is  almost  as  extensive,  comprising 
27  cables  of  23,506  miles.  It  controls  three 
transatlantic  cables  and  the  Gulf  of  Uexioo 


York  employs  15  ocean  cables  with  a  mileage 
of  16,595.  The  Central  &  South  African 
Telegraph  Company  has  25  cables  of  IIJBS(> 
miles.  La  Compagme  Francaise  des  Cables  Tele- 
graphiques  has  24  cables  of  11,657  miles,  con- 
necting Brest,  France,  with  Cape  Cod,  Mass., 
and  also  Saint  Pierre  and  San  Domingo.  The 
Eastern  &  South  African  Tel^rraph  Company 
has  17  cables  of  10,490  miles,  lite  Commercial 
Pacific  Cable  Comitany  has  8  cables  of 
1(^010  mile^  connecting  San  Francisco  with 
Guam,  Uanila  and  Shanghai.  La  Compagnte 
Allemande  des  Cables  Transatlantiques  has  5 
cablet  of  9,556  mites,  connecting  Coney  Island, 
H.  Y.,  wim  Borkum  Island,  the  Azores  and 


northern     Europe    and    Asiatic    ports.      

Deutsch-Sudamerilcanische  Telegtaphen-Gesell- 
schaft  has  5  cables  of  7,354  miles.  The  West 
Indian  &  Panama  Tel^raph  Company  has 
22  lines  of  4,355  miles.  Die  Deutscn-Kieder- 
landiscbe  Telegntphen-Gesellschaft  has  3 
cables  of  3,415  miles.  There  are  17  other 
private  companies  operating  66  submarine 
cables  of  a  total  length  of  a  little  over  20,000 
miles;  the  total  of  privately-owned  lines  being 
418,  of  235,680  nautical  miles. 

The  nations  of  the  world  own  and  operate 
over  2,000  short  subtnarine  cable  lines,  of  a 
total  nautical  mileage  of  55,207  miles.  The 
longest  of  these  is  the  line  from  British  America 
through  the  Pacific  to  Australia.  The  greatest 
number  is  in  Norway,  770,  but  they  average  ' 
less  than  two  miles  m  length.  The  United 
States  owns  IS  to  and  about  Alaska,  and  26  i 


12,348  miles;  there  are  224,  of  2,909  miles,  ... 
the  British  Isles;  Germany  controls  98,  of  2,956 
miles,  and  the  Netherlands  27,  of  5,130  miles. 
Uany  of  the  terminals  in  the  countries  engaged 
in  the  Ewropean  War  have  been  cut  ana  are 
out  of  service  until  peace  is  restored  and  they 
can  be  patched  up. 

Charles  H.  Cochkani, 
Axlkor  of  'Modtr*  Indnutrial  Progrtts.^ 

CABOOL.     See  Kabih. 

CABOOSE,  cii-boos',  the  cook-room  or 
kitchen  of  a  ship.  In  smaller  vessels,  the  name 
is  given  not  to  a  room  but  to  an  enclosed  fire- 
place, hearth  or  stove,  for  cooking  on  the  main 
deck.  The  cook-room  is  also  known  as  the 
'ga'W*  The  name  caboose  is  also  ifiven  to  a 
railroad  car  on  freight  or  construction  trains 
used  for  carrying  br^emen  or  workmen,  tools, 

CABOT,  George,  American  statesman;  b. 
Salem.  Mass.,  3  Dec.  1751 ;  d.  Boston,  18  April 


1823.  H«  tm  tiaca»Bd  at  Harvard  College, 
vendiac  two  years  dierc,  and  afterward  going 
to  sea.  He  reached  the  rank  of  captain  while 
still  under  21  years  of  age.  In  1/76  he  was 
elected  member  of  the  provincial  congress  of 
Massachusetts  and  abo  of  the  State  Constitu- 
tional ConventiMi,  and  in  1791  he  became  United 
States  senator  for  Massachusetts,  and  proved  a 
steadfast  friend  of  the  Washington  administra- 
tion. He  yielded  essential  aid  to  Hamilton  in 
perfecting  bis  financial  ^stem.  President 
Adams  appointed  him  first  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  after  the  creation  of  that  office  in  1798; 
but  Cabot  served  only  one  month.  In  1814  be 
was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  memorable  Hart- 
ford Convention,  and  was  elected  president  of 
that  assembly.  In  1793  he  introduced  the  Fugi- 
tive Slave  Act  in  the  Senate.  Consult  Lodge, 
H.  C,  <Life  and  Letters  of  George  Cabot' 
(Boston  1877). 

CABOT,  Jaraea  Elliott,  American  biog- 
rai^r:  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  18  June  1821;  d.  16 
Jan.  1903.  He  was  the  friend  and  literary 
executor  of  Emerson  and  in  1887  published 
<A  Memoir  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,'  a  work 
undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  Emerson 
family. 

CABOT.  John,  or  GIOVANNI  CABOTO 
(in  the  Venetian  dialect  Zuan  Caeoto),  an 
Italian  navigator  in  English  employ;  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  continent  of  North  America. 
On  S  March  1496  he  was  given  by  Henry  VII 
of  England  letters  patent  authorizing  him  to 
take  possession  of  any  countries  he  might  dis- 
cover. Under  this  charter,  in  May  1497,  he 
embarked  in  a  single  vessel,  the  Hatlhevi  of 
Bristol,  accompanied  by  his  son  Sebastian,  and 
sailed  west,  as  he  said,  700  leagues,  when,  on 
24  June   1497,  he  came  upon  Und  wtuch  he 


for  300  leagues;  he  landed,  but  saw  no  person, 
thougfa  he  believed  the  countiy  was  not  unin- 
habited He  planted  on  the  soil  the  banners  of 
England  and  of  Venice.  The  exact  spot  of  his 
landing  is  not  known,  but  from  the  La  Cw>a 
map  and  the  map  of  Sebastian  Cabot  it  appears 
to  have  been  a  point  on  the  coast  of  C^pc 
Breton,  more  than  a  year  after  Columbus  dis- 
covered the  main  land  of  the  continent  at 
Venezuela.  On  his  return  voyage  he  discerned 
two  islands  to  the  starboard,  but  for  want  of 
provisions  did  not  stop  to  examine  them.  He 
reached  Bristol  in  August,  His  discovery  at- 
tracted the  favor  of  the  English  King;  who  on 
3  Feb,  1498  granted  him  letters  patent  to  im- 
press six  English  shijis  at  no  hi^er  charges 
than  were  paid  for  ships  taken  for  the  King's 
service,  to  enlist  companies  of  volunteers,  "and 
theym  convn  and  lede  to  the  londe  and  iles  of 
late  founde  by  the  seid  JohiL*  He  sailed  early 
in  May  with  two  ships,  and  after  a  stormy  voy- 
MC  sighted  early  in  June  the  east  coast  of 
Greenland,  which  he  named  "Labrador's  Land.* 
He  then  turned  south,  skirdng  the  coasts  of 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  England,  and  is  believed 
to  have  reached  the  parallel  of  38°  near  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  after  which  the  return  voyage  was 
made.  He  then  passes  out  of  history.  Neither 
the  time  nor  the  place  of  his  deaUi,  nor  his  age, 
is  known.     Neither  is  it  known  what  country 


,  Google 


CABOT — CABRERA 


187 


Save  him  birth.  He  .was  a  Venetian  only  by 
enization.  Consult  BeazW,  'John  and  Sebas- 
tian Cabot'  (New  York  lffi)8) ;  Biggar,  H.  P., 
'The  Precursors  of  Jacques  Cartier'  (Ottawa 
1911)  ;  Harrisae,  H-,  'John  Cabot,  The  Discov- 
erer of  North  America,  and  Sebastian,  Hb 
Son ;  a  dapter  of  the  Maritime  Histonr  of 
England  under  the  Tudors  (1496-1557)'  (Lon- 
don 1895). 

CABOT,  Sebastian,  English  navigator: 
b.  Bristol,  atxtut  1474;  other  authorities  say 
1477;  d.  London  1557.  He  was  the  son  of  John 
Cabot  (q.v.).  Sebastian  was  early  instructed 
in  the  mathematical  knowledge  required  by  a 
seaman,  and  at  the  age  of  17  had  made  several 
voyages.  In  1496  John  Cabot  obtained  from 
Henry  VH  letters  patent  empowerins  him  and 
his  three  sons,  Lewis,  Sebastian  and  Sanctius, 
to  discover  unknown  lands,  and  conquer  and 
settle  them.  In  conset^uence  of'this  permission 
John  and  Sebastian  sailed  to  the  northwest  on 
2  May  with  the  Matthew  of  Bristol,  manned  by 
a  crew  of  18  men.  In  June  1497  the  coasi  of 
Cape  Breton,  ^  as  some  think,  of  Labrador, 
was  reached.  The  accounts  of  this  voyage  are 
attended  with  much  obscurity;  but  a  second 
patent  was  granted  to  John  Cibot  in  1498,  and 
It  seems  that  in  a  subsequent  voyage,  the  father 
and  son  sailed  as  far  south  as  Chesapeake  Bay 
and  were  actually  the  first  who  saw  the  main- 
land of  America.  Little,  however,  is  known  of 
the  proceedings  of  Sebastian  (^bot  for  the 
ensuing  20  years;  but  it  seems  that,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII,  by  the  patronage  of  Sir 
Thomas  Peart,  vice-admiral  of  England,  he 
procured  another  ship  to  make  discoveries,  and 
attempted  a  southern  passa^  to  the  East 
Indies,  in  which  he  failed!  This  disappointment 
is  supposed  to  have  induced  him  to  quit  Eng- 
land in  1513  and  visit  Spain,  on  the  mvitation 
of  Ferdinand.  The  death  of  the  King  lost 
him  his  patron,  and  in  a  few  years  he  returned 
to  England  and  was  employed  by  Henry  VIII 
to  find  out  the  northwest  passage.  After  this 
expedition  he  again  entered  the  Spanish  service 
and  in  1526  began  a  voyage  which  resulted  in 
his  reaching  the  river  La  Plata,  where  he  dis- 
covered San  Salvador,  and  erected  a  fort  there. 
He  returned  to  England  after  the  death  of 
Henry  VIII  and  settled  in  Bristol.  He  was 
introduced  by  the  protector  Some'rset  to 
Edward  VI,  who  settled  a  pension  on  him. 
From  this  time  he  was  consulted  on  all  ques- 
tions relating  to  trade  and  navigation;  and  in 
1552,  being  governor  of  the  company  of  mer- 
chant adventurers,  he  drew  up  instructions  and 
procured  a  license  tor  an  expedition  to  discover 
a  passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  north.  He 
was  also  governor  of  the  Russian  Company, 
and  was  very  active  in  its  affairs.  He  was  the 
6rst  who  noticed  the  variations  of  the  compass; 
and  he  published  a  large  map  of  the  world,  as 
also  a  work  under  the  title  of  'Navigazione 
nellc  parti  Septentrionali,  per  Sebasliano  Ca- 
bota'  (1SS3).  See  Nicholls,  'Remarkable  Life 
of  Sebastian  Cabot'  (London  18W)  ;  Winship, 
'Cabol  Bibliography'  (1900),  and  Henry  Har- 
risse's  unflattering  portrayal  in  'John  Cabot 
and  Hi.-;  Son  Sebastian'   (London  1895). 

CABRA,  kalir^,  Spain,  town  in  the 
province  and  29  miles  south- southeast  of  Cor- 
dova, in  a  valley  almost  environed  by  moun- 
tains.     It  has  wide  streets;  a  large,  irregular. 


but  impoang  looking  square;  two  large  and 
handsome  parbh  churches ;  a  nchly  endowed 
college,  etc.  Captured  from  the  Moors  by 
Ferdmand  II  in  1240,  and  recaptured  in  1331, 
in  the  succeeding  century  it  passed  finally  into 
the  possession  of  Spain.  It  nas  manufacturei 
of  coarse  doth  and  bricks.    Pop.  12,181, 

CABRAL,  or  CABRERA,  Pedro  Alvai«s, 
pa'dro  al'va-reth  ka-bral',  Portuguese  nav- 
^Stor:  b.  about  1460;  d.  about  1526.  Inl500he 
received  command  of  a  fleet  bound  for  the 
East  Indies,  and  sailed  from  Lisbon,  but  havii^ 
taken  a  course  too  far  to  the  west  he  was 
carried  by  the  South  American  current  to  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  of  which  he  took  possession 
about  24  April  150Q.  in  the  name  of  Portugal. 
Continuing  his  voyage  he  lost  several  ships  and 
men  in  a  storm,  but  with  the  remainder  he 
visited  Mozambicjue,  and  at  last  reached  India, 
where  he  made  important  commercial  treaties 
with  native  princes,  founded  a  trading-post  at 
(Talicut  and  then  returned  to  Europe.  Oesjute 
his  discoveries  he  was  for  some  reason  not 
retained  in  the  service  and  sank  into  obscurity. 
Consult  Fiske.  'Discovery  of  America,*  Vol, 
II  (Boston  1892);  Capistrano  de  Abreu. 
'Descobrimento  do  BrasiP  (Rio  de  Janiero 
(I8B3);  Vamhagen,  'Historia  general  do 
Brazil'   (2d  ed.,  Zvols,). 


-1.  .u.  Lui,  ■-n.in-.i  iiiuicssion,  for  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  unfitted  by  his  love  of  pleasure 
and  dissipation.  When  civil  war  broke  out  be- 
tween the  partisans  of  Don  Carlos  and  those  of 
the  Queen  Isabel  II,  the  priests  became  the 
most  zealous  champions  of  Don  Carlos,  and 
their  enthusiasm  acted  so  powerfully  upon  the 
impetuous  spirit  of  young  Cabrera,  that  he 
joined  in  1833  a  small  band  of  guerrillas.  He 
fou^t  with  singular  ferocity,  which  rose  to 
fury,  when,  16  Feb.  1836,  upon  the  order  of  the 

Siueen  and  of  Uina,  Ckneral  Nogueras  put  to 
eath  Cabrera's  aged  mother  and  his  three  help- 
less  sisters.  C^rera  took  vengeance  upon  all  the 
Chnstinists  who  fell  into  his  hands.  His 
enemies  treated  him  like  a  wild  animal,  and 
hunted_  him,  after  he  had  laid  waste  Aragon, 
Valencia  and  Andalusia,  from  one  place  to 
another.  After  a  temporary  defeat  at  Torre 
Blanca  he  eventually  took  Morella.  Hence  in 
1838  Don  Carlos  created  him  Ckiunt  de  Morelhi, 
and  at  the  same  time  lieutenant-general,  and  in 
this  capacity  Cabrera  continued  to  fight  for  the 
cause  of  the  Pretender,  and  for  what  he  con- 
.  sidered  the  cause  of  the  priesthood  and  the 
Church,  until  1840,  when  he  was  compelled  to 
flee  to  Paris.  Bv  order  of  Louis  Philippe  he 
waa  arrested  and  consigned  to  the  fortress  of 
Ham,  but  was  soon  set  free.  In  1848  the 
French  revolution  filled  Cabrera  with  the  most 
sanguine  expectations;  which,  however,  were 
doomed  to  disappointment,  as  on  his  arrival  in 
Catalonia  he  was  but  indiflerently  received,  and 
on  27  Jan.  1849.  he  was  severely  wounded  at 
Paste  ral.  although  he  succeeded  in  making  good 
his  escape  to  France.  In  August  of  the  same 
year  he  took  up  his  abode  in  London,  where  he 
married  a  ridi  English  woman.  When  Al- 
jiroclaimed  King  of  Spain  in 


Google 


CABSKRA — C ACEKBS 


186 

Ramon  Cabrera,'  translated  from  the  Spanish 
(Paris  1875);  Diaa  and  Cardenas,  'Galeria  de 
Espanoles  c^ebres  contemporatieos,'  Vol.  I 
(Madrid  1841)  ;  Valle  Inclan,  <La  guerra  car- 
nsta>   (Madrid  1906). 

CABRERA,  a  small  Spanish  island,  one  of 
the  Balearic  Isles,  about  10  miles  from  Majorca. 
It  is  about  three  miles  in  length  and  breadth 
and  the  coast  is  irregular.  The  chief  industry 
of  the  island  is  fishing  and  the  permanent  popu- 
lation  is  veiy  small.  During  die  war  in  the 
Peninsula  Spain  used  it  as  a  place  for  receiving 


CABRBRA  BOBADILLA  CERDA  Y 

MENDOZA.  ka-bra'ra  b6-b»-del'ya  thar'd» 
i  m£n-do'tha,  Lull  Ger6njrmo  Fernandez  de, 
Spanish  colonial  governor;  b.  Madrid,  about 
1590;  d.  near  there  1647.  He  was  viceroy  of 
Peru  1629-39,  during  which  period  the  useful 
properties  of  cinchona  bark  were  discovered 
and  the  third  ascent  of  the  Amazon  made.  The 
cruelty  of  the  Spaniards  caused  a  revolt  among 
the  Urn  Indians  near  Lake  Titicaca,  which 
Cabrera  bad  great  difficulty  in  suppressing. 

CABRILLA,  or  HIND,  one  oi  the  sea- 
basses  (Epinepkelus  maculostu)  found  in  the 
Atlantic  from  Charleston  to  Brazil.  It  attains 
a  length  of  18  inches  and  is  highlv  esteemed  as 
food.  Another  sea-bass  (Paralabrax  maeu- 
latofasciatuf)  living  along  the  coast  of  lower 
California  and  hiE^ly  regarded  as  a  food-fish; 
is  called  the  spotted  cabnlla.    See  Sea-bass. 

CABRILLO  NATIONAL  MOVE- 
MENT, created  14  Oa,  1913,  at  Point  Loma, 
Cal.,  of  a  small  tract  of  land  containing  21,910 
square  feet  which  lies  within  the  military  reser- 
vation at  Fort  Rosecrans,  It  is  of  Historic 
interest  because  of  the  discovery  of  the  ter- 
ritoiv  now  partly  embraced  in  the  State  of 
California,  by  Juan  Rodriguez  Cabrillo,  who  at 
this  point  first  sighted  land  on  28  Sept.  1542. 

CABUL,  CABOOL  or  KABUL.  See 
Kabul. 

CACAHUATE,  CACAHUETE,  ki-ki- 
wi'tft  (nahuati,  'Caeakut^),  the  indigenous 
peanut  of  Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  is 
practically  the  same  as  the  mo«f  (q.v.)  of  Cuba 
and  parts  of  South  America,  and  it  is  very 
much  like  the  same  member    of    the    family 

Eown  in  the  United  States.  The  cacahuatc 
s  been  a  common  food  of  the  indigenous 
races  of  the  torrid  lone  of  America  since  pre- 
historic days.  At  the  time  of  the  conquest  of 
Mexico  (1521)  the  Spaniards  found  it  among 
the  many  kinds  of  fruit  and  vegetables  dis- 
played  on   the    great    market    of   Tenochtitl&n 


tility  and  birth,  and  on  cert^n  festive  occasions 
it  was  the  only  offering  made.  A  distant  echo 
of  this  \tr\  ancient  religious  custom  is  still 
heard  in   Mexico   during  the 


:  Christmas  day,  when  it  is  used 
earthen  jars  which  are  placed  on  the  inside  of 
cardboard,  paper  or  tissue-paper  figures  or 
decorations.  These  latter  are  suspended  from 
the  ceiling  of  the  house  or  in  a  vard  to  be 
knocked  down  t:^  blind-folded  children  or 
young  people  In  a  game  very  much  like  blind- 
man's  buff.  For  hundreds  of  years  the  Mexi- 
cans have  extracted  from  the  cacahuate  a  light 


oil  which,  when  burnt,  gives  a  beautifuL  strong 
white  li^L  Cacahuate  nuts  are  sold  every- 
where in  Mexico  and  Ontral  America,  in  little 
stores,  on  the  markets  and  on  the  street  comers 


CACAO.    See  Cocoa. 

CACCIANIGA,  kat-chl-ne'ga,  Antomo, 
Italian  writer:  b.  Treviso  1823;  A  1903,  He 
founded  a  satirical  magarine  called  Lo  Spirito 
FoUetto  at  Milan  in  1848;  being  exiled  after  the 
revolution  of  1848  was  for  six  years  a  journal- 
ist in  Paris.     He  was  subsetiuently  mayor  of 


He  is  the  author  of  some  notable  works  of  fic- 
tion, including  'II  proscritta'  (1853);  'Boz- 
zetti  morali  ed  economici'  (1869);  'La  Vita 
Campestre*;   "Villa  Ortensia'    (1876). 

CACCINI,.  ka-che'nc.  GitiUo,  Italian  com- 
poser: b.  Rome  about  1546;  d.  Florence  1618. 
He  was  styled  the  father  of  a  new  music,  hav- 
ing been  the  first  to  write  an  opera  for  per- 
formance in  a  public  theatre.  His  works  in- 
clude *Daphne,>  and  'Apollo's  Battle  with  the 
Seirent.' 

CACERES,  ka-thi'ris,  AndriB  Avelino, 
Peruvian  military  officer  and  statesman :  b. 
Ayacucho,  in  souOiem  Peru,  10  Nov.  1836;  d.  20 
Nov.  1911.  Whiie  still  young  he  was  actively 
eonged  in  political  strife,  serving  as  an  officer 
under  Castilla  and  Prado,  and  tmen  the  latter 
was  overthrown  was  imprisoned  for  a  year. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  taking  of  Are- 

Suipa.  In  1857  he  became  military  attach^  to 
le  legation  of  the  Peruvian  government  at 
Paris,  and  was  stationed  at  that  post  until  I860. 
In  the  (^lilean  War  (1879-83)  he  served  in 
nearly  all  of  the  battles,  being  rapidly  promoted 
from  colonel  to  the  rank  of  general,  and,  after 
the  taking  of  Lima,  was  made  2d  Vice-President 
in  the  provisionsd  government  of  Calderon 
(June  1883).  The  imprisonment  of  Calderon 
the  President,  and  the  absence  of  the  1st  Vice- 
President  made  him  acting  President  of  Peru. 
In  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  Iglesias,  whom 
the  (Cleans  had  placed  at  the  head  of  the  gov- 
erriment  at  Lima,  as  President,  Oceres  was 
supported  by  the  interior  provinces,  and  he  at 
once  plannM  to  dejMse  him.  In  his  first  at- 
tempt to  take  Lima,  in  August  1834,  he  was  re- 
pulsed in  a  bloody  street  fight,  but  after  raising 
a  larger  force  he  appeared  before  the  city,  1  - 
Dec.  1885,  and  peaceaoly  persuaded  Iglesias  to 
submit  the  office  of  President  to  a  general 
election.  This  resulted  in  the  election  of  Ca- 
ceres_,  and  on  3  June  1886  he  was  inaugurated 
President  of  Peru.  The'  country  prospered 
greatl/  under  his  administration,  gradually  re- 
covering from  the  ill  effects  of  uie  war;  a  pri- 
vate company  absorbed  the  state  railroads  and 
guano  beds  and  took  over  a  portion  of  the  na- 
tional debt  In  1890  he  was  defeated  for  the 
Presidency  by  Bermudez  but  was  soon  after- 
ward, in  1891,  appointed  by  him  Peruvian  Min- 
ister to  France  and  Spain,  In  1894,  upon  the 
death  of  President  Bermudez,  the  parly  of  CS- 
ceres  seized  the  reins  of  government,  Ciceres 
was  proclaimed  dictator  and  the  Congress 
forced  to  elect  him  President.  The  ex-dictator, 
Piirola,  however,  disputed  his  right  to  the  office 
and  besieged  the  citv,  on  18  March  1895,  after 
a  bloody  conflict,  taking  it.  A  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  between  the  two  parties,  in  which 


.Google 


CACESBS — CACIQUK 


!«' 


Caceres  was  obliged  to  resign  the  Presidency. 
He  soon  afterward  fled  and  Piirola  was  elected 
President  10  July  1895.  Upon  the  retirement 
of  Komana  from  the  Presidency,  Caceres  re- 
turned to  his  native  land  and  again  entered 
the  political  arena.  He  was  sent  as  Envoy  Ex- 
traordinaiy  to  Italy  in  1905,  and  was  assassi- 
nated 20  Nov.  1911. 

CXCBRSS,  Spain,  a  town  in  Estremadura, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  24 
miles  west  by  north  of  Truxillo.  It  consists  of 
an  old  and  a  new  town,  the  former  crowning 
the  top  of  a  hill,  and  surrounded  by  a  strong 
wall  flanked  with  towers,  and  die  latter  built 
round  it  on  the  lower  slopes.  The  houses  are 
tolerably  well  built,  but  the  streets  are  mostly 
narrow  and  steep.  Among  the  objects  worthy 
of  notice  are  four  churches,  several  old  feudal 
mansions  and  the  bull-ring.  It  is  famous  for 
its  bacon,  has  manufactures  of  lineiL  woolens, 
hats,  leather,  soap,  etc.,  and  controls  a  large 
trade  in  the  produce  of  the  district  Pop,  about 
16,000.  The  province  of  Ciceres  is  the  second 
largest  of  Spain,  in  the  north  of  Elstremadnra, 
owned  chiefly  by  large  proprietors,  and  mostly 
devoted  to  cattle-raising;  the  north  half  is  a 
good  wine  country.  The  area  is  over  8,000 
square  miles,  and  the  population  about  415,000. 

CACERBS  NUEVA.    See  Nueva  CAcexes. 

CACHAR,  ki-char',  a  district  of   Assam, 


diversified  by  low  hills  and  almost  surrounded 
by  mountain  ranges.  The  Barak  River  flows 
through  the  district,  its  course  here  being  about 
130  miles.  Lignite  and  petroleum  have  been 
found.  Salt  is  manufactured  in  small  quantities, 
The  forests  are  of  great  extent,  and  constitute 
the  chief  natural  wealth  of  the  district.  Rice 
and  I  .     -        - - 

siwiar. 

CACHE,  kash,  the  name  of  (1)  a  river  in 
Arkansas,  flowing  northwest  about  ISO  miles 
into  the  White  River,  near  Clarendon,  Monroe 
County;  (2)  a  peak  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in 
Idaho,  height  10.451  feet;  (3)  a  fertile  valley 
in  the  Wasatch  Mountains  in  Utah  and  Idaho. 
It  is  60  miles  long  and  from  10  to  20  miles 
wide,  and  has  an  altitude  of  5,000  feel.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Bear  River,  and  has  several  vilr 
lages,  of  which  Logan  is  the  largest. 

CACHE,  a  hole  in  the  ground  for  hi(Ung 
and  preserving  provisions  which  it  is  incon- 
venient to  carry;  used  by  settlers  or  travelers 
in  miscttled  parts  of  North  America  and  by 
Arctic  explorers.  In  the  case  of  the  latter  the 
caches  are  well  marked  so  that  they  may  be  dis- 
cerned from  a  distance.  In  pioneer  days  in  the 
West  the  traders  or  explorers  dug  holes  to  a 
depth  of  several  feet  and  in  these  i>laced  the 
articles  which  they  intended  tor  their  use  on 
the  return  journey.  The  hole  was  next  covered 
in  and  the  surface  replaced  so  as  to  leave  no 
trace  of  any  excavation.  It  was  later  found  by 
means  of  some  landmaik,  aa  a  jutting  rock,  tree, 
bend  in  the  stream,  etc 

CACHBO,  ka-shl'oo,  or  CACHEU,  Por- 
tuguese Guinea,  West  Africa,  a  fortified  town 
founded  in  1588,  and  situated  10  miles  inland  on 

vot.S  — 9 


the  Cacben  River.  Ivory  and  gold  dust  are  the 
principal  articles  of  commerce.    Pop.  15,000. 

CACHET,  Lettres  de,  letr  dd  ka-sh4',  a 
term  formerly  applied  especially  to  letters  pro- 
ceeding from  and  signed  by  the  Idngs  of  France, 
and  countersigned  by  a  Secretary  of  State. 
They  were  at  first  made  use  of  occasionally  as 
a  means  of  delaying  the  course  of  Justice,  and 
appear  to  have  been  rarely  employed  before  the 
l/th  century  as  arbitrary  warrant  for  the  deten- 
tion of  private  citizens,  and  for  depriving^  them 
of  their  personal  liberty.  During  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV  their  use  became  frightfully  com- 
mon, and  by  means  of  them  persons  were  im- 
prisoned for  long  periods,  or  for  lif^  on  the 
most  frivolous  pretexts.  Sometimes,  however, 
such  arrests  were  favors  on  the  part  of  the 
King,  as  they  withdrew  the  accused  from  the 
severer  punishment  to  which  they  would  have 
been  liable  Upon  trial  before  the  courts.  Lettres 
de  cachet  were  abolished  at  the  Revolution. 

CACHEXY.  k4-kek'sl  or  CACHEXIA, 
ka-k?k-si-a  (Gr.,  'evil  habit  of  bodj;*),  a  mor- 
bid state  of  the  bodily  system,  in  whjcn  there  is 
great  weakness,  with  or  without  the  l(>cal  mani- 
festation of  some  constitutional  disease.  It  is 
not  a  disease  of  itself,  but  the  result  of  diseases 


of  alcohol,  etc.,  each  disease  producing  its 
particular  modification  of  cachexia.  Thus 
scrofulous  cachexia  means  the  condition  of 
body  due  to  scrofula,  shown  by  slender  form, 
narrow  or  deformed  chest,  pallor,  diseased 
glands,  large  prominent  joints,  etc 

CACHOEIRA,  k^-shwa'f-r*.  Brazil,  town 
in  the  state  and  62  miles  northwest  of  Bahia. 
It  stands  on  the  Faraguassu,  which  divides  it 
into  two  uneciual  parts  and  has  often  injured 
it  bv  inundations,  and  is  the  entrepot  for  the 
tntfnc  of  a  Ur|K  extent  of  surroundinR  country. 
Tobacco  and  cigars  are  raanufacturea,  the  best 
brand  in  Brazil  being  named  from  the  suburb 
of  Saint  Felix.  The  chief  exports  are  cofiee, 
sugar,   fruit,  cotton  and   tobacco.    Pop,   15,000, 

CACHOLONG,  kish'o-long,  a  mineral  of 
the  opal  division  of  the  quartz  family.  It  is 
often  called  pearl-opal.  It  is  usually  tnilk-white, 
sometimes  bluish  or  yellowish  white,  or  red- 
dish, opaque  or  slightly  translucent  at  the 
edges.  Its  composition  is  of  silica,  tike  quartz. 
and  its  symbol  is  SiOi.  Some  authorities  add 
to  the  symbol  n  HiO,  to  express  a  varying 
amount  of  water  usually  found  in  its  composi- 
tion. Other  authorities  regard  the  water  con- 
tent as  not  characteristic.  It  often  envelops 
common  chalcedony,  the  two  minerals  being 
united  by  insensible  shades.  It  also  associates 
with  flint  and  semi-opal. 

CACHOU,  ka-shoo',  an  aromatic  sweet- 
meat in  the  form  of  a  silvered  pill,  used  for 
giving  an  agreeable  odor  to  the  breath, 

CACHUCHA,  ka-choo'chf,  an  Andalusian 
dance,  resembling  the  bolero,  performed  to  a 
graceful  air  in  J-4  time  and  with  a  stronglv 
marked  accent.  It  is  usually  danced  wita 
castanets,  and  was  introduced  on  the  stage  by 
Fanny  Elssler    in  the   ballet    of     'Le    oiable 

CACIQUE,  ka-»ek',  or  CAZIQIJE,  a  Htk 
home  by,  or  a  designatkm  given  to,  tiw  chiefs 


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IM 


CACIQUB — CACTUS 


of  Indian  tribes  in  Central  and  South  America, 
Cuba,  Haiti,  etc.  The  tcnn  was  formed  by  the 
Spaniards  from  a  native  Haitian  word.  Among 
die  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico,  there  are 
two  tribal  divisions  —  summer  and  winter.  Dif- 
ferent caciques  preside  over  each.  Their  office 
has  religious  powers,  chiefly-  on  them  also  de^ 
volves  uie  appointment  of  the  annual  govern- 
ment officials.  The  caciques  are  appointed  for 
life. 

CACIQUB,  one  of  several  South  Ameri- 
can icterine  birds,  forming  the  genus  Casiicui, 
and  closely  related  to  tne  Baltimore  oriole. 
They  are  sometimes  uniform  black,  some- 
times black  relieved  b^  chestnut,  yellow,  green 
or  scarlet ;  the  bill  is  frequently  white  in- 
stead  of  the  usual  black  or  brown.  The  ca;i- 
ques  are  noted  for  their  intricately  woven, 
pouch-Uke  nests,  composed  of  thin  bark  and 
erasses,  several  of  which,  sometimes  a  yard  in 
length,  bang  from  the  outer  twigs  of  a  single 
branch  of  some  large  tree,  usuaU^  overhanging 
the  water,  as  an  extra  precaution  of  safely 
against  monkeys  and  snakes. 

CACODYLK.  or  CACODYL,  kak'o-da, 
■dn  (Gr.,  "having  a  bad  smell"),  in  chemistry, 
a  monad  radical  navinK  the  formula  As(CHi)9, 
and  known  as  dimethyl  arsine  oxide.  It  is  of 
special  interest  to  the  chemist  because  it  was 
the  first  radicaJ  known  in  which  a  metal  or  a 
metalloid  (in  this  case,  arsenic)  Is  combined 
with  an  organic  base.  The  compound  Asi(CHt)i, 
which  was  discovered  by  Bunsen  in  1B37,  and 
which  can  exist  in  the  free  state,  is  often  called 
cacodyle,  but  it  is  more  correctly  known  as 
dicacodyle  since  its  molecule  consists  of  two 
cacodyle  radicals,  Dicacodyle  is  obtained  in 
the  pure  state  by  heating  cacodyle  chloride  with 
zinc  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbon  dioxide,  but  a 
mixture  of  cacodyle  oxide  and  dicacodyle 
(known  formerly  as  Cadet's  fuming  liquid) 
may  be  obtained  b^  distilling  potassium  acetate 
witn  an  equal  weight  of  arsenic  trioxide.  As 
tbu*  prepared  it  is  liable  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion. Mercuric  oxide  (HgO)  converts  both 
of  the  constituents  of  Cadet's  liquid  into 
cacodyUc  acid,  (CH.).AsO(OH) ;  and  this,  in 


CACOHITE,  U-kfr-me'-ti,  a  plant  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America  from  which  an 
edible  flour  is  made.  It  is  called  in  the  Nahua 
tongue  oceloxochiti  (ti^er  flower)  on  account 
of  the  appearance  of  its  very  handsome  and 
showy  blossoms. 

CACONGO,  ka-kdn^gi^  or  KAKONGO, 
a  former  district  of  Guinea,  Africa,  extending 
along  the  south  Atlantic  Ocean,  in  laL  5°  5., 
just  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo.  The 
Cacongo  River  enters  the  sea  in  lat.  5°  12'  S. 
This  territory  was  claimed  by  the  Portuguese, 
and  Cabinda,  the  northern  part  of  it,  they  still 
retain ;  the  south  and  east  of  the  Kongo  have 
been  absorbed  in  the  Kongo  Free  State. 

CACTACEJE.    See  CAcnis. 

CACTUS,  the  common  name  for  all  meni- 
bers  of  the  family  Cactacea,  a  group  of  dicoty- 
ledons, found  in  luxuriance  in  tne  arid  sections 
of  North  and  Sottth  America.  Like  the  water- 
melon, they  have  the  faculty  of  absorbing  a 
vast  bulk  of  water,  making  the  stems  most  soc- 


and  fuming  hydrochloric  add.    Cacodyle  oxide 

i known  also  as  alkarsin)  may  be  obtained  in 
le  pure  state  by  distilling  the  chloride  with  an 
aqueous  solution  of  caustic  potash  in  an  atmos- 
phere of  carbon  dioxide.  Dicacodyle  is  a  color- 
less oily  liquid,  heavier  than  water,  boiling  at 
338°  F.,  very  poisonous,  and  characterized  by 
an  intensely  disagreeable  smell  suggestive  of 
garlic  Dicacodyle  is  known  to  the  chemist  as 
tetra-methyl  di-arsenid. 

CACOMISTLE,  k^e-4nla-el,  a  small 
Mexican  animal  {Bassariseus  astulus),  closely 
related  to  the  raccoon  found  in  Mexico  and 
neighboring  parts  of  the  United  Stales.  It  is 
slender,  about  16  inches  long,  with  a  sharp, 
fox-like  face,  large  bright  eyes  surrounded  with 
light  patches,  and  erect  ears.  The  long,  soft 
fur  is  light  brown  above,  darker  along  the 
back;  the  under  parts  are  white,  and  the  bushy 
tail  has  six  broad  white  rings  running  around 
it.  In  habits  it  resembles  the  raccoon.  It  feeds 
on  smaller  mammals,  birds  and  insects.  It  is 
frequently  tamed  by  miners  and  ii  laiown  to 
ttem  as  the  American  civet  cat 


Gituit  Cutut  or  Shiuro  Cuctua  ui 


which  are  used  i 
known  and  used  to  produce  intoxication  by  the 
Indians  before  the  advent  of  the  whites,  and 
are  still  so  used  to  a  limited  extent.  The 
peculiar  reticuhitions  of  the  vascular  or  wood 
systems  of  many  species  render  them  very  use- 
ful in  the  manufacture  of  art  goods,  otherwise 
known  as  curios  in  man^  sections.  The  vari- 
ous species  are  of  most  importance  as  articles 
of  food  for  man  and  beast.  In  the  semi-tropi- 
cal and  tropical  regions  of  ^nerica  a  large 
group  of  the  plants  belonging  to  the  genus 
Ctreus  and  its  allies  furnish  edible  fruits  known 
to  the  Spanish-Ameiican  as  pitakayas.    These 


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I 


1.  Leaf-cactus  (Phyllocactuianguliger).  2.  Stajwlia  (simulsiinsa  cactus).   3.  ACereus(Cereusdasycanthus).    1.  Globe<actM    i"- 
(EchinocactuB  horiiontlialanius).     5.  Wart-cactus  (Uammilaria  pectinata).    S.  Hairy  Opimtia  (Opuntia  filipendulB) — a.  Im'^ 
tiloMOin.  enlarged.    7.  Melon-cactus  (Melocactus  communis).     8.  Giant  Cactui  (Cereus  giganteui)— a.  blossom,  enlatged;  B 
fruit,  eolargai    B.  Mexican  Opuntia(OpuotiacoccineUifeia) — a,  the£ruit("prickli' peiir").enla[8ad. 


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PiDwet  ol  Ac  Hgdfehoa  Cacliu 


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d=,  Google 


-—.CAIHHS-PLV 

grow  for  the  most  part  on  tall,  brandung  eod  CACUS,  i 
columnar  plants,  similar  to  the  familiar  ^iant 
cactus     (Cereus    giganleus)     of    the    Arizona 
desert    These  fruits  vary  in  size  from  three- 
fourths  of  ;       ■     ■    


can  strawberries  to  the  English-speaking  peo- 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  fmit  produced 
by  this  fantilv  of  plants  comes  from  the  flat- 
jointed  prickly  pears  belonging  to  the  genus 
OpmtHa,  the  fruits  of  which  ate  known  in 
Spanish  America  as  tvtuu.  Some  of  these  are 
extensively  cultivated  throughout  the  highland 
legion  of  Mexico  as  well  as  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean region  of  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa. 
Prickly  Dears,  although  natives  of  the  American 
continent  and  its  continental  islands,  are  now 
cultivated  or  have  become  nataraHzed  tfarough- 
out  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  of  the 
world.  The  fruits  are  eaten  raw,  dried,  and 
in  the  form  of  preserves.  Their  juices  are  also 
expressed  and  fennented  into  a  drink  called 
cotoncbe.  It  is  less  common  now  than  formerly 
to  find  a  distilled  drink  taaAe  from  the  tuna 
becaase  of  ibe  deleterious  eSecti  of  -  tuna 
alcohol. 

On  account  of  their  ability  to  absorb  and  rCr 
tain  large  quantities  of  water,  the  cacti,  espe- 
cially the  prickly  pears,  often  becwne  important 
to  the  stodcmen  in  [tortions  of  our  southwestern 
States.  They  remain  ereen  and  succulent  after 
other  forage  has  dried'^up  or  become  exhausted. 
The  rancher  then  resorts  to  this  rough  feed  to 
save  his  stock.  He  may  singe  the  thorns  off 
with  3  brush  at,  if  his  herds  are  large,  he  may 
singe  them  with  a  modified  plumbers  torch,  or 
he  may  even  chop  the  plants  into  small  pieces 
and  feed  them  in  this  vay. 

It  is  a  common  practice  in  southwesteni 
Texas  to  feed  priddy  pear  and  cottonseed  meal 
to  stock  during  the  winter.  In  the  vicinity  of 
San  Antonio  luirymen  for  a  tHmiber  of  years 
have  fed  prickly  pear  to  ibeir  dairy  cows  aktng 
with  a  liberal  supply  of  grain  and  ha/.  Pridclv 
pears  furnish  the  succulence  so  essential  in  milk 
production  and  so  difBcult  to  obtain  in  a  semi- 
arid  region. 

When  driven  to  extremity  travelers  in  the 
desert  have  been  known  to  resort  to  these  plants 
for  water  supply.  The  pulpy  tissues,  prefec- 
ably  of  such  forms  as  the  barrel  cactus 
(,EchinQcatai'),  are  macerated  to  set  the  juices 
free.  A  rather  unpalatable  and  somewhat  pur- 
gative drink  is  thus  obtained  which  relieves 
thirst  in  a  measure.  The  candied  flesh  of  the 
barret  cactus  forms  a  palatable  sweetmeat 

The  flowers  and  stems  of  the  night-blooming 
cereus  (.Cereus  grandifionu')  have  been  used 
in  medicine  in  the  form  of  a  fluid  extract,  as 
a  cardiac  stimulant  Its  action  resembles  that 
of  digitalis,  .but  is  less  uniform. 

CACTUS  WHEN,  a  small  wren  (Campy- 
lorhynckuj  brunneicapilltu)  inhabiting  the  and 
and  desolate  regions  of  the  Mexican  border.  It 
is  grayish  brown  above,  darker  on  the  hea^ 
nearly  pure  white  beneath,  with  a  spotted  breast, 

'    1  white  line  over  the  eye.    It  makes  a 


This  nest  is  entered  by  a  covered  way 
or  neck  several  inches  in  Icfl^th.  It  is  a  veiy 
Mirightly  bird  with  a  cl«r,  ringing  song.     . 


in  a  cave  on  Hotmt  Aventine.  Having  stolen 
and  dragged  into  his  cave  some  of  the  cattle 
which  Hercules  bad  carried  away  from  Geryon 
in  Spain,  he  was  killed  b^  tiiat  hero,  who  dis- 
covered his  place  of  hiding  by  the  lowing  of 
the  oxen  witiiin,  in  response  to  the  lowing  of 
the  remainder  of  the  Sock  as  they  were  passing 
die  entrance  of  the  cave.  The  Ara  Maxima 
was  built  by  Evander  to  commemorate  this  vic- 
tory. Consult  Livy  (Bk.  I,  7)  and  Virgin, 
'.£neid'    (VIII,  184-279.). 

CABA  HOSTO,  kfi'd^  m6'$tfi,  or  CA  DA 
H08TO,  Lmgi  da,  Italian  navigator:  b. 
Vemce,  about  1432;  d.  about  1480.  In  1455  he 
departed  from  Lagos,  sailed  into  the  river  Sene- 
gal, which  had  been  discovered  five  years  be- 
fore, and  after  tmdins  in  slaves  and  gold  he 
steered  for  Cape  Verde,  where  he  joined  two 
other  discovery  ships,  and  visited,  in  company 
with  them,  the  mouths  of  the  Gambia,  th« 
tklMs  of  which  had  been  greatly  extolled.  la 
14S6  Cada  Mosto,  in  company  with  two  other 
ships,  made  a  second  voyage  to  the  Gambia. 
On  the  way  thither  they  discovered  the  Cap« 
Vende  Islands.  The  description  of  his  first 
Toyagt^  '^11  Libra  de  la  prima  navigazione  per 
foceaiw  alle  terre  de'  Negri  della  Bassa  Etiopia, 
di  Luigi  Cada  Mosto'  (Vicenza  1507.  and  Milan 
1519),  the  oldest  of  the  voyages  of  the  modems, 
is  a  masterpiece.  The  arrangement  is  admir- 
able, the  narrative  interesting,  the  descriptions 
clear  and  accurate. 

CADAHBA,  Idi-dam'b*.  or  KUDUHBA, 
the  wood  o£  sevet«l  species  of  Nanclea,  an 
Indian  genus  of  Cmchonacea,  It  is  a  wood  of 
deep  yeUow  hue,  lued  locally  in  the  manufacture 
of  furniture.  N.  {Uncorvt)  gambir  is  th« 
aourc«  oi  the  dyestufi  known  commercially  aa 
gambir  or  gambler. 

CADASTRAL  SUKVBY  (F.  eadastre, 
from  It.  caloftra,  from  low  Lat  capitcutntin, 
*»  re^ster  for  a  poll-tax";  Lat.  caput,  *the 
head^),  a  territorial  survey  in  which  objects 
are  represented  in  their  true  relative  positions 
and  magnitudes.  A  cadastral  survey  differs 
from  a  topographical  one,  in  not  magnifying 
the  principal  objects.  It  requires  consequently 
to  be  made  on  a  larger  scale  than  the  topo- 
graphical survey,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  proportion- 
ally accurate  representation  of  towns,  houses, 
roads,  rivers,  etc.  The  scale  on  which  ttie  cadas- 
tral map  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  prepared, 
j^o  of  the  linear  measure  of  the  surface  sur- 
veyed, is  an  example  of  the  scale  of  a  cadastral 
survey.  This  scale  corresponds  with  25.34 
inches  to  the  mile.    See  Surveying. 

CADDIS-FLY,  tbe  common  name  of  any 
of  the  order  Trickoptera,  a  group  of  aquatic 
insects,  related  to  and  by  many  supposed  to  be 
Ae  ancestors  of  the  moths  and  buttei^es 
{LepidopUra).  They  resemble  the  lower  modis, 
but  die  wings  are  not  scaled,  excetit  in  a  very 
rudimentary  way.  They  differ  from  moths  in 
bavins  no  true  'twigue"  or  well-developed 
maxilla  adapted  for  sucking  the  nectar  of  flow- 
ers, but  as  in  moths  the  mandibles  are  either 
ablest  or  obsolete.  About  150  sj>ecies  are  thus 
far  known  to  live  -n  North  Amenca.  The  larvx 
are  called  "caddis^worms,'  •case-worms,"  or 
•cad-bait.*  They  are  more  or  less  cylindricaL 
with  well-developed  thoracic  feet,  and  a.pfir^l 


Google 


CADDOAN  IHDIAHB— CADBT 


feet  on  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  vaiTing  in 
length.  The  head  is  small,  and  like  that  of  a 
toitricid  larva,  which  the  caddis-worm  greatly 
resembles,  not  only  in  form,  but  in  its  habit 
of  rolling  up  sabmerged  leaves.  They  also  con- 
stnict  cases  of  bits  of  sticks,  sawdust  or  grains 
of  sand,  which  tb^  dra^  over  the  bottom  of 


Wben  about  to  pupate  they  close  -up  the  moudi 
of  the  case  with  a  ^rattn^  or,  as  in  tile  case 
of  Helicoptyehe,  which  is  coiled  like  a  snail- 
shell,  by  a  dense  silken  lid  with  a  single  slit,  and 
in  some  instances  spin  a  slight.  Sun,  silken 
cocoon,  within  which  the  pupa  state  is  passed. 
Tlie  pupa  is  much  like  that  of  the  smaller 
motb^  except  that  the  mandibles  are  present, 
and  wings  and  limbs  are  free  from  the  body. 
After  leaving  its  case  it  makes  its  way  over 
the  surface  of  the  water  to  the  shore,  some- 
times  going  a  long  distance.  The  female  de- 
posits her  eg^  in  a  double  gelatinous,  greenish 
moss,  which  is  attached  to  the  surface  of  some 
aquatic  plant.  Consult  UcLachlan,  'MoncH 
graph  of  the  Trichoptera  of  the  European 
Fauna' ;  Banks,  *A  List,  Synopsis^  Catalogues 
and  Bibiiogra^iy  of  the  Neuropteroid  Insects  of 
Temperate  North  America';  'Transactians  of 
the  American  Entomological  Socieh,'  Vol. 
XIX;  also  a  paper  by  Newham  and  Betten  in 
<BuUetin  of  the  New  York  Slate  Museum,'  47. 
CADDOAN  (fc5'd6-?n)  INDIANS,  a 
family  of  North  American  Indians,  compnsing 
die  Arikari  tribe  in  North  Dakota;  the  four 
Pawnee  villages,  Grand,  Tapage,  Republican  and 
addi,  in  the  Indian  Territory;  »nd  the  Caddo, 
Kichai,  Wichita  and  other  tribes,  formerly  in 
Louisiana,  Texas  and  Arkansas.  The  present 
number  of  these  Indians  is  about  2,130,  of 
which  416  are  in  North  Dakota,  the  rest  in  tha 
Indian  Territory. 


obliged  to  flee  from  Ireland,  he  took  refuge  i 
France.  In  1450  he  passed  over  to  England  at 
the  moment  of  great  popular  dissatisfaction  with 
the  ministers  of  Henry  VI.  He  at  once  pre- 
tended to  be  a  relative  of  the  Didce  of  York, 
assumed  the  name  of  Mortimer,  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion  in  Kent,  8  May,  and  very 
soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of  20,000  men. 
He  advanced  to  Blackheath,  and  interchanged 


feated  the  royal  troops  which  were  sent  ag 
him,  and  entering  London,  1  July,  immediately 
caused  the  execution  of  two  of  the  offensive 
ministers.  At  first  he  kept  his  army  under 
rigorous  discipline,  but  after  a  few  days'  resi- 
dence in  the  caiutal  their  propensity  to  plunder 
could  no  longer  he  restrained,  and  niey  pillaged 
some  of  the  finest  houses.  This  aroused  the 
dttiens  against  them,  and  on  the  night  of  5 
July  Cade  met  with  his  first  defeat.  A  promise 
of  pardon  now  dispersed  most  of  his  followers, 
ana  finding  his  force  no  longer  suflicieni  for  re- 
sistance he  took  to  flight,  was  overtaken,  offered 
resistance  and,  mortally  wounded,  was'  taken 
prisoner  and  died  on  his  way  to  London,  Con- 
sult Kreihn,  'The  English  Rising  of  14S0' 
(Strassburg  1892);  Clayton,  'The  True  Story 
of  Jack  Cade'  (London  1909). 


CADBLL.   Fmcis,   Scottish    expkn-er  in 

Australia;  b.  Codcenaie,  Scotk^  Vm-,  d.  1879. 
At  the  age  of  14  be  entered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company  a*  midshinnan  and  in 
1844  was  appelated  caounander.  Beoaming  as- 
sured of  the  navigafaili^  of  the  Murray  River 
in  Australia  be  nude  an  extended  expktratioa 
of  diat  (trean  in  18S0.  SiAeequcnt^  forming 
a  navigation  company  he  reached  by  steamboat 
a  point  300  milea  from  the  fiver's  mouth,  and  in 
Ib8  colored  the  Mornunbridgee  River,  and  in 
1858  the  Darliny  River  as  far  as  Mount  Mur- 
diison.  While  in  command  of  a  vessel  sailing 
from  Amboyna  be  vraa  murdered  by  hit  crew. 

CADRHCS,  the  concluding  notes  of  a 
musical  composition  or  of  any  well-defined  sec- 
tion of  it.    See  Hah  HON  Y. 

CADENCY,  in  herakiiy.  a  system  of  marks 
intended  to  show  the  descent  of  a  younger 
branch  of  a  family  from  the  main  stock.  Mod- 
em heraldry  rccogniaes  nine  marks  of  cadency; 
the  first  son  bcairs  the  label;  the  lecond.  the 
crescent;  next  in  order  come  the  mullet,  ifae 
martlet,  the  annuleL  the  fleur<de>ly>,  the  rose, 
the  cross-moliae  and  the  octofoU. 

CADBHZA,  in  music,  a  flourish  of  in- 
definite form  introduced  on  a  bass  note  immedi- 
ately precedirig  a  close.  Formerly  the  per- 
former improvised  his  0¥m  cadenzas  but  after 
Sdiumanns  tune  all  composen  write  out  the 
cadenzas  and  do  not  trust  to  the  improvisa- 
tions of  every  performer. 

CADER  IDRIS,  a  mountain  in  Merioneth- 
shire, Wales,  the  beginning  of  a  chain  running 
northeasterly.  The  ridge  is  nearly  10  miles 
long,  and  with  its  breadth  of  from  one  to  three 
miles  makes  an  elevation  of  great  massiveness. 
Its  greatest  height  is  2,925  leeL  It  is  about 
five  miles  southwest  of  Dolgelly,  and  there  is  a 
fine  view  of  the  Irish  Sea  from  the  sununit. 

CADET,  kaxlit',  a  word  having  several 
significatioas.  It  is  of  French  origin,  and  was 
written  capdtt  in  the  I5th  centuty,  froen  coH- 
Ulto,  little  diief,  inferior  head  of  a  family. 
Fr.  pron.  ka-di'. 

1.  A  yonnger  son  of  a  family;  that  is,  one 
junior  to  the  eldest  or  heir  by  primogeniture; 
the  youngest  son;  a  younger  branch — or  mem- 
ber of  a  younger  branch —  of  a  family.  Thus 
the  brothers  Coquelin,  the  famous  French 
actors,  were  described  as  Coquelin  atnt  and 
Cbquelin  cadtt.  The  feminine  forms  are  amie 
and  eadelte. 

2.  In  fte  former  French  miHtary  service  — 
before  the  Revolotion  —  a  gentleman  who  en- 
tered the  army  without  a  commission  and  witb- 
out  pay  to  learn  the  military  profession,  as  was 
regularly  done  by  the  younger  sons  of  the 
noDiUty  to  find  a  career  for  tnemsetves.  This 
last  was  all  the  more  necessary  as  the  droit 
^dinesse,  which  had  prevailed  in  France  since 
the  12th  century,  gave  the  whole  inheritable 
estate  to  the  eldest  son,  to  the  detriment  of  the 
younger  ones.  Since  the  decree  of  15  Match 
1790^  hereditary  possessions  are  equally  divided 
among  all  the  children  or  their  descendants, 
irrespective  of  sex  and  primogeniture. 

3.  A  iunior  clerk  in  the  oM  East  India 
Company's  service. 

4.  A  student  in  a  mlUtiry  or  naval  college 
or  on  a  training  ship.  The  body  of  students  in 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West 


CADETS  DB  LA  CKOIX~CADHAN 


Point.  N.  Y.,  is  known  as  the  United  States 
Corps  of  Cadets.  Thejr  constitute  part  of  tbe 
army,  but  are  not  officers.  Graduates  are  com- 
missioned as  2d  lieutenants.  The  students  in 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis; 
those  of  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at  Wool- 
wich, or  the  Roval  Military  College  at  Sand- 
burst,  are  termea  cadets,  or,  tnthe  French  mili- 
tary sense,  a  young  man  designed  to  become  an 
officer  not  by  rising  from  the  ranlu,  but  by  a 
course  of  special  instruction  to  quality  hiro  for 
the  position.  A  midshipman  is  a  naval  cadet 
afloat.  In  Germany  the  cadet  system  is  hi^ly 
developed.  The  training  ships  are  called  Xa- 
dettensdjiffe.  Cadet  schools  and  corps  exist 
in  all  the  other  Enropean  armies  and  navies. 
The  Japanese  Cadet  Sciiool  in  Toldo  has  a 
teaching  staff  of  239  and  over  1,500  students. 
In  China  each  provincial  capital  contains  a 
primary  military  school,  where  puials  from  15 
to  18  years  of  age  undergo  a  three  years'  course, 
proceed  to  one  of  the  Four  Middle  Schools  for 
two  years,  followed  by  six  months'  practical 
training  in  the  army  and  finish  up  with  two 
years  in  the  Military  Hi^  School  at  Paotingfu. 

CADBTS  DB  LA  CROIX,  crwa,  the  early 
name  by  which  the  Camisards  (q.v.)  styled 
themselves,  from  a  white  cross  they  wore  under 
their  hats. 

CADBTS  FUMING  LIQUID.  See 
Cacodylb. 

CADILLAC,  y^-AS-yak,  Antolne  de  iK 
If Othe,  French  militant  commander ;  b.  Gas- 
cony,  France,  about  16W;  d.  France  1720.  He 
eaxne  of  good  family,  and  having  entered  the 
army  was  for  some  time  captain  in  Acadia.  In. 
1694  Fronlenac  placed  him  in  command  of 
Michilimackinac,  where  he  remained  until  1W7. 
Cadillac  then  brought  to  the  attention  of  Louis 
XIV  a  well-considered  scheme  for  a  permanent 
settlement  and  trading  post  in  the  Northwest. 
On  receiving  the  monarch's  approval  he 
founded  Detroit  in  1701,  establishing  50  soldiers 
and  SO  settlers  at  that  point.  From  1712  to 
■1717  he  was  governor  of  Louisiana,  retTiming 
to  France  in  the  year  last  named.  TTie  town 
of  Cadillac,  Micb.,  was  named  in  his  honor. 
Consult  Burton,  'Cadillac's  Village,  a  History 
of  the  Settlement,  1701-10'  (1896);  Parkman, 
<A  Half  Century  of  Conflict'  (Boston  1892). 

CADILLAC,  Uich.,  dty  and  county-seat 
of  Wexford  Comity,  on  Little  Clam  Lake,  and 
on  the  Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana  and'  the 
Ann  Arbor  railroads,  98  miles  north  of  Grand 
Rapids.  It  was  founded  in  1871,  incorporated 
in  1874,  and  since  1914  has  been  under  the  com- 
mission manager  plan  of  government.  The 
principal  buildings  comprise  dty  hall,  county 
courthouse,  public  library  and  hospital.  Be- 
sides the  lumber  interests  of  a  valuable  bard- 
wood  timber  region,  it  has  veneer,  table,  chair 
and  shoe  last  factories,  chemical  works  and 
machine  shops.    Pop.  8,375. 

CADIZ,  Ohio,  village  and  county-seat  of 
Harrison  CoutUy,  about  25  miles  nordiwest  of 
Wbeelinft  W.  Va.,  and  120  miles  east-northeast 
of  Columbus,  on  the  Pittsburgh,  Cindnnati  and 
Saint  Louis  Railroad.  Cadiz  is  important  as  a 
banking  centre  and  has  a  large  trade  in  coaL 
■fas.  poultry,  oil  and  wool.  It  was  the  home  of 
Idwrn  M.  Stanton  (q.,.)-    Pop.  1,971. 


CADIZ,  ka'dith  or  kft-dlz  (andently 
Gadbs^,  a  seaport  and  one  of  the  handsomest 
cides   in   Spain,  95   miles   south~southwest   of 


Leon,  off  the  southwestern  coast  of  Andalusi?. 
The  narrowness  of  the  land  communication 
prevents  its  capture  by  a  military  force  while 
the  garrison  is  master  of  the  sea.  It  is  walled, 
with  trenches  and  bastions  on  the  land  side; 
the  houses  are  high,  and  the  streets  narrow. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  great  hospital,  the 
custom-house,  the  old  and  new  cathedrals  (with 
pictures  by  Murillo),  two  theatres,  the  bull- 
ring, capable  of  accommodating  12,000  specta- 
tors, and  the  lighthouse  of  Saint  Sebastian, 
From  the  harbor  the  town  presents  a  magnifi- 
cent appearance.  The  Bay  of  Cadiz  is  a  very 
fine  one.  It  b  a  large  l^sin.  enclosed  by  the 
mainland  on  one  side,  and  the  projecting  tongue 
of  land  on  the  other.  It  is  from  10  to  12 
leagues  in  drcumference,  with  good  ant^orage 
and  protected  by  the  neighboring  hills.  It  has 
four  forts,  two  of  which  form  the  defense  of 
the  grand  arsenal,  La  Caracca,  in  which  are  3 
basins  and  12  docks.  The  dty  touched  its 
greatest  prosperity  after  the  discovery  of 
America,  when  it  became  the  European  em- 
porium for  the  New  Worii  The  loss  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  America  dealt  it  a  heavy 
blow;  but  within  recent  years  it  has  made 
rapid  Strides  despite  the  imperfect  drainage  and 
a  bad  water  supply  which  are  responsible  .for 
the  high  death  rate  of  44  per  1,000.  Cadiz  has 
long  been  the  prindpal  Spanish  naval  station. 
It  was  the  centre  of  the  Spanish- American 
trade,  and  the  commerce  of  the  port  was  very 
extensive  before  the  separation  of  the  colonies. 
The  preparation  of  salt  from  pits  belonging  to 
the  government  was  formerly  an  important 
brandi  of  industry,  but  is  now  of  comparatively 
little  consequence.  The  manufactures  of  Cadiz 
are  of  comparatively  little  importance,  but  in 
regard  to  the  extent  and  value  of  its  commerce 
it  ranks  as  one  of  the  first  ports  in  Spain.  Its 
imports  consist  of  alt  kinds  of  foreign  and 
colonial  produce,  coal,  cotton  and  woolen  man- 
ufactures etc.;  its  exports  of  wines,  fruits,  oils 
and  other  products  of  Spain.  The  town  of 
Santa  Mana,  opposite  C^diz,  is  the  principal 
depot  of  the  wines  of  Xeres.  Cadiz  was 
founded  by  the  Phcentcians  about  1100  b.c.,  and 
subsequently  belonged  in  succession  to  the  Car- 
thaginians and  the  Romans.  I.ong  in  possession 
of  the  Moors,  it  was  captured  from  them  in 
1202  by  Alfonso  X  of  Castile.  In  1587  Sir 
Frands  Drake  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  in 
the  bay;  and  it  was  taken  by  the  Earl  of  Essex 
in  IS96  and  from  its  bay  Villeneuve  sailed  pre- 
vious to  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  in  180S.  In 
1809  it  became  the  seat  of  the  central  junta,  and 
afterward  of  the  Cortes.  It  sustained  a  long 
blockade  from  the  French  (1810-12),  which 
was  not  raised  till  after  the  battle  of  Sajamanca. 
In  1823  the  French  entered  it  after  a  short 
siege:  The  Spanish  revolution  of  1868  orig- 
inated in  Cadiz.    Pop.  67,174. 

CADMAN,  Sunnel  Parks,  American  Con- 
gregational clergyman  and  author;  b.  Welling- 
ton, Shropshire,  England,  18' Dec.  1864.  A 
graduate  of  London  University  (Ridimond 
College^,  after  be  came  to  the  United  States, 
ke  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Wesliyu) 


d=,  Google 


.  CAEODBA  —  e ADOL 


University,  1913;  D.H.L.,  University  o£ 
Vermont,  1913.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Metro- 
poliun  Temple,  New  York,  from  1895  to  1900, 
when  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  Central  Congre- 
Sational  Church,  Brooklyn.  Previously  a 
trustee,  he  became  actinf;  president  o(  Adelphi 
College  in  1913-14.  Well  known  as  a  public 
speaker  and  lecturer,  he  is  author  of  'Cfaarles 
I^rwin  and  Other  English  Thinkers'  (1911) 
and  'Three  Great  Oxford  Movements'  (1915). 

CADMEA,  the  name  given  to  the  acropolis 
of  Thebes,  B<EOtia,  because  it  was  said  to  nave 
been  founded  by  Cadmus.  Only  fragments  of 
its  walls  remain. 

CADMIA,  a  name  used  by  early  writers 
(1)  for  the  mineral  calamine  (qv.);  and  (2) 
for  the  subtimate  of  zinc  oxide  niat  often  col- 
lects on  the  walls  of  furnaces  used  in  the  re- 
duction of  metallic  ores,  when  those  ores  hap- 
pen to  contain  zinc. 

CADMIUM,  a  metallic  element  resembling 
rinc  in  its  chemical  properties,  and  discovered 
by  Slromeycr  in  1817,  in  a  specimen  of  zinc 
carbonate.  Cadmium  often  occurs  in  ores  of 
zinc  lo  a  small  extent,  blende  sometimes  con- 
taining as  much  as  3  per  cent  of  cadmium  sul- 
phide. The  commercial  supply  of  the  element 
IS  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  smelting  of 
zinc,  chiefly  in  Belgium  and  Silesia.  Cladniium 
sulphide  also  occurs  native  as  the  mineral 
greCnockite  fq.v.).  otherwise  known  as  •cad- 
mium blende."  In  the  distillation  of  zinc  ores 
the  cadmium,  being  more  volatile,  passes  over 
first;  and  aavanUge  is  taken  of  this  fact  for 
the  isolation  of  the  metal  in  the  arts.  In  Silesia, 
where  the  zinc  ores  often  contain  considerable 
Quantities  of  cadmium,  the  first  portion  of  the 
distillate  is  likely  to  contain  as  much  as  from 
3  to  10  per  cent  of  cadmium.  Thb  is  mixed 
with  coal  or  charcoal  and  redistilled  at  a  low, 
red  heat.  Cadmium,  mixed  with  a  little  zinc, 
passes  over;  and  by  one  more  distillation  the 
metal  is  obtained  in  a  fairly  pure  form.  To 
eliminate  the  last  traces  of  zinc,  the  crude  metal 
is  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  then  diluted 
and  precipitated  as  a  sulphide  by  a  current  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  sulphide  is  then 
dissolved  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
the  subsequent  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda 
precipitates  the  carbonate  of  cadmium,  which 
IS  reduced  to  the  oxide  upon  ignition.  The 
pure  oxide  thus  obtained  may  then  be  reduced 
to  the  metallic  form  by  distillation  with 
charcoal. 

Metallic  cadmium  is  lustrous  and  resembles 
tin  in  appearance,  though  it  has  a  bluish  tinge. 
It  is  stronger  than  tin,  but,  like  that  metal,  it 
emits  a  peculiar  crackling  sound,  or  'cry,*  when 
bent.  At  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  quite 
ductile  and  malleable,  and  may  be  drawn  into 
thin  wire,  rolled  into  thin  sheets,  or  hammered 
into  foih  At  about  175°  F,  it  becomes  brittle, 
however,  so  that  it  can  be  pulverized  in  a 
mortar,  (jdmium  has  the  chemical  symbol  Ci 
Its  specific  gravity  is  about  K.65,  It  melts  at 
600°  F.,  and  boils  at  about  1,500°  F..  yielding  a 
yellow  vapor.  Its  atomic  weight  is  112,4  if 
0  =  16,  or  H  1.6  if  H  =  l.  Its  y>edfic  beat  is 
about  0.055,  and  its  linear  coefncient  of  ex- 
pansion is  about  0,0000185  per  Fahrenheit  de- 
gree.    Metallic  cadmium  is  used  to  a  limited 


extent  in  die  preparation  of  alloys,  its  general 
effect  being  to  r«Iuce  the  melting-point  of  the 
alloy  to  which  it  is  added.  The  total  prodiK- 
tion  of  the  metal  per  annum  is  probably  about 
tWo  toua. 

In  its  chemical  reladons,  cadmium,  like  dnc, 
is  a  ih^d.  Metallic  cadmium  undergoes  a  slow, 
superficial  oxidation  upon  exposure  to  the  air; 
and  when  sufficiently  heated  in  the  presetice  of 
air  it  oxidizes  rabidly  and  may  even  take  fire. 
The  resulting  oxidt;  CdO,  is  brown  in  color 
and  readily  dissolves  in  acids,  with  the  produc- 
tion of  the  correqionding  cadmium  salts.  One 
of  the  best  known  of  these  salts  is  the  iodide 
Cdl]  which  is  used  in  photography  and  in 
medicine,  and  maty  be  obtamed  by  the  action  of 
hydriodic  acid,  HI,  i^on  cadmium  carbonate, 
or  metallic  cadmium.  The  bright  yellow  sul- 
phide, CdS.  is  formed  when  the  stream  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  gas  is  passed  throuf^  a 
slightly  acid  solution  of  a  cadmium  salt:  and 
this  fact  is  used  tn  the  detection  and  isolation 
of  cadmium  in  qualitative  analysis.  The  sul- 
phide is  used  as  a  pigtnent,  under  the  name  of 
■cadmium  yellow*;  it  is  brilliant  in  color,  and 
does  not  change  upon  exposure  to. air  or  light 

CADMUS,  in  Greek  mythology  the  son  of 
Agenor  and  grandson  of  Poseidon.  With  his 
brothers  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  seek  for 
his  sister,  Europa,  who  had  been  carried  away 
by  Zeus,  and  be  was  not  to  return  without  her. 
After  several  adventures,  the  oracle  at  Delphi 
commanded  him  to  desist  from  further  search, 
to  entrust  himself  to  the  guidance  of  a  heiCer, 
and  where  she  should  stop  to  build  a  ci^.  He 
accordingly  went  to  Bceotia,  where  he  wished 
to  sacrifice  the  cow  to  Athena.  But  his  com- 
panions, attempting  to  bring  water  from  the 
fountain  of  Ares  for  the  purpose  of  the  sacri- 
fice, were  slain  by  the  dragon  that  guarded  it. 
Cladmus  killed  the  dr^on,  and,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Athena,  sowed  its  teeth  in  the  earth ; 
artned  men  immediately  sprang  up,  whom  he 
called  Sparti  (the  sowed),  but  who  perished  in 
a  contest  with  each  other,  excepting  five. 
With  the  remainder  he  built  the  city  of  Cadmca. 
or  Thebes  (see  Thbbbs).  He  became  by  his 
marriage  with  Harmonia  the  father  of  Antinoe, 
Ino,  Semele,  Agave  and  Polydorus,  After  rul- 
ing for  a  time  the  city  which  he  had  built,  and 
the  state  which  he  had  founded,  he  proceeded, 
at  the  command  of  Bacchu^  with  Harm onia  lo 
the  Enchelse,  conquered  their  enemies,  the  Illy- 
rians,  became  their  King,  and  begat  another 
son,  Illyrius.  Tradition  states  that  Cadmus 
came  to  Bceotia  from  Fhcenicia,  1550  B,c.,.con- 
<luered  the  inhabitants  who  opposed  him,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  them,  founded  the  above- 
■ioned  city.    To  promote  the  impro 


vals  of  the  gods,  besides  the  use  of  copper,  etc 
Another  Cadmus,  of  Miletus,  a  son  of  Pandion, 
was  regarded  among  the  Greeks  as  the  first 
who  wrote  in  prose.  He  lived  abont  600  B.C. 
'  CADOL,  Victor  Bdonard,  vfk-tor  M-oo- 
ard  k9-dM,  French  dramatist  and  novelbt:  b. 


Le  Tnnps,  and  was  one  of  uie  founders  of 
Z.'  Esprit  PraH(ais.  Among  his  very  numerous 
works,  many  of  which  were  written  in  col- 
laboration,   are    *La   Gertnaine,'    a    diree   act 


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COUNT  GENERAL  LUIGl  CADORHA 

»-lD-Chi«f  ol  the  ItaUu  umia  (ISIS-IT) 


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C  ADOBS  —  CADUCEUS 


comedy  (1664)  i  ^Les  ambiliom  de  M.  Fau- 
velle'  (1867),  which  ran  for  over  200  con- 
secutive nights;  <Les  InutUcs'  (1868);  'La 
Belle  Affaire'  (1869) ;  'La  fausse  monnaie' 
(1869);  "Paris  pendant  le  siege>  (1871);  *U 
spectre  de  Patrick'  (1872) ;  'Uariage  de 
princesse'  (1888)  ;  'Therese  Gervais'  (1K)3)  ; 
'L'archiduchesse'  (1897).  A  corrected  edition 
of  his  dramas  appeared  in  1897  entitled 
'Thfatre  in£dit'  Among  Cadal'e  romances 
are  'Contes  gais'  (1867);  'Le  Monde  galant> 
(1873) ;  'ifidamc  Elise'  (1874) ;  "Rose' 
(1875);  'La  Grande  Vie>  (1879):  'Son  Ex- 
cellence SatineHe>  (1882);  'La  Belle  Virginie* 
(1883) ;  'Tout  Seul'  (1884) ;  'Lucctte' 
(1886). 

CADORB,  ka-do'ri,  or  PIAVB  DI 
CADORB,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
and  22  miles  north-northeast  of  the  town  of 
Belluno,  on  the  Piave,  derives  its  chief  interest 
from  being  the  birthplace  of  Titian. 

CADORNA,     ki-dor-nS,     LtJgi,     Count, 
Italian  general,  son  of  (general  Count  RaEFaele 
Cadorna;    b.   Pallanza   18S0.     After    receiving 
bis  early  education  at  a  cadet  school  he  passed 
the    Staff    College   and   was   attached   to    his 
father's  atatf  in  1870  when  the  latter  — a  bril- 
liant soldier — led  the  Italian  army  into  Papal 
territorj;  in  1870  and  blew  in  the  Porta  Pia. 
He  attained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1875,  and 
was  ultimately  appointed  chief  of  staff  of  the 
Verona   Army  Corps.     After  commanding  the 
10th   Bersaghert  he  was  promoted  major-gen- 
eral in  1898  and  lieutenant-general  in  190S.    For 
a  rime  he  commanded  a  division  at  Ancona  and 
was   subsequently  appointed  corps  commander 
at  Genoa,  with  the  rank  of  commander-desig- 
nate of  an  army  in  the  field.    In  1914  he  suc- 
ceeded General  Pollio  as  chief  of  the  genera] 
staff.     His  reputation  as  a  professional  soldier 
had  long  been  established  wrou^hout  Europe^ 
for  he  had  written  works  on  military  science 
and  possessed  a  unique  knowledge  of  that  dif- 
ficult terrain  in  which,  if  ever,  Italy  would  be 
called  upon  to  fight  her  old  enemy  and  quon- 
dam ally  Austria.    When  Italy  entered  the  war 
in    May  1915   Count  Cadorna  was    ^ven    the 
supreme    command    in    the    field.     His   battle 
front  of  about  480  miles  was  the  most  difficult 
one   in  Europe,  presenting  enormous  geograph- 
ical   obstacles,   the   angle  of   the  Trentino,   the 
great    wall  of   the  Dolomites  and  the   Camic 
and  Jwiian  Alps.    The  Italian  successes  of  1516, 
including  the  capture  of  Gorizia,  were  neutral- 
ized by  the  great  Austro-German  drive  against 
Italy  inal  bmn  on  23  Oct.  1917.    By  the  even- 
ing of  the  ^th  the  whole  Italian  fine  was  in 
retreat  and  General  Cadorna  fell  back  upon  the 
Tasli^™'"^"'    Corixia    fell  to  the  enemy  and 
U^ne  was  lost.    The  mountain  defenses  in  the 
Camic  Alps  began  to  crumble  and  the  disaster 
soon     extended    to    Cadore.     Abandoning    the 
Tagliamento  lines  on  5  November  Cadorna  fell 
baclc   upon  the  Piave  after  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tcinpt    to  hold  the  Livenia.     The  Italian  losses 
were   estimated  by  the  enemy  at  250,000  men 
and  2,300  guns,  and  the  Allies  suffered  a  defeat 
in    the    field  unparalleled  in  the  war.    French 
and    British  troops  were  rushed  to  the  scene, 
but   the  Italians  recovered  themselves  by  their 
own  efforts  and  made  a  firm  stand  on  the  Piave. 
On  9  Nov.  1917,  a  Supreme  Political  Cj>uncil  of 


the  Allies  for  die  whole  of  the  western  front 
was  created,  and  General  Cadorna  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  permanent  central 
military  committee.  On  10  Feb.  1918  Cadorna 
was  succeeded  as  a  member  of  the  Supreme 
War  Council  by  Gen.  Gaetano  Giardino.  He 
was  succeeded  in  his  command  by  General  Diaz. 
See  War,  European  —  AusTisa- Italian  Cam- 
paign. 

CADORNA,  RaSa«le,  Italian  general:  b. 
Milan  1815;  d.  Turin,  6  Feb.  1897.  He  served 
in  the  Crimean  War,  and  in  1860  was  made  war 
minister  in  Tuscany's  provisional  government 
and  military  commandant  of  Sicily  in  1866.  He 
suppressed  the  Bourbon  insurrection  in  Palermo 
in  the  latter  year,  and  in  1870  captured  Rome 
and  was  its  military  governor  for  a  time.  In 
1671  he  entered  the  Italian  Senate.  He  was  the 
author  of  'Osservaiioni  sulV  amministrazione 
centrale  della  guerra'  (18S4):  'Biblic«rafia 
delle  campagne  per  I'independenza  itauana' 
(1882),  and  'La  hberaiione  di  Roma  nel  1870> 
(1889). 

G  ADOUDAL,  Cteorges,  kft-doo-d^l',  French 
Chonan  chief;  b.  Brittany,  1  Jan.  1769;  d. 
Paris,  25  June  1804.  In  the  protracted  and 
sangiiinary  contests  between  the  Royalists  and 
Re^blicans  during  the  French  Revolution,  the 
(^uans  and  Vendians  were  the  moat  resolute 
supporters  of  the  Royal  cause;  and  the  energy 
and  ability  of  Cadoudal  soon  raised  him  to  an 
inflnentiaf  place  among  the  adherents  of  the 
house  of  Bourbon.  At  this  time  attempts  were 
made  by  Napoleon  to  gain  over  Cadoudal  to 
the  cause  of  the  republic,  and  a  lieutenant- 
generalship  in  the  army  was  offered  as  _  the 
price  of  his  submission;  but  he  firmly  declined 
alt  these  overtures.  Ho  afterward  engaged,  in 
concert  with  General  Pich^ru  and  others,  in  a 
conspiracy  having  for  its  object  the  overthrow 
of  the  consular  government  and  the  restoration 
of  the  monarchy ;  which  being  discovered, 
Cadoudal  was  arrested  and  executed.  Consult 
Georges  de  Cadoudal,  'George  Cadoudal  et  la 
Chouannerie'   (Paris  1887). 

CADUCBUS,  k^-dfi'se-iis,  the  staff  con- 
sidered as  a  symbol  and  attribute  of  the  Greek 
({od  Hermes  and  the  Rontan  god  Mercury.  It  - 
IS  generally  rniresented  as  having  two  serpents 
twined  around  it  in  opposite  directions,  their 
heads  confronting  one  another.     It  is  probable 


bons  or  fillets  tied  to  tha  end  of  the  staff,  c- 
the  green  wreaths  or  boughs  which  were  tied 
around  it,  giving  the  suggestion  of  the  presence 
of  living  serpents.  Several  different  fables  were 
invented  by  late  Greek  writers  to  account  for 
the  serpents  in  a  miraculous  way.  The  fable 
td Is  that  Apollo  ^ve  his  staff  to  Mercury  in 
consideration  of  his  resigning  to  him  the  honor 
of  inventing  the  lyre.  As  Mercury  entered  At^ 
cadia  with  this  wand  in  his  hana  he  saw  two 
serpents  fighting  together;  he  threw  the  staff 
between  them,  and  they  immediately  wound 
themselves  around  it  in  friendly  union.  The 
caduceus  is  Mercury's  peculiar  mark  of  distinc- 
tion. With  this  he  conducted  the  shades  to  the 
lower  world,  and  from  it  received  the  name  of 
Caducifer- yet  we  find  it  on  ancient  coins  in  the 
hands  of  Bacchus,  Hercules,  Ceres,  Venus  and 
Anubis.    Among  the  modems  it  serves  prind- 


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CAIVWALAOER— CXCUM 


Slty  a>  an  emblnn  of  commerce  over  which 
ercaiy  was  the  presidins  divinity. 
CADWALADER,  kSd-wol'a-dir,  Georse, 
American  lawyer  and  soldier:  b.  Pmladelpoia 
18M ;  d.  there,  3  Feb.  1879.  He  practised  law  tiU 
1846;  was  made  brigadier-general  of  voliin- 
leers;  and  was  brevetted  major-general  after 
Chapultepec.  He  resumed  his  law  practice  till 
1861 ;  became  major-general  of  State  volun- 
teers; was  placed  in  command  at  Baltimore; 
Bocompanied  Patterson's  expedition  to  Win- 
chester (1861)  1  and,  as  one  of  a  military  board, 
directed  the  United  States  army  operations. 
He  was  antbor  of  'Services  in  the  Uexican 
Ompaign  of  1847'   (1848). 

CADWALADER,  John,  American  soldier: 
b.  Philadelphia,  10  Jan.  1742;  d.  Shrewsbury, 
Pa..  10  Feb.  1786.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
battalion  and  soon  liecame  brigadier-pineral. 
He  fought  at  Trenton,  Brandywine,  German- 
town  and  Monmouth.  In  1777  he  organized 
the  militia  of  eastern  Maryland.  In  1/78  he 
challenged  and  wnunded  Geo,  Tbctnas  Conway 
for  plotting  against  Washington.  He  published 
<A  Reply  to  Gen.  Joseph  Reed's  Remarks' 
(1783).  Subsequently,  he  became  a  member  of 
Ok  Maryland  le^slative  assembly. 

CADY,  J.  Clereland,  American  archi- 
tect: b.  Providence,  R.  I.  He  entered  the  pro- 
fession of  arciitect  in  1870  and  among  his 
noteworthy  buildings  are  the  American  Mti- 
seum  of  Natural  Histoiy,  the  Metro^Iitan 
Opera  House,  the  Brooklyn  Art  Association, 
variouft  coll^ate  structures  at  Yale,  Williams, 
Trinity  and  Wesleyan,  ind  numerous  churches, 
hostNtals,  mansions,  commercial  buildings,  etc., 
throu^oW  the  country.  Trinity  CoIl«e  con- 
ferred on  him  the  degree  of  M.A.  In  ISBO  and 
LL.D.  in  190S. 

Ci£CtX.IAN,  se-sQ^-an,  a  member  of  a 
family  of  batrachians,  the  CacilUda,  regarded 
as  forming  an  order,  called  Apoda,  or  (^'mno- 

iihiona.  They  are  long,  worm- 1  ike  animals, 
aeking  all  traces  of  limbs,  and  having  only  a 
rudiment  of  a  tail.  There  may  be  as  many  as 
2S0  vertebrae.  The  hinder  end  is  blunt  and 
-  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  head.  The 
body  is  covered  with  a  soft,  moist  skin,  and  the 
jaws  are  armed  with  rather  feeble  teeth.  These 
animals  are  found  in  die  tropical  parts  of 
America,  Africa  and  Asia,  where  thev  burrow 
like  earth*wormi,  which  they  resemble.  They 
are  often  found  in  the  nests  of  ants,  v4iich  thnr 
devour.  They  also  feed  on  worms.  The  breed- 
ing habits  of  these  creatures  are  not  well  under- 
stood. The  eggs  are  laid  either  in  the  water  or 
near  it  One  species  fotmd  in  Ceylon  lays  a 
mass  of  eggs  which  are  connected  by  a  cord, 
thus  resembling  a  string  of  beads.  They  are 
deposited  in  a  borrow  near  the  water,  and  are 
intmbated  by  the  mother  umil  the  escape  of  the 
yoimg.    About  30  species  of  these  anunals  are 


yotrng 
know: 


CJECtLIITS,  se-cm-&9,  Stttios,  Roman 
comic  poet  and  dramatist.  He  was  bom  in  Gaul 
of  the  race  of  the  Isurbians;  d.  166  B.C.  His 
contemporaries  ranked  him  with  Plautus  and 
"Terence.  He  wrote  over  40  comedies  of  which 
fragments  remain.  He  was  brought  to  Rome 
as  H  prisoner  of  war,  hnt  was  freed.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Ennius.    Volcadus  Sedigitus  ranks 


him  first  among  the  comic  poets  of  Rome.  A 
few  fragments  Dave  been  preserved,  mainly  by 
Cicero  and  Aulus  Gellius.  Consult  Riboeck, 
'Comicorum   Romanomm    Fragmenta*    (Leip- 


of  Vulcan,  and  a  great  robber,  who  lived  in 
Italy,  and  built  Pr^eneste;  but  being  unable  to 
find  mhabitants  he  employed  the  aiaof  Vulcan, 
his  father,  who  populated  the  city  for  him. 


CACUH,  se'kiim   (Lat.  cscus,  blind), 

put  coli   (head  of  the  colon),  a  blind  pot 

into  which  the  small  intestine  empties.     In  : 


human  body  it  is  so  small  as  to  be  practically 
useless;  but  the  vermiform  appendix  begins  tn 
it  as  does  also  the  colon.  However,  the  caM;uni 
is  quite  huge  in  many  of  the  mammalia,  and 
serves  the  purpose  of  the  reienlioa  of  the  food 
for  a  longer  period  than  would  be  possible 
without  it  It  IS  therefore  inclined  to  be  larger 
in  herUvorons  animals;  hot  it  is  lacking  in 
some  animals,  like  the  bear,  which  would  seem 
to  require  it;  and  omnivorous  or  granivorous 
bird;  have  two  caeca  generally  large,  while 
fishes  have  no  true  csKum  and  in  reptiles  the 
cm:um  is  small.  The  catcum  aids  the  digestion 
in  the  mammaKa  hy  the  secretion  of  a  fluid  re- 
sembling gastric  juice. 

C.SCUH,  Discues  of.  Acute  disease  of 
the  cftcum  is  usually  presaat  in  the  form  of 
appendicitis  Cg.v.).  Tuoerculosis  ofthe  c«cuni 
and  cancer  of  the  cicum  are  described  under 
the  terms  cancer  and  intestinal  tuberculous. 
The  chronic  diseases  o£  the  vxcata.  rnay  be 
arranged  under  the  headings,  chronic  catarihal 
Inflammation,  atony  of  the  cxcum  with  dilata- 
tion, spasm  of  the  cteciim.  displacements,  and  the 
neuroses  of  the  cicum.  In  some  respects  the 
cECCum  may  be  thought  of  as  a  secondary 
stomach.  Like  the  stomach,  it  is  a  dilated  orgaa 
at  the  end  of  a  portion  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
hence  its  disorders  run  in  a  sense  parallel  to 
those  of  the  stomach.  It  Is  a  food  pouch  which 
contains   a  quantity   of    food   ready   to   be   ab- 

Atony  of  the  csecum  is  a  not  infrequent  cause 
of  serious  disturbance  and  is  due  either  to  a 

Seneral  body  loss  of  tone,  as  from  wasting 
isease,  from  neurotic  disturbances,  from  dis- 
placements or  from  mechanical  obstructions. 
Certain  clinicians  regard  the  neurotic  disposi- 
tion or  constitution  as  the  most  frequent,  others 
regard  the  mechanical  factors  to  be  the  most 
important.  Atony  may  be  present  alone  or  be 
associated  with  dilatation,  which  latter  is  the 

The  symptoms  are  complex  and  at  times  ob- 
scure, 'rhey  are  frequent  in  young  adults, 
usually  between  25  and  45.  Obstinate  constipa- 
tion is  a  prevailing  state.  This  is  interspersed 
or  broken  into,  as  it  were,  by  paroiQ'smal  at- 
tacks of  griping  pain.  These  may  last  a  few 
hours.  At  times  there  are  simply  periods  of 
severe  discomfort,  with  feeling  of  fullness  in 
the  ri^t  iliac  fossa.  Loss  of  appetite  with  at 
times  nausea  and  vomiting  are  present.  Ex- 
amination of  the  abdomen  reveals  a  fullness 
and  resistance ;  there  is  frequent  iteo-csecal 
gurgling  of  gases  and  percussion  of  the  area 
reveals  a  greater  or  less  area  of  tympanites. 
Diarrhrea  is  not  infrequent  during  the  attacks. 
X-ray  pictures  are  important  in  the  diagnosis  as 
it  is  frequently  misinterpreted  as  a  chronic  ap- 


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CBDHOH— CASH 


^eodidtis  —  which  iattew  condition  often  accom- 
Mnies  the  chronic  cutcal  *toay  and  dilatxtioa. 
The  treatment  U  by  rest,  the  knees  drawn  up^ 
hot  appUcations  and  belladonna.  If  the  pain  is 
severe,  hi^  soapsudi  enemata  are  of  vahie. 
Operation  is  rarely  called  for;  the  chief  gen- 
eral treatment  should  consist  in  raisii^  the 
general  mnscular  tone  of  the  individual.  Setting 
up  ezerdses  with  special  attention  devoted  to 
the  morale  of  the  abdominal  muscles  is  the  but 
treatment.  A  viaorous  attitude  will  give  rise 
to  a  "stroag-minaed  intestine*  and  do  much  to 
relieve  the  Habbiiiess  and  loss  of  mtncular  tone 
of  these  indivicbials.  They  are  fur  the  most 
part  people  who  are  chronically  sori^  for  then- 
selves  and  are  usuiUly  internally  indolent  at- 
tliourit  at  times  externally  fairly  active. 

Typhlospasm  is  the  name  given  to  an  op- 
posing tjrjw  in  which,  tncreaaed  tone  of  the 
cecum  gives  rise  to  a  chronic  spastic  state  of  the 
organ.  This  is  found  in  yaung  adults  usually 
of  the  more  forceful  and  busy  type.  Here  pain 
and  discomfort  are  fdt  and  there  is  a  tettdenqr 
toward  increased  freqncno'  of  bowel  move- 
ment, two  to  three  small  dryish  movements  a 
day.  The  movement  usually  does  not  seem  to 
relieve  the  patient.  There  is  a  sense  of  som^ 
thing  left  behind    Mucus  and  blood  are  some- 


iially  forceful,  overaggressive,  choleric 
and  impatient.  They  are  frequently  haters  and 
often  not  well  socially  adjusted,  often  intensely 
avaricious  and  envious.  The  treatment  is 
largely,  psychical.  Belladonna,  chloral  and 
bromides  are  of  value  in  tidit%  over  the  acute 
periods  of  distress.  A  prevailing  trend  in 
neurological  medicine  is  to  regard  these  oondi-  . 
tions  as  largely  of  mental  origin  in  which  the 
mechanical  factors,  Lane's  kinb^  etc,  are  coa- 
tribtiting  cauaes. 

CSDHON,  k&d'mon^  the  first  Anglo- 
Saxon  poet :  d.  680.  According  to  Bede's 
'Ecclesiastical  Histoiy>  Caedmon  was  a  swine- 
herd to  the  monks  of  Whitby,  and  never  gave 
evidence  of  any  poetical  talent  until  one  nif^t 
3  vision  appeared  to  him,  and  commanded  hun 
to  sing.  When  he  awoke,  he  found  the  words 
of  a  poem  in  praise  of  the  Creator  of  the  world 
impressed  upon  his  memory.  This  manifesta- 
tion of  talent  obtained  for  him  admission  into 
the  monastery  at  Whitby,  where  he  continued 
to  compose  devotional  poems.  An 'edition  of 
his  paraphrase  of  parts  of  the  Scriptures  was 
printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1655,  edited  by  Junius. 
Thorpe  published  an  edition  of  it  (London 
1832)  for  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  It  has 
been  assumed  by  some  that  Milton  took  some 
ideas  of  'Paradise  Lost'  from  the  poems  of 
Oedmon.  It  is  certain,  that  they  were  very 
popular  among  the  English  and  the  Saxon  part 
of  the  Scottish  nation,  and  furnish  plentiful  ma- 
terials to  the  makers  of  mysteries  ?nd  miracle 
plays.  In  the  Bodleian  Library^  at  Oxford  is  a 
manuscript  the  contents  ol  which  are  ascribed 
to  C^mon,  but  the  best  authorities  do  not  con- 
sider it  to  be  his.  Consult  Ten  Brink,  'Early 
Enzlisb  Literature' ;  Morley,  'English  Writers,' 
Vol.  II  (1888^;,  and  the  bibliograph  in  the 
■Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature." 

C.ffiLIUS,  se'H-iis,  AurellaniM,  Latin  phjrst- 
cian,  generally  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
of  Numidia,  and  to  have  flourished  in  the  4th 


r  Sthc 


author  of  'Medicinales  Responsiones,'  ..  . 
pendium  of  the  whole  sdcnce  of  medicine  in 
the  fonn  of  a  catechism  ^LUm  Quinque  Tar- 
darum  Chronicarum  Passiomun'  and  'Libri 
Tres  Celerum  sive  Acutarum  Passionnm. 

CSLIUS  MONS,  one  of  the  seven  hills  on 
which  Rome  was  built.  It  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived its  name  from  Cxlius  Vibenna,  an  Etrus- 
can, to  whom  it  was  assigned.  The  palace  of 
Tullus  Hostilius  was  on  this  mount.  It  is  at 
present  covered  with  ruins. 

CASH,  kifL  France,  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Calvaoos,  and  the  ancient  capital  of 
Normandy,  125  miles  northwest  of  Paris,  and 
about  nine  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ome, 
which  is  here  navigable  and  crossed  by  several 
bridges.  There  is  a  dock  connected  with  the 
sea  By  both  river  and  canal.  Caen  is  the  centre 
of  an  im^rtant  domestic  trade,  the  maricet  of 
a  rich  a^rricultural  district,  and  carries  on  exten- 
sive manufactures.  The  streets  are  broad,  regu- 
lar and  clean,  the  houses  well  built  of  wiute 
freestone  and  it  possesses  various  ancient  and 
remarkable  edifices.  The  public  promenades 
and  recreation  grounds  are  beautiful,  and  there 
are  various  extensive  squares  and  *ptaces.* 
The  cburdi  of  La  Trinity  a  Eoe  edifice  in  the 
Norman-Romanesque  style,  restored  in  modem 
times,  was  formerly  the  church  of  the  Atdiaye- 
aux-oames,  founded  in  1066  by  Matilda,  wife  of 
WilUoni  the  Conqueror.  The  church  of  Saint 
Stephen  was  founiided  at  the  same  time  by  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror  as  the  church  of  the 
Abbaye-BUx-hommes,  and  though  considerably 
modified  since  is  a  noble  and  impresuve  edifice. 
It  has  two  fine  western  towers  295  feet  hi^ 
The  Abbaye-aux-hommes,  built  by  the  Con- 
queror, who  was  buried  in  it,  is  now  used  as  a 
college,  having  been  rebuilt  in  the  18th  century. 
One  of  the  fmest  churches  in  Caen  is  that  of 
Saint  Pierre,  whose  tower  (255  feet),  termi- 
nated by  a  spire,  is  exceedingly  eleg^mt.  Among 
other  public  buildings  are  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the 
prefecture  and  the  palace  of  justice.  Caen  pos- 
sesses a  university  facuhy  or  college,  a  public 
library  with  some  100,000  volumes,  a  gallery  of 
paintings  with  valuable  works  of  old  masters, 
a  natural  history  museum,  an  antiquarian  mu- 
seum, etc.  The  hospital  of  the  Abbayc-aux- 
dames  is  one  of  the  best  regulated  in  France. 
The  hospital  of  the  Bon-Sauveur  is  another  ad- 
mirable institution.  The  city  was  formerly  for- 
tifiecL  and  there  are  remains  of  a  castle  begun 
try  William  the  Conqueror  and  finished  by  Henry 
I,  but  since  much  altered  and  now  used  as  bar- 
racks. Caen  first  rose  into  importance  in  the 
time  of  William  the  Conqueror.  _  In  1346  it  was 
taken  by  Edward  III,  at  which  time  it  was  said 
to  be  lamer  that]  any  city  in  England  except 
London.  Henry  VI  of  England  founded  a  uni- 
versity here  in  1431,  Caen  having  been  in  the 
possession  of  the  English  from  1417  to  1450. 
It  suffered  much  in  the  religious  wars  between 
the  Protestants  and  the  Roman  Catholics  of 
FntncCi  Admiral  de  Coligny  captured  it  for  the 
Protestants  in  1562.  Caen  carries  on  ship- 
building^ and  its  manufactures  embrace  linen, 
woolen  and  cotton  goods,  lace,  ropes,  metal 
goods,  leather,  cutlery  and  various  other  articles 
and  has  foundries,  brewerie^  dyeworks  and 
sawmills.     It  is  also  famed  tot  j^ves  made 


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1S8 


C  ABN-STONX — CaSAS 


from  the  skins  of  the  Angora  rabbits.  It  car- 
ries on  a  considerable  trade  in  timber,  iron  ore, 
coal,  B^'aiu  and  other  articles,  including  agricul- 
lural  produce  exported  to  England,  to  which 
also  is  still  exported  the  Caen  building  stone 
famous  for  many  centuries.  A  canal  connects 
the  port  with  the  sea.  Maherbe^  Laplace,  Eeie 
de  Beaumont  and  Auber  were  bom  in  this  city 
or  in  its  vicinity,  and  are  commemorated  by 
sUtues.    Pop.  46,934. 

CABN-STONE,  a  cream -colored  oolitic 
limestone  from  Caen  in  Normandy,  identical 
with  the  Bath  oolite  of  England.  It  is  easily 
carved  and  has  long  been  m^ly  esteemed  as 
a  building  stone.  Westminster  Abbey,  Canter- 
bury Cathedral  and  other  English  churches  are 
built  of  it  It  is  quarried  underground  in 
blocks  nine  feet  lonR  two  feet  thick.  Its  amor- 
phous nature  prevents  its  use  on  external  struc- 
tures in  severe  climates.  Its  principal  use  is  for 
interior  work. 

CSNOTHERUM.    See  Ruhinahts. 

CANOZOIC.    See  Cenozoic 

CAERHASVON,  kar-nar'von.     See  Cak- 

KARVOM. 

CSRULARIUS,  Hichael,  Greek  ecde- 
siastic,  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  1043-49. 
By  dispensing  witii  the  Latin  ritual  in  many 
churches,  uf  Bulgaria  and  protesting  against  the 
use  of  unleavened  bread  by  the  Latins  in  the 
Eucharist,  he  completed  the  division  between 
the  Latin  and  the  Greek  communions.  He  was 
formal! V  excommunicated  by  Pope  Leo  IX, 
Some  decretals  and  letters  issued  by  him  are 
still  preserved.  Consult  Pichler,  'Geschichteder 
kirchlichen  Trennung  xwischen  dem  Orient  und 
Ocddent>    (Munich  1864). 

C£SALPINIACB£,  ses-al-pin-T-a'se-e,  a 
family  of  plants  containing  numerous  genera. 
The  botanical  characteristics  of  the  family  are : 
Calyx  of  five  divisions,  joined  together  at  dif- 
ferent points,  or  often  distinct  to  the  base,  with 
preRoration  imbricate  or  valvular;  petals  equal 
or  fewer  in  number;  stamens  often  not  sym- 
metrical to  the  other  parts  of  the  Bower,  or 
very  irregular,  sometimes  very  numerous, 
sometimes  partly  abortive,  raroly  regular,  very 
often  free,  or  lightly  joined  together  at  the  base 
only;  ovary  raised  on  a  free  support,  or  joined 
in  part  to  the  calyx  and  becoming  legumes, 
which  sometimes  contain  only  one  or  two 
ovules,  and  of  which  the  pericarp  may  have  a 
fleshy  consistence ;  seeds  without  perisperm ; 
embryo_  often  straipjht;  stems  often  arborescent 
or  fruticose,  sometimes  creeping;  leaves  simple; 
or  more  freauently  compound,  in  the  latter  case 
frequently  bipinnatc.  The  typical  genus  is 
Ctgsalpinui.  The  family  contains  many  plants 
of  great  economic  importance. 

CfSALPINUS.  Andreas,  or  ANDREA 
CESALPINO,  Italian  physiologist :  b.  Areito, 
Italy,  1519;  d.  23  Feb.  1603.  He  is  first  men- 
tioned in  public  life  as  a  professor  of  botany 
in  the  Universit:^  of  Pisa.  He  was  subsequently 
made  chief  physician  to  Clement  VII,  and  lived 
durini;  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Rome.  He 
published  works  on  botany,  mineralogy,  medi- 
cine and  the  highest  questions  of  philosophy. 
In  his  first  publication,  entitled  'Speculum  ArUs 
MedicK  Hin>^nit'cum,'  his  knowledge  of  die 


system  of  the  circnIatioB  of  tbe  Uood  is  stated 
the  clearest  manner.    The  following  passage 


ment  is  carried  through  the  veins  to  the  heart 
as  to  a  laboratory,  and  its  last  perfection  beiDg 
there  attained,  it  is  driven  hy  the  spirit  which  is 
begotten  in  the  heart  through  the  arteries  and 
distributed  to  the  whole  body.*  The  system  ac- 
cepted since  the  time  of  Harv^  could  hardly 
he  more  definitely  or  accurately  stated.  His 
philosophical  speculations  are  contaiiwd  mainly 
in  his  'Qiuestiones  PeripatelicK.'  The  philoso- 
phy of  Cesalpinus  was  scholastic  Aristotelian- 
ism,  with  a  leaning  toward  some  of  the  methods 
and  doctrines  of  tne  later  transcendental  or  ab- 
solute systems.  He  reduces  tlie  world  to  the 
simplid^  of  two  only  substances,  God  and  mat- 
ter, and  he  makes  all  finite  intelligences,  all 
human,  angelic  and  demoniac  souls,  to  belong 
to  the  latter  element.  Two  things  are  remark- 
able about  his  system:  (1)  Hie  boldness  of 
speculAtion,  unparalleled  in  his  age,  with  which 
he  seeks  a  purely  scientific  view  of  the  uni- 
verse; and   (2)    its  entirely  materialistic  cbar- 


lative  opinions,  were  his  botanical  labors.     

was  styled  by  Linnxus  the  first  orthodox  or 
systematic  botanist,  and  his  work  'De  Planti^* 
was  a  handbook  to  Linnsus  in  all  bis  classifi- 
cations. Botany  in  the  time  of  Czsalpinus  was 
the  popular  witchcraft :  as  a  science,  h  consisted 
in  a  mass  of  erudition  about  the  imaginary  bnt 
marvelous  virtues  of  plants.  Qesalptnus  sougfat 
successfully  to  transfer  it  from  the  realm  of 
magic  to  that  of  science.  He  proposed  the  basis 
of  classification  upon  which  the  whole  system 
of  LinuKUs  rests,  namely,  the  distinction  of 
I^ants  in  their  parts  of  fructification.  He  lived 
quietly  to  an  old  age  at  Rome,  submitting  all 
his  speculations  to  the  supremacy  '  ' 
Churdi,  and  presenting  in  h'  "'' 
of  every  virtue- 

C.SSAR,  the  name  of  a  i»trician  family  of 
the  Julian  gens,  tracing  its  origin  to  JuUns,  the 
son  of  Mntoi.  The  first  member  of  the  family 
who  occurs  in  history  with  the  surname  of 
Czsar  was  Sextus  Julius  Cxsar,  praetor,  208 
B.C.  Cxsar  was  the  family  name  of  die  first 
five  Roman  emperors.  With  Nero  the  imperial 
family  became  extinct  (68  A.n,),  and  Qesar  be- 
came merelv  a  title  of  dignity.  The  Emperor, 
who  bore  tne  title  of  Augusliu,  appointed  hb 
successor,  with  the  title  of  Cesar.  On  medals 
and  monuments  we  find  the  title  Caesar  (KCced- 
ing  the  name  of  the  emperor,  as  "Imp.  (^esar 
Nerva  Trajanus  Augustus,"  and  following  that 
of  the  designated  successor,  as  'Marc.  AimL 
Antonin.  Oesar.*  In  the  lower  Greek  empire, 
a  new  dignity  of  Sebastocrator  was  conferred, 
and  that  of  Caesar  became  the  third  rank  in  the 
state.  Prom  Czsar  are  derived  the  German 
■kaiser*  and  the  Russian  "tsar.* 

C.SSAR,  GaioH  JuUub,  the  greatest  repre- 
sentative of  the  genius  of  Rome,  a  man  of  con- 
summate ability  alike  as  a  general,  a  construc- 
tive statesman  and  a  writer.  He  was  bom,  ac- 
cording to  all  the  ancient  authorities,  12  July 
100  B.C.,  but  Mommsen,  in  his  'History  of 
Rome,'  considers  that  the  year  should  be  giren 
as  102.  Of  purest  patrician  aiKestry,  and  with 
a  family  tradition  intimately  associated  witli  tbe 


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early  youtK  a  champion  of  the  popular  party. 
His  aunt  lulia  bad  married  Manus,  and  when, 
upon  ibe  utter's  death  in  86^  Cinna  became  the 
trader  of  the  Popularc^  Catsar  entered  into 
intimate  relations  with  him  and  in  83  married 
bis  daughter  Cornelia.  But  the  following  year 
Sulla  returned  from  the  East  and  overwnolmedl 
the  foes  of  the  Senate.  A  rein  of  terror  for 
the  Marian  pa';ty  followed.  With  character- 
istic boldness,  C^ar  refused  to  divorce  hia 
wife  at  the  order  of  the  dictator,  and  lost,  m 
consequence,  his  property,  his  position  as  priest 
of  Jupiter  and  almost  his  life.  The  famous 
story  that  Sulla  pardoned  him  with  the  remaHc 
tlut  *he  would  one  day  be  the  rutn  of  the 
aristocracy,  for  in  him  there  -  was  many  a 
Marius,'  though  vouched  for  by  both  Suetonius 
and  Plutarch,  seems  strikingly  inconsistent  with 
Sulla's  usual  remorseless  logic.  *P3rtly  to  avoid 
further  trouble,  and  partly  to  gain  that  military 
experience  which  was  at  Rome  deemed  a  pre- 
requisite  to  an  official  career,  be  now  went  to 
A^i^  and,  as  a  staff  officer,  served  with  disttn- 
guished  bravery  at  the  siege  of  M^ilene,  and 
afterward  against  the  pirates  in  Cilicia,  but  re- 
turned home  upon  receiving  news  of  Sulla's 
death  in  78,  As  pleading  in  the  courts  was  the 
natural  avenue  to  popular  favor,  we  presently 
find  him  acting  as  prosecutor  in  two  casea  io- 
volvinK  extortion  in  provincial  administration. 
But  £e  culprits,  Dolabella  and  Antonnu,  be- 
looged  to  the  senatorial  order,  and  bis  eto- 
quench  though  it  won  applause^  failed  to  move 
juries  composed  of  senators.  He  determined 
to  perfect  himself  in  oratory  by  studying  nnder 
the  most  famous  teacher  of  the  age,  Apollonius 
Uolo  of  Rhodes.  On  the  way  thither  he  fcU 
into  the  hands  of  pirates  near  Miletus,  and  w«s 
held  for  a.  ransom  of  50  talents  (over  $55,000). 
Durmg  a  stay  of  almost  40  d^s  he  won  the 
admiration  of  his  captors  by  his  coolness  and 
wit,  and  lau^ingly  promised  to  crucify  them 
all  as  soon  as  he  ^ould  obtain  his  freedom,  a 
threat  which  he  promptly  carried  out  to  the 
letter.  He  studied  under  Holo  only  a  short 
titii6,  however,  for  the  renewal  of  hostilities  t^ 
Mithridates  against  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia  brought  him  into  the  field  with  some 
hastily  levied  troops,  and,  after  brief  but  effec- 
tive service,  he  returned  to  Rome  in  the  winter 
of  74-73.  He  had  been  elected  pontifex  in  his 
absence,  and  now  took  part,  with  the  utmost 
energy,  in  the  aitempls  that  were  being  made 
to  overthrow  the  Sullan  constitution.  Tnis  was 
accomplished  in  the  year  70,  though  in  a  totally 
unexpected  manner,  by  the  legislation  of  Pom- 
oey  and  Crassus,  both  of  whom  had,  previous 
to  that  tim^  been  supporters  of  senatorial  pre- 
rogative. Meanwhile  Oesar,  by  his  unfailing 
courtesy  and  good  will,  and  a  lavish  generosity 
that  soon  f^Kroged  him  deep  into  debt,  bad  been 
winning  all  hearts.  In  69  he  was  elected 
qiuestor,  and  was  assigned  to  the  province  of 
Further  Spain.  But  before  his  departure  he 
lost  his  aunt  Julia  and  his  wife,  Cornelia.  At 
the  former's  funeral  he  caused  busts  of  Marius 
to  be  carried  in  the  procession,  to  the  great  de- 
light of  the  populace,  and  in  the  two  memorial 
addresses  which  he  delivered  in  the  forum  he 
eulogized  the  aims  and  leaders  of  the  i>eople's 
party.  In  Spain  he  must  have  noted  with  ap- 
preciation the  work  of  the  great  Marian  gen- 
eral,   Sertorius,    the   first  man   who    tried  to 


BAR  139 

Tomuuze  the  provincials.  Upon  his  return,  in 
67,  he  entered  into  friendly  relations  with 
Pompey,  and  supported  the  Gabinian  and 
Manilian  laws,  by  which  the  latter  was  to  re- 
ceive the  supreme  command  against  the  pirates 
and  Mithridates,  with  powers  unprecedented  in 
the  history  of  the  republic.  In  65  he  was  xdile, 
and  met  the  demands  of  his  oSce  with  unheard 
of  magnificence  in  buildings  and  games.  In 
particuuir,  he  stirred  the  people  to  frantic  en- 
thusiasm by  secretly  erecting  m  the  capitol  new 
trophies  of  Marius,  to  replace  those  which  Sulla 
had  destroyed.  In  63  he  was  chosen  pontifex 
maximus,  an  office  of  great  prestige  and 
prominence  in  a  state  in  which  religion  and 
politics  had  always  been  closely  associated. 
That  he  had  knowledge  of  the  Catilinarian  con- 
spiracy of  this  year  is  by  no  means  unlikely. 
But  he  took  no  part  in  it,  and  the  aristocracy 
was  unsble  to  persuade  Ocero  to  include  him  in 
the  list   of   the  conspirators.     In    62    be    was 


time  he  commanded  an  army  and  became  c 

scions  of  his  military  genius.  Toward  the  end  ' 
of  61  Pompey  returned  to  Rome,  a  victor  over 
the  entire  East,  but  was  coldly  received  by  the 
distrustful  Senate,  which  refused  to  ratify  his 
acts  in  Asia  and  to  make  the  assignments  of 
lands  promised  to  his  veter^j»,^Czsar,  return- 
ing from  Spain,  seized  hfsopportunity,  and 
about  the  time  of  his  election  to  the  consulship, 
reconciled  Pompey  and  Crassus,  whose  enor- 
mous wealth  made  him  indispensable,  and 
formed  with  them  the  so-called  First  Trium- 
virate. The  alliance  was  strengthened  by  the 
marriage  of  Pompey  with  Caesai-'s  daughter 
Julia.  During  his  consulship  in  59  Oesar  car- 
ried, among  other  measures,  a  popular  agrarian 
bill,  the  ratification  of  Pompey's  acts,  and  a 
Stringent  law  against  extortion  in  the  provinces, 
while  he  won  to  his  support  the  whole  eques- 
trian order,  to  which  the  collectors  of  the  pub- 
lic   ■         ■ 


larity  enabled  him  to  secure  the  assignment  t, 
himself  for  five  years  (subsequently  increased 
to  10)  of  the  provinces  of  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
Illyricum  and  Transalpine  Gaul,  together  with 
four  legions.  The  following  eight  years  (58- 
51)  witnessed  those  brilliant  campaigns  which 
ended  in  the  complete  subjugation  of  Gaul^  and 
its  acceptance  of  the  laws,  language  and  civiliza- 
tion of  Rome.  The  first  three  years  of  war 
brought  all  Gaul  to  his  feet,  but  the  love  of 
liberty  was  still'  too  strong  in  this  brave  people, 
and  dangerous  revolts  broke  out  year  after 
y^r.  In  55  he  crossed  the  Rhine  on  the  famous 
bridge,  and  later  made  ^s  first  expedition  to 
Britain,  .which  he  invaded  again  the  following 
year.  \XinalIy,  in  the  winter  of  53-52,  Ver- 
cingetorix,  Gaul's  greatest  hero,  and  a  bom 
leader  of  men,  organized  a  general  uprising  of 
all  the  tribes.  The  flame  of  insurrection  swept 
over  the  whole  country.  The  campaign  cul- 
minated in  the  siege  of  Alesia  (Alise  m  Bur- 
gundy), an  almost  impregnable  fortress  into 
which  the  Gallic  chieftain  had  thrown  himself 
with  80,000  men.  Oesar  invested  the  place  with 
lets  than  60,(XK),  and  was  presently  himself  in- 
vested  by  an  enormous  army  of  rehef,  estimated 
at  over  240,000  men.  But  be  completely  routed 
this  vast  host,  and  Vercingetorix,  worn  out  by 
hunger,  surrendered    By  the  end  of  the  fof- 


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140  est 

lowine  year  Cxsar  was  at  last  able  to  address 
tumself  to  the  peaceful  organization  of  the  new 
territory. 

At  Rome,  however,  a  crisis  was  imminent 
The  ties  between  Csesar  and  Pompey  were  being 
rapidly  dissolved.  The  death,  in  S4,  of  Julia, 
Pompey's  wife  and  C3:sar*s  daughter,  was  fol- 
lowed m  53  by  the  defeat  and  death  of  Crassua 
in  tiie  Parthian  War.  Pompey  became  more 
and  more  jealous  of  his  rival's  military  glory, 
and  the  Senate,  resolved  to  crush  Oesar  at  any 
cost,  and  itself  unaUe  even  to  keep  order  in  the 
streets  of  Rome,  made  friendly  overtures  to 
Pompey,  and  in  i2  made  him  sole  consul,  with 
practtcally  the  powers  of  a  dictator.  Czsar's 
term  of  office  would  expire  on  1  March  49,  It 
was  essential  to  his  safety  that  he  should  retain 
his  provinces  and  lus  army  until  after  he  should 
be  elected  consul  for  48.  But  the  aristocracy 
was  plainly  determined  that  there  should  be  an 
interval  during  which  he  would  be  a  mere  pri- 
vate citizen,  defenseless  ag:ainst  the  attacks  of 
his  enemies.     It  is  certain  that  CKsar  acted  with 

Scat  moderation,  even  sending  to  Raly  two  of 
5  legions  which  the  Senate  declared  were 
needed  for  the  war  in  the  East,  but  which,  as 
he  had  foreseen,  were  instead  placed  in  camp 
at  C^pua.  At  length,  in  January  49,  the  de- 
cisive step  w»  talcen.  lae  Senate  ordered 
Oesar  to  la^  abwn  his  command  on  pain  of 
being  proclaimed  a  public  enemy.  The  tribunes 
of  the  people,  Anlony  and  Quintus  Cassius,  who 
had  in  vam  interposed  their  veto,  fled  to  him 
for  protection  in  their  inviolable  office ;  Caesar 
with  a  single  legion  crossed  the  Rubicon,  the 
frontier  stream  of  Italy,  and  war  was  begun. 

In  the  ensuing  five  years,  all  that  remained 
for  him  of  lift  the  amazing  energy  and  re- 
sourcefulness of  this  extraordinary  man  are 
most  impressively  displaved.  In  three  months, 
without  strildng;  a  blow,  he  was  master  of  Italy, 
and  Pompey,  with  a  small  force,  barely  escaped 
from  Brundisium  across  the  Adriatic.  Oesar 
had  no  ships  on  which  to  follow  him,  and  be- 
sides, the  veteran  Pompeian  forces  in  Spain 
must  be  crushed  before  they  could  join  uieir 
commander.  Accordingly  after  first  securing 
Sicily  and  Sardinia,  through  his  lieutenants,  he 
crossed  the  Pyrenees  into  JSpain,  and,  in  a  brief 
campaign  of  40  days,  perhaps  the  most  brilliant 
in  all  his  career,  extricated  himself  from  ap- 
parently certain  destruction,  and  forced  the  sur- 
render of  the  entire  opposing  army.  All  Spain 
now  declared  for  him.  On  his  way  back  he 
received  the  submission  of  Massilia  (Mar- 
seilles), which  had  been  besieged  by  Dedmus 
Brutus  and  Trebonius.  Eleven  days  were  spent 
in  Rome  in  administrative  work,  and  early  in 
January  48  he  crossed  the  Adriatic  and  pro- 
ceeded to  surround  Pompey,  near  Dyrradtinm, 
now  Dnrazzo.  But  his  force  was  quite  in- 
sufficient, and,  to  deprive  his  foe  of  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  sea,  he  retreated  into  Thessaty, 
whither  Pompey  followed  him,  and  the  decisive 
battle  was  fou^t  on  the  plain  of  Pharsatus: 
9  Aug.  48.  Pompey  had  47,000  infantry  and 
7,000  cavalry;  Oesar  only  22,000  infantry  and 
1,000  cavalry.     But  the  latter's  ariny  was  com- 

Ksed  of  veteransj  and  numbers  did  not  avail. 
impey  fled  to  Egypt  where  he  was  brutally 
murdered.  Csesar,  wno  had  followed  him  with 
all  speed,  was  nearly  trapped  in  Alexandria  by 
the  forces  of  the  young  King  Ptolemy,  but 
ultimately,  upon  the  arrival  of  reinforcements. 


defeated  tfaon,  and  set  Oeopatra  upon  the 
throne.  He  then  passed  throt^  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor,  putting  affairs  on  a  permanent 
basis,  and  incidentally  defeating  Phamaces,  a 
son  of  the  great  Mrthridates.  The  victoiy  was 
announced  in  the  famous  despatdi,  'Vem,  vidi, 
oicP  (*I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered*).  Upon 
his  return  he  announced  his  intention  of 
^rdoning  al)  who  had  fought  against  him.  In 
December  he  left  Rome  for  Africa,  where  the 


at  Thapsus,  6  April  46.  Oito,  unable  to  defend 
Utica,  committed  suicide,  Oesar  returned  to 
Rome  in  June,  and,  after  celebrating  his  vic- 
tories over'  the  Gauls,  Egyptians,  Pt^maces 
and  Juba,  King  of  Numidia,  who  had  fought 
a^inst  him  at  ThapsnS',  by  four  magnificent 
triumphs,  flung  himself  nito  the  work  of  legis- 
lation. Amon«*his  reforms  was  the  placing  of 
die  calendar,  for  the  first  time,  upon  a  scientific 
basis.  Bnt  uese  labors  were  interrupted  by  a 
dangerous  revoh  in  Spain,  headed  by  Pompe/s 
sons,  and  the  campaign  against  them,  ending 
in  the  hard-fonght  battle  of  Munda,  17  Mardl, 
and  the  final  settlement  of  affairs  in  Spain, 
necessitated  his  absence  from  Rome  from  the 
end  of  46  to  September  45,  The  Senate  wel> 
corned  him  upon  his  return  with  the  most 
servile  flattery.  He  was  already  tribune  for 
life;  he  was  now  made,  for  life,  dictator  and 
priBftctus  morvm,  a  new  term  for  the  censor- 
ship :  his  head  was  stamped  on  the  coinage,  the 
month  of  Quintilts  was  renamed  Tulius  and  he 
was  given  divine  honors.  With  absolute  power 
thus  lodged  in  his  hands,  he  set  about  the  per- 
manent reconstruction  of  the  government  and 
the  social  fabric.  He  made  the  Senate  a  much 
larger  and  more  representative  body,  increased  ' 
the  number  of  magistrates,  reduced  by  one-half 
the  recipients  of  the  donation  of  grain,  passed 
several  laws  in  the  interest  of  the  debtor  class 
and  of  Italian  agriculture,  prohibited  farming 
by  slave  labor  exclusively,  inaugurated  a  far- 
reaching  plan  to  colonize  in  the  provinces  the 
unemployed  population  of  Rome  and  Italy,  and 
laid  a  legal  foundation  for  the  principle  of  lim- 
ited local  self-government  of  all  Roman  com- 
munities, wherever  they  might  be.  He  had  in 
mind,  but  did  not  live  to  carry  out,  the  codifica- 
tion of  the  laws,  the  building  of  public  libraries 
the  draining  of  the  Pontine  marshes,  the  mak- 
ing of  a  canal  through  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth, 
and  the  taking  of  a  general  census  which  should 
form  a  just  basia  for  the  unposition  of  taxes 
throughout  the  empire. 

But  he  had  risen  too  high  to  escape  hatred. 
The  plot  to  assassinate  him  probably  originated 
in  the  personal  spite  of  Gains  Cassius,  but  many 
□f  the  conspirators,  in  particular  Marcus 
Brutus,  were  foolish  enough  to  believe  that  by 
the  death  of  ^e  dictator  the  republic  could  be 
restored.  On  15  March  44  b,C.,  at  a  meeting  of 
the  Senate  held  in  the  hall  attached  to  Pompey's 
theatre,  he  fell  at  the  feet  of  his  great  rival's 
statue,  pierced  by  23  wounds. 

In  studying  Oesar's  life,  one  is  especially 
struck  by  three  points:  his  sane  perception  of 
the  concrete  fact,  his  indomitable  energy  and 
his  many-sidedness.  More  clearly  than  any 
of  that  time,  he  saw  that  the  s 


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CASAREA  — CJESASIUS  OF  HAZIANZUS 


141 


tion  of  all  power  in  the  hanifa  of  a  nngk  tnaa. 
Aueustus  csutiDusIy  rdkd  the  change  to  mor- 
an£y;  Julius  bluntly  calkd  thhiKa  by  their  real 
names  and  paid  die  peiultv  wiui  his  life.  He 
was  an  able  orator,  but  oE  nis  speeches,  warmly 
praised  by  Qcero  and  Quintitian,  none  has 
come  down  to  us.  A  treatise  on  granunar  and 
one  on  astronomy  ha-K  also  periued.  But  hi* 
enduring  fame  as  a  writer  rests  upon  the  seven 
books  of  'Conmeiitaries  on  the  Gallic  Ww* 
(the  ci^th  book  is  by  Aiilus  Hirtius)  and  the 
three  books  of  'ComtnentBries  on  the  Civil 
War.'  The  former,  exsentiBlly  a  politiral  door- 
ment,  published  in  51  B.C.,  is  unsurpassed  in  its 
succinct    simplicity    and    strength.      See    Cou> 

HENTABIES  ON   THE  GaLUC   WaR. 

BibUognphy.— The  principal  ancient  au- 
thorities are  the  biographies  of  Plutarch  and 
Suetonius,  Cicero's  *  Letters,'  Schist's 
'Catiline,'  Lucan's  'Pharsalia,'  Caesar's  own 
'Commentaries,'  and  the  Roman  histories  of 
Velleius  Paterculus,  Appian  and  Dion  Cassius. 
Uoramsen's  account  in  his  'History  of  Rome' 
is  brilliant  but  over-enthusiastic.  The  follow- 
ing books  may  be  recommended :  Fowler, 
'Julius  Oesar  and  the  Foundation  of  dte 
Roman  Imperial  System'  (New  York  1899) ; 
Dodge,  'Csesar'  (Boston  1892)  :  Drumann, 
'Geschichte  Roms'  (Vol.  HI,  ed.  bj-  Gfobe 
1906);  Froude,  'Osar'  (New  York  1884); 
Napoleon  III,  'Histoire  de  Jules  C£sar>  (Ei^. 
tians..  New  York  1865) ;  continued  by 
StofEel,  'Histoire  de  Jules  C*aar;  la  guerre 
civile>  (Paris  1887}  ;  Holmes,  'Csesar's  Con- 
quest of  Gaul*  (London  1899) ;  Holmes,  <Aji- 
aent     Britain    and    the     Ir—' -*     '■•'™ 


'espondence  of  Cicero'  (Introduction  to  VoL 
V);  Scot^  'Portraitures  of  Julius  Oe8ar> 
(London    1903)^    Roper,    'The   Likenesses   of 

tulius  Csesar'  <m  Scrihner'i  Magazme,  1887)  ; 
'eith,  'Geschichte  der  Feldziige  C.  Julius 
Caesars'  (1906)  \  Holmes- Schott-RoBenbergi 
'Casars  Feldiuge  ui  Gallien  und  Brittanicn,'  a 
condensation  ot  the  two  works  by  Holmes, 
mentioned  above.  Nelson  G.  McCua. 

Profeitor  of  Latin  Literature,   Columbia   Uni- 
Vertity. 

CXSARBA,  ses-a-ret,  the  ancient  name  of 
many  cities:  (1)C«SAKEa  PHiupn,  or  Panzas 
(denving-  its  second  name  from  the  local  deity. 
Pan,  to  whom  the  neisfaboring  grotto,  the 
source  of  the  river  Jordan,  was  dedicated), 
named  after  Philip,  telrarch  of  Galilee,  son  oi 
Herod  the  Great,  who  founded  it  in  3-2  B.C., 
near  the  source  of  the  Jordan  on  the  southern 
slope  of  Mount  Hernion.  It  is  mentioned  twice 
in  the  Gospels.  Oa  its  site  is  the  small  modem 
village  of  Banias.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Crusaders  in  1130  but  was  recaptured  by  the 
Moslems  (1165).  (2)  Cbsakea  Palesiiha 
or  Stiatdnis,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, about  55  miles  northwest  from  Jeru- 
salem. It  was  built  with  great_  magnificence 
by  Herod  the  Great,  named  in  honor  of 
Augustus  Oesar,  and  became  the  metrtqiolis  of 
Palestine,  and  the  seat  of  the  Roman  proconsul, 
as  well  as  a  busy  seaport  owing  to  the  fact  that 
Herod,  who  encouraged  commerce  built  there 
one  of  the  finest  ports  on  the  coast,  and  pro- 
tected it  by  a  breakwater,  the  ruins  of  which  still 


exist  there.  It  was  the  place  where  Heiod 
Agrippa  was  smitten  hf  Ue  angel  (Acts  xii, 
2(>-23),  where  Cornelius  the  centurion  resided 
(k)j  and  Saint  Paul  was  imprisoned  two  years 
(xjuii-xxv).  It  was  a  place  of  some  import- 
ance  duriiiE  the  Crusades,  but  is  now  a  scene 
of  ruin  ana  of  utter  desolation.  Eusebius  wa«  • 
bishop  oI  Caesarea.  (3)  The  aticient  capital  of 
Cappadocia  in  Asia  Minor,  ori^nally  called 
Mazaca,  and  now  Kaisarieh.  It  is  situated  in 
the  southeast  of  the  vilayet  of  Angora,  at  the 


supposed  to  contain  400.000  inhabitants.  It  has 
now  about  70,(XX)  inhabitants,  and  its  position 
makes  it  a  place  of  considerable  trade.  The 
manufacture  of  carpets,  though  of  quite  recent 
introduction,  is  of  some  importance.  Foreign 
goods  are  received  by  way  or  the  railway  from 
Angora  to  Constantinople.  The  name  Cjesarea 
dates  from  the  time  of  Tiberius,  and  under 
Valerian  the  city  was  captured  by  Sapor,  when 
a  large  number  of  its  inhabitants  were  slain. 

CESAREAN  SECTION,  a  surreal 
operation  in  obstetrics  which  consists  in  deliver- 
ing a  child  by  means  of  an  incision  through 
the  abdominal  walls  and  the  uterus.  The  opera- 
tion  has  been  recorded  since  ancient  times  btit 
was  performed  at  first  upon  a  dead  or  dying 
woman  and  was  required  by  Roman  and  later 
by  Venetian  law.  The  first  recorded  instance 
of  (qwration  upon  a  living  woman  was  in  1500 
when  a  butcher  of  Switzerland  operated  upon 
his  wife.  After  this  it  was  frequently  resorted 
to  but  with  a  very  high  mortality  for  the 
mother  until  the  latter  half  of  the  19th  century 
brought  the  knowledge  of  antiseptic  and  aseptic 
surgery  and  suturing  for  control  of  luemor- 
rhage.  The  mortality  has  now  been  decreased 
from  almost  lOO  per  cent  to  about  5  per  cent, 
and  its  employment  increases  in  favor.  It  is 
indicated  when  the  child  is  alive  and  the  mother 
dead,  either  in  labor  or  in  the  later  months  of 
pregnancy,  in  extreme  degrees  of  pelvic  con- 
traction, it  the  existence  of  malformation  or 
tumor  of  the  uterus,  cervix  or  vagina  render 
normal  birth  impossible,  and  in  case  of  mater- 
ial complications  such  as  edampsia  and  coo- 


cadere,  to  cut,  though  it  has  been  attributed  to 
Julius  Oesar  who  is  reported  to  have  been  borii 

CSSARION,  the  son  of  Julius  Oesar  and 
Oeopatra,  put  to  death  by  order  of  Augustus. 

CiGSARIUS,  Saint  of  Arlea,  French  prel-' 
ate  of  the  6th  century,  consecrated  bishop  of 
Aries  in  5(K.  Before  the  general  adoption  of 
monastic  orders  of  the  Rule  of  Saint  Benedict 
his  Regultr  dua  formed  a  sandard  of  dis- 
cipline much  esteemed  by  the  founders  of 
orders.  Consult  Arnold,  '(^sesarins  von  Arelate 
und  die  gallische  KJrche  seiner  Zeit'  (Leiprig 
1894). 

CffiSARIUS  OP  NAZIANZUS,  Chris- 
tian scholar  of  the  4th  century.  Prom  Alex* 
andria,  where  his  education  was  received,  he 
went  lo  Constantinople  and  rose  to  distinction 
as  a  mathematician  and  physicist  In  the  Latin 
editions  of  Saint  Gregory  are  four  dialogues 
ascribed  to  him,  as   also  in  the   'Bibliotheca 


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148 


CfSASS  —  CAFFmHB 


p2trum,'  and  he  is  also  credited  with  a  woric 
styled   'Contra  Gentes.' 

C^SARS,  The  Bra  of,  also  known  as  (he 
Spanish  Era,  a  period  of  time  reckoned  from  1 
Jan.  38  B.C.,  being  the  year  following  the  con- 
tjuest  of  Spain  by  Augustus.  It  was  much  used 
"  in  Africa,  Spain  and  the  south  of  France;  bnt 
by  a  synod  held  in  1180  its  use  was  abolished 
in  all  the  churches  dependent  on  Barcelona. 
Pedro  IV  of  Aragon  abolished  the  use  of  it 
in  his  dominions  in  1350,  Tohn  of  Castile  did 
the  same  in  1383.  It  was  lised  in  Portugal  till 
1415,  if  not  till  1422.  The  months  and  days  of 
this  era  arc  identical  with  the  Julian  calendar, 
and  to  turn  the  time  into  that  of  our  era,  sub- 
tract 38  from  the  year;  but  if  before  the  Chris- 
tian eta,  subtract  39. 

CSSAR'S  COMMENTARIES.  This 
great  work  contains  the  narrative  of  Caesar's 
military  ope  ratio  as  in  Gaul,  Germany  and 
Britain.  It  was  given  to  the  world  in  the  year 
51  B.C.  Every  victory  won  by  Cisar  had  only 
served  to  increase  the  alarm  and  hostility  of  his 
enemies  at  Rome,  and  doubt  and  suspicion  were 
beginning  to  spread  among;  the  plebeians,  on 
whom  he  chieflv  relied  for  nelp  in  carrying  out 
his  designs.  Wnen  public  opinion  was  eviiuntly 
taking  the  side  of  the  Gauls  and  Germans  the 
time  Lad  come  for  Oesar  to  act  on  public  opin- 
ion. Hence  the  'Commentaries,'  a  hasty  com- 
pilation made  from  notes  jotted  down  in  his 
tent  or  during  a  journey.  As  to  its  truthfulness 
we  cannot  decide  absolutely,  the  Gauls  not  hav- 
ing written  their  commraitaries.  But  if  Cxsal 
sinned  in  this  respect,  it  was  [irababty  1^  omis- 
sion, not  by  commission.  Things  the  Romans 
might  not  like  he  does  not  mention:  the  sole 
aim  of  the  book  is  to  gain  their  suffrages. 
There  is  no  allusion  to  the  enormous  fortune 
Caesar  acquired  by  plunder.  On  the  other  ha  id, 
he  speaks  of  his  cruelties  —  for  instance,  the 
killing  in  cold  blood  of  20,000  or  100,000  prison- 
ers—  with  a  calmness  that  to  us  is  horrible, 
but  which  the  Romans  would  deem  natural  and 
proper.  The  'editio  princeps'  or  first  edition 
was  printed  at  Rome  (1449). 

CffiSIUH,  se'zviim,  a  metallic  element  dis- 
covered in  1860  hy  Bunsen  and  Kjrchhoff,  in 
the  form  of  the  diloride,  in  a  mineral  spring 
at  Diirkheim,  Bavaria,  It  has  the  historic  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  first  element  discovered 
by  the  agency  of  the  spectroscope.  The  metal 
is  widely  disseminated,  but  is  seldom  found  in 
any  considerable  quantity.  It  never  occurs  in 
the  metallic  state,  titit  usually  as  the  chloride  or 
Dxide,  and  commonly  associated  witb  the  rare 
dement  rubidium.  Oesium  is  found  in  the 
ashes  of  many  seaweeds,  in  tea  and  tobacco 
and  in  several  mineral  springs.  It  is  also  a 
common  constituent  of  the  drainage  water  of 
mines.  Its  most  important  source  is  the  mineral 
pollucite  (q,v.),  or  pollux,  which  is  found  on 
the  island  of  Elba  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hebron,  Me.,  and  which  contains  as  much  as 
36  per  cent  of  ciesium  oxide,  with  no  rubidium. 
Cesium  forms  stable  salts,  and  strongly  re- 
sembles potassium  in  its  chemical  properties. 
It  may  be  separated  from  this  metal  hy  taking 
advantage  of  the  fact  that  cesium  platinochlor- 
ide  is  much  less  soluble  in  water  than  the  cor- 
responding potassium  compound.  Metallic 
cxsium  cannot  be  obtained  by  reducing  the 
oxide  wi*h  carbon,  but  is  best  i^epared  by  the 


electro]y»s  of  a  (used  mixture  of  four  parts 
of  the  cyanide  of  caesium  and  one  part  of  the 
cyanide  of  barium,  using  aluminum  electrodes. 
It  mav  also  be  obtained  by  heating  csesiuin 
chloride  with  metallic  calcium.  It  is  a  silvery 
white  metal,  quite  soft  and  ductile,  and  oxidiz- 
ing rapidly  upon  exposure  to  the  air.  It  also 
decomposes  water  with  the  f)roduction  of  suffix 
cient  heat  to  ignite  the  liberated  hydrogen. 
CECsium  l^s  a  specific  gravity  of  1,88^  and  melts 
at  about  80°  F.  Its  chemical  symbol  is  Cs,  and 
its  atomic  weight  is  133  (0  =  16),  Its  oxalate 
and  nitrate  are  used  to  a  limited  extent  in 
medicine.  The  spectrum  of  cssitim  is  char^ 
acterized  by  two  blue  line^  from  which  circum- 
stance the  element  takes  its  name  (casius, 
bluish-gray).  Cxsium  stands  first  in  rank 
anu)ng  the  electro-positive  elements. 

CASTUS.    See  Cestus. 

CASXTRA,  sf-zfl'r^,  in  verse,  the  resting 
of  the  voice  on  a  syllable;  in  Latin  verse,  the 
caesura  divides  the  line  or  verse  into  two  parts 
and  renders  the  syllable  on  which  it  falls  long. 

CAP,  kaf,  or  KAP,  a  fabled  mountain  of 
the  Mohammedans  which  encircles  the  whole 
earth.  It  is  the  home  of  giants  and  fairies, 
and  rests  ujioo  the  sacred  stone  Sakhral,  one 
grain  of  which  gives  miraculous  powers  to  its 
possessor.  This  stone  Is  of  an  emerald  color, 
and  its  reflected  light  is  the  cause  of  the  tints 
of  tbe  sl^.  The  name  "Kaf*  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  Caucasus  range, 

CAFE,  ka-fa,  a  coilee-house,  enlarged  tnr 
American  usage  to  include  restaurants  of  all 
descriptions. 

CAFFARBLLI,  kif-f^-riEllc,  Franfiola 
Marie  Attjfuate,  French  general,  brother  of  the 
famous  bishop  of  the  same  name:  b.  Falfca, 
Haute-Garonne,  7  Oct.  1766;  d.  23  Jan.  1849. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  he  was  em- 
ployed in  Ae  Sardinian  army,  but  joined  the 
army^  of  the  republic  as  a  simple  dragoon.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  French  army  that  op- 
posed the  Si)anish  invasion  of  the  Pyrenees  in 
1793,  For  his  good  work  in  this  campaign  he 
was  made  adjutant-general  and  later  on  chief 
of  the  consular  guard.  In  1804  he  was  charged 
with  the  mission  to  Rome  to  induce  the  Pope  to 
come  to  Paris  to  perform  the  ceremony  of 
Napoleon's  coronation,  and  on  his  return  was 
made  governor  of  the  Tuileries.  He  was 
wounded  at  Austerliti,  where  he  distin^sbcd 
himself  for  his  bravery  and  ability  as  a  leader; 
accompanied  Prince  Eugene  in  Italy,  where  he 
became  Minister  of  War  and  Marine ;  took  ^rt 
in  the  war  in  Spain,  and  defended  Mett  against 
the  Russians.  In  1814  he  was  chosen  by  Na- 
poleon to  conduct  the  Empress  and  son  from 
Paris  to  Vienna.  He  retired  from  public  life 
after  the  battle  of  Waterioo. 

CAFFEINE.  kif'fe-In,  an  alkaloid  oc- 
curring in  the  coffee  bean,  and  having  the 
formuh  OHigNiOi.  It  is  considered  identical 
with  the  alkaloid  theine^  which  occurs  in  tea, 
and  also  with  guaranme  (the  alkaloid  of 
guarana) ;  and  it  is  present  in  small  amounts 
in  cocoa.  It  is  found  also  in  mat£  or  Paraguay 
tea,  and  also  in  Kola  nuts.  Coffee  contains  by 
weigiit  about  1.5  per  cent  of  caffeine;  and  tea, 
from  3  to  4  per  cent.  It  may  be  prepared  t>y 
adding  basic  acetate  of  lead  to  a  strong  decoc- 
tion of  coSee  or  tea  untU  tbe  tannin  that  ii 


=,  Google 


CAFPI — CAOB-BIROS 


140 


present  has  all  been  precipitated,  removing  ex- 
cess of  lead  by  a  stream  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, and  then  evaporating  the  filtrate  until  the 
caffeine  ciystallizes  out.  For  commercial  pur- 
poses it  is  commonly  prepared  from  tea  aukL 
This  is  heated  for  an  hour  with  four  times  its 
weight  of  boiling  water,  and  then  mixed  with 
it!  weight  in  lime,  and  dried.  The  caffeine  is 
dissolv^  out  with  boiling  chloroform.  When 
prepared  from  a  water  solution  caffeine  con- 
sists of  a  mass  of  silky  needles  which  contain 
more  or  le&s  water;  when  by  a  chloroform 
solutioD  ^  it  is  anhydrous.  It  is  but  slj^tly 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol  or  ether.  It  has  a 
Utter  taste,  and  although  it  acts  as  a  weak  bas^ 
its  salts  are  decomposed  by  water.     See  also 

CAFPI,  kif'fe,  Ippolito,  Italian  artist:  b. 
Bulluno  I&H;  d.  near  Lissa,  20  July  1866.  He 
studied  in  Venice  and  excelled  in  matters  in 
perspective  and  effects  of  tight  He  also  lived 
in  Rome  and  traveled  extensively  in  Africa 
and  the  East.  Among  his  chief  works  are 
'Isthmus  of  Suez' ;  and  'Carnival  Scene  on  the 
Piazetta,  Venice'  (1855).  He  was  killed  on  the 
Itahan  battleship  Re  efllalia  in  a  naval  battle 
off  Lissa,  being  present  on  that  occasion  with 
the  design  of  painting  a  picture  of  the  en- 
gagement. He  also  painted  the  'Panorama  of 
Rome.*  Many  of  his  works  are  in  the  Miiseo- 
Gvico,  Venice.  Consult  his  biograjdiy  by 
Codem-Gerstenbrand  (Venice  1868). 

CAPFIN,  Charles  Henry,  American  art 
critic :  b.  Sittingboume,  Kent,  England,  4  June 
1854.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and,  after 
cngasinK  in  school  and  theatrical  work,  came  to 
the  Umled  Stetes  in  1892  and  worked  in  the 
decoration  department  of  the  Chicago  Exposi- 
tion. He  went  to  New  York  in  1897  and  be- 
came art  critic  for  Harper's  Weekly,  New 
York  Evening  Post  and  New  York  Sun  (1901- 
04).  His  published  works  which  are  nopular  in 
sWte  include  'Photography  as  a  Fine  Art' 
(1901)  ;  'American  Masters  of  Painting' 
(1902) ;  'American  Masters  of  Sculpture' 
(1903);  'How  to  Study  Pictures'  (1905); 
'Story  of  American  Painting'  (1907);  'Stoiy 
of  Spanish  Painting'  (1910) ;  'Story  of  French 
Painting*  (!91!);  ^Art  for  Life's  Sake' 
(1913);  'How  to  Study  Architecture'  (1915). 
CAGAYAN,  ka-ga-yan',  an  island  of  the 


Phili|>piiie  group;  the  latest  of  six  small  islets, 
known   as  the  Ca§avan-Sulu  group.     ■'-■'■ 


five 


I  wide  and  eight  miles  lon^.    Pop.  about 

3,500.  There  are  mountains  attaining  a  height 
of  1,100  feet.  The  chief  products  are  tobacco 
and  sugar.  There  are  pear]  and  shell  fisheries. 
Cagayan  was  sold  by  Spain  to  the  United 
States,  with  Cibitu,  in  1900,  upon  payment  of 
£100,000,  having  been  inadvertently  excluded 
from  the  terms  of  die  treaty  of  peace. 

CAGB-BIRDS,  birds  kept  in  cages  for  the 
benefit  or  enjoyment  afforded  by  their  powers 
of  song,  beauty  of  plumage,  abili^  to  talk  or 
companionship.  They  have  been  so  kept  by 
fatunan  beings  ever  since  prehistoric  times.  TTie 
first  essential  tor  the  maintenance  of  birds  in 
captivity  is  a  cage  as  large  as  possible,  and 
as  nearly  IiIk  the  birda,  original  habitat  as  cir- 
cumstances permit.  Geanliness  is  a  prime  ne- 
cessity, and  the  bird  should  be  given  a  constant 
fresh  supply  of  water  for  batlung  and  drinking 


pniposea. 


much  fresh  air  and  li^t  a 


possible,  always,  however,  avoidiiw  drau^ts 
and  the  sun's  direct  rays.  The  food  and  neces- 
sary attention  bestowed  on  the  bird  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  speqes. 

Birds  are  captured  by  means  of  birdlime  ora 
falling  net,  but  many  are  taken  from  their 
nests  when  young;  and  so  tamed,  or  are  bred 
solely  for  market  ptirposes.  An  important  trade 
throughout  Europe  is  the  re&ring  of  cage-birds, 
especially  German  canaries.  "The  best-known 
songster,  and  probably  the  most  popular  cage- 
bird,  is  the  common  canary  (q.v.),  originally  a 
native  of  the  Canary  Islands,  It  is  tyiHcal  of 
captive  birds  generally,  in  the  marked  change 
produced  by  captivity  and  selective  breeding; 
in  coloring  and  size,  from  its  original  wild 
state.  Other  widely  known  and  popular  cage- 
birds  are  the  nightingale,  goldfinch,  cardinal 
mocking-bird,  bullfinch,  the  Indian  bulbul,  sev- 
eral European  thrushes,  and  others,  all  of  which 
are  fine  singers.  Among  the  birds  kept  be- 
cause of  their  beau^  are  the  parrakeets,  love- 
birds, cockatoos,  macaws,  the  whydah-bird,  the 
painted  finches  and  others.  Those  imitating 
human  speech  are  not  so  j)lentiful,  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  parrot,  of  which  there  are  several 
species,  and  the  starlings,  especially  the  English 
species,  and  the  Indian  mina-bird  (qq.v.).  Ow- 
ins  to  the  change  of  climate,  and  espeaally  the 
cold,  nine-tenths  of  the  African  parrots  trans- 

Erted  to  Europe  or  North  Amenca  die  before 
iming  to  speak.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to 
purchase  such  birds  in  the  spring,  thus  (pvlng 
them  a  chance  to  become  gradually  acclimated. 
In  the  case  of  all  cage-birds  most  particular 
attention  should  be  paid  to  their  food,  and  over- 
feeding must  be  especially  guarded  against 
Frequently  ailments  can  be  greatly  benefited  by 
a  fresh  supply  of  food  given  in  smaller  quan- 
tities. Insectivorous  birds  are  most  trouble- 
some to  care  for  in  regard  to  food,  as  their  diet 
is  less  easily  obtained.  In  case  of  inalrility  to 
procure  the  accustomed  food,  finely  chopped 
meat  should  be  substituted,  and  a  reasonable 
quantity  of  spiders  is  always  beneficial.  The 
universal  and  most  acceptable  food  to  ncarlv  all 
birds,  however,  is  canary-seed,  with  which 
hemp,  rape  or  oats  may  frequently  be  mixed  to 
advantage.  Seed-eating  birds  should  be  given 
such  fresh  vegetable  matter  as  soft  ^reen 
leaves,  chickweed  or  lettuce,  at  regular  inter- 
vals. Sugar  in  small  quantities  is  also  bene- 
ficial, but  acid  fruits  of  all  kinds  should  be 
avoided.  A  prime  necessity  in  the  rearing  of 
c^e-birds  is  something  on  which  the  bird  may 
sharpen  its  bill.  This  is  most  easily  supplied  in 
the  form  of  sandpaper,  or  b^er,  cuttle-fish 
bone,  which  is  essential  to  the  healdi  of  breed- 
ing  birds.  A  bird's  nails  are  apt  to  grow  w 
long  as  to  become  troublesome  to  it,  but  in 
clipping  thom  care  should  be  taken  to  use  a 
sharp  pair  of  scissors,  avoiding  a  possible  'm- 
jury  to  the  foot  by  twisting.  In  case  of  illness 
due  to  overfeeding,  a  drop  of  castor  oil  may 
beneficial,  cspecialiy  if  it  is  accompanied 


Dmpfar.— Becbstein,  'Cage  and 
Chamber  Birds'  (London  1864),  a  moat  com- 
plete work;  and  Greene,  'Notes  on  Cage  Birds* 
! London  1899)  ;  Dixon,  'Dovecote  and  Aviary* 
London  IgSt) ;  Holden.  'Book  on  Birds' 
(Boston  1875);  Greene,  'Diseases  of  Cage 
Birds>    (Laadra)  1697);  Bbdcston,  Swsysltnd 


[ig 


v  Google 


CAOI.I — C  AaUOSTRO 


and  Wiener,  'Book  of  Ccuuiries  and  Cage 
Bir<b'  (London);  Greene,  'Parrots  in  Cap- 
titfifv'  (London  1884)  ;  Butler,  'Foreign  Finches 
in  Captivity'  (London  1899);  and  'How  to 
Sex  Cage  Birds'  (London  1907):  Oldeys, 
'Cage- bird  Traffic  of  the  United  States' 
(Washington  1907);  Nonnan,  'Aviaries,  Bird- 
rooms  and  Cages'  (London  1908)  ;  Birchley, 
'British  Birds  for  Cages,  Aviaries,  and  Exhibi- 
tions* (London  1909) ;  Telling,  'Practical 
Guide  to  Succesafnl-  Cage-bird  Cultnre'  (Lon- 
don 1909) .  The  Avicultural  Magasine  and 
Bird  Notes  are  two  monthlv  magazines  pub- 
lished in  London  and  devotea  to  the  interest  of 
cage  and  aviary  birds, 

CAGLI,  kalye,  Italy,  city  and  bishop's  see 
of  the  province  of  Pesaro  e  Urbino  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Cantiano  and  Busso,  18  miles  by 
rail  south  of  Urbino,  It  has  a  tine  cathedral; 
the  church  of  San  Domenico  is  noted  for  its 
frescoes  by  Giovanni  Sanzio,  father  of 
Saphaet;  and  there  are  interesting  archaologi- 
cal  remains  dating  from  early  Roman  days. 
Pop.  13,000. 

CAGLIARI,  kal-ya'rfi.  Piolo.  See  Veb- 
ONESE,  Paolo. 

CAGLIARI,  Sardinia,  the  capital  of  the 
island,  situated  on  a  hill  slope  near  tfae  south 
coast  It  consists  of  four  parts:  (1)  the  Caa- 
tie  or  old  town;   (2)   the  Marina;   (3)   Estem- 

fache;  (4)  the  Villa  Nuova  or  new  town.  It  is 
ortified,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  vkeroy 
and  of  an  archbishop  and  the  seat  of  a  univer- 
sity founded  in  1596,  and  revived  and  re- 
modeled in  1765.  Cagliari  has  some  manufac- 
tures, and  is  the  chief  emporium  of  the  Sardin- 
ian trade.  There  are  dockyards  and  a  spacious 
and  safe  harbor.  The  'Castle*  contains  some 
important  buildings,  including  palaces  of  the 
nobility.  The  cathedral,  partly  faced  with  mar- 
ble, was  completed  in  1312,  but  afterward 
modernized.  Tne  city  was  founded  ^  the 
PhiEnicians  and  there  are  some  interesting  re- 
mains of  Roman  times,  including  an  amphi- 
theatre and  ancient  dwelling-houses.  CBghari 
iras  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Sardinia  from 
1798  to  1814.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with 
the  most  important  Sardinian  towns.  Pop.  ot 
commune  59,606. 

CAGLIOSTRO,  kal-yfis'trO,  Aleuandro 
(Count  op)  (real  name  Gitistppe  Balsamo), 
Italian  charlatan:  b.  Palermo,  8  June  1743;  d. 
Saint  Leon,  Italy,  26  Aug.  I79S.  He  entered 
tfie  order  of  the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  where  he 
found  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  his  talents  for 
medical  science,  by  which  he  afterward  dis- 
tinguished himself.  But  as  he  showed  at  die 
same  time  a  great  love  of  dissipation,  he  was 
compelled  to  separate  from  the  order.  He  re> 
turned  to  Palermo,  where,  among  odier  trtdcs, 
he  deceived  some  credulous  persons  by  his  pre- 
tended skill  in  magic  and  the  finding  of  hidden 
treasures.  He  also  .showed  himself  adroit  in 
counterfnting  handwriting,  and  attempted  to 
get  possession  of  a  contested  estate  by  means 
ot  a  forged  document,  but  was  discovered  and 
was  obliged  to  flee.  He  now  determined  to  ^o 
to  Rome,  and  in  his  journey  through  Calabna 
became  acquainted  with  Lorenza  Felicianj, 
daughter  of  a  belt-maker,  who  appeared  to  him 
intended  by  fortune  to  assist  his  designs.  He 
formed  an  intimacy  with  her,  and  thev  began 
their  travels,  in  which  he  assnmed  the  character 


name  of  the  Margtiis  Pelle^ini,  and  finally 
under  that  of  the  Count  Cagliostro.  He  trav- 
eled through  many  countries  of  Europe,  stopped 
in  the  capital  dties,  and  by  his  chemical  mix- 
tm'es,  his  tricics,  and  by  the  amours  of  hb 
companion,  gained  considerable  sums.  He  knew 
bow  to  cheat  with  great  ingenuity,  and  was  al- 
ways forttmate  enough  to  preserve  himself  bv 
an  eariy  flight,  if  men  s  eyes  began  to  be  opened. 


stod^  the  preparation  of  a  precious  elixir  vitae; 
etc,  were  the  pretenses  by  means  of  which  be 
extracted  considerable  Bums  from  credulous 
people.  Many  had  recourse  to  his  assistance 
not  indeed  to  be  initiated  into  the  mysteries  oi 
magic,  but  to  i>nrchsise  at  a  high  rat«  different 
kinds  of  medicine,  one  of  which  was  the  water 
of  beauty.  This  pro&table  business  employed 
him  many  years ;  but  his  trade  in  medicine  began 
to  grow  less  lucrative,  and  he  determined  to 
seek  his  fortune  as  the  founder  of  a  new  and 
secret  sect.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan  he  passed 
himself  off  during  his  second  residence  in  Lon- 
don for  a  Free  Mason,  and  played  the  part  of  a 
magician  and  worker  of  miracles,  in  which 
character  he  drew  upon  himself  the  eyes  of  all 
the  enthusiasts  in  Europe.  The  Countess  Cae- 
liostro,  on  her  part,. did  not  remain  idle.  She 
was  the  first  and  most  perfect  scholar  of  hei 
husband,  and  ably  played  the  part  of  a  priestess 
to  this  new  order.  His  plan  for  reviving  an 
old  Egyptian  order,  the  founders  of  which  he 
declared  to  be  Enoch  and  Elias,  contained  a 
mass  of  absurdities,  but  his  pretensions  to  super- 
natural power,  the  mystery  with  which  his  doc- 
trines were  enveloped,  his  pretended  ability  to 
work  miracles,  his  healing  the  sick  without  pay, 
with  the  greatest  appearance  of  generosity,  ana 
the  belief  that,  as  Ue  Great  Kophta  (this  name 
he  had  taken  as  the  restorer  of  Egyptian  ma- 
sonry), he  could  reveal  the  secrets  of  futurity, 
gained  him  many  friends  and  supporters.  Cag- 
liostro again  traveled  through  Europe,  and  at- 
tracted great  attention  in  Mittau,  Strassburg, 
Lyons  and  Paris.  White  in  this  last  city 
(1785)  he  had  the  misfortune  to  be  implicated 
in  the  scandalous  affair  of  the  Diamona  Neck- 
lace, and  was  banished  the  country  as  a  confi- 
dant of  Cardinal  Rohan.  He  now  returned  to 
London,  and  sent  many  epistles  to  his  follow- 
ers, wherein  he  bitterly  complained  of  the  in- 
jury he  had  received  in  France,  and  painted 
the  French  court  in  the  blackest  colors.  From 
London,  where  he  could  not  long  remain,  he 
went  to  Basel  and  other  cities  in  that  quarter. 
But  at  length,  listening  to  the  repeated  en- 
treaties of  nis  wife  ana  other  friends,  he  re- 
turned (1789)  to  Rome.  Here  he  busied  him- 
self about  Freemasonry;  but  being  discovered 
stnd  committed  to  the  Castle  of  Saint  Angelo, 
he  was  condemned  by  a  decree  of  the  Roman 
Inquisition  to  imprisonment  for  life  as  a  Free- 
mason, an  arch  heretic  and  a  very  dangerous 
foe  to  religion.  He  died  after  five  years'  im- 
prisonment. His  wife  retired  to  a  convent  Con- 
sult the  Cagiiostro  bibliograi^y  by  W.  E.  A. 
Axon  in  'Notes  and  Queries^  (4th  series.  Vol. 
X  London  1872)  ;  Carlyle,  Thomas,  'The  Life 
of  Count  Cagliostro'  (London  1787);  'The 
Life  of  Joseph  Balsamo.  Commonly  Called 
Count  Cagliostro>  (London  1791) ;  Trow- 
bridge  'Cagliostro;  die  Sptendor  and  Hiseiir' 


.Google 


CAOHACCI — CAHU/L 


146 


of  I  Uatter  oiE  Magk>  (N«fw  York  1910). 
There  is  muck  spurious  material  in  cadstencc 
canccnuiig'  CazHostro,  such  Ets  the  so-allcd 
■MAmoires  autfientiques'  (Paris  1786). 

CAONACCI,   kin-ya'che.     See    Canlassi. 

CAGNOLA,  kan-yoi^»,  Ltiigi,  Uaachese; 
an  Italian  architect;  b.  Uilan,  9  June  1762;  d. 
Inveriga,  14  Au^.  1833.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  State  Council,  and  was  much  engaged  in 
political  affair}.  His  most  celebrated  works 
are  the  Arco  della  Pace,  'Arch  of  Peace," 
commenced  in  1807  and  finished  in  1837;  the 
Porta  di  Marengo,  subsequently  called  Porta 
di  Ticino  (both  built  hy  order  of  Napoleon), 
at  Milan;  tbe  (Campanile,  at  U^nano,  com- 
pleted in  1829,  and  the  mausoleum  for  the 
MWeniieh  family. 

CAQNOLI,  kan-yole,  Antonio,  Italian  as- 
tronomer: b.  Zante,  Ionian  Islands.  1743;  d. 
Verona,  Ital^^  1816.  He  was  attached  in  his 
youth  to  the  Venetian  embassy  at  Paris,  where, 
after  the  year  1776,  he  showed  more  love  for 
astronomy  tfian  for  diplomacy.  Having  settled 
in  Verona  in  1786  he  constructed  an  observa- 
tory in  his  own  house,  by  his  observations  in 
winch  he  enriched  the  science  of  astronomy 
with  many  discoveries.  After  the  destruction 
of  his  observatory  by  the  French  (1796),  who, 
however,  compensated  him  for  his  loss,  his 
histruments  were  transferred  to  the  observatory 
of  Brera  in  Milan,  and  he  was  appointed 
prrifcssor  of  astronomy  in  the  military  school 
at  Modena.  His  best  works  are  *Notizie 
Astronomiche  adat  aff  uso  comunc'  (IStC) ; 
'Trigonometria  Fiana  e  Sf erica*  (2d  ed., 
Bologna  1804). 

CAGOTS,  k4-g5',  a  rtce  or  caste  of  men, 
Uvins  in  the  south  of  France  in  the  region  oi 
the  Pyrenees,  regarded  as  pariahs  or  social 
outcasts.  In  fonner  ages  they  were  shut  out 
from  society  as  lepers,  cursea  as  heretics  and 
abhorred  as  cannibals ;  their  feet  were  bored 
with   an  iron,  and  they  were  forced  to  vear  a 

?iece  of   red  doth  in  the  shape  of  a  duck's 
oot   on    Uieir  clothes  by  way  of   Aslinction. 
The  only  trade  they  were  allowed  to  follow 
was  that  of  sawyers  or  carpenters.    Theyhad 
to  entef  the  church  by  a  special  door,  and  had 
B    special    comer  set  apart   for  them   with  a 
holy- water    vessel    for    themselves.     Opinions 
■re   divided  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  the 
CigotSLOf  whom  there  are  now  comparatively 
iKW.     They  have  been  considered  by  some  to  . 
be     remains    of    the    Saracens    conquered    by 
Charles    Martel.     The  most  plausible   conjec- 
ture   is    that    which    derives    them    from   the 
Visigoths    who    established  themselves   in   the 
south    of    France    and   in    Spain    in    the    Sth 
century.     The  origin  of  the  name  has  been  the 
subject     of     equal    controversy.      Among    nu- 
merotts     derivations,    is    that    from    cams    and 
gothus,    "dogs  of  Goths.*     Others  derive  the 
name   from   a  word  simply  meaning  leper,  and 
believe  that  the  Cagots  were  oripnally  lepers, 
who  as   such    were  e^qielled  from  the  society 
of     and     intercourse    with    their    fellowmen. 
Several     diseases    and    deformities,    doubtless 
due   to'  inbreeding,  are  common  among  them, 
sudi    as    cretinism    (q.v.) ,  goitre,    etc     Until 
the    French    Revolution  tfie  Cagots  were  not 
considered    citizent.     Some  remains  of  dicRL 
or  of  corresponding  oittdasts,  are  to  be  fomia 

vot.  S  — lO 


under  various  names  in  different  parts  of 
France.  Their  language  is  a  jargonof  neigh^ 
borhood  dialects  with  some  onginal  forms. 
Similar  remains  are  also  found  among  the 
mountains  of  North  Spain.  Consult  Michel, 
^Histoire  des  races  maudites  de  la  France  et 
de   TEapagnc.' 

CAGSAUA,  fcag'sa-wa',  or  DARAGA, 
Philipjjines,  town  of  Luzon,  Albay  province, 
two  miles  north  of  Albay,.  an  important  hemp 
growing  and  trading  centre.     Pop.  18,700. 

C AQUAS,  ka'gwas,  Porto  Rico,  munic- 
ipality and  commune;  on  tbe  military  road,  22 
miles  southeast  of  San  Juan.  It  is  a  thriving 
tobacco  growing  and  cigar  manufacturing 
centre,  and  also  has  marble  and  limestone 
quarrying   industries.      Pop.    10,500. 

CAHAN,  ka'han,  Abraham,  Russo-Ameri- 
can  journalist  and  novelist :  b.  Vilna,  Russia,  7 
July  1860.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
18^  and  has  edited  several  Yiddish  periodicals 
in  New  York.  He  was  prominent  as  a  labor 
leader  and  in  tbne  drifted  to  tbe  Socialists. 
He  became  editor  of  the  Jewish  daily  Vor- 
wiirts  in  1901.  After  1884  he  was  a  constant 
contributor  to  American  journals,  his  articles 

Sserally  dealing  with  [biases  of  Ghetto  life, 
e  has  written  <Yekl,  a  Tale  of  tbe  New  York 
Ghetto';  'Raphael  Narizokh,>  in  Yiddish; 
'The  Chasm' ;  'The  Imported  Bridegroom  and 
Other  Stories*  ■  'The  White  Terror  and  the 
Red'  (1904)  ;  'Ein  Historic  von  die  Vcremigte 
Staatcn'  (1912)  ;  'Yiddish  Folk  Songs*  (1912). 
CAHENSLYISU,  a  popular  name  given  to 
a  movement  in  the  United  States  m  1891, 
among  Roman  Catholics  speaking  other  lan- 
guages than  En^ish,  to  have  bishops  or  priests 
of  their  respective  nationafitles  appointed  over 
them.  It  took  its  name  from  Hcrr  Cahensly, 
a  layman,  secretary  of  Saint  Raphael's  Society 
for  the  protection  of  Orman  Catholic  immi- 
grants to  this  country,  on  the  supposition  that 
he  was  the  diief  inspirer  of  the  movement 
On  a  visit  to  the  United  States  in  1693  Herr 
Cahensly  denied  his  connection  with  the 
scheme.  It  was  vi^rously  opposed  by  most 
of  the  Engfish-speakmif  prelates  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  this  country.  It  received 
no  official  sanction  by  the  Vatican  authoritieB, 
and,  after  considerable  agitation  in  the  Cath- 
olic and  secular  press,  died  out.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,*  owing  to  the  large  immigration  of 
Roman  Catholics  veaking  .  foreign  tongties, 
priests  of  their  respective  nadonalilies  are 
often  appointed  to  administer  to  their  spiritual 
needs.  This  is  espedallv  notable  in  the  inn 
Stance  of  the  Italians.  To  meet  thi;  necessity 
in  the  archdiocese  of  New  York,  tbe  study 
of  Italian  is  now  made  compulsory  in  ita 
(Uocesan  seminaty  for  all  candidates  for  tha 
priesthood- 

CAHILL,  Tbaddciu,  American  inventor: 
b.  Iowa  1867.  After  sindiet  at  Oberlin  Col- 
lege 1884-*S.  and  a  law  course  at  Oarg« 
Wastmigton  (then  Cohmbian)  University,  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1894,  but  never 
practised,  dcvodng  himself  to  mechaniial  in- 
vention. His  most  notable  achievements  are 
the  electric  tjmewriter  and  the  telharmonium, 
the  latter  a  device  to  produce  music  electri- 
csdt^r  by  means,  of  t^inmos  tranKnitting  vi- 
brations  from  a  central  station   to   receiving 


d=,  Google 


CAH0K8  — CAXZXIS 


telephones.  Georee  Washington  University 
conferred  on  hint  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  in  1900. 

CAHORS,  k^-or',  France  (ancient  Caotib- 
Cxiu),  capital  of  the  department  of  Lot,  and 
on  the  river  of  that  name,  60  miles  north  oi 
Toulouse.  It  is  nearly  lurrounded  by  the 
river,  and  communicates  with  the  opposite 
shore  by  three  bridges,  one  of  which,  dating 
from  fhe  14th  century,  is  the  finest  fortified 
bridge  of  mediaeval  times  existing  in  the 
country.  Before  the  conquest  of  Gaul  by 
Czsar  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Cadurci,  and 
under  the  Romans,  who  ^ve  it  the  name  of 
Divona,  it  was  adorned  with  a  temple,  theatre, 
baths,  an  immerse  aqueduct  and  forum.  Sev- 
eral Roman  roads  can  still  be  traced  in  its 
vicinity.  Among  the  principal  edifices  are  the 
cathedral,  an  irregular  structure,  supposed  to 
date  from  the  12th  century ;  an  epiacopal 
palace,  now  converted  into  the  prefecture; 
three  old  churches;  barracks;  a  -theatre; 
and  a  lyceum  or  college.  In  the  Uiddlt  Ages 
it  was  a  Kreat  centre  of  finance  operated  by 
Lombard  bankers.  Cahors  had  formerly  a 
univerdty,  which  wa3  united  with  that  of 
Toulouse  in  l75l.  It  was  founded  in  1322  by 
Pope  John  XXII,  a  native  of  the  town.  The 
celebrated  jurist  Cujas  was  a  professor,  and 
F£nelon  a  student,  in  it.  The  manufactures 
are  insignificant ;  but  a  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  in  the  red  wine  of  the  district,  in 
brandy  and  nut  oil.  Coal  is  worked  in  the 
vicinity.  Clement  Marot,  the  poet,  and  Lion 
Gambetta,  the  statesman,  were  bom  here. 
Cahors  was  given  up  to  the  En^sh  by  the 
Treaty  of  Brctigny  in  13(0.  It  revolted,  and 
returned  to  Frenci  allegiance  in  1428.  Pop. 
(1911)    13,650. 

CAJAPHAS,  kn'y^'l^i,  the  hi^h-piiest  of 
the  Jews  at  the  time  when  the  cruufixion  took 
place.  Previousiy,  when  the  resurrection  of 
Lazarus  had  spread  dismay  among  the  Jewish 
functionaries,  it  was  Caiaphas  who  suggested 
the  expedienqr  of  putting  the  Saviour  to  death, 
and  when  Jesus  was  arrested  in  Gethsemane  he 
was  carried  first  to  Annas  and  then  to  Caia- 
pha^  from  whom  be  was  transferred  to  the 
hands  of  the  civil  authority.  Caiaphas  was 
deposed,  35  A.D,  and  Jonathan,  son  of  Annas, 
appointed  in  his  stead.  Consult  Schurer,  'Ge- 
schichte  des  jiidischen  Volkes'  (Vol.  II,  4th 
ed,  1907);  Schmidt,  *The  Prophet  of  Nan- 
reth'  (pp.  286f,  2d  cd..  1907). 

CAIBARIKN,  ki-ba-rp-an',  Cuba,  a  town 
of  the  province  of  Santa  Clara,  situated  on 
die  northern  seacoast;  it  has  sponge  fisheries 
and  some   trade.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

CAICOS,  krk6s,  CAYOS  or  THE  KEYS 
(from  the  Sj>anjsh  cayo,  a  rock,  shoat  or  islet), 
one  of  the  island  groups  comprehended  under 
the  general  name  of  the  Bahamas,  belonging 
to  Great  Britain,  consisting  of  six  islands  be- 
udea  some  uninhabited  Tocts;  between  lat.  21° 
and  23°  N.  and  long.  71°  and  73°  W.  The 
largest,  called  the  Great  Key,  is  about  30  miles 
long.  They  are  wooded  and  tolerably  fertile, 
and  at  one  time  prodnced  cotton,  but  at  pres- 
ent the  inhabitants  are  few  in  number  and 
mostly  encaged  in  fishing  and  the  preparation 
of  salt  In  1873  the  Turks  Islands  and  the 
Caicos  were  united  into  a  commissionership 
under  the  governor  of  Jamaica.  Pop.  (1911) 
^IS. 


of  law  he  entered  politics  and  became  i; 
spector  of  finances  m  1S88.  Elected  deputy 
for  Sarthe  in  1898,  1902  and  1906,  his  rise  was 
rapid  He  was  thrice  Minister  of  Finance 
between  1899  and  1911,  when  he  became  Pre- 
mier and  ICinister  of  the  Interior.  For  the 
fourth  tim^  8  Dec  1913,  Caillaux  was  ap- 
pointed Uinister  of  Finance.  His  general  ad- 
ministration, previously  attacked  and  criticised, 
now  became  the  object  of  a  special  campaign 
to  discredit  him,  directed  by  (^ton  Calmette, 
editor  of  the  Figaro.  Following  the  publica- 
tion of  a  letter  13  March  1914  said  to  have 
been  abstracted  from  M.  Caillaux's  office,  and 
which  showed  duplicity  on  his  part  in  con- 
nection with  the  defeat  of  the  income  tax  tnll, 
Mme.  Caillaux  shot  and  killed  (^mette  in  bis 
oBice  16  March  1914.  This  deed  was  followed 
hy  (Caillaux's  resignation.  In  December  1917 
C^Ulaux  and  others  were  charged  with  treason- 
able correspondence  with  (Germany  in  the  course 
of  the  war.  On  22  Dec  1917  the  Chambre  voted 
to  deiQr  Claillaux  parliamentary  immunity,  he 
was  arrested  and  held  for  trial.  He  was  sum- 
moned as  a  witness  in  the  trials  of  Paul  Bolo 
Pasha  (q.v.)  and  of  the  editor  of  the  Bonntt 
Rouge  and  the  other  persons  indicted  for 
treasonable  commerce  with  the  enemies  of ' 
France  as  a  result  of  the  Bolo  expos^  For 
later  developments  see  Fsancb — HiSTt«Y. 

CAILLBTET,  k»^c-t&,  Lonia  Psnl, 
French  chemist;  b.  C3iatillon-sur-Seine  1832; 
d.  1913.  He  studied  at  the  School  oi  Mines  in 
Chatillon  and  subsequently  gave  especial  at- 
tetition  to  original  research.  He  sncceeded  in 
liquefying  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  1877,  fore- 
stalling by  a  few  days  a  similar  discovery  by  a 
Swiss  chemist,  and  was  at  once  elected  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences, 
becoming  a  full  member  io  1884.  He  was  made 
an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1889. 

CAILLIAUD,  k4*y6'.  FrM6ric,  French 
traveler:  b.  Nantes,  Franct^  9  June  1787; 
d.  Iher^  1  May  1869.  In  examining  the  c 


emerald  mines  of  Jebel  Zobara,  near  the  Red 
Sea;  and  his  report  of  a  journey  to  Siwah 
led  to  its  annexation  by  Egvpt  in  1820.  In 
1821-22  he  accompanied  Ibrahim   Pasha's   ex- 

S edition  to  the  White  Nile,  and  his  'Voyage  a 
I£ro£>  (1826-27)  contained  the  first  reliable 
information  of  mat  district.  On  a  mummy 
bou^l  from  him  by  the  French  government 
a  Greek  translation  was  added' to  the  usual 
hieroglyphic    inscription,    which    aided    Cham- 

EoUion  in  his  researches  in  the  Egyptian 
Lnguage.  He  also  published  'Voyage  al'oasis 
de  Thebes'  (1821).  In  1827  he  setUed  as 
conservator  of  the  Natural  Histoid  Museum 
at  Nantes.  He  published  also  'Voyage  a 
I'oasis  de  Syouah'  (1823) ;  *Recherches  sur 
les  arts  et  metiers,  les  Usages  de  la  vie  civile 
et  domestique  des  anciens'    (1837). 

CAILLIE,  k^-yi,  Eeni,  French  traveler: 
b.  Mauxi,  Poitou,  France.  19  Sept.  1709;  d. 
Paris,  8  May  1838.  He  became  an  African 
traveler  early  in  his  career,  obtaining  liis  liv- 
ing by  trading  with  the  Moors,  who  taught 
him  Arabic.  On  his  travels  he  dressed  in 
Arabic  style  and  passed  as  an  Egyptian.  Hav- 
ing gone  to  Senegal  he  learned  that  the  Geo- 


d  by  Google 


CAnSAH— CAIQUE 


ua 


graphical  Sooetr  of  Paris  had  offered  a 
ptcmiuin  of  10,000  francs  to  the  first  traveler 
who  ahouid  reach  Timbuctoo.  On  13  June  1827 
he  reached  for  the  first  time  the  shores  of  the 
Niger,  which  he  crossed.  He  then  traveled 
about  200  miies  eastwardly  over  territories 
never  visited  before,  arriving  at  Titni  3  Att- 
est. Here  he  was  detained  by  illness  until 
9  Jan,  1828,  when  he  struck  on  a  new  road 
previoustv  unknown  to'  Keographers,  and 
reached  Jenne  on  11  March.  Here  he  embarked 
for  Timbuctoo,  where  he  arrived  about  11 
April,  after  one  month's  sail  on  the  Niger. 
After  a  short  stay  of  a  fortnight,  and  after  a 
tedious  and  painful  return  passage  throu^  the 
desert,  be  reached  Fez,  12  August,  and  from 
there  returned  to  Fraoce.  On  his  arrival  at 
Toulon  he  was  received  with  the  utmost  en- 
thusiasm. He  was  the  first  European  who  ever 
returned  from  Timbuctoo,  and  who  had 
achieved  success,  while  expeditions  supported 
by  government  had  resulted  in  failure,  A 
Sj^aar  priie  of  10.000  franca  was  awarded  to 
him  by  the  Geographical  Society,  with  the 
annual  prize  of  l.OOO  francs  for  the  most  im- 
portant discovery.  The  order  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
King,  and  he  became,  at  the  same  time,  the 
recipient  of  a  salary  in  connection  with  an 
office,  to  which  he  was  appointed  in  the  Sene- 
gal  service.  Furthermore,  a  pension  from  the 
fund  set  apart  for  eminent  hterary  and  scientific 
men  was  decreed  to  him  by  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior,  and  his  'Journal  d'un  voyage  h 
Tembocton  et  i  Jenni,  dans  I'Afrique  centrale,' 
«4th  geogi^hicat  data  added  by  Jomard,  was 
published  at  the  expense  of  spvernment,  and 
appeared  at  the  beginning  of  1S30  in  three 
volumes 

CAIMAN.    See  Cayuan. 

CAIN,  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and  Eve; 
the  first  murderer,  who  slew  his  brother  Abel. 
God  drove  him  from  His  presence,  but  relieved 
his  fears  by  appoindng  for  him  a  sign,  'lest 
anyone  finmng  him  should  smite  him,"  For 
the  biblical  account  of  Cain  and  his  descend- 
ants see  Gen,  iv-vii.^  Modem  biblical  scholars 
assume  that  Genesis  iv  is  a  composite  of  stories 
relating  to  several  Cains.  The  posterity  of 
Cain  became  extinct  at  the  flood.  Cfain  f  oimded ' 
the  first  city,  which  he  named  after  his  son 
Enoch,  and  his  descendants  were  the  first  in- 
ventors and  promoters  of  the  useful  and  agree- 
able arts,  Josephus  relates  that  he  became  the 
leader  of  a  band  of  robbers,  committed  all 
sorts  of  licentiousness,  cornipted  the  simplicity 
of  primitive  manners  by  his  luxury,  established 
the  right  of  property  by  setting  up  landmarks 
and  was  the  mventor  of  wright!  and  measures. 
A  Gnostic  sect  of  the  2d  century  were  called 
•Cainites,"    See    Religious     Sbctb.      Consult 


{1904J  ;  6ordon,  'Eariy  Traditions  of  Genesis' 
<190?J;  Cheyne,  'Cain*  (in  'Encyclopedia 
Biblica');  Schmidt,  'Messages  of  the  Poets' 
(pp.  29011.  1911);  Gunkel.   'Genesis'    {3d  ed, 

CAIN,  k^-ftA,  Aagoste  NicoUi,  French 
sculpttir:  b,  Paris,  4  Nov.  1622;  d.  there,  7 
Aug.  1894.  He  was  in  early  Kfe  a  carpenter 
bot  sDbseqnendy  studied  under  Gaionnet  UM 


Rude,  and  devoted  his  attention  tUtSy  to 
groups  of  animals.  He  received  the  bronze 
medal  in  the  great  exhibition  of  1851,  another 
medal  in  1864  and  a  third  at  the  Universal 
Exposition  in  1867,  His  largest  work  was  the 
monument  of  Duke  Charles  of  Brunswick  far 
Geneva  — an  equestrian  statue  representing  two 
lions  and  a  grinin  in  red  marble.  Among  noted 
works  by  him  are  'Eagle  Defending  its  Qtiarry' 
f  1852)  ;  "Combat  Between  Two  Tigers' 
(1878) ;  'Rhinoceros  Attacked  by  Tigers.' 

CAIN,  Richard  Harvey,  American  clergy- 
man: b.  Greenbrier  County,  Va.,  12  April  1825; 
d  Washington,  D.  C,  18  Jan.  1887,  He  entered 
the  ministry  at  an  early  age ;  was  elected  to 
the  South  Carolina  Constitutional  Convention  in 
1867,  and  to  the  State  senate  in  1868;  and  was 
a  member  of  Congress  1876-80,  He  was  made 
bishop  in  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  churches 
in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  and  later  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  first  Episcopal  district  of  that 
Church.  While  in  Texas  he  organized  Paul 
Quinn  College  in  Waco. 

CAIN,  WUllain,  American  civil  engineer: 
b,  Hillsboro,  N,  C,  14  May  1847.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  North  Carolina  Military 
Institute  and  has  been  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  civil  engineering  in  the  University 
of  North  Carolina  since  1889,  He  has  pub- 
lished 'Theory  of  Voussoir,  Solid  and  Braced 
Arches'  (1874)  :  'Maximum  Stresses  in  Framed 
Bridges'  (1878) ;  'Solid  and  Braced  Elastic 
Arches'  (1879) _;  'Symbolic  Algebra'  (1884); 
'Practical  Designing  of  Retaining  Walls' 
(1888) ;  <A  Bnef  Course  in  the  Calculus' 
(1905);  and  contributions  to  scientific  journals. 


an  architect,  but  abandoned  architt 
der  to  become  a  journalist.  He  lived  in  London 
with  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  from  1881  till  the 
lalter's  death  in  1882,  and  in  that  year  appeared 
his  'Recollections  of  Rossetti.'  He  had  pre- 
viously published  'Richard  HI  and  Macbeth' 
(1877),  a  critical  work,  and  'Sonnets  of  Three 
Centuries'  (1882).  In  1883  appeared  his  'Cob- 
webs of  Criticism' ;  and  in  18^  he  contributed 
to  the  Great  Writers  series  a  'Life  of  Cole- 
ridge.'    His  first  novel  was  'The  Shadow 


fame.  His  subsequent  novels  include  'The 
Bondman'  (1890);  'The  Scapegoat'  (1891); 
'The  Prophet'  (1892) ;  'The  Manxman' 
(1894);  'The  Christian'  (1897);  *The  Eternal 
Gtv*  (1901);  'The  Prodigal  Son'  (1904); 
'The  White  Prophet'  (1909)  ;  'The  Woman 
Thou  Gavest  Mc>  (1913).  His  most  successful 
novels  deal  with  Manx  life,  in  the  description 
of  which  he  reveals  intimate  knowledge  of  his 
subject  and  considerable  literary  power.  His 
principal  novels  have  been  successfully  dramas 
tiaed.  In  'My  Story'  (1908)  he  records  Ac 
earlier  years  of  his  literary  Ufe. 

CAIN02OIC,    See  C^ozoic. 

CAIQUE,  ka-ek',  a  light  boat  or  skiff  ranch 
used  in  the  Levant  and  particntBrly  in  ^e 
Bospona. 


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L4S 


CAIKD— CAIRO 


CAIRD,  k&rd,  Ed#«rd,  Scotdsh  philoso- 
pfaer:  b.  Greenock,  22  Man±  1835;  d.  Oxford, 
1  Nov.  190&  He  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Glasgow  and  Oxford;  was  a  fellow 
and  tutor  of  Merton  CoHekc,  and  was  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  at  GlasKow  from  1666  till 
1893;  and  in  1893  succeeded  Benjamin  Jowett 
as  master  of  fialliol  College,  Oxford,  a  position 
he  held  with  much  distinction  until  his  retire- 
ment in  1905.  He  is  author  of  'Account  of  the 
Philosophy  of  Kant'  (1878);  'Social  Philoso- 
phy and  Religion  of  Comte'  (1885)  ;  -He^eP 
(in  'Blackwood's  Series  of  Philosophical 
Classics,*  1883) ;  'Critical  Philosophy  of  Kant' 
(18S9J  ;  'Essays  on  Literature  and  Philosophy' 
(1892) ;  and  'The  Evolution  of  Religion' 
0893) ;  'Evolution  of  Theology  in  the  Greek 
Philosophers*  (1904);  'Lay  Sermons  and  Ad- 
dresses' (1907);  'Essays  on  Literature'  (1909). 
He  is  a  brother  of  John  Caird  (q.v.). 

CAIRD,  John,  Scottish  theologian :  b. 
Greenock,  15  Dec  1820;  d.  London,  30  July 
1898.  He  was  educated  at  the  Grammar  Siiool 
of  Greenock^  and  at  Glasgow  University,  where 
be  took  a  high  place  both  in  arts  and  divuiity. 
Having  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Qiurch  of 
Scotland,  in  1845  he  became  minister  of  New- 
ton-upon-Ayr,  and  two  years  later  was  trans- 
ferred to  La^  Yester's  parish,  Edinburgh.  Be- 
tween that  date  and  1862,  when  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  Glasgow  University,  be 
was  minister  of  Errol,  Perthshire  (1849-57) 
and  of  Park  Church,  Glasgow  (1857-62).  In 
1873  he  was  elected  principal  of  his  university, 
a  position  which  he  held  till  his  resignation  m 
1898.  He  died  before  his  resignation  liad  taken 
effect.  He  was  generally  recognized  in  Scot- 
land as  the  most  powerful  preacher  of  his  time. 
He  published  sermons  -(his  sermon  'Religion 
in  Common  Life,'  preatJied  before  the  Queen, 
bad  an  immense  circulation,  and  was  described 
by  D^n  Stanley  as  the  greatest  single  sermon 
of  tbe  century)  ;  'Introduction  to  the  PhUoto- 
phy  of  ReUgion'  (1880)  ;  and  'Spinoia'  (1888) 
m  'Blackwood's  Philosophical  Q assies.'  In 
1899  appeared  'The  Fundamental  Ideas  of 
Christianity,'  under  the  editorship  of  his 
brother,  Edward  Caird  (q.v.),  accompanied  Iv 
memoir  of  the  author. 

CAIRN,  kam  ((^elic  cam),  a  name  ^ven 
to  heaps  of  stones^  comnioa  in  Great  Britain, 
particularly  in  Scotland  and  Wales,  generally  of 
a  conical  form.  Some  are  evidently  sepulchral, 
containing  urns,  stone  chests,  bones,  etc  Oihers 
were  erected  to  commemorate  gome  remarkable 
event,  and  others  appear  to  have  been  intended 
for  religious  rites, 

CAIRNES,  Idmz.  John  BUiot,  Britisb 
political  economist :  b.  Castle  BeHinghatU, 
(>iunty  Louth,  26  Dec.  1823 ;  d.  London,  8  July 
1875.  After  an  education  at  Kingstown  and 
Chester  be  was  for  a  time  employed  in  his 
father's  brewery  at  Drogheda,  but  ultimately 
went  to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  He  was  grad- 
uated in  1854,  and  two  years  afterward  wac  ai^- 
pointed  Whatety  professor  of  political  economy 
at  Dublin.  His  first  series  of  lectures  was  pub- 
lished in  18.57,  under  the  title  'The  Character 
and  Logical  Method  of  Political  Economy,'  In 
1659  he  was  elected  professor  of  political  econ- 
omy and  jurisprudence  in  Queen's  College,  Gal'- 
way.and  seven  years  later  was  appointed  to  tbe 


1872  the  ttttte  of  his  health  com- 
pelled him  to  give  up  active  teaching.  He  had 
been  called  to  the  Irish  bar  io  1857,  bat  he 
hardly  ever  practised  During  tbe  later  years 
of  his  life  he  suffered  much  from  the  effects  of 
an  accident  to  his  knee,  which  befell  bim  'while 
hunting  in  1860,  and  for  some  time  before  his 
death  was  completely  crippled  In  1862  he  is- 
sued a  work  in  defense  of  the  Northern  States 
of  America,  entitled  'The  Slave  Power,'  which 
created  a  profound  impression.  The  most  im- 
portant of  bis  other  woiks  are  'Essays  on 
PoUtical  Economy,  Theoretical  and  Applied' 
^1873):  and  'Some  Leading  Principles  of  Po- 
litical Economy  Newly  Expounded'  (1874).  He 
takes  rank  as  one  of  tbe  leading  economists  of 
the   19th  century. 

CAIRNGORM,  kSrn^orm'  (that  is,  'blue 
cairn*),  a  mountain  of  Scotland  belonging  to 
tbe  (^mpian  Hills,  on  the  border  of  Banffshire 
and  Inverness- shire,  three  miles  north  of  Ben 
Macdbui  in  Aberdeenshire,  Its  summit  is  4.0S4 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  its  sides  are 
clothed  with  pine  forests.  The  group  of  moun- 
tains to  whicb  it  belongs  is  Known  as  the 
Cairngorm  Mountains,  If  is  particularly  cele- 
brated for  tbe  regular,  brownisn  yellow  crystals 
of  quartz  found  on  it  and  known  as  cairngorms. 
These  are  also  found  in  many  other  ptace^  and 
are  much  used  for  seals,  brooches,  etc.  Speci- 
mens weighing  a  good  many  pounds  are  some- 
times found. 

CAIRNS,  kamz,  Hugh  HcCslmont  Cairns 
(1st  Eakl),  Irish  lawyer  and  parliamentary  de- 
bater :  b.  County  Down,  I  reland,  1819 ;  d 
Bournemouth,  England,  2  April  1885,  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  die  Middle  Temple  in  1844, 
was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Belfast  is  1852 
and  quickly  made  his  mark  in  the  House  hy  his 
fluency  and  readiness  in  debate.  He  became 
Queen's  counsel  in  I8S6,  in  1858  solicitor-gen- 
eral, and  in  1866  attorney-general  under  Lord 
Derby.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  was  a  judge 
of  appeal,  and  in  1867  was  created  Baron 
Cairns,  Under  Disraeli's  premiership  he  be- 
came Lord  Cliancellor  in  1868,  and  uain  in 
1874,  and  was  created  Earl  Cairns  in  ISm.  For 
some  years  he  led  the  Conservatives  in  the 
House  of  Lords  with  dexterity  and  vigor,  and 
is  ranked  among  die  finest  parliamentary  ora- 
tors of  his  time. 

CAIRNS,  John.  Scottish  theologian:  b. 
Berwickshire,  23  Aug.  1818;  d.  F^nbur^  14 
March  1892.  He  was  ordained  at  Berwick  in 
1845,  where  be  remained  till  1876,  becoming 
also  in  1867  professor  of  theology  m  the  Uni- 
ted Presbytenan  Church,  and  prmcipal  in  1879. 
He  was  an  eminent  preacher  of  a  healthy  evan- 
gelical type,  and  among  his  works  were  'Life 
of  John  Brown,  D.D.>  (1860) ;  'False  Christs 
and  the  True'  (1864);  and  'Unbelief  in  the 
I8tb  (>ntuiy'  (1881).  Consult  Cairns,  'Prin- 
cipal Cairns^  (1903);  A.  MacEwen,  'Life  and 
Letters  of  John  Claims'  (London  1895)^  and 
his  brother^  memoir  in  me  'Famous  Scots' 
series  (1903). 

CAIRO,  kTro  (Arabic  El  Kahira,  rThe 
Victorious,*  or  M<ur  el  KiAira),  Empt,  capital 
of  tbe  countrjf  and  largest  town  of  Africa,  situ- 
ated on  the  ri^t  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  nine 
miles  above  the  point  where  it  divides  to  form 


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the  two  Bwin  branclm  o(  lu  Mta.  Tbe 

bnilt  between  the  rlrer-batik  atid  the  twrthwest- 
em  end  of  the  hills  known  at  lebel  Uokattam, 
on  whose  most  advanced  spar  die  citadel  stands 
in  a  commanding'  poaltion  well  above  the  reit  of 
the  city.  Within  the  last  50  years  the  town 
has  lost  tntKh  of  its  Orientsl  cturacter,  but  the 
Arab  qcanera  itil)  present  a  maie  of  very 
narrow  streets  lined  by  curious  buUdings  in  an 
endless  variety  of  s^le.  The  houses  are  mostly 
bttitt  of  yellow  limestone,  with  flat  roofs:  and 
many  ot  them  have  small  gardens  behiiM.  In 
the  more  modem  pans  of  die  dty  the  streets 
are  broader,  and  many  of  them  are  lined  by 
trees  and  well  lighted.  The  European  quarter, 
known  as  Ism»Tlydi,  forms  the  western  part 
□f  modem  Cairo,  and  its  centre  is  the  octagonal 
Eibeldyeh  Garden  (20}4  acres),  with  plants 
from  many  regions  and  wHh  an  artificial  pond. 
Here,  too,  are  many  csf^s,  concert-halls  and 
other  similar  buildings.  Among  the  more  not- 
^1e  buildings  of  the  European  quarter  are  the 
consulates,  the  opera-bouse,  open  in  winter,  the 
Italian  summer  theatre,  English  and  German 
diuTches.  the  ministerial  offices  and  the  tNir- 
racks.  The  chief  business  street  of  Cairo,  - 
known  as  Mastd,  runs  east-southeastward  from 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Ezbekiyeb,  and  the 
Boulevard  Mehemet  Ali  extends  from  about 
the  same  place  southeastward  to  the  citadel. 
Cairo  has  more  than  500  mosques,  but  many  of  , 
tiiem  are  wholly  or  partly  in  ruins.  The  finest 
of  all  is  the  Sultan  Hasan  MoSque,  a  truly 
noble  building  with  a  lofty  minaret.  Others 
wortiiy  of  mention  are;  that  built  in  the  9th 
century  by  Ahmed  ibn  Tulun  in  imitation  of 
the  one  at  Mecca;  the  Hakim  Mosque,  dating 
from  the  b^nnios  of  the  11th  century;  the 
Hosen  Mosque  of  the  Son  of  Ali,  Mohammed's 
son-in-law ;  the  Sitti-Zeynab  Mosque,  named 
after  a  arandchild  o£  the  Prophet,  and  the  Ala- 
baster Uosque  o£  the  citadel,  with  the  tomb  of 
Mehemet  Aii,  the  finest  of  the  modem  mosques. 
Cairo  is  one  of  the  great  educational  centres 
of  the  Mohammedan  world,  the  chief  o£  the 
schools  being  that  associated  with  the  mosque 
of  El  Azhar,  atUndcd  by  8,000  students,  and 
having  behind  it  the  history  of  nearly  a  thou- 
sand  years.  The  tmibs  in  the  bury iog-giounds 
outside  the  dty,  many  of  them  in  the  form 
of    mosques,    are    remarkably    inteiestins,    es- 

B£ciaUy  those  known  as  the  tombs  of  the  ca- 
phs.  The  most  important  gate  of  the  dty  is 
the  Bab-en-Nasr,  througji  which  large  num- 
bers of  ittlgrims  pass  every  year  on  their  way 
to  Mecca.  The  mosques  contain  valuable  k- 
braries,  but  the  chief  library  of  the  dty  is  the 
vice-regal  one,  founded  in  1870,  and  now  con- 
taining about  60,000  volumes,  lai^ely  in  manu- 
script The  trade  of  Cairo  is  large  and  the 
bazaars  and  markets  are  numerous,  there  being 
special  baiaars  for  gold-  and  silver-smiths,  tap- 
estry merchants,  saddlers,  armorers,  shoeraak- 
ers,_  etc  It  has  also  a  large  cotton  industry. 
Beside  rite  numerous  Mohammedan  places  of 
worship  Cairo  ctmtains  English,  French,  Ger- 
man, Coptic  and  other  churches  and  Jewish 
synagogues,  and  there  are  European  schools 
and  hospitals.  The  Egyptian  Institute,  founded 
at  Alexandria  in  1859,  is  now  located  in  Cairo. 
The  suburb  of  Bulak,  in  the  northwest  of 
die  town,  opposite  the  island  of  Bulak,  forms 
the  port  of  Cairo,  and  its  narrow  streets  present 
abusy  sceneof  OrientalHfe.  The  island  of  Bulak 


ia  and  the  left  bnJc  of'  die  Nile  are  reached  by  a 
great  iron  brite;^  and  there  is  also  a  railway 
and  g<enerd  traffic  bridge  below  the  island.  To 
the  southwest  of  the  modem  town  and  also  on 
the  Kile  bank  stands  the  suburb  of  Old  <^ro 
or  Masr  d-Atiha.  On  (tie  left  bank  of  the 
river,  almost  directly  opposite  Old  Cairo,  is  the 
suburb  of  Giieh.  It  has  government  buildings, 
a  zoological  garden,  etc.,  but  its  chief  attraction 


Gizeh  a  road  and  a  tramway  lead  southwest- 
ward  to  the  famous  group  of  pyramids  called 
the  pyramids  of  Gizeh.  On  the  island  of  Roda, 
between  Gizeh  and  Old  Cairo,  the  celebrated 
Nilometer  still  stands.  Cairo  enjoys  a  very 
mild  climate,  and  is  in  consequence  visited  in 
winter  by  many  Europeans  suffering  from  diest 
and  hmg  ailments.  Many  of  these  stay  at  Hel- 
wan,  a  small  place  about  14  miles  south-south- 
east of  the  town.  Cairo  is  in  railway  comma- 
nication  with  Alexandria,  Dam ietta.  Suet,  etc., 
and  widi  Upper  E^ypt,  and  the  Fresh-water 
Canal  connects  it  with  Ismailia  and  Suez.  In 
1896  electric  tramways  were  introduced  in  the 
most  important  streets.  Cairo  is  the  residence 
of  the  Khedive,  the  seat  of  a  Coptic  and  a 
Greek  Orthodox  patriarch,  and  it  contains  all 
the  highest  public  offices  of  the  country.  E1- 
Fotfat,  "The  Tent,*  now  Old  Cairo,  was 
founded  by  Amra,  lieutenant  of  CaliiA  Omar, 
in  640  AA  In  969,  when  the  Fatimite  dynasty 
gained  posaession  of  the  country,  the  new  dty 
to  the  north  was  founded.  Saladin  surrounded 
it  with  walls  of  stone  and  built  the  citadel.  He 
also  constrtKted  a  wooden  aqueduct  from  the 
Nile  to  the  dtadel,  a  work  afterward  replaced 
by  the  still  existinig  aqueduct  of  stone.    Catn 


was  occn^ed  by  the  British  in  1882,  after  the 
battle  of  Tel-e)-Kebir  and  lias  since  remained 
in  dicir  hands.  Pop.  (1911)  654,476;  indudii^ 
Pdlahin,  Copts,  Turks,  Arabs  aod  other  Ori- 
entals, besides  about  53,000  foreigners  from  the 
diicf  European  countries,  espedaUy  Italy, 
Greece,  France  Austria,  England  and  Ger- 
many. Nowhere  in  the  world  do  the  contrast- 
ing  dvilitations  of  East  and  West  Uend  more 
picturesquely  than  in  Cairo. 


tion  of  the  Missisuppi  and  Ohio  rivers,  in  the 
southernmost  part  of  the  State,  with  Ken- 
tucky on  the  east  and  Missouri  on  the  west, 
150  miles  southeast  of  Saint  Lotiis,  on  die  Illi- 
nois Centra),  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chica^ 
and  Saint  Louis  and  other  railroads.  The  city 
was  first  setded  in  1838  bj;  William  Bird  and 
was  incorporated  as  a  dty  in  1857.  It  was  ex- 
pected to  become  a  great  commerdal  centre. 
Cairo  has  a  commission  government,  adminis- 
tered by  a  mayor  and  four  commissioners.  It 
has  a  large  transit  trade  in  agriculture  and 
lumber,  and  affords  a  good  market  for  the 
produce  and  trade  of  the  Mississijipi  Valley. 
The  industries  include  sewing-machine  factory, 
box  factories,  handle  factory,  flour  millsj 
wagon  works,  foundries,  etc.  The  United 
States  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  re- 
ported 61  industrial  establishments  of  factonr 
grade,  employing  1,769  persons,  of  whom  l.SS 
were  wage  earners,  receiving  umualty  $S3,- 


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ISO 


CAISSON  ^  CAITHNESS 


000  in  waK«s.  Thi  capital  invested  afgntgiioi 
$3,47^000;  and  the  year's  productioa  was  valued 
at  $4,584,000;  of  Ibis,  $1338,000  was  the  value 
added  by  fnaoufacturc  The  ciQ'  baa  four 
banks  with  a.  combined  capital  of  $4,806,690. 
A  United  States  custom  house  is  located  in 
C^ro  and  it  has  a  free  public  library,  court- 
house. United  States  Marine  Hospital.  Sabt 
Mary's  Infirmary  and  Bonduiant  Hospital.  The 
Federal  government  during  the  Civil  War  used 
the  town  as  a  depot  for  militaty  supplies.  For 
many  years,  untj  levees  were  built,  the  ci^ 
suflered  from  frequent  floods  which  greatly  im- 
peded its  progress,  the  mo)t  disastrous  of  which 
occurred  m  1858.  In  1913  $250,000  was  appro- 
priated by  the  State  for  tae  repair  of  levees 
within  the  city  limits;  it  ij  the  'Eden"  of 
Dickens'    'Martin    Oiuzzlewit'      The    city    is 

trowing  in  wealth  and  population,  has  many 
ne  churches  and  an  excellent  system  of  edu- 
cation with  six  white  schools,  five  colored 
schools  and  two  parochial  schools.  The  value 
of  its  taxable  property  is  $ll,OCmOOO.  Pop. 
(1910)   14.540;   (1916)   17,000. 

CAISSON,  a  water-tight  chest  or  casing, 
nsed  in  the  construction  of  brid^res,  <^uay8,  etc.. 
large  enough  to  contain  an  entire  pier,  which 
is  built  in  it.  the  caisson  being  sunk  to  the  bed 
of  die  river.  (See  Foundation),  The  pneu- 
matic caisson  has  an  air-chamber  in  which  men 
may  work  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  air  pres- 
sure being  maintained  within  the  caisson  suffi- 
cient to  keep  the  water  out,  and  the  air-space 
being  entered  b^  what  is  called  an  air-lock. 
This  form  of  caisson  is  used  where  the  water 
is  too  deep  or  the  bottom  too  rocky  to  permit 
of  the  construction  of  a  coffer-dam.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  an  air-tight  structure  which 
is  sunk  below  a  vessel  by  the  admisuon  of 
water,  and  taises  the  vessel  when  the  water  is 
pumped  out.  although  the  commoner  name  for 
this  form  is  'pontoon.*  It  is  also  ised  to  des- 
ienate  the  hollow  boat- shaped  gate  nsed  to 
close  the  entrance  to  a  dry  dock.  (See  Has- 
boss).  In  miUtary  lan|piage,  the  term  is  appUcd 
to  the  ammunition  carnage  attached  to  a  battery 
of  artillery.  In  architecture  caisson  signifies  a 
panel  left  in  a  vaulted  ceiling  or  more  rarely  ia 
a  flat  ceiling  or  a  wall.  They  are  sometimes 
square,  but  the  most  common  arrasennent  is 
a  pattern  of  sunken  octagons  with  much  smaller 
sunken  squares  set  diagonally  between.  The 
caisson  may  be  decorated  'with  mouldings  and 
ornaments  of  stucco  painted  and  gilded. 

CAISSON  DISEASE,  or  COMPRESSED 


a  pressure  of  two  or  three  atmospheres,  as 


compressioa  but  come  on  after  decompressiMi 
when  some  minutes  or  even  hours  have  elapsed. 
The  symptoms  were  at  first  thought  to  be  due 
to  mechanical  pressure  which  hy  producing 
<ianges  in  the  oistribution  of  tlie  blood  caused 
congestion  or  blood  stases  when  pressure  was 
removed.  This,  however,  is  contrary  to  the 
adaptaUlity  of  body  fluids  to  pressure  and  does 
not  agree  with  experimtntJ  evidence  The 
gas  emboli  theory  u  now  generally  accepted. 
According  to  this  theory  blood  in  compressed 
^r  absorbs  an  increased  amount  of  o^geu  and 
nitrogen  which  lUMter  compression  Is  distributed 


to  the  flwb  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 
If  now  rapid  decompression  takes  place  bub- 
bles of  gas  form .  in  the  blood  aoce  rapidly 
than  the  s»  can  be  cast  ofi  ty  the  lungs  and 
Quraerous  capilbiy  emboli  result  These  then 
cause  pain  in  local  r^ioos,  either  by  direct  or 
mechanical  force,  or  by  cutting  oS  the  local 
blood  Bupiily.  There  may  be  more  or  less  gen- 
eral pain  involving  two  or  three  or  all  of  the 
extremities  and  sometimes  severe  abdominal 
pain  with  prostration,  which  in  some  cases  re- 
sult in  unconsciousness,  collapse  and  death. 
These  symptoms  are  due  to  the  pretence  of 
cord  or  bram  lesions,  the  result  of  the  gas  em- 
boli in  the  blood  supply  to  the  central  nervous 
system.  Vertigo  with  deafness  and  occasional 
labyrinthine  hKmorrhage  are  sometimes  pres- 


the  chest  are  also  sometimes  present  but  :._  _ 
not  fatal.  The  most  successful  treatment  is 
that  of  recompression  with  gradual  decompres- 
sion carried  on  in  a  medical  air-lock.  "Iliis  is 
now  required  by  law  in  some  countries.  Pro- 
phylactic measures  are  carried  out  by  careful 
examination  of  the  worlcman  and  elimination 
of  those  unfitted  for  work  in  compressed  air. 
Predisposing  factors  are  youth  or  too  ad- 
vanced age,  alcoholism,  organic  disease  and  fat- 
ness. New  men  should  be  given  a  short  shift 
and  workmen  should  be  carefully  supervised. 
Fatigue  is  also  a  factor.  Certain  countries  and 
states  already  have  laws  r^utating  shifts  and 
providing  for  gradual  decompression,  ^uged 
according  to  the  ^ssure  undergone,  which  are 
the  cluef  preventive  measures. 

Smith  Ely  Jellitfe. 
CAIT^,  or  CAETBS,  kA-e-tiz'    an   ex- 
tinct tribe  of  Brazilian  Indians  which,  irp  to 
the  close  of  the  16th  century,  inhabited  a  large 
portion  of  the  eastern  coast  region  north  of 


ily,  and,  while  they  exhibited  traits  that  indi- 
cated at  least  a  crude  sort  of  civilization,  such 
as  life  in  fixed  villages  and  the  practice  of  ag- 
riculture, they  were  the  most  cannibalistic  of 
all  the  Brazihan  tribes.  In  1554  they  murdered 
the  bishop  of  Bahta  and  his  companions,  who 
were  shipwrecked  on  that  coast,  and  their  rav- 
ages upon  the  settlements  of  the  colonists 
aroused  an  enmity  that  finally  resulted  in  their 
complete  extinction. 

CAITHNESS,  kath'nis,  a  maritime  county 
in  the  extreme  northeast  of  the  mainland  of 
Scotland;  area,  686  square  miles.  The  surface 
is  generally  level  or  undulating,  and  there  are 
few  hills  of  aiv  height,  except  on  the  Suther- 
land border.  Much  of  the  surface  is  deep  moss 
or  peaty  moor,  but  there  is  a  fair  prcMMrtion  of 
fertile  land  in  the  eastern  part.  About  one- 
quarter  of  the  whole  surface  is  under  crops 
and  rotation  grasses,  or  in  permanent  pasture. 
Of  com  crops  oats  is  W  far  the  most  import- 
ant. Sheep  farming  is  lugelv  engaged  in,  and 
a  considerable  area  is  under  oecr  forest.  Only 
a  very  small  portion  of  the  country  is  wooded. 
The  coast,  north  and  east,  is  prevailingly 
bold  and  rocl^ ;  in  the  southeast  low  ana 
sandy.  The  chief  headlands  are  Dunnet  Head 
on  the  north  coast,  Duncansby  Head  at 
the  northeast  comer,  Noss  Head '  and  the 
Ord  on  the  east  coast    The  largest  bays  are 


.Google 


CAIU8— CAJ^nJT 


Ehmntt  hvf  on  the  nordi  and  Sinclui's  Bay 
on  tht  east,  but  Thurso  Bay  and  Wick  Bay  are 
also  noteworthy.  Tfaere  are  many  lakes,  aoaae 
of  them  very  attractive.  The  largest  is  Loch 
Watten,  ncai  the  centre  of  the  county.  There 
are  no  nsvigaUe  rivers.  Caithness  is  poor  in 
metallic  minerals,  but  excellent  flagstones  have 
been  quarried  for  many  years  and  form  one  of 
the  chief  exports  of  the  county.  Uany  of  the 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  fishing^  and  Wick 
'  is  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  die  Scottish  her- 
rin^'fishery.  The  manufactures  are  subsidiary 
to  its  other  industries.  Wick,  the  county  town, 
is  a  Toyal  burgh,  and  Thurso  is  the  only  other 
town.  The  antiquities  of  Caithness  are  nunier- 
ous,  and  include  old  castles,  so-called  Picts' 
houses,  monoliths,  etc.  The  country  returns  one 
member  to  Parliament     Pop.  (1911)  32,010. 

CAIUS,  ka'yiis.    See  Gaius. 

CAIUS,  kez,  John,  English  physician,  the 
fotmder  of  Caius  Collegt  Cambricfge  Univer- 

ftsityr  b.  Norwich,  6  Oct.  1510;  d.  Cambridge,.29 
ly  1573.  His  name  was  Kaye  or  Key,  which 
Latinized  into  Caius.  He  took  his  degrees 
at  Gonville  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  was  chosen 
fellow  of  his  college.  While  at  Cambri^  he 
distinguished  himself  by  various  translations 
fr<»n  the  classics.  He  spent  some  time  in  trav- 
eling on  the  Contineni  studied  medicine  at 
Padua,  under  Uontanus  and  Vesalius,  and  took 
his  doctor's  degree  at  Bologna  (1541).  In  1542 
he  lectured  at  Padua  on  the  Greek  text  of 
Aristotle,  and  in  the  following  year  made  a 
tour  through  Italy,  visiting  the  principal  libra- 
ries^ in  order  to  compare  the  manuscripts  of 
Galen  and  Cebus.  He  returned  to  bis  native 
country  in  1544,  and  practised,  first  at  CW- 
bridge,  then  at  Shrewsbury,  and  afterward  at 
Norwich.  He  was  appcunted  by  Henry  VIII 
lecturer  on  anatomy  to  the  Company  of  Sur- 

rns,  London.  In  1547  he  became  fellow  of 
College  of  Physicians,  and  was  appointed 
court  physician  to  the  young  King  Edward  VI, 
which  appointment  he  retained  under  the 
queens  Mary  and  Elizabeth.  In  the  reign  of  the 
latter,  an  exciting  controversy  arose  between 
the  surgeons  and  physicians  of  London,  as  to 
rtie  righl  of  the  former  to  administer  internal 
remedies  for  sciatica  Caius  argued  the  nega- 
tive so  ably  on  behalf  of  the  physicians  t£at 
the  decision  was  against  the  right  of  the  sur- 
^ons  to  continue  the  practice  of  administer- 
ing medicines.  He  was  elected  president  of  the 
College  of  Physicians  for  seven  years  in  succes- 
sion. There  Is  extant  a  book  of  the  college 
annals  from  1555  to  1572  written  by  him  m 
Latin,  the  earliest  account  we  have  of  the 
transactions  of  that  college.  He  was  dismissed 
from  the  royal  service  in  1568  on  suspicion  of 
f avorins  the  Catholic  party.  He  obtained  per- 
mission to  endow  and  raise  Gonville  Hall  into 
a  collegre,  virhich  still  bears  his  name  (Gonville 
and  Caius  College),  and  accepted  the  mastership 
thereof.  His  last  days  were  passed  in  the  se- 
clusion of  his  college.  His  works  are  numer- 
ous, on  various  subjects;  many  of  them  have 
been  reprinted  in  modern  times.  See  his 
'Works,'  edited  by  T.  S.  Roberts,  with  memoir 
by  J.  Venn   (New  York  1912). 

CAIUS  CESTIUS.  kS'yus  les'ti-iis,  Pyra. 
mid  of,  a  sepulchral  monument,  a  pyramid  of 
the  time  of  Auguitns,  standing  at  Rome.  Bnilt 
of  brick  and  stone  and  encrusted  with  white 


marble,  it  is  more  than  114  feet  in  height,  while 
each  side  of  the  base  measures  90  feet  This 
contains  a  small  burial  chamber,  which  is 
painted  with  arabesque. 


CAIVAHO,  fci-va'no,  Italy,  a  dty  lying 
north  of  Naples^  at  a  distance  of  about  five 
miles,  and  connected  with  the  latter  by  tram- 
way. It  was  a  fortified  town  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  at  present  is  interesting  as  the  cen- 
tre of  a  fertile  agricultural  district  that  pro- 
duces fruits,  wine,  olives,  grain,  hemp,  etc. 
There  are  also  a  few  manufactories.  Pop. 
about  13,000. 

CAJX,  ka-eks,  Hapoleone,  Italian  philolo- 
gist: b.  BoKEolo,  near  Mantua,  1845;  d.  1882. 
His  education  was  obtained  at  Cremona  and 
Pisa,  and  in  1869  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
ancient  languages  in  the  Lyceum  of  Parma, 
becoming  professor  of  Romance  languages 
and  comparative  philology  in  the  Institute  of 
Hi^cr  Studies  in  Florence  in  1873.  He  was  a 
prolific  writer,  and  among  his  many  works  are 
'SaEEio  sulla  storia  della  lingua  e  dei  dialetit 
d'ltaEa'  (1872);  'Sulla  lingua  del  Contrasto» 
(1876);  'Le  ongim  della  lingua  Poeiica  Ital- 
iana>   (1880). 

CATAUARCA,  ki-h^-mar-ca',  or  CAXA- 
HASCA,  Peru,  the  name  of  a  department  and 
city  in  the  valley  of  the  upper  Marafton,  or 
Amazon.  The  department  lies  in  a  very  moun- 
tainous region.  Fop.  213,391.  The  city  stands 
on  the 'eastern  declivity  of  the  Andes  m  a  rich 
silver  mining  district,  75  miles  from  Trujillo. 
It  lies  about  350  miles  to  the  northwest  of  Lima, 


temperature  being  very  moderate  because  of 
the  elevation.  It  contains  several  handsome 
churches  and  flourishing  manufactories  of  steel 
articles,  straw  hats,  cotton  goods,  woolens  and 
cutlery.  The  inhabitants  are  considered  the 
best  workmen  in  stiver  and  iron  in  Pern.  An 
extensive  trade  between  the  inland  provinces 
and  Lambcyeque  and  Truxillo  ii  carried  on 
through  this  town.  Woolen -fabrics  form  the 
chief  exports,  and  European  manufactures, 
sugar,  brandy,  wine,  iron,  steel  and  other  arti- 
cles are  imported  in  return.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  baths  of  the  Incas,  and  a  vdcanio  lake, 
into  which,  according  to  tradition,  were  nasf 
the  throne  and  regana.  of  the  Peruvian  mon- 
archs,  the  last  of  whom,  Atahualpa,  perished 
here  in  1533  by  the  hands  of  Pizarro.  Pop. 
4bout  9,000. 

CAJBPUT,  kij'e-put,  or  CAJUPUT  OIL, 
the  volatile  <»l  obtained  by  distillatiorf  from  the 
leaves  of  the  cajeput-tree  (Melalevea  cajupii  or 
minor),  belonging  to  the  order  Myrlacea.  This 
tree  has  lanceolate,  aromatic  leaves  and  spiked 
of  odorfess  flowers,  and  is  common  in  many 
islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  India  and  the 
hot  sections  of  Australia.  Booro,  one  of  the 
Moluccas,  yields  the  bulk  of  the  oil  exported, 
although  much  comes  from  Celebes.  It  is 
mostly  sent  to  Singapore,  when'  it  is  re-ex- 
ported to  other  countries.  The  oil  is  of  a 
pale-green  color,  very  limpid,  lighter  than 
water,  of  a  stron?  smell,  resembling  both  tur- 
pentine and  camphor,  and  of  a  strong  pungent 
taste.    It  is  often  adulterated  with  otbei  eBien- 


vGooglc 


CAJBTAH — CALABAS 


tial  oils.  The  cator  of  the  oil  dqends  on'  the 
presence  of  a  little  copper,  which  must  be  r*- 
movcd  by  redistillation  before  the  oil  is  fit  for 
use  in  medtcine,  in  which  it  has  many  applica- 
tions, being  used  as  a  carminBtive,  as  antis^s- 
modic,  a  rubefacient  and  a  sudorific.  The 
active  principle  of  cajeput  oil  is  the  camphor 
•cineol*  (CkHuO).  Kaytiputi,  the  native  name 
of  the  tree,  means  'white  wood,'  and  refers  to 
the  color  of  the  bdrit 

CAJKTAN,  k5j'S-tan,  or  CAJttTANUS, 
Tomaia»o  de  Vio,  Italian  cardinal:  b.  Gaeta, 
25  July  1470;  d.  Rome,  9  Aug.  1S34.  He  en- 
tered ute  order  of  Dominican  friars,  graduated 
as  a  doctor  and  was  elected  general  of  his 
order  in  1508.  When  Pope  Julius  II  was  sum- 
moned to  appear  before  the  council  of  cardinals 
assembled  at  Pisa  and  afterward  at  Milan,  in 
the  interest  of  King  Louis  XII  of  France,  Ca- 
jetan  undertook  his  defense,  asserting  that  to 
the  Pope  alone  belonged  the  power  of  con- 
vening a  council.  He  was  appointed  cardinal 
in  1517  by  Leo  X,  and  sent  as  a  'egate  in  Ger- 
many to  bring  the  Emperor  Maximilian  and  the 
King  of  Denmark  mto  the  league  formed 
agamst  the  Turks.  His  efforts  to  make  Luther 
recant  his  doctrines  proved  in  vain.  In  1SI9  he 
was  present,  as  Roman  legate,  at  the  assembly 
of  the  electors  of  the  empir^  and  sided  witfl 
the  partisans  of  Doo  CarkK  of  SpaiiL^who  was 
elected  emperor  under  the  name  of  OiaTles  V. 
Then  he  returned  to  Kome,  but  was  soon  or- 
dered by  Adrian  VI  to  Hungary,  which  was 
invwkd  by  the  Turks. '  In  1524  he  was  recalled 
to  Rome  by  Clement  VII.  On  the  capture  of 
Rome  in  1527,  being  taken  prisoner  by  die  im- 
perial troops,  under  the  command  of  the  Con- 
stable of  Bourbon,  he  had  to  pay  5,000  crown* 
aa  a  ransom  for.  his  liberty.  He  made  a  trans- 
latioD  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  a  commen- 
tary, aud  -wrote  a  treatise  on  the  authority  of  the 
Fopt,  which  was  answered  by  the  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Paris.  He  also  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  parts  of  Aristotle's  writings  and 
on  the  'Sumara'  of  Aquinas.  The  latter  is 
reprinted  in  the  definitive  edition  of  the  great 
Aqumas  issued  under  the  patronage  of  Leo 
XIII  <Rome  1882).  A  collection  of  his  work 
to  which  his  life  is  pre&xed  appeared  at  Lyons 
in  1639  (5  vols.).  Consult  SchUbach,  <De  Vita 
ac  Scriptis  de  Vio  Catetaai'   (1881). 

CAJIGAL,  ka-hS-ga1;  DE  LA  VBQA, 
FnmciBco  Antonio,  Spamsh  colonial  governor: 
b.  Salitander,  S  Feb.  169S ;  d,  there  30  April  1777. 
He  held  the  post  of  governor  of  Santiago,  Cuba, 
1738-47,  and^in  1742,  during  the  course  of  the 
war  between  Spain  and  ESgland,  repelled  an 
attack  by  Admiral  Vemon.  He  was  governor- 
general  of  Cuba  1747-60,  and  while  in  ofHce 
established  an  arsenal  and  navy  yard  at  Ha- 
vana. During  a  part  of  1760  and  the  year  fol- 
.  lowing  he  was  viceroy  of  Mexico.  Withdraw- 
ing to  Spain  after. this,  he  became  councillor 
of  the  War  Deirartment  (1761),  and  on  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities  wiui  Ei^land  in  1762 
vent  to  the  front  and  fought  in  Portugal  under 
the  orders  of  the  Co\mt  of  Aranda.  After  the 
war.  he  returned  to  the  Council  of  War,  whose 
dean  he  became  in   1768. 

CAJORI,  ca-jO're,  Florian,  Swiss-Ameri- 
can mathematician :  b.  Saint  Aignan,  Switzer- 
land, 28  Feb,  1859.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1875  and  studied  at  the  University  of 


Wisconsin  and  at  Joins  Hc^tins  aad  Tnhme 
tmiveraities.  In  leSS^  he  waa  professor  of 
matlKinatics  at  Tulane  and  removed  to  Colo- 
rado College  in  the  latter  year,  lAere  he  be- 
came professor  of  phnici  and  mathematics  and 
later  dean  of  the  School  of  Engineering.  He 
has  published  'The  Teaching  and  History  of 
Mathematics  in  the  United  States'  <18t)0);  'A 
History  of  Mathematics'  (1894);  'A  History 
of  Elementarv  Mathematics'  (1896);  <A  Hb- 
tory  of  Physics*  (1899);  ^Introduction  to  the 
Modem  Theonr  of  Eqnationi)  (1904;  1912); 
*A  Historr  of  the  logarithmic  Slide  Rule' 
CIW). 

CAKCHIQUEL,_  kik-ehe-Wr,  a  trib*  of 
Mayan  stock  occupying  northern  and  centrul 
Guatemala.     They   are   probably   an   off -shoot 


conquered  by  Alvarado  in  1524,  and  at  that  time 
had  a  well-developed  civilizatiorL  as  is  shown 
by  .their  architectural  ruins  and  their  ^stcm  of 
hieroglyphic  writings.  They  had  an  intense 
religious  veneration  for  tnaize,  and  it  is  even 
proBable  that  they  were  the  first  to  cultivate  it 
Consult  Brinton,  'Annals  of  the  C^chiqueb' 
(Philadelphia  1885)  ;  Sloll,  <Zur  Ethnograi^ie 
der  Republik  Guatemala'  (Zurich  1884); 
Thomas  and  Swanton,  'Indian  Languages  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America*  <Washmgton 
1911). 

CAKB-USCHIH,  8AND-CAKB  or 
SAND-DOLLAR,  a  flat,  round  sea-urchin 
two  or  three  inches  in  <Uameter  iEchinarach' 
Mtus  parma)  ^i4iich  lives  buried  in  the  sand  in 
the  shallow  portions  of  the  north  Atlantic, 
from  low-water  mark  to  40  tathpms.  It  is 
occasionally  thrown  ashore  on  beaches.  The 
body  is  protected  by  limestone  plates,  and  the 
■ambulacra,"  or  dehcate  suckers,  are  arranged 
in  a  rosette  on  the  upper  side  of  the  animal, 
the  mouth  being  on  tne  under  side.  See  also 
Sea- Urchin. 

CALABA  OIL,  an  ezccUest  illuminating 
oil  obtained  from  calaba-^uts,  the  seeds  of  C<^o- 
/Ay/itim  calaba,  a  tree  of  the  order  of  Gutlifera 
that  flourishes  in  Brazil  and  the  West  Indies, 
and  yields  useful  timber.  The  yield  of  oil  is 
from  50  to  55  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  nuts 
after  thev  are  divested  of  their  ^lls  —  equiva- 
lent to  about  30  per  cent  of  their  gross  weight 
The  oil  consists  of  the  glycerides  of  palmitic, 
stearic  and  oleic  acids,  and  contains  about 
15  per  cent  of  a  greenish  resin  which  is  poison- 
ous, and  renders  the  oil  inedible.  It  is,  how- 
ever,  used   medicinally.     Calaba   oil    solidifies 

38*  F.,  and  melts  again  at  46°.    Its  saponifi- 


n  value 


s  196. 


CALABAR.  ka-la-Ur',  or  kal-9-bar',  Africa, 
the  former  name  of  a  district  on  the  west  coast- 
extending  eastward  from  the  Niger  delta,  and 
now  included  in  the  Niger  Territories.  The 
name  is  now  applied  to  two  towns  and  two 
rivers  in  that  region.  Old  Calabar  is  a  port  in 
southern  Nigeria,  situated  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Cross  River  at  the  point 
where  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Old  Calabar 
River.  It  contains,  amon^  other  buildings,  a 
Presbytenan  Misstdn  Institute  for  natives,  a 
large  prison,  good  hospitals  and  marine  work- 
shops. Its  climate,  like  that  of  all  coast  settle- 
ments in  this  part  of  the  contiaent,  u  very 


.Google 


CALABAR .  SBASff — C  AIABRI A 


unhealthful.  The  rainfall  is  very  grtat,  torna- 
does are  frequent  and  the  temperature  is  very 
hi^  The  value  of  Its  exports,  coniistuig 
chiefly  of  palm-oil,  palm  kernel^  and  mbber, 
otceeds  $1,00(\000,  and  its  imiiorta  ate  valued 
at  rather  more.  New  Calabar  is  situated  farther 
east  on  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Niger  known 
^  the  same  name.  Its  trade  is  less  than  that  of 
Old  Calabar,  but  is  nevertheless  of  considerable 
value.  Since  1904  the  official  style  of  Old  Cala- 
bar has  been  Calabar. 

CALABAR  BEAN,  or  ORDEAL  BEAN, 

the  brown  or  reddish-brown  Iddney-shaped  seed 
of  Physostigma  venenoswm,  a  climbing  woody, 
West  African  vine  of  the  pea  family  {Legumi- 
ii«f(r),reachinKaheiglU  of  50  feet.  The  flowers 
are  purple,<  resembling  the  sweet  pea,  and  each 
pod  contains  two  or  tiiree  seeds,  which  are 
about  one  inch  long  widi  a  blackish  groove 
along  the  convex  edge;  and  in  the  interior  an 
air-cavity  which  enables  the  heavy  seeds  to 
float  on  water.  This  bean  je  very  p<nsonotis, 
and  has  been  much  naed  in  paste  or  in  infusion 


duick'  soil,  and  atltivatii 


milar 


^  Aat  given 


accused  of  witchcraft  or  crime  vomited  tiM 
mixture,  he  was  declared  innocent;  if  he  did 
not  vomit,  death  ensned.  At  one  time  70  dol- 
dren-in  Liverpool  ate  some  of  the  beans;  one 
who  ate  four  seeds  did  not  vomit  and  died; 
all  the  rest  vomited  and  recovered.  In  poiscm- 
ing  with  this  bean  vomitina:  should  be  encour- 
asccL  the  stomach  waEhed  out  and  atropine 
aomuiistered  if  the  dose  has  been  small;  if  the 
dose  was  large  atropine  hastens  death.  Two 
alkaloids  are  prepared  from  the  Calabar  bean, 
c^abarine  and  phtysosiigmine.  The  latter  has 
the  largest  known  power  of  contraction  upon 
the  pu^  of  the  eye,  and  is  used  in  subcutane- 
ous injection  by  ocuhsu  for  this  purpose.  It 
is  also  used  in  the  treatment  of  photophobia 
and  glaucoma.  In  medicine,  physostigmine  is 
used  in  connection  with  tetanus  antitoxin  in 
the  treatment  of  lockjaw,  and  also  in  chronic 
constipation  and  certain  diseases  of  the  bladder. 
CALABASH  GOURD,  BOTTLE 
GOURD,  WHITE  PUMPKIN,  Lagmaria 
vulgarii,  the  only  cultivated  or  common  wild 
species  of  its  genus,  which  belongs  to  the  family 
CucHrhiiacea,  distinguished  from  the  species  of 
the  closely  related  genus  Cuairhiia  by  liaving 
white  instead  of  yellow  flowers,  distinct  instead 
of  united  anthers,  and  seeds  with  distended 
edges.  It  is  a  climbing  annual  vine,  30  to  40  feet 
lon^  with  a  musky  odor  and  sticky  texture. 
It  IS  a  native  of  tropical  Asia  and  Africa,  and 
is  grown  in  warm  countries  for  its  very  vari- 
able smooth,  hard-shelled  fruit,  which,  while 
young  and  soft,  is  used  by  some  races  as  food; 
DUt  much  more  generally  the  ripe  fruits  are 
used  for  making  utensils  such  as  dippers,  cups 
and  lutchers.  Some  of  the  largest  fruits  are 
used  in  India  and  other  Eastern  countries  in 
raft-construction  and  for  buoys.  These  fruits 
range  in  size  from  a  few  inches  to  five  feet  or 
even  more,  and  from  their  resemblance  to 
various  objects  are  called  Hercules'  club,  dipper, 
bottle,  snake,  sugar  trouf^  etc.  The  plant  is 
often  cultivated  in  the  southern  United  States, 
but  is  less  frequently  seen  in  the  North,  who-e 
the  season  is  usually  too  short  for  the  fruits  to 
ful^   mature-     A   Stumy   exposure  In   wamv 


squashes  and  mekms,  will  suit  the  plan  well. 

CALABASH  NUTMEG,  a  tree  (.Mono- 
dora  myristica)  of  tlie  family  Annonaeeit,  in- 
troduced into  Jamaica  probably  from  West 
Africa.  The  fruit  resemeles  small  calabashes, 
heflce  the  name.  It  is  called  also  American  nut- 
meg or  Jamaica  nutmeg. 

CALABASH-TREE,  a  tree  (Creseenlia 
eujete)  of  the  West  IntUes  and  tropical  North 
America,  of  the  family  Bignoniacea,  about  the 
fieigfat  and  dimensions  of  an  apple-tree,  with 
crooked,  horizontal  branches,  wedge-shaped 
leaves,  pale- white  flowers  on  the  trunk  and 
branches,  and  a  roundish  fruit,  from  two  inclies 
to  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  greenish-yellow  skin 
of  (he  fruit  encloses  a  thin,  hard  and  almost 
woody  shell,  which  is  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  water-cans,  goblets,  cups,  etc.  So  hard 
and  close-grained  are  these  shells  that  when  they 
contain  fluid  they  may  even  be  put  several  times 
on  the  fire  as  kettles,  without  any  injury.  When 
intended  for  ornamental  vessels,  they  a   ' 


times  highly  polished,  and  have  figures  engi 
iipon  them,  which  are  variously  tinged 
and  other  colors.   The  calabash 


a  paJe-j'ellaw,  juicy  pulp  of  an  unpleasant  taste, 
which  IS  esteemed  a  valuable  remedy  in  several 
disorders,  both  external  and  internal, 

CALABAZAR,  kii-U-b:i-thar',  Cuba,  dty  of 
the  province  of  Santa  Clara,  situated  20  miles 
north  of  the  city  of  Santa  Oara.  It  has  a  fine 
municipal  building.  The  Calabazar  River  is 
crossed  at  this  point  by  a  fine  railroad  bridge, 
the  best  of  its  kind  in  the  conntry.  Pop,  1,496; 
municipal  district,  16,979. 

CALABOZO,  ka-la-bfl-tha',  Venezuela, 
town  in  the  state  ot  Miranda  (Guzman  Blanco), 
120  miles  soulh-southwcst  of  Caracas,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  Guarico,  in  the  midst  of 
the  llanos.  It  was  founded  in  1730,  is  tolerably 
well  built  and  has  rather  a  pleasing  appearance, 
Its  church,  though  not  very  handsome,  is  com- 
modious. The  principal  wealth  of  the  tnbabit- 
ants  consists  of  cattle.  There  is  a  coniideraUe 
trade  in  live  stock,  hides,  cheese,  timber  etc. 
The  neighboring  ponds  abound  in  electrkal  eels. 
Pop.  6,000. 

CALABRIA,  Italy,  division  of  the  kingdom, 
comprising  the  southwest  peninsula  or  toe  of 
Italy,  from  about  40°  N.  fat.  to  the  Strait  of 
Messina;  area  estimated  at  5,819  square  miles. 
It  was  formerly  divided  into  three  provinces  — 
Calabria  Citeriore,  the  most  northerly;  Calabria 
Ulteriore  I,  the  most  southerly;  and  Calabria 
Utteriore  II,  between  the  two  former ;  but  these 
have  been  renamed  respectively  Cosenza,  Reggio 
di  Calabria  and  Cafanzaro.  The  central  region 
is  occupied  by  the  great  Apennine  ridge,  wild 
and  bleak,  to  which,  however,  whole  colonies 
with  their  cattle  migrate  in  the  summer.  The 
flats  near  the  coast  are  marshy  and  unhealthy, 
and  inhabited  by  herds  of  buflfaloes;  but  the 
valleys  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  are  well 
watered  and  produce  most  luxuriant  vegetation. 
The  vine,  the  orange  and  lemon  trees,  the  fig, 
the  olive  and  all  the  fruits  of  southern  climes, 
grow  there  to  perfection.  The  climate  was 
reckoned  salubrious  in  ancient  times;  but  in 
some  places  the  accumulation  of  stagnant  water 
produces  disease  in  the  hot  season.  Corn,  rice, 
wSroo,    anise,    licorice,    madder,    flax,    nemp^ 


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CAIADIUH  —  CALAIS 


olives,  almoads,  cotton  and  sugar-caiie  are  raised 
in  abundance.  Sheep,  homed  cattle  and  horses 
are  numerous.  Near  Reg^o  a  land  of  mussel 
is  found,  called  Pinna  manna,  from  whose  silky 
byssns  or  beard  a  beautiful  fabric  is  manufac- 
tured, remarkable  for  its  exlrerae  lightness  and 
warmth,  Coral  is  also  obtained,  llie  quarries 
and  pits  afford  alabaster,  marble,  Kypsum,  alum, 
chalk,  rock-salt,  lapis  lazuli  and  the  fine  copper 
renowned  in  ancient  times. 

Calabria  corresponds  with  the  ancient  Brat- 
tium  and  part  of  Lucania,  while  the  ancient 
Calabria  corresponds  to  the  heel  of  Italy.  It 
early  received  numerous  Greek  colonies,  and 
fonned  part  of  Magna  Grscia.  In  268  B.C.  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans.  The  Saracens 
had  occupied  the  greater  part  of  it  when  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Normans  in  the  11th 
century.  Since  then  it  has  constantly  followed 
the  fate  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
with  which  it  was  united  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  in  1860.  It  was  visited  by  continuous 
earthquakes  from  1783-87  and  suffered  severely 
in  the  disastrous  earthquakes  of  8  Sept.  1905 
and  28  Dee.  1908.  The  greater  part  of  the 
inhabitants  are  poor.  Formerly  the  country 
was  much  infested  by  brigands  and  brigandage 
is  not  yet  entirely  extinct.  The  language  of 
the  people  is  a  corruption  of  the  Italian.  There 
are  somewhere  about  40,000  Albanians  settled  in 
Calabria,  who  continue  to  preserve  their  lan- 
guage and  racial  identity.    Pop.  (1911)  1,402,151. 

CALADIUM,  a  ^nus  of  plants  of  the 
Aram  family,  consisting  of  a  doien  species, 
natives  of  tropical  Soudi  America.  The  plant 
commonly  in  cultivation  which  is  known  as 
Caladium  or  elephant  ear  is  a  species  of  the 
related  genus  Colocasio.  Two  species  of 
Caladium,  C.  ichomburgkii  and  C  btcolor,  are 
popular  with  gardeners  as  foliage  plants.  They 
have  large  heart -shaped  or  angled  leaves, 
beautifully  mottled  and  variegated  in  many 
shades  of^green,  red  and  yellow. 

CALAFAT,  Rumania,  town  of  Doliju,  de- 
partment on  the  Danube,  opposite  Vidin,  Bul- 
garia, with  which  it  communicates  by  a  steam 
terry.  Calafat,  named  after  the  calfats  or  ship 
repairers,  employed  by  the  14th  century  Genoese 
colonists  who  settled  here,  is  a  great  grain- 
trading  centre  served  by  the  Wallachian  Rail- 
way system.  Mere  in  I8S4  the  Turks  won  a 
suiprise  victoiy  over  the  Russians.    Pop.  7,500. 

CALAH,  kila,  an  ancient  city  mentioned  in 
Genesis  x,  12  as  one  of  those  built  by  Asur.  It 
is  the  city  called  Kalchu  in  the  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions, which  say  that  it  was  founded  by 
Shalmaneser  I  about  1250  B.C.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
Asurnazirpal  III  about  880  B.C,  who  erected  a 
wall  on  the  northern  side  and  a  large  palace. 
His  successors  also  built  palaces  in  the  diy. 
It  is  now  known  as  Nimrud,  where  a  number 
of  important  ruins  and  inscriptions  have  been 
found,   among  them   the   so-called   "black  obe- 


CALAHORRA,  ki-la-dr'r?,  Spain,  a  town 
of  Old  Castile,  near  the  south  side  of  the  Ebro, 
in  the  province  of  Logroflo,  and  32  miles  south- 
east of  the  city  of  Logroflo  by  rail.  It  is  S 
bishop's  see,  and  contains  a  cathedral,  three 
parish  churches  and  three  convents.    In  78  B.C. 


this  town,  dien  aHed  Cabgnrris,  uding  with 
Sertorius,  was  besieged  by  Aftanius,  one  of 
Pompey's  generals,  and  the  inhabitants  reduced 
to  siKb  eztremi^  that  they  fed  on  their  wives  . 
and  children;  wnence  the  Romans  were  wont 
to  call  any  gnevons  famine  fames  Calagurritana. 
Quintiliati  was  bora  here  about  35  a.d..  Pop. 
5;871. 

CALAIS,  ka-Ia'  France,  a  seaport  town  and 
fortified  place  of  the  first  class,  in  the  depari- 
ment  of  Pa s-de- Calais,  20  miles  northeast  from 
Boulogne  on  the  Strait  of  Dover,  and  about  21 
miles  east-southeast  of  the  port  of  Dover.  It  is 
situated  at  the  junction  of  several  canals,  and  by 
railway  is  directly  connected  with  Paris,  from 
which  it  is  distant  185  miles.  The  town  con- 
sists of  two  portions,  almost  entirely  separated 
by  basins  or  water  areas  connected  with  the 
harbor  acottmmodation.  These  are  Calais 
proper  or  the  old  town  farther  to  the  north,  and 
Saint  Pierre  or  the  new  town  lying  to  the  south, 
now  a  great  manufacturing  centre,  ai)d  incor- 
porated with  the  other  portion  only  in  1885. 
The  whole  is  enclosed  by  a  new  line  of  drciun- 
vallation,  and  is  also  defended  fay  a  citadel  and 
seven   detached    forts   and   batteries.      On    the 


is  the  Place  d'Armea,  where  the  <Ad  Hotel  de 
Ville.  built  in  1740  (restored  in  1867),  is 
situated.  The  new  town  hall  is  on  Place 
Centrale.  The  principal  churdi,  Notre  Dame, 
contains  a  fine  altar-piece  in  Genoa  marble. 
Other  noteworthy  objects  are  the  Hotel  de 
Guise,  originally  founded  by  Edward  III  of 
England;  the  column  erected  to  commemorate 
the  landing  of  Louis  XVIII  in  1814;  barracks; 
and  the  Hotel  Dessin.  Calais  is  the  seal  of  a 
commercial  court  and  chamber  of  commerce, 
and  has  a  college,  a  commercial  school,  school 
of  design,  school  of  hydrograi^y,  etc 

The  harbor  u  accessible  at  all  states  of  the 
tide,  and  is  entered  between  two  long  piers. 
The  works  include  extensive  grzviae  dock  and 
wet  dock  accommodation.  Calais  is  one  of  the 
princimi  ports  for  the  debarkation  of  travelers 
from  England,  there  being  day  and  night  com- 
munication with  Dover  by  steamboat.  T^ere 
is  a  submarine  cable  to  England  from  this  port. 
The  manufactures  of  the  town  are  important. 
The  silk  and  cotton  tulle  or  bobbinet  trade  em- 
ploys thousands  of  hands.  Various  other  in- 
dustries are  also  carried  on,  such  as  flax- 
spinning,  lace-making,  hosiery,  engineering,  net- 
making,  brewing,  etc.  Vessels  are  built  here, 
and  fitted  out  for  the  cod,  mackerel  and  herring 
fisheries.  It  is  the  entrepot  for  an  important 
district,  and  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on 
in  grain,  wool,  wine,  sugar,  timber,  coal,  etc., 
and  not  less  than  55,000,000  of  eggs  are  annually 
exported  to  England  Calais  is  a  town  of  con- 
siderable antiqui^r.  In  1347  it  was  taken  by 
Edward  HI  of  England,  after  a  siege  of  II 
months.  The  famous  incident  of  the  six  bur- 
gesses having  their  lives  saved  at  the  inter- 
cession of  Queen  Philippa  belongs  to  this  siege. 
In  1558  it  was  retaken  by  the  Dnke  of  Guise, 
being  then  the  last  rdic  of  ihe  French  dominions 
of  the  Plantagenets.  which  at  one  time  com- 
prehended the  half  of  France.    Pop.  7Z,322. 


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CALAIS— CALAMUS 


18B 


CALAIS,  kftlli,  Mc,  dty,  pon  of  entry,  and 
county-seat  oi  Washington  County,  situated  on 
Saint  Croix  River,  opposite  Saint  Stephen, 
N.  B.,  and  on  the  Saint  Croix  &  P.  and  the 
Canadian  P.  railroads,  120  miles  cast  of  Bangor. 
It  is  the  extreme  northeast  seaport  of  the 
United  States  and  is  connected  by  steamship 
lines  with  Boston,  Portland  and  Saint  John, 
N.  B.  It  has  a  large  lumber  trade  and  numerous 
foundries,  machine  shops,  shipyards,  ^anite 
<iuarries  and  other  extensive  mechanical  indus- 


etc;  a  national  bank,  several  newspapers,  i 
and  grammar  schools,  electric  Ughts.  a  puoiic 
library  and  an  assessed  property  valuation  of 
$2,500,000.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor  and  council  elected  annually.  Fop.  6,116, 
.  CALAMANCO,  a  woolen  stuff  made  in  the 
Netherlands,  the  waip  of  which  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  silk  or  goats'  hair.  It  has  a  fine 
gloss,  and  is  checkered  in  the  warp,  so  that  the 
checks  are  seen  on  one  side  only.  It  was  fash- 
ionable in  Addison's  time. 

CALAMANDBR  WOOD,  a  hard  wood 
of  Ceylon,  obtained  from  a  species  of  ebony- 
tree.    See  Ebony. 

CALAHARY.  The  old  European  name  of 
the  lO-armed  cuttle-fish.    See  Squib, 

CALAMATTA,  LniEl,  Italian  engraver: 
b.  Civtti  Vecchia,  Italy,  12  July  1802;  d.  Milan, 
8  March  1869.  He  was  educated  in  Rome  under 
Marchetti  and  Ricciani,  but  was  much  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  a  follower  of  Ingres.  In  1837  he 
became  professor  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts 
in  Brussels  and  among  his  pupils  were  Gustave 
Biot,  Leopold  Flameng  and  Charles  Blanc.  He 
founded  a  school  of  engravers  in  Brussels  under 
government  direction,  and  in  his  latest  years 
was  professor  of  drawing  in  the  Academy  of 
Milan.  He  is  well  known  by  his  engraving  of 
the  head  of  Napoleon,  from  the  death  mask, 
and  porttaits  of  Ingres,  Paganini,  Guizot, 
George  Sand,  'Francesca  da  Rimini* ;  'La 
Gioconda*  after  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  the 
"Madonna  di  Foligno*  after  Raphael.  Consult 
Alvin,  'Notice  snr  Luigi  Calamatta'  (Brussels 
1882). 

CALAMBA,  iM-lara'ba,  Philippines,  a  town 
of  the  province  of  Lasuna,  situated  in  the  south- 
em  part  of  the  island  of  Luzon,  about  30  miles 
southeast  of  Manila.  It  is  connected  with  sev- 
eral important  towns  by  highways,  and  has  a 
telegraph  station.    Pop.  about  13,000. 

CALAMBAC,  aloes-wood,  the  product  of  a 
tree,  AquUaria  agailocha,  growing  in  China  and 
some  of  the  Indian  islands.  It  is  of  a  very  li^t, 
spongy  texture,  and  contains  a  soft,  fragrant 
resin,  which  is  chewed  by  the  natives. 

CALAME,  ka-lam,  Alexandre,  Swiss  land- 
scape artist:  b.  Vevey,  Switwrland,  28  May 
1810;  d.  Mentone,  France,  17  March  1864.  His 
life '  was  passed  mainly  in  Geneva,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  him  in  1880.  He  was 
ranked  among  the  best  landscape  painters  of  his 
d^  and  he  excelled  the  most,  if  not  all,  of  hij 
contemporaries  in  portraying  Alpine  scenciy. 
Amon^  worics  bv  him  are  'Bernese  Oberland* 
(Leipiig  Gallery);  'Wetterhom'  (Basel  Muse- 
um); "Lake  of  Lucerne>  (Berlin  Museum); 
*Shrecldiorn';  'Lake  of  the  Pour  Cantons.' 

CALAMIANES,  ka-la-me-a'n^s,  a  cluster 
of  islands  in  the  Philippine  -Archipelago,   of- 


which  Busuanga,  Calamian  and  Linacapan  are 
the  moat  important;  Busuan^  is  36  miles  long 
and  17  miles  broad-  They  he  between  lat.  11 
25'  and  12°  20*  N.  and  about  long.  120°  E  The 
islands  are  mountainous  and  well  timbered. 
They  produce  rice,  cacao  and  great  quantities  of 
wax  and  honey..  The  principal  occupations  are 
cattle  raising  and  fishing.  '  The  climate  is  un- 
hulthful.     There  are  about  98  islands  in  the 

?'oup,  with  a  total  land  area  of  675  square  miles, 
op.  !7,000. 
CALAMINE,  a  native  basic  metasilicate  of 
zinc,  having  the  formula  (ZnOH)iSiOi.  In 
England  the  name  is  applied  to  the  carbonate 
ore  and  the  name  given  to  the  silicate  is  smith- 
sonite.  The  mineral,  now  known  as  smithsonite, 
was  formerly  included  here,  but  James  Smith' 
son,  in  1603,  showed  that  the  two  species  are 
distinct.  The  two  are  usually  founa  together. 
phic,  rhombohedral 


crystals,  usually  white,  with  a  vitreous  lustre,  a 
hardness  of  from  4.5  to  5  and  a  spediic  gravity 
of  between  3.4  and  3.5.  It  also  occurs  in  mas- 
sive fonns,  sometimes  mammillary  in  shape,  and 
often  cellular.  In  the  United  Stales  calamine  is 
found  in  fine  crystalline  form  in  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania  and  Virginia ;  and  both  crystalline 
and  mammillary  in  Missouri,  Utah  and  Mon- 
tana. _  In  localities  where  it  occurs  in  quantity  it 
constitutes  a  valuable  ore  of  zinc. 

CALAMINT,  any  plant  of  the  genus 
Calamirttha,  belonging  to  the  family  Menlhacea. 
The  plants  are  herbs  or  shrubs  with  usually 
entire  leaves,  and  dense  whoris  of  nurple-white 
or  yellow  flowers,  with  a  two-lipped  corolla  and 
didynamons  stamens  no!  projecting  from  the 
corolla.  I^ive  species  are  British.  They  all  con- 
tain a  volatile  oil,  and  a  pectoral  medicine  is 
obtained  from  them.  In  the  United  States  sev- 
eral species  are  also  found. 

CALAMIS,  Greek  sculptor,  statuary  and 
embosser  of  Athens,  a  contemporanr  of  Phidias, 
who  flourished  between  467  and  4a)  b.c  Pliny 
bestows  the  highest  praises  upon  his  horses. 
Among  his  most  celebrated  works  were  a  statue 
in  metal  of  Apollo  Alexicacos,  in  Athens,  in  429 
B.C.,  and  whid)  has  erroneously  been  supposed 
to  be  the  Apollo  Belvedere  -  a  colossal  statue  of 
Apollo  in  bronie,  30  cubits  m  heighl,  which  was 
taken  to  Rome  by  Lucullus;  and  a  Jupiter 
Ammon  consecrated  by  Pindar  at  Thebes.  Con- 
sult Gardner,  E.  A.,  <A  Handbook  of  Greek 
Sculpture'    (pp.  23^-36,  London  1911). 

CALAMITB,  a  genus  of  fossil  planU  very 
characteristic  of  the  coal  measures.  They  occur 
in  the  Devonian  rocks,  and  in  other  formations 
up  to  the  Jurassic,  m  which  one  species  is 
found.  Their  classification  is  not  finally  deter- 
mined, but  they  are  generally  regarded  as  closely 
related  to  the  Eqitisetacea  or  horsetails.  The 
stalks  are  striated  lengthwise,  and  interrupted 
with  rings  marking  a   regular  articulation. 

CALAMITY  JANE.    See  Buske,  Jane. 


very  different  from  most  other  palms,  having 
slender^  many-jointed,  reed-like  stems,  often 
stretchmg  to  a  length  of  several  hundred  feet 
Some  have  the  stems  erect,  others  climb  and 
trail  among  trees  on  which  they  support  them- 
selves, hang^n^  on  by  the  hooked  pricldes  tlwt 
*-—""'-  their  leaves.     Some  taive  leaves  at 


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CALAMUS — GALA8U1O 


tntei'vals  along  the  stem,  odiers  only  at  the  ex- 
tremity. The  stems  are  hard,  smooth  and  ^li- 
ceoua  on  the  surface,  and  from  their  toughness 
and  pliancy  they  are  much  used  in  the  regions 
where    they   grow    for   matting,    strong   ropes, 

flaited  work,  etc.  Bridges  over  streams  are 
requently  made  oi  ropes  formed  by  twistuig  up 
their  stems,  and  the  native  vessels  of  the 
Eastern  seas  often  carry  cables  of  the  ssdm 
land. 

CALAMUS,  a  popular  name  for  the  sweet 
Ba^  (AcOTUi  catantui),  of  the  family  Aratea. 
This  plant  is  found  in  wet  land  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Florida,  and  westward  to  Kansas  and 
Minnesota.  The  pungent,  bitterish,  acrid  root 
stocks  have  been  used  in  medicine,  especially 
among  the  colored  people  of  the  southern 
United  States.  It  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  an 
ornamental  plant  in  wet  places,  and  is  attractive 
for  its  erect,  sword-shaped  leaves,  which  in  one 
variety  are  striped  with  yellow. 

CALAHY,  Edmund,  Puritan  clergyman :  b. 
London,  England,  February  1600;  d.  there,  29 
Oct.  1666.  He  studied  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge (1616-19),  where  he  attached  himself 
to  the  Calvinistic  party,  and  in  1639  was  chosen 
minister  of  Saint  Mary's,  Aldennanbury,  Lon- 
don. He  entered  warmly  into  the  controversies 
of  the  time,  and  became  noted  as  a  leading  man 
on  the  side  of  the  Presbyterians.  He  had  a 
principal  share  in  the  composition  of  'Smectym- 
nuus,'  a  work  intended  aa  a  reply  to  BiiJiop 
Hall's  'Divine  Right  of  Episcopacy'  (London 
1640),  and  one  of  the  moat  able  and  popular 

Klemics  of  the  day.  Like  the  mass  of  the 
esl^erian  clergy,  he  was  monarchical  and 
not  republican  in  nis  political  opinions.  He  dis- 
approved, therefore,  of  the  execution  of 
Qurles,  and  of  Cromwell's  protectorate,  and 
did  not  hesitate  to  avow  his  attachment  to  the 
Royalist  cause.  He  was  one  of  the  deputies 
appointed  to  meet  Charles  II  in  Holland  and 
congratulate  him  on  bis  restoration.  He  took 
part  in  the  Savoy  Conference  (1661)  ;  but  was  , 
ejected  from  his  living  by  the  Unifonnitv  Act' 
(1662)  ;  for  venturing  to  preach  in  his  uiurch 
(December  1662)  he  was  cast  into  prison,  but 
released  by  Charles  11. 

C  ALA  MY,  Edmund,  English  clergymaiL 
grandson  of  the  preceding:  b.  London,  5  April 
1671 ;  d.  there,  3  June  1732.  He  was  educated 
antong  the  Dissenters  and  in  Holland!,  and  later 
became  pastor  of  a  congregation  in  Westminster 
and  published  an  abri<^nient  of  Bajiter's  'His* 
tory  of  His  Life  and  Times,'  with  a  continua- 
tion; 'Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures';  'Life  of 
Increase  Mather';  'Historical  Account  of  My 
Own  Life'  {London  1830)  ;  and  also  carried  on 
through  the  press  controversies  with  Bishop 
Hoadly  and  others.  He  is  well  known  for  his 
'Nonconformists'  Memorial'  (1778)  which  is 
the  best  historical  source  concerning  the  2,0(X) 
ministers  ejected  from  the  Church  of  England 
by  the  Act  of  Conformity.  Consult  Palmer, 
'Abridgment  of  Nonconformists'  Uemoiial' 
(London  1802-03). 

CALANCHA,  ka-»n'cha,  Antonio  de  la, 
Peruvian  chronicler:  b.  Chuguisaca  1584;  d. 
Lima,  1  March  1654.  He  belonged  to  the 
Augustinian  order,  and  was  rector  of  the  Col- 
lege of  San  Ildcfonso  in  Lima.  Afterward  h« 
traveled  extensively  through  Peru.  He  wrote 
'Cr6nica  moraliaas  del  Orden  de  S.  Agcstin 


bi  Peru,'  first  printed  at  Barcekma  hi  1638  in 
folio,  which  is  an  important  source  for  early 
Peruvian  history.  It  was  continued  in  a  second 
volume,  never  con^leMd,  however,  by  Fray 
Di^o  de  Cordova  (Lima  1^3).  The  first 
vcrfiime  was  tntnslMed  into  French  es  'Hiatoire 
de  I'^glise  du  Perou  aux  antipodes^  (Toul- 
ouse 1653),  and  Bnilius'  'Historia  Peruana' 
(Antwerp  1651)  is  called  a  translation. 
The  original  -work  appeared  at  Barcelona 
1639,  tmder  the  title  'Cronica  moralizada 
de!  orden  de  San-Augustin  en  el  Peri. ' 
The  Spanish  bibliographer  Antonio  credits 
Calaacha  with  another  work,  <Cr6nica  de  los 
lantuarios  de  Nuestra  SeHora  de  Copacabana 
y  del  Prado'  (Uma  1653). 

CALANUS,  Indian  philosopher,  much  es- 
teemed by  Alexander  the  Great.  At  die  a^.of 
73,  323  RC,  being  seized  with  illness  at  Per- 
sepolls,  he  causeaa  funeral  pile  to  be  erected, 
which  he  ascended  with  a  composed  counte- 
nance, and  expired  in  the  flames,  saying,  that 
having  lost  his  health  and  seen  Alexander,  life 
had  no  toQTH  charms  fDr  tiinv 

CALAS,  ki-las,  or  k&-l4,  Jun,  French 
judicial  martyr:  b.  Languedoc  1W8;  d.  Tou- 
louse. 9  March  1762.  Brou^t  up  in  the  Protes- 
tant religion,  he  had  established  himself  as  a 
merchant  in  Toubuse.  He  had  four  sons  and 
two  dau^tcrs  whom  he  educated  himself,  and 
was  held  in  general  estecsn,  when  he  was  sud- 
denhi  accused  of  the  crime  of  murderina  one 
of  his  sons.  In  1761  his  eldest  son.  Marc 
Antonine,  a  ^ung  man  of  irregular  habits  and 
a  gloomy  disposition,  was  found  stiaiwled  in 
his  father's  house.  It  was  reported  t^t  the 
tmfortunate  youth  had  been  put  to  deedi  by  his 
fadier  because  he  wished  to  becxxne  a  Catfaolic 
Jean  Calas  and  his  whole  family  were  arrested, 
and  a  prosecudon  instituted  against  him,  in 
support  of  which  numerous  witnesses  came 
iorward.  The  Parliament  of  Toulouse  con- 
demned him,  by  eight  voices  against  five,  to  be 
tortured  and  then  broken  on  the  wheel ;  and  on 
9  March  1762,  the  sentence  was  executed-  He 
suffered  the  torture  with  fiimness,  and  pro- 
tested his  innocence  to  the  last.  The  youngest 
son  was  banished  forever,  but  die  motbw  and 
servant  were  acquitted.  The  family  of  the 
unhappy  man  retired  to  Geneva.  Voltaire,  then 
at  Femey,  became  acquainted  with  them,  and 
for  three  years  exerted  himself  to  defend  the 
memory  of  Calas,  and  to  direct  attention  to 
the  detects  of  the  criminal  law  which  affected 
profoundly  the  legal  attitude  toward  the 
French  Protestants.  The  widow  and  children 
of  Calas  also  solicited  a  revision  of  the  trial. 
Fifty  judges  once  more  examined  the  circum- 
stances, and  declared  Calas  altogether  innocent, 
9  March  1765.  The  King  by  his  Uherality 
son^t  to  recompense  tbe  family  for  their  un- 
deserved losses,  and  people  of  the  first  rank 
emnlated  each  other  in  endeavorina  to  relieve 
them.  C^sult  Coquerel,  'Jean  Galas  et  sa 
Famille>  (Paris  1858);  'Causes  Cilibres'  (Vol. 
IV,  1875)  ;  Allier,  Raoul,  'Voltaire  et  Cakw» 
(Paris  1^) ;  MasmoDteil,  'La  legislation  crim- 
inelle  dans  I'eeuvre  de  Voltaire'  (Paris  1901)  ; 
Flllentyre,  'Life  of  Voltaire'  (2  vols.,  London 
1903;  New  York  1<)0S). 

CALASIAO,  ka-la-se-a'o,  Philippines,  a 
town  of  the  province  of  Pangasinan,  situated 
in  the  we^m  part  of  tbe  island  of  Lmxcsi,  a 


.Google 


OAXATAPUa — CALBAVOO 


ua- 


few  miks  from  tlie  coast  of  tbe  Golf  of 
Ungayen,  on  the  main  highway  to  Manila. 
Pop.  (1903)  16,539. 

CALATAFIHI,  ka-U-ta-fe'me,  Sicily,  town 
in  the  western  part  of  the  island,  in  the  district 
of  Trapani,  5/  miles  southwest  of  Palermo. 
It  is  situated  in  a  mountainous  district,  near 
the  river  Gaggera,  is  badly  huilt,  and  has  a 
ruinous  castle  on  iht  summit  of  a  neighboring 
hill,  now  used  as  a  prison.  The  environs 
are  well  cultivated  and  extremely  fertile.  A 
ruined  Sarnceiiic  castle  stands  above  the  town. 
In  1S60  a  battle  took  place  here  between  Gari- 
baldi's forces  and  Landi's  Neapolitan  troops, 
in  which  the  iatter  were  defeated.  Pop.  of 
commune  (1910)  10,486. 

CALATAGIRONB,  iaM'ta-je-r6'nS,  or 
CALTAGIRONB  (ancient  CLujlta  Hiebonis), 
Sicily,  town  in  the  province  of,  and  .36  miles 
southwest  of,  Catania  direct.  It  stands  on 
two  hills,  2,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  consists 
generally  of  spacious,  clean  and  well-^uih 
streets.  There  is  a  fine  promenade  and  market- 
place, beside  which  stands  the  old  castle.  It  is 
the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  several  churches 
and  a  college.  Its  iiihabitantg  are  highly  skilled 
in  the  arts.  It  has  a  considerable  commerce, 
and  is  celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  terra- 
cotta ware.  It  was  fortified  by  the  Saracens, 
and  wrested  from  them  by  the  Genoese.  Roger 
Guiscard  gave  it  important  privileges.  There 
are  interesting  Greek,  Roman  and  Moorish 
remains.    Pop.   (1910)  43,169. 

CALATAYUD,  k*-Ia-ta-yood',  Spain,  the 
second  city  of  Aragon,  48  miles  southwest  of 
Saragossa.  It  stands  on  the  Jalon,  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Jiloca,  at  the  foot  of  two 
rocky  heights  crowned  with  the  ruins  of 
Moorish  forts.  TTie  upper  or  Moorish  town 
is  a  very  wretched  place;  but  the  modem  town 
below  is  well  built  and  contains  many  remark- 
able edifices,  among  which  the  most  conspicu- 
ous are  the  church  of  Santa  Maria,  once  a 
mosque,  and  surmounted  by  an  octagonal 
tower;  and  that  of  San  Sepulcro,  a  Doric 
structure  containing  many  curious  relics.  Ked 
wines  are  f>roducea  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
about  10  miles  from  the  town  there  are  sul- 
phur baths,  "nie  poet  Martial  was  bom  at 
Bilbilis,  a  former  town  on  the  site  of  the 
present  Bambola,  two  miles  east  of  Calatayud. 
Pop.  (1911)  11,594. 

CALATRAVA,  ki-la-tra'v^,  Order  ofj  a 
Spanish  order  of  chivalry,  originated  dunng 
the  Moorish  wars.  Calatrava  la  Vieja,  taken 
from  the  Moors  in  the  12th  centtiry  by  the  king 
of  Castile,  was  committed  to  the  Templars, 
who  guarded  it  till  1158.  At  this  time,  a  power- 
ful army  advancing  to  besiege  it.  they  de^aired 
of  being  able  to  defend  it,  and  restored  it  to 
.  the  king,  who  offered  it  in  absolute  property 
to  whosoever  would  defend  it.  Two  monks  of 
the  abbey  of  Gteaux  (Cistercians),  in  France, 
presented  themselves  and  were  accepted.  They 
preached  a  crusade,  and  offered  a  pardon  of 
sins,  and  being  supplied  with  money  and  arms, 
were  able  to  repel  the  invaders.  Thereupon, 
having  received  the  investiture  of  the  town  and 
other  donations,  they  instituted  the  same  year 
(1158)  an  order  into  which  all  the  nobtlity 
of  Castile  and  Navarre  were  emulous  to  enter. 
In  1164  the  chevaliers  of  this  order,  by  sanc- 
tion of  Pope  Alexander  III,  separated  thcm- 


seWes  from  the  monks,  and  flie  order  bectimc 
purely  military.  They  still  followed  the  rule 
of  the  Cistercians,  until  Paul  III  dispensed 
them  from  'the  vow  of  chastity.  The  almost 
uniform  success  of  the  Knights  of  Calatrava 
against  the  Moors  save  rise  to  rashness,  and  in 
L197  they  were  defeated  and  nearly  exter- 
minated, the  survivors  transferring  the  seat  to 
the  castle  of  Salvatierra.  In  15^  the  grand- 
mastership  was  transferred  to  the  Crown  by 
a  papal  bull,  the  knights  being  permitted  to 
marry  once  by  way  of  compensation  for  their 
loss  of  independence.  Since  1808  the  body 
has  been  continued  as  an  order  of  merit. 


CALATRAVA  LA  VIEJA.  ve-a'h^,  a 
mitted  city  of  Spain,  situated  on  the  Guadiana, 
about  12  miles  nortneast  of  Ciudad  Real.  It 
was  captured  by  Alfonso  VIII  of  Castile,  who 
gave  it  to  the  Templars.  They  in  turn,  re- 
stored it  to  Sancho  III  (1157).  Its  defense 
against  the  Moors,  undertaken  by  Raymond, 
abbot  of  Fitero,  and  Diego  Velasquez  in  1158^ 
after  it  had  been  abandoned  by  the  Templari 
is  famous  on  account  of  its  having  originated 
the  Order  of  Calatrava  (q.v.)  in  1158. 

CALAVERAS  GROVE,  the  most  norths 
em  of  the  California  groves  of  big  trees,  con- 
taining about  100  of  these  trees.  The  tallest 
one  standing  is  known  as  the  "Keystone  State,* 
and  is  325  feet  in  height  and  45  feet  in  girth; 
the  'Mother  of  the  Forest*  is  another  tree  of 
notable  size,  being  315  feet  high  and  61  feet 
in  circumference.  The  grove  is  a  State 
reservation. 

CALAVERAS  SKULL,  a  widely  disputed 
fossil  skull,  now  preserved  in  the  Peabody 
Museum,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  reported  by  Prof. 
J.  D.  Whitney  to  have  been  found  in  1886  in 
the  undisturbed  auriferous  gravels  of  Cala- 
veras County,  Cal.  Whitn^  assigned  the  skull 
to  late  Tertiary  (Pliocene)  times.  The  skull 
corresponds  in  type  with  those  of  modem  In- 
dian inhabitants  of  the  district.  Consult 
Hrdlit!ka,  'Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
Bulletin  33'    (Washington,  D.  C,  1907). 

CALAVERITB,  a  native  gold  telluride; 
AuTei,  with  the  average  composition :  tellu- 
57.4  per  cent;  gold,  39.5  per  cent;_  silver. 


ver)  telluride  from  Boulder  County,  Colo.  It 
is  uie  commonest  of  the  gold  ores  of  Cripple 
Creek  and  occurs  there  m  beautiful  tricfinic 
crystals.  It  is  found  also  in  great  abundance 
at  Kalgoorlie,  West  Australia.  Calaverite  oc- 
curs  with  petzite  at  the  Stanislaus  mine,  in 
Calaveras  (bounty,  Cal,  and  with  sylvanite  at 
the  Red  Cloud  mine  in  Boulder  County.  Colo. 
It  is  often  confused  with  "sylvanite"  Dy  the 
miners,  but  while  it  is  practically  of  the  same 
qualitative  composirion  as  sylvanite,  it  carries 
a  proportion  of^gold  25  to  40  per  cent  greater, 
and  only  about  one-third  as  much  silver.  It 
has  a  brilliant  metallic  lustre,  pale  bronie-yel- 
low  color,  a  hardness  of  2.5  and  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  9. 

CALBAYOQ,  kiil-ba'yog,  Philippines,  town 
of  Samar  province  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cal- 
bayog  River  on  the  west  coast,  30  miles  north- 
west of  Cathalogan.  Hemp,  the  chief  product, 
copra  and  fine  timber  are  shipped  to  Manila. 

Pop.  i6,ooa 


d=y  Google 


CALC-TUFA — CALCIXATXOH 


CALC-TUFA,  a  varie^  of  calcite  essentially 
travertine.  It  is  formed  in  streams  or  springs 
by  deposits  of  calcium  carbonate  in  a  cellular 
{orm.  It  often  contains  fosail  twigs,  moss, 
leaves,  seeds,  etc. 

CALCAIRB  GKOSSIBR,  kil-cir  gr«-M-&, 
a  coarse  limestone  of  the  Middle  Eocene  Ter- 
tiary series  of  the  Paris  and  London  basins. 
Its  limestone  strata  fumiah  building  material 
for  the  dt^  of  Paris.  The  fossils  of  the  Cal- 
caire  Grosser  are  remaiicable  for  number,  and 
for  the  variety  of  forms,  some  500  species  in 
all  being  represented,  including  water  shells  as 
well  as  marine  shells  and  rising  up  to  the  re- 
mains of  the  manunalis- 

CALCAR,  or  KALKAR,  Jan  Stephamu 


___  _tudied  so  thoroughly  the  style  of  Titian, 
thai  their  pictures  cannot  always  be  distin- 
guished. Later  he  imitated  the  style  of  Ra- 
fael with  equal  success.  The  'Mater  Dolorosa,' 
in  the  Boisseree  collection  in  Stuttgart,  a  perfect 
work  of  art,  is  by  him.  Another  smaU  picture 
of  his,  the  'Infant  Christ  with  the  Shepherds,* 
was  a  favorite  with  Rubens.  In  this  piece  the 
li^t  is  represented  as  proceeding  from  the 
child.  He  designed  almost  all  the  portraits  in 
Vasari's  Lives,  and  the  figures  for  the  ana- 
tomical work  of  Vesaliut. 

CALCAREOUS,  a  term  amlied  to  sub- 
stances partaking  of  the  nature  Ot  time  or  con- 
taining quantities  of  lime.  Thus,  we  speak  of 
calcareous  waters,  calcareous  rocks,  calcareous 
soils.     Calcareous  spar  is  calcite  (q.v.). 

CALCAREOUS  TUFA.    See  Calc-tufa. 

CALCASIEU,  kal'ka-shu,  a  nver  of  Louis- 
iana, rising  in  the  western  part  of  the  State. 
It  flows  through  the  parish  of  the  same  name, 
and  after  a  southerly  course  of  about  200  miles 
enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  throu^  Lake  Cal- 
casieu. It  drains  a  large  area  m  southwest 
Louisiana,  and  is  navigable  by  small  boats  for 
about  130  miles. 

CALCEOLARIA  (Latin,  calceolui,  a  little 
sho^  alluding  to  the  form  of  the  corolla),  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Scropkulariacef, 
mostly  natives  of  South  America,  especiallv  of 
Chile  and   Peru.     They  are  characterized  bv 


iippe 


I  lips,  concave  or  shaped  like  a  hood,  the 
■'    ■'  der  one  greatly 

s  greenhouse  or 
outdoor  plants.  There  are  about  200  species, 
of  which  about  20  are  in  cultivation,  and  .their 
varieties  are  very  numerous.  The  flowers  of 
the  indigenous  species  are  white,  yellow  and 
purple-  They  are  greatly  excelled  in  beauty  by 
the  cultivated  varieties,  which  acquire  numerous 
tints  in  these  colors,  and  have  besides  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  corolla,  the  part  which  bear* 
the  strictest  resemblance  to  a  shoe,  large  spots, 
or  innumerable  small  points  of  a  different  color, 
which  have  a  very  graceful  effect  They  grow 
best  in  a  rich,  open,  sandy  garden  mold,  and 
are  pro^gated  by  seeds  or  cuttings,  the  herba- 
ceous kinds  mostly  by  the  former  method. 

CALCHAQUl,  Icjl-chaTte.  a  South  Amer- 
ican tribe  formerly  jiving  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  Argentina.  They  were  conquered  by 
the  Incas  of  the  IStb  centuiy.  and  the  ruins  of 
their  buildings  and  tombs  indicate  quite  an  ad- 


vanced stagb  of  dvilizxtion.  Tkey  cxteaded  over 
considerable  area  of  territory  now  belonging  to 
Argentina.  They  lived  in  villages,  as  the  sur- 
viving stone  indosures,  mounds,  cemeteries 
and  art  products  show.  They  were  visited  by 
the  jesmt  missionaries,  but  strongly  opposed 
the  inroads  of  the  Spaniards.  The  Inbe  >s  now 
extinct  and  all  record  of  their  language  is  lost. 
Consult  Ch^nberlain,  A.  F.,  in  the  American 
Anthropologist  (N.  S.  VoL  XIV,  pp.  S03-07, 
1912). 

CALCHAS,  kU'Ub,  a  legendaij  priest  and 
proi^et  of  the  Greeks  at  the  time  of  ate  Trojan 
War  who  foretold  that  Troy  would  not  be  sub- 
dued 1^  them  till  the  10th  year  of  the  siege. 
At  his  advice,  Iphigenia  was  sacrificed  at  Anlis 
to  appeate  Artemis.  He  himself  accompanied 
the  Greek  army  to  Troy.  During  the  siegtL 
the  Greeks  were  attacked  by  a  plague,  ana 
Calchas  declared  that  it  was  the  effect  of 
Apollo's  an^er,  because  they  had  deprived  his 
pnest  of  his  daughter  Chryseis,  whom  Aga- 
memnon had  selected  as  ais  mistress.  He 
counseled  the  Greeks  to  appease  Apollo  by  re- 
storing the  damsel;  and  it  was  by  his  advice 
that  ttiey  afterward  built  the  wooden  horse. 
There  are  various  legends  relating  to  his  death. 
The  most  common  is  that  he  died  of  grief 
caused  by  hb  failure  in  a  contest  of  proj^ecy 
with  Mopsus  at  Colophon.  At  Apulia,  where 
he  bad  a  temple  and  ao  oracle,  bis  grave  is 
showa 

CALCIFEROUS,  a  geolo^  term  applied 
to  the  sandy  limestones  found  in  Pennsylvania, 
extending  across  New  Jersey  and  New  York 
to  Canada,  and  known  as  the  Beekmantown 
beds.  The  fotmation  is  probably  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  magnesium  limestones  of  Iowa  and 
Missouri  and  oelon^  to  the  Canadian  epoch 
of  the  Lower  Ordovidan.    See  Oroovicum. 

CALCIMINE,  a  mixture  of  zinc-white, 
glue,  water  and  pi^ents,  used  to  finish  the 
plaster  walls  of  buildings.  In  cheaper  forms, 
lithopone  or  Paris  white  is  substituted  for 
zinc-white.  A  superior  dampnroof  form  uses 
casein  instead  of  glue.     See  WBrrEWASH. 

CALCINATION,  a  term  now  used  as 
practically  equivalent  to  roasting.  It  b  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  coJ^,  meaning  quicklime, 
and  received  its  present  signification  by  exten- 
sion from  its  original  meaoin;;  of  obtaining 
lime  from  limestone  by  the  application  of  great 
heat  The  process  contemplates  a  very  nij^ 
degree  of  heat,  but  lower  than  the  fusing  pomt 
of  the  substance  treated  By  caldnation  many 
substances  may  be  reduced  to  a  friable  con- 
dition, and  freed  from  constituents  capable  of 
passing  off  in  the  form  of  gas  or  vapor.  Thus 
various  salts  may  be  deprived  of  water  of 
ciysCalUzatioiL  and  rendered  amorphous  in  thb 
way;  the  hyorated  carbonate  of  magnesium  is 
reduced  to  the  pure  oxide,  known  as  caldned 
magnesia ;  limestone  is  converted  into  quick- 
lime, etc.  Caldnation  is  usually  the  first 
process  in  the  extraction  of  melals  from  their 
ores.  The  oxides  of  metals  produced  by  thb 
process  were  formerly  known  as  caixes,  but 
this  term  is  now  disused.  It  depends  on  cir- 
cumstances which  oxide  is  obtained,  if  the 
metal,  like  lead,  can  .{onn_more  than  one. 
The  weight  of  the  total  calx  is  equal  of  course 
to  that  of  the  metal  and  the  ox}%en  with  which 


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CALCEOLARIA  (FISHERMAN'S  BASKET) 


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1  Cidcile  CcTstals,  Bigriu  Mine,  Baitanil  2  CiUdte  "  Blid'i  H«t."  Rcicbelidoil,  Hcise,  G«i 


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CAIXITB— CALCtUU 


169 


it  has  combined,  but  the  calx  itself  is  specifical); 
l^ter  than  the  metal.  Platinum^  gold,  silver 
and  some  other  metals  are  not  affected  In  this 
vray,  and  on  this  account  they  are  called  the 
nobte  metals.     Sec  Coububtion. 

CALCITE,  -sit,  also  known  as  calc-spar,  a 
native  carbonate  of  calcium,  crystallizing  in 
the  rhombohedral  system,  and  exhibiting  over 
300  dblinct  crystals  of  general  forms  or  'hab- 
its." The  mineral  also  occurs  massive,  fibrous, 
granular,  lamellar,  compact,  earthy,  stalactitic, 
nodular.  In  other  forms  it^  exhibits  minute 
percentages  of  maenesiuni,  iron,  manganese, 
line  ana  lead,  replacing  equivalents  of  (al- 
ciimi.  'Its  typical  ciystaJs  exhibit  a  very  per- 
fect cleavage,  commonly  splitting  up,  from  a 
blow,  into  many  small  rhombohedrona.  Pure 
crystals  have  the  composition  carbon  dioxide 
44  per  cent,  lime  56  per  cent.  They  show  a 
vitreous  or  earthy  lustre  and  have  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  2.72,  and  a  hardness  of  about 
3,  though  the  latter  varies  soncwhat  with  the 
face  of  the  crystal.  Calcite  may  be  transparent, 
translucent  or  opaque,  and  in  color  may  vary 
from  while,  or  colorless,  to  black,  also  brown, 
violet,  blue,  green,  yellow  and  red.  It  ex- 
hibits the  phenomenon  of  double  refraction 
powerfully,  and  transparent  ciystals  of  it 
(called  'Iceland  spar*  because  first  obtained 
from  Iceland^  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
polarizing  pnsms.  (See  Ljght).  Limestone, 
marble  and  chalk  are  commonly  classed  as 
massive  or  crypt ocry stall ine  varieties  of  calcite. 
Oolite  (q.v.)  is  a  granular  limestone  composed 
of  innumerable  minute  rounded  concretions. 
Pisolite  is  a  similar  variety  in  wiiich  the 
spheres  are  as  large  as  peas.  The  stalactites 
and  stalagmites  of  many  caves  (q.v.)  are  cal- 
cite.' Mexican  onyx,  travertine  and  calc-tnfa 
(q.v.)  are  a  few  of  the  many  other  varieties 
of  calcite.  Varieties  containing  other  metallic 
carbonates  are  known  as  baricalcite,  strontiano- 
calcite,  ferrocalcite,  etc.  Calcite  effervesces 
briskly  even  in  cold  add.  It  occurs  abundantly 
all  over  the  world;  especially  choice  specimens 
of  crystals  come  from  Germany,  England, 
Guanajuato,  Mexico;  Rossie,  N.  Y, ;  Joplin, 
Uo,,  and  Lake  Superior.  Examples  of  the 
stalactite  forms  are  found  in  caves  at  Scho- 
harie, N.  Y,  and  at  Wier's-  Cxve  in  Virginia. 
The  various  rock  forms  of  calcite  are  burned 
to  make  lime,  and  also  in  mixture  with  silica 
and  alumina  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland 
cemenL     See  Calcium;  Cement. 

CALCITE  GSOUP,  in  mineralogy,  an  im- 
portant series  of  rhombohedral  carbonates  of 
the  bivalent  metals  —  calcium,  magnesiuni, 
iron,  manganese,  zinc  and  cobalt.  The  series 
includes   calcite,    CaCOi:    dolomite.    (Ca,    Mg) 


ite,  FeCOt;  rhodochrosile,  MnCOi;  smithsonite, 
ZnCO.;   and  sphsrocobaltite,   CoCOi 

CALCIUM,  a  metallic  element  first  obtained 
in  the  free  stale  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in 
1808l  Its  compounds  are  cxceedin^y  abundant 
and  are  widely  distributed.  Calcium  carbonate, 
CaCCV  is  familiar  in  its  various  forms  of  mar- 
ble, chalk,  limestone  and  calcite.  The  stdphate, 
CaS(X  is  also  very  common,  and  is  perhaps  best 


formula  CaSO.  +  2H.O.  Cafcium  phosiAate 
also  occurs  in  nature  in  considerable  quantities 
both  in  the  form  of  fossiliied  bones  and  as  a 
constituent  of  ^tatite  (q.v.)  and  its  various 
modifications. 

Uelallic  calcium  may  be  obtained  by  the 
electrolysis  of  the  fused  chloride  (which  melts 
at  a  red  heat),  or  by  decomposing  the  iodide 
with  metallic  sodium.  It  is  a  white  metal  with 
a  lialit  yellow  hue,  has  a  hardness  about  equal 
to  that  of  gold  and  is  very  malleable  and  duc- 
tile. Its  denBiQr  is  1.54fi  and  its  melting  i>oint 
about  1455°  F.  Its  chemjcaJ  s^bol  is.Ca^  its 
specific  gravity  is  about  1.58  and  its  atomic  weight 
is  40X)_  (O^-ie).  Perfectly  dry  air  does  not 
affect  it  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  in  moist 
air  it  becomes  rapidly  coated  with  die  hydrate 
CaCOHJi  When  strongly  heated  in  air  it 
burns  with  a  yellow  Same,  taking  up  oxygen  to 
form  the  oxide  CaO.  It  decomposes  water 
rabidly,  passing  into  the  form  of  the  hydrate 
with  evolution  of  hydrogen.  It  melts  at  a  red 
heat,  has  a  specific  beat  of  about  0.169  and  has 
an  electrical  resistance  only  about  one-twelfth 
of  that  of  mercury. 

In  its  chemical  relations  calcium  is  a  dyad. 
It  combines  with  altnost  every  known  acid,  and 
yields  a  vast  number  of  compounds,  many  of 
which  are  of  great  industrial  value.  Of  these 
the  best  known  are  the  carbonate,  oxide,  hy- 
drate, chloride,  sulphate,  phosphate,  fluoride, 
carbide  and  bisulphide,  and  the  indefinite  mix- 
ture of  the  chloride  and  hypochlorite  known  as 
bleaching-iiowder  (q.v.). 
^  The  carbonate  occurs  native  in  large  quan- 
tities, as  already  noted.  It  is  also  commonly 
present  in  ground  water  as  obtained  from  wells, 
and  springs.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  pure 
water,  but  dissolves  to  a  considerable  extent 
when  the  water  contains  free  carbon  dioxide 
in  solution.  It  is  this  compound  that  gives  to 
water  what  is  known  as  'temporary  hardness.* 
Upon  boiling,  the  free  carbon  dioxide  held  in 
solution  is  exjtelled,  and  the  lime  carbonate  is 
therefore  precipitated  also,  so  that  the  water 
loses  that  part  of  its  hardness  which  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  the  carbonate.  This  effect  is 
well  illustrated,  in  regions  where  the  soil  is  rich 
in  limestone,  by  the  crust  of  lime  carbonate 
that  is  deposited  upon  the  interior  of  household 
ketdes  that  are  used  for  heating  water.  Cal- 
cium carbonate  also  ^ves  rise,  in  steam  boilers, 
to  troublesome  deposits  that  keep  the  water  out 
of  contact  with  the  metal  plates,  whidi,  in  such 
cases,  become  overheated  and  seriously  impaired 
in  consequence.  To  prevent  this  action  ciiein- 
isis  often  recommend  (he  addition  to  the  water 
in  the  boiler  of  a  certain  amount  of  atmnonium 
chloride  (sal  ammoniac).  This  compound  com- 
bines with  the  lime  carbonate  to  form  caldnm 
chloride,  which  is  exceedingly  soluble,  and 
ammonium  carbonate,  which  ta  volatile,  and 
therefore  passes  away  with  the  steam.  Beautiful 
as  this  process  is  in  theory,  it  cannot  be  recom- 
mended for  adoption  in  practice,  because  if  the 
sal  ammoniac  is  present  in  any  excess  it  induces 
rapid  corrosion  of  the  boiler  plates. 

When  calcium  carbonate  (more  familiarly 
known  as  carbonate  of  lime)  is  strongly  heated 
in  a  current  of  air,  it  loses  its  carbon  dioxide 
and  becomes  converted  into  a  substance  known 
to  the  chemist  as  caldum  oxide  CaO,  and  in  the 
arts  as  qnidclime,  burnt  lime  or  simply  lime; 
Pure  caldum  oxide  (or  lime)  is  a  white,  tmor- 


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160  CAU 

fiums  tnbstance,  infusible,  g^cmuu;  with  & 
dazzling  white  light  when  strongly;  heated, 
possessing  caustic  prcverties  and  actini;  as  a 
powerful  chemical  base.  When  treated  with 
about  one-third  of  its  own  weight  of  wUer,  litne 
passes  into  the  form  of  the  hydrate  or  hydrox- 
ide, Ca(OH).,  with  the  evolution  of  much  heat 
The  process  of  convertirg  it  into  the  hydrate  by 
&e  addilion  of  water  is  called  slaidng,  and  the 
resulting  hydrate  is  known  in  the  arts  as  slaked 
lime.  Mortar  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  slaked 
lime  and  sand,  the  silica  (or  sand)  slowly  com- 
bining with  the  lime  to  form  a  silicate  after  the 
mortar  has  been  a^qilicd.  Slaked  lime,  or  cal- 
cium hydrate,.is  somewhat  soluble  in  water,  its 
solution  being  known  as  lime  water. 

Calcium  chloride  is  formed  when  calcium 
carbonate  is  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid.  It 
b  exceedingly  soluble,  but  upon  evaporation  of 
its  solution  it  sepatntes  in  white,  needle-like 
crystals  having  the  formula  CaCli  +  6HiO. 
When  these  are  heated  to  about  400°  F.  they 
lose  two-thirds  of  thdr  water  of  crystallization 
and  become  converted  into  CaCU  ■+■  2HiO,  in 
which  form  the  chloride  is  commonly  used. 
Thus  prepared,  calcium  chloride  is  a  white, 
porous  solid,  which  absorbs  moisture  with  great 
avidity,  and  hence  is  exceedingly  valuable  to 
the  cnemist  and  physicist  for  diyiuR  air  and 
other  gaseous  bodies.  It  forms  crystalline  com- 
pounds with  ethyl  and  methyl  alcohols,  which 
are  again  resolved,  by  the  addition  of  water, 
into  calcium  chloride  and  the  free  alcohdl.  On 
account  of  this  property  it  has  been  used  for 
the  preparation  of  these  alcohols  in  the  pure 
state.    See  also  Caixiuk  Chlokide. 

Calcium  hyperchlorite  is  a  bleaching  agent 
which  is  more  stable  than  ordinary  bleaching 
powder  ([chloride  of  lime),  yielding  a  clear 
solution  in  water  and  containing  from  80  to 
90  per  cent  of  available  chlorine.  (See  Bleach- 
ing). It  is  made  by  pas^ng  chlorine  gas  into 
millc  of  lime  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding 
90°  F.,  and  then  concentrating  the  solution  to 
crystallization.  Besides  its  bleaching  properties 
it  is  used  in  very  large  quantities  for  the  purifi- 
cation of  water  in  reservoirs  for  drinking 
purposes. 

Calcium  sulphate  occurs  native  in  the  an- 
hydrous form,  as  the  mineral  'anhydrite ;  and, 
combined  with  two  molecules  of  water,  it  also 
occurs  abundantly  as  gypsum.  It  is  soluble  it) 
400  parts  of  water,  and,  like  the  carbonate,  it 
occurs  quite  generally  in  the  waters  of  wells  and 
springs.  Like  the  carbonate,  too,  it  makes  the 
water  in  which  it  occurs  hard ;  but  the  hardness 
due  to  the  presence  of  the  sulphate  cannot  be 
removed  by  boiling,  and  it  is  therefore  said  to 
be  'permanent.*  Caldum  sulphate  produces 
deposits  in  steam  boilers  that  are  far  more 
troublesome  and  injurious  than  those  due  to 
the  carbonate,  since  the  sulphate  is  deposited  in 
B  hard,  compact,  stony  form,  and  can  be  re- 
moved only  with  difficulty. 

When  gypsum  is  moderately  heated  it  loses 
ita  water  of  crystallization  and  becomes  con- 
verted into  a  substance  that  is  commercially 
known  as  plaster  of  Paris,  from  the  fact  that 
the  gypsum  from  which  it  is  prepared  (and 
which  is  also  called  plaster  of  Paris,  though 
rarely)  occurs  abundantly  in  the  Tertiary 
formations  of  the  Paris  basin.  Plaster  of  Paris, 
when  moistened  by  the  addition  of  the  proper 
quantity  of  water,  takes  up  two  molecules  of 


again.  1 


in,  and  ruidly  Sets  into  a  bard,  solid 

expsods  somewhat  at  the  instant 

.    ..  don.     It  is  much  used  in  malring 

and  molds.    These  are  harder  aod  better 

when  the  plaster  is  wetted  with  a  solution  of 
alum  than  they  are  when  pure  water  is  used 
for  this  purpose.  If  eaual  weights  of  the  an- 
hydrous sulphates  of  caldum  and  of  potassium 
are  wetted  with  about  four  parts  of  water,  the 
mixture  sets  like  plaster  of  Paris,  with  the 
formation  of  a  double  sulphate  of  caldum  and 
potassium,  having  the  formula  CaSOt.KiSOi. 
HtO,  The  casts  so  obtained  exhibit  polished 
surfaces,  superior  to  those  obtained  with  pure 

C^dum  fluoride,  CaFi,  occurs  native  as  fluor- 
spar, or  fluorite,  and  is  used  to  some  extent  as 
a  flux  in  metallurgical  operations,  to  which 
drcumstance  it  owes  its  name  (Latin  fiuor,  a 
flux).  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
vases  and  other  omamenlal  articles  and  as  a 
source  of  ^drofluoric  acid,  which  is  set  free 
when  the  fluorifle  is  treated  with  warm  sul- 
phuric add. 

Caldum  carbide,  CaC^  has  long  been  known, 
and  was  prepared  by  W5hler  in  1852  by  melting 
an  alloy  of  zinc  and  calcium  in  the  presence  Ot 
carbon.  Its  commercial  importance,  however, 
dates  from  the  discovery  made  by  Mr.  T.  L. 
WiJlson  in  189^  that  it  can  be  formed  by  the 
direct  combination  of  lime  and  carbon  at  the 
temperature    of    the    electric    furnace.      Large 

Suantities  of  it  are  now  made  by  this  process  at 
fia^ra  Falls,  at  Spray,  N.  C,  and  elsewhere. 
Calcium  carbide  in  its  commercial  form  is  a 
dark-^7^  substance,  often  almost  black.  It  is 
hard,  infusible  and  incombustible,  with  a  specific 

Evity  of  about  2,24.  Its  value  in  the  arts 
.ends  upon  the  fact  that  when  it  is  thrown 
into  water  a  double  decomposition  occurs,  by 
which  acetylene  gas  is  formed,  in  accordance 
with  the  equation  CaC.-f- 2H.0~CJI.+ 
Ca(OH).,    See  Acetylene-  Cahbide. 

Calcium  phosphide,  CaiPi,  has  the  property 
of  decomposing  instantly  when  thrown  into 
water  with  the  evolution  of  phosphnretted  hy- 
drogen Winch  takes  lire  spontaneously.  It  is 
used  in  several  forms  of  marine  si^al  lights 
and  also  in  naval  target  practice  at  night 

Caldum  sulphite,  CaSOi,  is  formed  and  pre- 
dpitated  as  a  white  powder  when  a  solution  of 
a  calcium  salt  is  added  to  a  solution  of  an  alka- 
line sulphite.  The  sulphite  so  formed  requires 
800  parts  of  pure  water  to  effect  Us  solution.  It 
is  far  more  soluble  in  sulphurous  acid,  however, 
and  it  is  believed  that  the  sulpfaurons  add  acts 
upon  it  to  produce  a  new  but  com^ratively 
unstable  compound,  CaSOi.SC^  to  which  hypo- 
thetical substance  the  name  caldum  bisulphite, 
or  bisulphite  of  lime,  has  been  ^ven.  Upon 
exposure  to  air  the  bisulphite  solution  gradually 
deposits  crystals  of  the  monosulphit^  having 
the  composition  CaSO.^H.0,  On  the  commer- 
dal  scale  the  bisulphite  solution  is  prepared  by 

Cising  sulphur  thoxide  gas  (SC)i)  through 
ilk  of  lime*  (that  is,  water  containing  slaked 
lime  in  suqiensian).  The  monosulphite  of  lime 
is  first  fortned,  and  hy  the  continued  action  of 
the  sulphur  dioxide  this  passes  into  solution  in 
the  form  of  the  bisulphite.  The  usefulness  of 
bisulphite  of  lime  in  the  arts  depends  upon  the 
power  of  dissolving  the  gums  and  resins  by 
which  the  fibres  of  wood  are  cemented  together. 
Thus,  in  the  sulphite  process  of  manufacturing 


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161 


wood  pnlp,  chips  of  wood  are  submeiKed  in  a 
solution  of  the  bisulphite  and  heated  for  some 
hours  in  closed  digesters,  by  the  action  of 
Steam,  fiy  this  means  the  chips  are  disin- 
tegrated, the  niininy  connective  materials  being 
entirely  dissolved  away,  and  the  wood  being 
thereby  reduced  to  a  mass  of  separate  fibres, 
which  after  simple  washing  and  Meaching  are 
ready  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  paper. 
See  ELBcntocHBUicAL  Industues. 

CALCIUM  CARBIDE.  A  compound 
crystalline  substance  composed  of  calcium  and 
carbon.  Its  symbol  is  CaCi.  When  pure  it  is 
colorless  and  transparent,  but  as  found  in 
commerce  it  is  of  a  lustrous  reddish-brown  or 
blackish  color,  being  discolored  by  iron.  It  is 
3  substance  of  great  economic  importance, 
owing  to  the  fact  mat  it  decomposes  with  water 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  with  the  formation  of 
acetylene  gu.  See  Calciuu;  Cakbide;  Elec- 
-.  Industries. 


CALCIUM  CHLORIDE.    The  commercial 


calities  in  Uichigan,  Oliio  and  West  Virginia. 
The  output  in  1916  was  26,062  tons  (20,535 
tons  in  1915),  valued  at  $216,729.  In  addition 
to  this  direct  and  recorded  production  there 
were  thousands  of  tons  produced  as  a  by-prod- 
uct in  the  manufacture  of  soda.  The  uses  of 
calcium  chloride  are  constantly  increasing  in 
number.  One  of  the  most  important  is  that  the 
addition  of  3  per  cent  to  Portland  cement  per- 
mits cement  work  to  be  carried  on  during  freez- 
ing weather.  In  the  water-jackets  of  water- 
cooled  automobile  engines  a  20-per  cent  soltrtioti 
of  calcium  chloride  will  remain  liquid  down  to 
a  temperature  of  9  degrees  below  lero.  In  re- 
frigerating apparatus  it  is  much  superior  to 
common  salt  (sodium  chloride),  remaining 
liquid  at  a  much  lower  temperature.  Because 
of  its  aSdaity  for  moisture  it  is  used  to  sprinkle 
roads,  tennis  courts  and  playgriounds,  to  pre- 
vent dust.  It  is  used  also  to  preserve  railroad 
ties  and  fence  posts,  and  other  timber  used 
under  similar  conditions,  and  also  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  important  dye  stuffs.  See  also 
Calciuu. 

CALCIUM  LIGHT,  a  brilliant  light  pro- 
duced by  directing  the  flame  of  an  oxy-hyc 


but  the  first  practical  application  of  the  prin- 
ciple was  made  hy  Capt  Thomas  Drummond 
in  1825,  in  connection  with  the  trigonometrical 
survey  of  Ireland.  The  calcium  Eght  is  con- 
stantly employed  ia  the  production  of  theatrical 
effects  and  for  the  projection  with  a  stereopti- 
con  of  pbotoerapmc  pictures  upon  a  screen. 
-It  is  also  called  Drummond  lif^t,  lime-light  and 
oxy-hydrogen  li^t. 

CALCULATING  MACHINKS.  These 
tnachines  are  classified  according  to  thnr  use, 
as  aritbinetical  or  geometrical ;  the  former 
dealing  with  computations  of  numbers,  the  lat- 
ter with  calculations  of  lengths,  areas  or  con- 
tents. In  the  first  class  the  operations  per- 
formed by  the  machine  may  be  simfd^  addi- 
tion, in  which  case  it  is  called  xn  adding  ma- 
dnne.     Some  of   diese  simple  machines  also 


perform  subtraction.  The  multiidying  ma- 
chines are  far  more  complicated  and  perform 
also  division,  and  the^  can  be  manipulated  so 
as  to  work  problems  m  the  rale  of  three,  and 

In  the  simple  adding  machine  the  number 
is  always  progressiveljr  added,  a  unit  at  a  time. 
Several  different  devices  have  been  employed 
bjr  inventors  to  accomplish  this  result.  The 
simplest  is  a  train  of  wheels  bearing  ttie  nine 
d^ts  and  xero  on  the  face  of  the  wheel  near 
its  outer  edge.  On  the  first  wheel  (at  the  left) 
units  are  counted  up  to  10.  At  the  tenth  count 
the  next  wheel  to  tne  left  is  moved  one  cog  by 
a  stud  which  operates  each  time  the  "units* 
wheel  makes  a  complete  revolution.  The 
'hundreds*  wheel,  next  again  to  the  left,  is  in 
like  manner  turned  one  cog  when  the  "ten^ 
wheel  completes  one  revolution  j  and  so  on. 
The  result  is  read  through  a  "window"  show- 
ii^  the  uppermost  figure  on  each  wheel.  On 
this  prinaple  the  automobile  speedometer  and 
the  trolle}^-car  fare  indicator  are  operated. 
Other  devices  include  a  rocking  sector  of  a 
circle,  operated  by  a  key.  On  tiie  curve  of  the 
sector  are  nine  teeth  engaging  a  counting 
wheel  with  nine  teeth.  When  the  key  marked 
9  is  depressed,  the  entire  sector  moves  in  gear 
with  the  counting  wheel  giving  it  a  complete 
turn.  When  the  key  4  is  depressed  only  four 
of  the  teeth  engage  the  wheel  which  is  thus 
turned  only  four-ninths  of  a  complete  revolu- 
tion. A  second  sector  placed  to  ^e  left  of  the 
first  and  operated  in  the  same  way  would  count 
tens,  and  a  third  sector  still  farther  to  the  left 
would  count  hundreds;  and  so  on  up  to  as 
many  places  as  desired.  Several  variations  of 
this  (^stem  have  l>een  utilized.  The  key  may 
not  move  the  sector  when  it  is  pressed,  it  may 
simply  set  a  stop  or  check,  and  the  movement 
may  be  produced  by  a  levcrj  or  by  electric 
mechaiusm.  This  is  the  device  used  in  the 
cash  register,  and  in  the  Burroughs  Adding 
Machine. 

Another  application  of  the  same  fundamen- 
tal idea  is  the  stepped  cylinder,  in  which  ridges 
running  lengthwise  of  the  cylinder  take  the 
place  of  cogs  on  a  wheel  or  sector.  These 
ridges  are  of  different  lengths,  appearing  as 
steps,  each  succeeding  ridge  being  longer  by 

■..>__     .L     .-,.     _        1-         By  sliding 

he  cylinder, 
1  of  the  dfr- 
.  ig  the  cylin- 

der by  a  crantc,  the  respective  number  of  ridges 
at  that  plane  will  operate  the  counting- wheel. 
This  device  is  utilized  in  the  Arithmometer  and 
other  machines  of  the  Thomas  tyi>e.  A  vari- 
ation of  this  idea  consists  of  a  series  of  ndka 
in  place  of  the  ridges  on  the  cylinder  —  as  in 
the  Mercedes  machine. 

Another  basic  device  is  a  cj;linder  having 
cogs  wliicfa  may  be  withdrawn  into  the  body 
of  the  cylinder  by  adjusting  a  cam-shaped  ring. 
The  teedi  or  cogs  which  remain  projecting  be- 
yond the  surface  of  the  cylinder  are  those 
which  operate  the  counting  wheel.  The  action 
may  be  similar  to  that  of  the  sector,  the  teeth 
operating  in  one  plane,  or  it  may  follow  the 
man  of  the  stepped  cylinder,  and  the  teeth  be 
■stepped*  and  operate  on  a  sliding  carriage. 
This  device  is  used  on  the  Bnmsviga  machine, 
and  the  many  modifications  of  it.  Adding  ma- 
dnne  attadunentt  have  been  devised  for  type- 


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IflS  CALC 

writerSj  whereby  fizures  set  in  a  colninn  by  the 

r writer  are  added  bv  the  attachment  and 
total  may  be  printea  in  at  the  ioot  ot  the 
column. 

The  Abacus,  described  elsewhere  in  this  en- 
cyclopaedia, in  one  of  its  varied  farms  is  widely 
employed  in  India,  China  and  Japan  for  mak- 
ing a  variety  of  mathematical  calculations, 
generally   for  commercial  accounting. 

In  the  geometrical  class  of  calculating  ma- 
chines the  simplest  type  is  a  measurin;;  wheel 
which  is  graduated  on  its  circumference,  and 
is  run  over  the  lines  to  be  measured,  a  record- 
ing mechanism  at  the  axis  showing  the  total 
distance  traversed.  The  slide  rule  is  a  device 
oi  some  little  antiquity,  having  been  invented 
in  the  logarithmic  type  in  1620  by  Gmitcr. 
Many  other  mathematicians  followed  with  vari- 
ations and  adaptations.  The  slide  rules  are 
classified  as  (Ij  those  working  with  movable 
'  indexes,  and  (2)  those  with  adjacent  sliding 
scales.  To  the  first  class  belong  the  circular 
scales  of  Ou^fatred,  Scott,  Nicholson  and  Weiss ; 
and  the  spiral  scales  of  Uilbume,  Adams, 
Nicholson  and  Lilly.  To  the  second  class  be- 
long the  straight  rules  of  Partridge,  Everard, 
Roget  and  Mannheim ;  the  circular  rules  of 
Biler,  Sonne  and  Charpentier;  and  the  cylin- 
drical rule  of  Thachcr.  The  standard  British 
slide  rule  is  of  the  Mannheim  ^pe,  and  carries 
four  scales,  two  on  the  stock  and  two  oa  the 
slide.  The  slide  is  set  for  the  problem  in 
hand,  and  the  result  :s  read  by  a  "runner,'  or 
the  rule  may  be  turned  over  and  read  from 
scales  on  the  back.  The  Integraph  is  a  me- 
chanical  apparatus  for  solving  graphically  dif- 
ferential equations.  Planimeters  are  machines 
which  measure  lines  and  the  areas  of  plane 
surfaces.  There  are  several  types,  but  only 
one,  the  polar  planimeier,  is  in  use  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  There  are  two  separate  fixed  points 
on  this  machine,  one  of  which  is  the  pole. 
From  these  poin^  reach  out  arms  to  a  carriage 
on  which  is  a  tracing  wheel  and  calculating 
mechanism  mounted  on  a  sleeve,  which  slides 
alonp  graduations  on  one  of  the  arms.  A 
modification  of  this  machine  has  a  long  straight 
rail  against  which  a  guide  is  held  while  the 
machine  is  being  operated.  The  Integrator  is 
another  form  of  planimeter  by  whidi  many 
intricate  problems  may  be  solved  mechanically. 
The  name  "Harmonic  Analyser*  is  given  to 
another  machine  of  similar  construction.  The 
'Tide  Predicters*  of  Roberts  and  Lord  Kelvin 
are  among  the  remarkable  mechanisms  de- 
vised to  solve  mathematical  problems.  With 
these  machines  set  with  a  duplication  of  the 
component  forces  operating  upon  the  tide  at 
any  port,  the  mechanism  delivers  in  about  two 
hours  a  tracing  showing  graphically  the  move- 
ments of  the  tide  at  that  port  for  a  year  in 
advance. 

The  Hollerith  electric  tabulating  itiechaniam 
used  by  the  United  States  Census  Bureau  is 
prominent  among  the  remadcable  calculating 
machines  that  have  been  developed  in  America. 
Three  separate  machines  consbtute  the  outfit. 
The  first  one  punches  holes  in  cards,  in  any  one 
or  more  of  240  places;  the  second  tabulates  the 
cards,  while  the  third  sorts  them.  Machine  Nol 
1  has  a  keyboard  of  240  k^s,  this  being  the 
number  of  answers  called  for  in  the  census 
blanks  of  the  bureau.  Thf  operator  takes  a 
return  bhmk,  representing  the  report  of  some 


individtu),  and,  as  fae  reads  it,  strikes  ^  apfirtt- 
priate  keys,  which  results  in  the  punching  of  ,a 
card,  that  becomes  a  mechanical  counterpart  of 
the  original  return.  As  the  average  number  of 
questions  answered  on  each  return  is  but  15,  the 
work  is  not  so  tedious  as  might  be  inferred 
from  the  statement  as  to  240  qiiestioas. 

When  the  cards  of  a  State  have  been 
punched,  they  are  brought  to  the  tabulating  ma- 
chine, which  is  the  real  calculator.  This  ma- 
chine reads  the  holes  of  the  cards  that  are  fed 
into  it,  and  makes  an  electrical  record  of  each 
holt  according  to  its  position,  adding  up  the 
tolais  for  each  nole,  ana  showing  them  on  dials. 
When  the  cards  are  all  fed  through,  the  total 
of  each  of  the  240  replies  is  enumerated-  The 
third  machine  is' a  sorting  box,  which  serves 
to  secure  answers  to  cross -questions.  For  in- 
stance, if  it  is  desired  to  know  how  many  white 
persons  are  amon^  the  total  number  convicted 
of  crime,  the  sorting  box  will  locate  all  cards 
having  the  holes  corresponding  to  these  two 
statements,  and  give  the  total.  In  this  way  a 
great  variety  of  statistics  are  made  available 
which  it  would  be  too  expensive  to  gather  or 
compute  in  any  other  way.  For  other  informa- 
tion on  this  subject,  see  Cash  Registe>  ;  Com- 
puting Scale.  Consult  Cajori,  F,,  'A  History 
of  the  Logarithmic  Slide  Rule'  (London  1909)  : 
Horsburgh,  £,  M,,  'Modem  Instruments  ana 
Methods  of  Calculation'  (London  1914);  Pick- 
worth,  C,  N.,  <The  Slide  Rule:  A  Practical 
ManuaP    (London   1910). 


curring  in  the  cavities  or  tissues  of  the  body, 
usually  as  the  result  of  the  deposition  of  solids 
from  some  natural  secretion.  Calculi  may  be 
of  many  different  sorts,  and  vary  greatly  in 
consistency,  some  being  merely  crumbly  tnasses 
that  can  be  crushed  between  the  fingers,  while 
others  are  extremely  hard,  C^lcuU  occurring 
in  the  lachrymal  or  tear  passages  ate  called 
dacryolitbs,  while  salivary  calculi  are  formed  in 
the  salivary  glands  or  their  ducts,  and  axnyg- 
doliths  in  the  tonsils.  So-called  rhinoliths  are 
concretions  which  sometimes  develop  in  the 
nasal  cavities,  usually  as  the  result  of  the  pres- 
ence of  some  foreign  body.  The  tartar  on  the 
teeth  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  dental  calculus. 
Pneumoliths  occur  in  the  lung  and  broncholiths 
in  the  bronchi;  pancreatic  calculi  are  found  in 
the  pancreas.  The  breast  and  prostate  gland 
also  occasionally  harbor  calcareous  concretions, 
wftich  in  the  former  case  are  called  lacteal  cal- 
culi The  deposits  of  chalk  about  the  joints 
in  gouty  persons  are  sometimes  referred  to  as 
arthritic  calculi.  Intestinal  calculi  or  entero- 
liths mav  give  rise  to  serious  disturbances,  and 
if  tfiey  nappcn  to  occur  in  the  vermiform  ap- 
pendix often  simulate  date  or  other  fruit  stones 
m  appearance.  Before  appendicitis  was  well 
understood  their  true  nature  often  passed  un- 
reco^ized  and  when  they  were  discovered  in 
cases  of  the  disease  the  malat^  waa  mistakenly 
attributed  to  the  swallowing  of  such  foreign 
bodies.  The  two  most  important  types  of  cal- 
culi, however,  are  the  biliary  calculi  or  gall- 
stones, and  urinary  calculi. 

Gall-itonts  are  very  common  and  fortunately 
usually  do  not  give  rise  to  qrmptotns.  It  is 
eatimued  that  in  Europe  10  per  cent  of  the 


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CALCULUS,  THE  INTIHITBSIHAL 


«tttlre  pdpulation  have'  gall-stoaes,  while  in  diil 
country  their  frequency  is  held  to  be  about 
7  per  cent  As  their  formation  is  probably  en- 
couraged b]f  sedentary  life  and  conditions  favor- 

three  times 

They  rarely  give  symptoms  in  younger  persons, 
and  about  half  of  the  patients  are  over  40  yean 
of  age.  Pregnancy  is  said  to  be  of  importance 
in  favorii^  their  formation.  Biliary  calculi 
may  be  extremely  small  or  may  attain  con- 
siderable siie,  stones  as  large  as  an  Enj^iah 
walnut  not  being  at  all  uncommon.  They  also 
vary  greatly  in  number  and  the  smaller  ones 
may  be  present  in  hundreds.  Th^  are  com- 
posed principally  of  cholesterin  (q.v.),  with 
varjdng  but  mudi  smaller  amounts  of  bile  pig- 
ment, lime  and  ma^esium  salts,  fatty  adds 
and  bite  adds.  It  is  now  generally  assmned 
that  an  inflammatory  or  catarrhal  condition  of 
the  mucous  membrance  of  the  gall-bladder 
(q.v.),  usually  induced  by  micro-organisms, 
furnishes  the  starting  point  of  gall-stone  forma- 
tion. As  already  stated  gall-stones  may  remain 
in  the  galt-bladder  for  years  without  causing 
symptoms,  or  their  presence  ma^  be  accom- 
panied hy  inflammatory  changes  in  the  organ. 


pain,  local  tenderness,  persistent 
jaundice,  clay-colored  stools  and  chills  and 
fever  are  conspicuous  features.  While  a  ra- 
tional and  hygienic  mode  of  life  will  do  much 
to  prevent  the  fonnation  of  gall-stooci,  if  they 
are  present  and  give  rise  to  symptcwis  that  are 
at  all  severe  surgical  intervention  is  usually 
necessary  bo  effect  a  cure. 

Urinary  caleuli  may  be  found  either  in'  the 
kidnw,  ureter  or  blaoder,  and  are  accordingly 
callecf  renal,  ureteral  or  vesical  calculi.  Kid^y 
stones  of  small  size  often  pass  into  the  ureter 
and  during  their  journey  downward  to  the  blad- 
der give  rise  to  seizures  of  renal  colic  which 
in  the  agony  and  general  prostration  they  cause 
are  very  similar  to  those  of  biliary  colic.  The 
pain  is  felt  lower  down  in  the  abdomen  and 
also  in  the  back ;  frequently  also  radiating 
along  the  inner  surface  of  Uie  thigh.  Aside 
from  the  attacks  of  colic  renal  stones  may 
cause  pain  in  the  back,  chills,  fever  and  bloody 
or  turbid  urine  containing  pus.  "Coral  calculi' 
are  large  stones  which  gradually  fill  the  pelvis 
of  the  kidney,  and  in  the  conformation  re- 
produce with  ^eat  fideli^  the  irregularities  and 
recesses  of  this  cavity.  Very  small  concretions 
pass  into  the  bladder  without  difficulty  and  are 
evacuated  in  the  urine  as  'gravel*  Stone  in 
the  bladder  is  rare  in  women  and  in  the  male 
sex  is  seen  oftencst  in  infancy  and  after  the 
fiftieth  year.     The  symptoms  include  pain  in- 

•  creased  by  jolting  or  bodily  motion,  ircquent 
urination,  pain  at  the  end  of  urination  — and 
sometimes  sudden  stoppage  of  the  stream  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  stone  rolls  into  the  neck 
of  the  bladder  shutting  off  the  flow  —  and 
usually  bloody  and  tut1)iil  urine.  Stone  is 
especially  common  in  old  persons  on  account  of 
the  cystitis  <q.v.)  often  present.    Urinary  cal- 

.  cult  may  be  composed  of  various  materi^s,  of 
which  uric  add  and  urates,  caldum  oxalate 
Cmnlberry  calculus*),  caldum  fbosjifaate  and 
ammonio-magnesiiim  phosi^iate  are  the  comr 
monest,  sin^y  or  in  combinatioti.    Rarer  forms 


M  of 
xanthin.  The  cut  section  usually  : 
laminated  structure  and  a  nucleus  or  starting 
point,  which  may  be  a  bk)od  dot,  a  shred  of 
tissue,  a  bit  of  mucus,  a  small  renal  calculus,  a 
mass  of  urates  or  a  foreign  body.  Any  condi- 
tiiMis  encouraging  excessive  deposition  of  the 
urinary  constituents  predispose  to  urinary  cal- 
culi. Among  such  causes  are  lack  of  exercise^ 
digestive  disorders,  defective  oxidation,  excesses 
in  eating  or  drinkiiig,  catarrhal  conditions  of 
the  urinary^  tract,  etc  The  tendency  to  stone 
fomution  is  particularly  pronounced  in  those 
having  what  is  called  the  gouty  or  lithemic 
diathesis.  The  diagnosis  oi  renal  calcuh  is 
facilitated  by  the  use  of  the  X-ray,  while  for 
the  detection  of  bladder  stones  a  special  fonn 
of  steel  sound  termed  a  "stone  searcher^  is 
introduced  into  the  bladder.  The  cystoscope  is 
also  of  great  service  in  this  &eld.  Individuals 
predisposed  to  stone  should  keep  the  urine 
abun<Unt  by  the  free  use  of  water — preferably 
distilled  —  and  milk,  should  take  much  open- 
oi^  ezerdse  and  avoid  the  consumption  of  targe 
amounts  of  meat,  fats,  sugar  or  alcohol.  Green 
ve^tables,  salads,  bread,  poultry,  fish,  eggs  and 
fruit  should  fonn  the  main  articles  ol  diet 
Despite  the  daims  of  nostrum  venders,  when  a 
ttone_  is  once  fonned  there  is  little  chance  of 
its  bdng  dissolved  by  any  plan  of  internal  medi- 
cation. If  the  condition  causes  decided  symp- 
toms surgical  removal  of  the  offending  body  is 
indicated.    Sec  LithotoJiiy;  Lithotrity, 

Kaw,  M.  Vqgel,  M.D. 

CALCULUS,  The  Infiniteiim^  The  In- 
finitesimal, or  Differential  and  Integral,  Cal- 
culus b  not  so  much  a  brandi  of  malhematics 
as  a  method  or  inatrntnent  of  mathematical  in- 
vestigation, of  indefinite  applicabihty.  The 
masters  now  seldom  try  to  treat  it  in  less  than 
a  thottiand  large  pages;  here  we  may  hope  no 
more  than  to  expose  its  basic  prindples,  to 
illustrate  its  characteristic  processes  and  to  ex- 
hibit some  of  its  more  immediate  appUcations, 
with  thdr  resists.  Even  so  little  will  re(|uire 
the  utmost  condensation  and  setf-explaining 
abbreviations. 

We  mi^t  define  the  Calculus  as  the  Theory 
and  Apphcation  of  Limits,  so  central  and 
dominant  is  this  tatter  CMicept  We  must,  then, 
clear  the  ground  for  its  full  presentment 

Successive  addition  of  the  unit  I,  oimtinued 
Without  end,  gives  rise  to  the  Assemblage  of 
poshive  inters,  in  which  all  additions,  multi- 
plications and  involutions  are  possible.  This 
assemblage  is  ordered:  i.e.,  of  two  different 
elements,  a  and  b,  either  ii<b  or  a>'b;  and 
if  a<i  and  fr<f,  then  a<^c.  To  vaake  aU 
subtractions  (inverses  of  addition)  possible,  we 
annex  the  symmetric  assembhige  of  negativt 
integers,  any  negative  inteffcr  as  a*  (or  —a), 
bdng  defined  by  the  equation  o+a'— 0,  this  0 
itself  bemg  drftied  by  a — a=^  To  make  all 
divisions  (mversts  of  multiplication)  possible, 
w«  annex  the  assemblage  of  Fractions,  quotients 
of  int^^rs  by  integers.  This  total  assunbtage 
of  integers  and  thdr  quotients,  both  +  and — , 
we  may  call  the  damoin  or  assemblage  of 
rjUitmal  real  numbers,  wherein  all  direct  operak- 
tioos  (of  addition  and  multjolication)  and  abo 
ttie  inverses  (subtraction  ana  division)  are  pos- 
sible: 
For  a  predse  definition  of  die  processes  of 


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CALCULUS,  THE  INPIHITraillAL 


annexation  here  involved,  see  Alcebxa,  Defi- 
nitions AND  Fundamental  Concepts, 

The  operation  of  involution  is  direct,  a 
special  case  of  multiplication,  but  is  not  coiU' 
mutative  like  addition  and  multiplication:  thus 
a  +  b=~b  +  a,  ab^^ba,  but  in  general  o*  +  6". 
Hence  the  direct  opefation  a'',  yielding  c,  nas 
two  inverses:  Given  b  and  i*,  to  fin  a  a,  and 
given  a  and  c,  to  find  "ft.  The  former  gives  rise 
to  roots  or  surds,  the  latter  to  logarithms. 
But  neither  of  these  can'in  general  be  found  in 
the  universe  of  rationals;  to  make  such  in- 
versions always  possible,  we  must  still  further 
enlarge  the  domain  of  number  by  annexing 
Irraltonali.     These    demand    exact    definition. 

Divide  the  a.ssemblage  of  rationals  into  two 
classes,  A  and  B,  any  member  a  of  the  first 
bring  <;■  any  member  ft  of  the  second.  Three 
possHiilities  present  themselves : 

itain  and  be  cl 
«  >  any  other  a  hitt   <   any 

2.  fi  may  contain  and  be  dosed  by  a  number 
S  <  any  other  b  but  >  any  a. 

3.  Neither  A  may  contain  a  lar^st  a,  nor  B 
a  smallest  ft.  Thus  we  may  fonn  (1)  A  of  2 
and  all  rationals  <  2;  or  (2)  £  of  2  and  all 
rationals  ^  2,  —  in  either  case  2  is  a  border 
(frontiere)  number;  or  (3)  A  of  all  negatives 
and  all  positive  rationals  whose  squares  are  <^ 
2  and  B  of  all  positive  rationals  \^osc  squares 
are  >  2,  Here  there  ts  no  bordtr  number 
among  rationals.  But  a  border  does  exist,  de- 
fined as  >  any  a  but  <  any  6,  Wc  name  it 
teeond  root  of  2  and  denote  it  byV2^  or  2i- 
All  such  common  borders  are  called  Irrationals. 
The  assemblage  of  irrationals  is  determined 
by  all  such  possible  partitions  of  rationals 
iA.B).  The  assemblage  of  all  rationals  and 
all  such  irrationals  is  the  assemblage  of  Reals. 
It  remains  and  is  possible  to  extend  the  opera- 
tions of  arithmetic  to  all  reals.  In  particular, 
the  assemblage  of  rationals  is  dense ;  i.e-  be- 
tween every  two  there  is  an  infinity  of  others; 
in  the  same  sense  the  assemblage  of  reals  also 
has  density.  Again,  always  on  dividing  all  reals 
into  A  ana  B,  in  such  a  manner  that  each  mem- 
ber of  j4  <;  each  member  of  B,  there  will  be  a 
border  7,  the  greatest  in  A  or  the  least  in  B,  all 
less  numbers  being  in  A,  all  greater  In  B. 
Hence,  and  in  this  sense,  the  assemblage  of 
reals  is  named  continuous. 

In  this  continuimi,  admittiiig  no  further  in- 
troductions, suppose  a  magnitude  to  assume 
successively  an  mfinity  of  values ;  Vi,  v^  . . .  v„ 
.  .  .  Fa+fe,  .  .  . ;  it  is  then  called  a  variable,  V, 
and  its  values  in  order  form  a  seq^ienee,  S-  It 
often  happens  that  V  will  approach  some  coft- 
stant  L,  so  that  by  enlarging  n  we  may  make 
and  keep  the  modulus  or  absolute  worm  (i.e., 
regardless  of  sign)  of  the  difference  V—L<-any 
freatsigned  positive  magnitude, «,  for  all  f  <rflow- 
mg  values  of  V;  in  symbols,  |Fb+* — L\<^' 
for  every  positive  k.  Then  L  is  called  tte 
Limit  of  V:  L=Lim.  V.  Plainly,  V  cannot 
have  two  Umits  as  thus  defined.  It  is  ea^ly 
seen  that  V  will  have  a  limit  when  and  only 
when|Fii+*— t',|<t„.  If  V  changes  alwaj;s 
■  1  the  same  sense,   by  increase  or  aecrease,  it 


(positively  or  negatively)  beyond  any  assign- 
able R,  it  is  often  said  to  have  =■>  as  liroit 
A  perfect  geometric  illustration  is  found  in 


the  seouences  /  and  C  of  inscribed  and  circum- 
scribed regular  polygons  of  the  drde.  Here 
every  C  is  >  every  /;  also  C^-^I^  <»;  also 
C«+k"C«  <.,I..+fc~lp  <  t,CV-A  >  f  A— 1«  < ' 
{A  bein^  the  cirde-area) ;  hence  ^  is  the  com- 
mon limit  both  of  C„  and  of  /.,  for  «  tni-rfai- 
ing  without  limit  («i:«o). 

Algebraically,  if  d,  C,  Ct  .  .  .  C^H-.  ■  -  be 
the  sequence  (O)  of  odd  convergents  and  Ci, 
Cfc  .  .  .  C^  :  ■  .  the  sequence  (£)  of  even  con- 
vergents in  an  interminale  continued  fraction 


1 


1 


.then every  Ct"-h 


"H-I  +  H-H-6-I-H- 

>o,aiso  o+i— a("-H*)-h<«,  o-<;(*-i-t)<:(: 

and  O+i  — (Vi3— 3)<',CVi3  — 3)  — a»<t. 
The  odd  convergents  from  above  and  the  even 
convergents  from  bdow  close_down  endlessly 
upon  their  common  limit,  V  13 — 3,  —  as  quad- 
rants of  an  hyperbola  and  its  conjugate  close 
down  upon  their  common  asymptote. 

The  difference  \y~L\  is  a  variable  small  at 
will  and  is  called  InfimUsimal  (o)  ;  its  limit 
is  0.  The  quotient  of  two  o's  will  generally 
be  a  variable;  if  it  has  a  finite  limit  L,  the 
''b  are  named  of  Ike  same  order;  if  the  limit 
of  the  quotient  is  0  (or  •*> ),  then  the  numerator 
(or  denominator)  is  of  hif/her  order.  If  any 
o  be  chosen  as  standard,  it  is  called  primci/ial 
infinitesimal;  any  other  whose  ^th  root  is  of 
the  same  order  as  the  principal  o  is  itself  said 
to  be  of  pth  order. 

Easy  theorems  are  now  proved  as  to  the 
limits  of  the  sum,  difference  prodnct,  quotient 
or  variables.  In'  general:  If  Riu,  v,  w,  .  .  .) 
be  a  rational  function  of  simultaneous  variables, 
u,  V,  TV,  .  .  ,,  and  if  H,  v,  nr  .  .  .  have  limits, 
I,  m.  n  .  .  .,— then  Ri«,  v.  w,  .  .  .,)  has  a 
limit  R(t,  m,  n  .  .  .) — always  provided  that 
this  tatter  does  not  involve  a  divisicm  by  0, 
which  has  no  sense. 

//  two  V's  differ  at  most  by  a  o ,  and  one  has 
a  limil,  the  other  has  the  same  limit.  Herewith 
there  becomes  possible  a  Calculus  of  the  Limits 
of  Variables  instead  of  the  Variables  them- 
selves. These  limits  are  often  far  the  more 
important,  as  we  shall  soon  see. 

A  vanable  V  (or  sequence  Vu  Vi  .  .  .)  a 
bounded  above  when  we  may  assign  a  value  M 
that  it  cannot  exceed;  then  there  is  a  certain 
smallest  number  its  upper  limit,  which  it  can- 
not exceed.  Similarly,  it  is  bounded  below 
when  we  may  assign  an  m  below  which  it 
cannot  sink;  then  there  is  a  certain  greatest 
number,  its  lower  limit,  under  which  it  cannot 
descend.  If  V  may  assume  either  of  these 
limits  as  one  of  its  values,  then  that  limit  is 
attainable  and  is  a  Maximum  or  a  Minimum.' 
otherwise  it  is  unattainable.  If  F  be  a  proper 
fraction,  its  limits,  0  and  1,  are  not  attainable.. 
When  y  may  assume  every  value  between  its 
attainable  limits,  a  and  ft,  it  is  said  to  vary 
continuously  in  the  interral  [a,  ft].  But  if  0. 
or  b,  or  both  be  unattainable,  we  uiall  say  that 
it  is  continuous  in  |a+0,  b]  or  [a,  ft-^],  or 
[o+O,  6—0]. 

When  to  values  of  one  magnitude  correspond 
values  of  another,  the  magnitudes  are  called 
Fititctiont  of  each  other  (Leibnitz).  The  one 
to  which  arbitrary  values  may  be  supposed 
given  is  called  tlic  argument  or  independent 
variable;  the  other,  wtuMC  cone8poai£ng  values 


Digitized 


6,  Google 


CALCULUS,  T^  IHriHITHSIMAI. 


may  be  reckoned  or  observed  (or  which  at 
least  exist),  is  called  the  function.  Such  are  a 
number  and  its  lo^rilhm  or  sine;  the  radius 
of  s  sphere  and  its  surface  or  volume;  the 
elastici^  of  a  medium  and  the  vdodty  of  an 
undulation  throu^  it;  etc  .  .  .  The  general 
functional  connection  of  x  and  y  is  expressed 
by  Fix,  ))--a  If  this  f  be  an  entire  polj-- 
nomiaJ  in  x  and  also  in  y,  the  F  is  algebraic, 
otherwise  tronsctndentai.  If  i^  be  solved  aa  to 
y,  thus  y^^f(x),  tben  y  is  an  explicit  function 
of  x;  otherwise,  an  implicit  iunccion.  tf  fix) 
be  the  quotient  of  two  entire  polynomials  in  x, 
then  f(x)  is  a  ratirmai  function  of  x ;  otherwise, 
irrattonal.  If  to  any  one  value  of  x  there 
corresponds  only  one  value  of  y,  then  y  is  a 
one-valued  or  unique  function  of  j-;  if  j  be 
also  a  unique  function  of  y,  then  there  exists 
between  x  and  y  a  one-to-one  correspondence. 

If  y~'f(,x)  and  x^'^iy)  express  the  same 
correspondence  between  x  and  y,  then  /  and  ♦ 
denote  inverse  functions.  A  function  may  re- 
duce to  a  constant;  as  x"^!,  for  every  finite 
*  when  »"^0. 

As  X  ranges  in  [a,  h],  f(x)  will  also  range. 
Similarly  fix)  may  have  an  upper  limit  M  and 
a  lower  limit  m;  then/(j:)  is  bounded  in  [a,b], 
[m,  M]  is  Its  interval  and  M — m  its  oscillation. 
If  either  m  or  M  be  absent  (or"  )_  this  oscil' 
latioh  is  « .  If  we  cut  [o,  &]  into  n  sub-inter- 
vals (oi,  6*)  (fe  =  l,  .  .  ,  n),  then  plainly  the 
upper  limit  of  /f;ir)  will  be  M  in  at  least  one 
[ak,  frfc]  and  >  M  in  none;  the  oscillation  will 
not  be  >  M  —  m  in  any  (at,  6*]. 

If  as  jf  approaches  c,  no  matter  how,  f(x) 
approaches  /(c)  as  its  limit,  then  f(x)  ts  con' 
tmuous  at  c  (i.e.  for  x"c).  Or,  if  f{x)  be 
bounded  in  [c — o,  c  +  e"]  and  if  the  limit  of  its 
oscillation  be  0  for  a  vanishing,  then  f(x)  is 
continuoits  at  c.  That  is,  we  must  be  able  to 
make  and  keep  the  oscillation  of  fix)  small  at 
will  by  making  and  keeping  the  fluctuation  in 

It  may  be  that  limit  f(£  +  '')~/(c)  only  for 
-i-o,  then  f(x)  is  named  continuous  nghl  of  c; 
or  that  Ltm.  /(r  +  ")=— /(e)  onhr  for  —  o,  then 
f(x)  is  named  continuous  left  of  c.    Only  when 

f(x)  is  continuous  both  right  and  left  of  c 
fie)  being  the  same),  is  fix)  continuous  at  c. 

If  fix)  be  continuous  at  all  points  (values 
of  :r)  right  of  a  and  left  of  b,  it  is  named  (o«- 
tinnous  ■»  in,  b]. 

The  infinitesimal  U^t,  f -|-  o]  is  called  the 
(immediate)  vicinity  (or  neighliorfaood)  of  c. 

A  change  in  the  value  of  a  f  is  conveniently 
denoted  by  Jv,  read  difference-v  or  Delta-v; 
hence  Ax  and  iy  will  denote  corresponding 
(simultaneous)  differences  or  changes  in  x 
and  y. 

If  now  y'^fix)  be  continuous  in  [a,  b],  we 
may  cut  this  latter  up  into  finite  sub-intervals, 
J  X,  each  so  small  that  the  oscillation  of  y  in 
each  shall  be  <'.  Hence  Heine  calls  y  uni- 
formly (equably,  gleiehmiissig)  continuous  in 
[a,    b].      This    corresponds    to    uniform    con- 


vergence. 


s  of  a  power-series,  y=  I  Cite"  a; 


opposed  to  non-uniform  or  infinitely  slow  con- 
vergence (Seidel,  1850).  Finer  discriminations 
must  here  be  omitted. 

Ccntmuify  isthe  supreme  functional  property 
with  which  the  Calculus  IS  concerned.     Sine 


«■  drops  from  +  ' 


.  Similarly—- 


at  .?■=<!,  an  extremely,  important  discontinuity. 
So  y=(e«— I  I    /    le«-t-l  lis  dlscontinuooa  at 

x  =  0,  leajung  from  —  1  to  1;  the  discontinuity 
is  2.  It  IS  generally  assumed  that  (Continuity 
holds  throughout  the  Processes   of   Nature. 

Again,  y  =  sin  -  is  uol  defined  for  jr  =  0,  but 
whatever  value  be  assigned  it  there,  it  remains 
discontinuous,  since  sin  —  vibrates  infiidtely 
fast  between  -|-  1  and  —  1  for  x=  0.— Again, 
fic±e)  may  approach  a  limit  for  o  vanishiiig, 
yet  not  approach  /(c).     Thus,   let  fix)=p 

+  X^^'^  ■  .  .  .  a  decreasing  geometrical  series, 
ratio  (l4-:r')~-'.  hence  Lim.  f(x)'=l+.t*. 
Then  as  ^=0,  Hx)~l,  Lim. /(0+o)=  1;  but 
for  .t  =  0,  /(4-)  =  /(0)  =  0.— There  are  many 
immediate  consequences  of  continuity,  which  we 
have  no  space  to  discuss  here,  such  as:  A 
function  continuous  in  [o,  b]  attains  its  upper 
and  lower  limits  (its  maximum  and  minimum)  ; 
it  also  assumes  at  least  once  every  value  be- 
tween /(a)  and  fib),— a  property,  however, 
not  peculiar  to  continuous  functions  (Darboux), 

The  notion  o£  function  is  at  once  extended  to 
several  variables,  f^^ix,  y,  .  .  .),  one-  or  many- 
valued,  algebraic  or  transcendental,  etc.,  as  be- 
fore. Here  each  variable,  as  x,  has  its  range  or  in- 
terval [n,  a'] ;  so  y  its  [6,  h'\,  etc.  All  possible 
sets  of  values  (x.  y  .  .  .)  form  an  assemblage  or 
the  Domain  {D)  of  variation.  Any  set  (or 
point)  for  which  any  variable  has  an  extreme 
or  border  value,  as  a  or  a',  b  or  b',  is  a  border 
point;  the  Bascmfalagc  of  all  such  is  the  border 
or  contour  of  D.  A  simple  geometric  depiction 
of  D  in  rectangular  co-ordinates  for  only  two 
variables,  x  and  y,  would  be  a  rectangle  with 
sides  x=a,  J=a*,  j-=6,  y=6';  of  three  variables, 
X  y,  t,  it  would  be  a  cuboid  bounded  by  the 
planes  x=^,  x^ri,  y=b,  y=b',  s=c,  j^c'etc. 
The  point  ix,  y)  or  (x,  y,  a)  may  be  anywhere 
in  or  on  the  rectangle  or  cuboid.  Such  a  D 
may  be  thought  cut  up  into  elements,  infinitesi- 
mal rectangles  or  cuboids.  Suppose  any  point 
(oi,  bi,. ..)  within  an  element.  If  now 
fix,  y, . . . )  approaches  fiat,  b,,...)  as  hmit,  as 
point  {.r,  y,  .,.)  approaches  point  (Oi,  6i,  ...), 
HO  matter  Aon,  then  fix,  y, . . .)  is  called  con- 
tinuous at  (Oi,  6i,  . . . ).  This  amounts  to  saying 
that  the  oscillation  of  /  shrinks  toward  rero 
as  the  element  contracts,  no  matter  how,  atK>ut 
the  point;  that  i'i,  infinitesimal  function- 
changes  correspond  to  any  and  all  infinitesimal 
argument-changes  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  point. 

Any  fix,  y,  .  .  .)  is  called  confinvoHS  within 
D  vmeti  continuous  at  every  point  in  D, 
border  included;  but  on  this  border,  as  t,  y,  .  .  . 
approach  a,  bi,  .  .  .  the  point  must  not  gel 
without  D.    An  /  is  continuous  in  the  (imme- 


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168 


CALCULUS,  THE  UmNITBSIHAL 


In  Kcnerat,  theorems  holdine  for  functions  of 
one  variable  may  be  extendeo,  with  proper  mod- 
ifications,  to  functions  of  several  variables. 

DeriT«tivM,— In  the  study  of  functional 
dependence,  the  main  subject  of  scientific 
inquiry,  it  is  of  first  im^rtance  to  know  how 
corresponding  changes  in  the  magnitudes  are 
related  To  discover  this,  we  form  the  quo- 
_Jy 


Jx' 


tient  of  corresponding  differences, 

Differenee-Quolient  {DO).  In  general,  it  is 
very  complex,  but  brealcs  up  into  two  parts, 
one  independent  of  Jx,  the  other  vanishing 
voith  ix.  The  first  is  the  important  part  and 
is  named  Derivative  (D)  or  Differential  Coeffi- 
cient (DC)-  More  formally,  if  y=fix)  be  a 
unique  continuous  ftmction  of  x  in  [o,  o],  and  x 

_  nx±ix)-}ix) 


be  any  point  therein,  i 


,dif^=i 


approaches  a  limit  as  ix  approaches  0  no 
matter  how,  then  that  limit  is  called  Derivative 
(D)  of  f(.x).  as  to  X,  al  the_point  x.  If  f(,x) 
has  a  D  at  every  point  of  [a,  b],  the  assemblage 
of  them  forms  a  new  function,  the  Derivative 
of  /(if)  £of  I*,  fr], "which  wc  may  write  f'(x) 


4m 


^(x)+9. 


Geometric  Intarpretatioii. — The  Differential 
Calculus  originated  in  the  Problem  of  Tangents. 
Let  P  be  any  point  of  a  curve  referred  to 
rectangular  axes  X,  Y,  and  let  P  be  between 
Q  and  Q'.  Draw  secants  PQ,  PQ',  sloped 
V  and  o'  to  X,  and  f  to  each  other;  draw 
ordintkCes  through  P,  Q,  Q' ;  through  P  and 
Q'  draw  parallels  to  X,  meeting  ordinates 
through  0  and  F  at  I>  and  D'.  Then 
PI}=Ax,     D'q^A'x.      DO-Jy,      PD'=J'y. 


Also 


^» 


*,4^=tan  *',  tan  (*' 


'J*- 


.  «)  = 


tan  #.  If  now  by  approaching  Q  and  Q' 
to  P  we  can  make  and  keep  f,  and  therefore 
tan  #,  small  at  will,  then  the  secants  settle 
down  into  a  common  position  called  tangent 
to-  the  curve  at  P   (sloped  r  to  X)    and  the 


common  limit  of 


and 


live  proper.  Thus  in  y  ■■ 


..(,M/(.^..). 


the  progressive  DC=\,  the  regressive  DC=~\, 
the  two  limiting  positions  of  the  secants  are 
perpendicular. 

How  thickly  may  such  salients  be  strewn 
along  a  curve?  To  have  a  D,  i.e.,  to  be  dif- 
fer ealiable,  plainly  the  function  must  be 
continuous;    it    was    long    thou^t    that    this 


necetsary  condition  was  suScient,  that  the 
continuous  function  possessed  in  general  a  D, 
save  at  certain  sped^  points.  It  was  Riemann 
who  first  sug^sted  (at  least  as  early  as  1861) 
the     astonishing     possiUhty     that     such      an 

fix)  as  " 


*  ^q-f?.**!.  thougji  everywbci 


tinuous,  was  nowhere  differen liable ;  but  as 
called  he  left  no  proof,  it  was  generally  thought  he 
meant  that  it  was  possible  to  find  such  salients 
it  is  in  every  infinitesimal  \x,  x-\-  J^r],  which  was 
easy  to  show ;  but  Weierstrass  thousht  he 
meant  strictly  that  the  D  did  not  exist  for  any 
value  of  X.  In  any  case  Weierstrass  himself 
produced  (18  July  1872)  an  example  of   such 


a  function,  y~  16"  cos(ffl»««-), —  where  a  is  an 

'•=11 
odd  integer,  6  a  positive  number  <^  1,  and 
ah  ">  1+  |t, —  which,  though  everywhere  con- 
tinuous, has  nowhere  a  D,  since  the  progressive 
and  regressive  Difference-Quotients  are  every- 
where opposite  ta  sign  and  Increase  oppositely 
toward  n  as  they  paSs  over  into  Differential 
Coefficients  (*Math.  Werke  von  K.  Weierstrass, 
II,'  p.  71-74).  Ceomelrically,  in  the  graph  of  the 
difTerentiable  function,  the  polygon  formed  by  n 
consecutive  chords  tends  toward  the  curve  for 
n~*.  PQ  and  PQ'  tend  to  coalesce  as  Q  and  Q' 
both  approach  P,  the  triangle  PQQ'  becomes 
flatter  and  flatter    (we  may  suppose    the   i 


QPQ'  steadily  enlarged  under  a  microscope 
its  original  length  as  Q  and  Q'  close  down 
py,   the  curve   we  may   say  is   elementally 


straight  at  P.  But  with  Weierstrass's  functio 
the  polyvon  remains  always  rc'cntrant,  a  zig- 
lag,  and  consecutive  chords.  PQ  and  PQ'. 
tend  to  separate  at  a  straight  angle.  Such 
discontinuities  may  yet  present  themselves  to 
the  future  student  of  nature. 


whence  Dx^ 


.*=. 


=.yt=lx.      Here  y 


%  the  area 


—A-  would  tend  to  one  limit,  the  progressive      x 
differential     coefficient,    and  -r^  to     a 


of  a  square  whose  side  is  x,  and  2x  is  the  border 
of  the  square  perpendicular  to  which  the 
square  expands,  the  D  is  the  front  of  variation. 
Similarly,  if  y=ir.r',  D,,y'=2'rx,  the  circum- 
ference, the  front  of  variation  perpendicular 
to  which  X  varies.  If  y^"^*.  Dxy~'3x'''=^thc 
front  of  variation  perpendicular  to  which 
X  varies.  If  y^l'-r*.  /Jij  =4>rj-'="the  sphere- 
surface,  the  front  of  variation  perpendicular 
to  X.  For  y^  x\  Diy="4r''=  again  the  whole 
front  of  variation,  though  here  our  powers  of 
envisagement  fail  us.  Thus  we  are  conducted 
to  the  Derivation  of  Assemblages,  for  which 
the    reader   must    be    referred    to   this    latter 

Kinematic  lUustratlon.— Let  j-^length  of 
path  of  a. moving  point  P,  described  in  lime  I; 
j^s  and  d( '"'corresponding  changes   in   s  and 


then 


'^average    speed   during  J<; 


Lim.     -Tl'^Dts^'inslantaneoHS  speed   at    (■= 

speed  at  the  instant  t  (i.e.,  end  of  f  and  ban- 
ning of  Jt).  There  is  no  motion  of  the  instant 
of  time,  DOr  at  the  p<Hnt  of  path,  but  only 


d=,  Google 


CALCULUB,  Ttfll  INPIHTIVglMAL 


during  the  time  and  space  immediately  about 
the  point  and  instant.  Instantaneous  speed 
a  a  technical  term  for  limit  of  averag*  speed 
in  ibe  immediate  vidnity  of  the  point  and 
instant.  Thb  instantaneons  speed  generally 
varies  with  t,  attd  its  D  as  to  ( is  named  accelera- 

<h 
ftoH  and  b  written^.     The  product  of  tbi* 

acceleration  by  the  mass  of  the  moving  P 
ndds  tbe  all-important  motion  of  force.  The 
D  of  this  acceleration  might  be  called  second 
acceleration,  but  the  notion  has  not  yei:  proved 
useful  in  Mechanics  (q-v.)- 

The  notation  for  D  may  be  this  or  that 
Xewton  used  the  dot.  thus  i,  to  denote  deriva- 
tive as  to  (,  as  still  do  the  British;  Lagrange, 
the  accent,  F'(x),  still  common;  Cauchy,  me 
operator  D,  with  or  without  subscribed  argu- 
ment *;  others  subscripts,  as  yx,  yi,  etc.;  most 
Goounon,  most  expressive,  but  possibly  mis- 
leading is  the  Letbnitnan  7^  not  a  fraction 
(thus  far  at  least),  not  die  quotient  of  ify 
divided  by  dx,  but  the  limit  of  the  fraclioii 

^  toiix  vanishing,  no  matter  bow.  Some- 
times we  write  ^  for  Dx,  thns;    yx  =  Dxy  = 

i  des  Fonctions,*  1)  at- 

_     ived  Functions  (or  Vi) 

'  f  ioT  X  in  Fix)  =—  oo  +  o.r 

whence    f  (l- -f  f  )  — F(jr) 

where  each  F  turns  out  to  be  formed  from  the 
preceding    in    the    same    w^;    they 

^    ■     '  "  '    "      '    near-lyii 


+  Fix)S  + 


Derived  Functions  of  F. 
eralization     considers     /(*) " 


:-lying  Gen- 


rapposed  absolutely  convergent  for  all  values 
oi\x—a\  <-|-if,  i.e..  for  a- within  |o—K,o +  fi]. 
Then  in  the  same  [  }  all  the  w  series 

" y  ,_^a,C*-o) »-«(«- 1,  2,  3, ...  ) 

will  also  converge  absolutely.  Denote  them 
in  turn  by  fix),  fix),  .  . .    Choose  f  so  that 

.    te  '^ 


-a|+|  (]<£;  then  the  series 


Cw.  ■ 


tfs  and  substituttng  in  the  definition  of  fix) 


e  get  f(.x)-fia)+ 


^        12 


a)». 


r  Mac- 


Such  is  the.  ordinary  Taylor's  Series,  t 

laurin's  (more  justly  SttrlinEf's)  in  cas^  »      <» 

Lagrange  supposed  (amazmgly,  Picard)  any 

arftiirory  fix)    expansible   in   positive  integral, 

Swers  of  ix — o),  except  for  special  values  of  a. 
swever,  presupposed  only  uniqueness  and 
eontinnity  In  a  definite  interval,  there  may  be 
NO  value  of  a  in  the  interval  for  whidi  suti 
expansion  is  possible.  Thus,  /(*)="( — x)9  for 
«  <  0  and  =iiP  for  i^O  cannot  be  developed 
in  positive  integral  powers  of  ;r  for  x  positive 
ana  p  not  integral.  Hence  this  La^^ngian 
notion  of  derived  function,  while  in  general 
agreeing  with  the  notion  of  D  as  limit  of  dif- 
ference-quotient, is  not  yet  so  universal.         * 

Tbe  notion  of  Differential,  though  unneces- 
sary   at    this   stage,    is   commonly    introduced 

thus:  From^S^^^/'(i)-HT,j,=  4f(,)« 

f(x)  4x+Tdx. 

namely,  i'ix)Sx,  .     . 

same  order  of  infinitesimality,  may  be  defined  as 

the  Differential  of  fix)  and  may  be  denoted  l(y 

rf/(:r),' which  is  thus  ^finite  variable  for  Jx^Ol 

For  f(.x)^=x,  we  have  dx^=  dx,  which  is  ther&- 


ioKdifferentidoix.   Hen 


-fix). 


/  V"    >    *   /-       iircoc    ijuuis   fix), 

t  called  1st  and  Zd,  .  .  .  Derived 
t  of  fix),  which  may  be  called  its 
own  0th  Derived  Function.  If  instead  of  the 
inconvenient  Lagrangian  accents  we  put 
duchy's  D's  with  proper  exponents,  w*  per- 
ceive that  these  latter,  denoting  order  of  dif- 
ferentiation, obey  the  same  laws  as  ordinair 
exponents : 

!>*+»=  D".  D»  =  D».  ZJ",  etc. 
ll  is  usual,  though  not  quite  satisfactory,  to 
denote  tbe  value  of  any  derived  function  at 
«iy  point  ix'=a)  by  writing  a  tor  x,  thus; 
/">  (o).  At  this  stage  the  D-notation  is  not 
so  convenient  These  »ecial  values  are  seen 
to  be   /(»)(<i)— l^-o«.      On   fipding   hence   th? 


l.e.,  the  D  of  f(_x)  as  to  j"-=the  qvotteni  of  the 
rft#(TMifMi^o(/(;f)  andr  (Leibniti).  Here  ^ 
is  strictly  a  fraction  whose  terms  are  by  no 
means  *gfaoBts  of  departed  quantities'  (Berke- 
ley). Geometrically,  dy  is  the  Jy  prolonged 
up  to  the  tangent  at  P,  ~^  change  of  the 
ordinate  of  the  tangent  when  abscissa  changes 

Jy 
by  dx;  Lim.  ^^  1.  This  notion  of  differen- 
tial, thou^  useful  in  geometry,  mechanics  and 
elsewhere,  rather  emlMrrasses  the  theoretical 
development  of  the  subject.  Hence  the  ternis 
Differentiation  (■"Derivation),  to  differentiate, 
and  hence  the  names  Differential  Calculus 
Differential   Coefficient. 

On  tiiese  bases  the  structure  of  the  Diffek- 
ENTiAL  Calculus  may  now  be  safely  erected. 
Primary  formulse,  easily  established,  are  as 
follows  iD  Meaning  ^Iways  Derivative  as  lo  x, 
«,  ti,  etc.,  being  simnltaneous  functions  of  *■) : 

D<».+  w— W)— Dn-I-Dif— Ow; 

Diw)—Du-v\-uDv=m  (—-)-—); 

(i.±c)'-«';    (cu)'  =  c   «'. 
Very  important  is  Mediate  Derivation,  when  y 
is   tunctioa    of   a   function    of    x,  as  y=*(»), 
«=/(«) ,  hence  y=^  {/(x)  \  =F{x).    If  then  t  and} 
kme    definite     D's,    ^{u)     and    /'(x) ,    we    have 

ji-Ti-fv  '■"■""-'*-«^<">-«-''       , 

DiBilzedlyL^OOglC 


CALCULUS,  THE  IHFINITBSIUAL 


But  yx  may  exist  even  when  the  suppo^itioa 
fails,  and  this  rule  with  it 

In    particular,    if    y=/(^)    and   inversely 
x^t(y)  and    if   either    vanable    haa  a  D^O 

so  has  the  other.    For  if  fix)  =  Lun.  j|+  0, 

general,   the  D"!  of  ;r  as  to 
X  are  reciprocals  of  each  other: 


cosine  as  to  the  angle  merely  adds -yto  the  angle. 
Also,  O  tan  »=  1  +  tan  a:'  =860  «*,    If  y=sin  ■"■«, 


I  y=x,    y»-  cos  y  = 


Similaiiy  for  ««"■■ 


y  and  of  y 


,'aXf=l._ 

If  y':=f'(x)  be  +,  then  x  and  y  increase  (or 
decrease}  together,  fix}  is  called  tncrfottn^  at 
*.  But  if  yf  be — ,  then  x  and  y  change  oppo- 
sitely, f(x)  is  decreating  at  x. 

Hence  if  /'(c)  +0.  fix)  must  be  >  /(c)  on 
one  side  of  the  point  c,  and</(c)  on  the  other. 
Hence  Folle's  theorem:  If  f(_x)  vanishes  at  a 
and  b  and  has  a  £*  at  every  point  within  [a,  b), 
then  this  D,  f'(x)  vanishes  at  some  point  within 
[<!.  6]. 

Now,  f(x)sl.b—a)\*lx)-t('')\-(x—a) 
-*(o)J  is  such  an /(4-),  1      " 


y=tan— ■«,  similariy  D  tan— **=  rx^  ■  Specially, 

D  sin-»  —  =  -—-'--;-_    D  taa-»  ^    .■  ^    l. 

SiraUariy  we  treat  the  hyperbolic  sine  and 
cosine  aod  tangent  (lux,  hex,  ktx),  and  their 
inverses  *j-'«,  Ac-»x,  fti-'j:,  with  the  important 
results:  Dhsx^kex,  Dkcs=^kiX,  Dhtx^l  —  kttf, 


Vse-H-  l' 
with  easy  generaUiatton  for  u  and  ' 


V^:: 


r.  [a,  6].  Hence  ?(6)-^{a)=<A-o)?'Ci). 
Commonly  we  write  a  for  x  and  *  +  A  for  6; 
then  x-^x  +  eh,  where  0  is  in  [0,  1],  so  that 
*  {x+h)—^  {x)  =  M'  {x-\-8h),  the  extremely  im- 
portant formula  for  finiie  increments.  Hence 
we  see  at  once  that  if  the  D  is  everywhere  0 
within  an  interval,  the  function  is  constant  in 
6iat  interval;  and  hence  that  two  functions 
whose  D's  are  equal  in  an  interval  can  them- 
selves differ  only  by  a  constant  in  that  interval 
—  a  Theorem  at  the  base  of  the  Integral 
Calculus. 

Passing  now  to  D'a,  we  first  attempt  y^e*. 


J*  4 


Hence  . — i 

This    [  ]    is  tenn  by  term,   except  the  first, 
less  than  e^',  whose  limit  is  1 ;  hence  Lim.  [  ] 

is  1 ;  hence  Lim.  -^  '^  e*,  or  De*  ~^  e*.  The  ex- 


-  fonaube 
By  Dcri- 

..lus  reduced 

algebraic  forms,  while  the  exponentials  and 
goniometrics  return  into  themselves;  hence 
the  inverse  of  Derivation,  whatever  it  may  be, 
applied  to  algebraic  forms,  may  give  rise  to 
transcendentals.  So  much  for  ordinary  aige- 
braic  and  simply  ft^riodw  functions. 

The  Infinite  Series  cannot  always  be  differ- 
entiated  Sy  difierentiating  tenn  by  term, 
but  only  under  certain  conditions  of   equable 

convergence,  //each  term/«(x)  oi  fix)=mL£fn(.x) 

be  unique  and  continuous  and  if    2  converge: 
for  every  :r  in  \a,a  +  dj,  and  if  Lf{x)—fia),-~ 

for  such  a  series  the  Theorem  holds:  //  each 
tenn  has  a  finite  progressive  Z)C,  /h'  (a),  and  •/ 
f-/,.(a+  Ax)—fn{a) 


the  series  of  DCs.  2   ■ 


Ax 


verges  equably  for  eveiy  i:r>Oand  <d,  then 
2  /'n'(a)  also  converges  and 

"^  '/»(a  +  ix)-/«(o) 


=  i     S 


Ax 


-,  for  Ja;  =  +  0. 


y  =  log  X,  I 
D  log  ;r  ^ 
y  ^  X'*,  log  y  "  wt  log  J 


e  0  log  u=— ■    Hence,  if 


2iy=a«in  {*-t-2J*)— m 
=2  cos  (x-^-Ax)  s 


Ax' 


i  cos  («  +  Ax)' 


yi=Dsin»=cos*=sinl  )t-f--2-l  ■  hence 
D  Bin  a=co«  «fia.      Hence  D  cos  jr  —  —  sin  x 
x+  -T-)-  Hence  derivation  of  sine  and 


=„.{..  i). 


In  general,  this  narrower  Theorem  will  an- 
swer; //,  for  every  x  in  la,  a+d\,  each  fit{x') 
is  unique,  continuous,  and  has  a  D  (and  for 
x=a  at  least  a  progressive  DC),  and  if  both 

2  /.(«)  and  S  fnix)  converge  the  laUer 
equably,  then  Lf{x)=f{a),  and_/{jr)  has  a 
progressive  DC  at  a,  which  is  2  J"'^^^  '•  '■^■' 
we  form  the  D  of  the  infinite  series  by  summing 
(to  00  )  the  D's  of  the  terms  (for  details  sec 
Real  Variable,  Theory  of  Functions  of  the. 

For  D  of  /(a)  as  to  x,  where  x^x+iy,  see 
Complex  yarimle.  Theory  of  FtmctioHs  of* 

*  The  umultaneoiu  VAnattan  0,  i  and  >  is  vividly  depictod 
hy  tht  gnph  oi  f(3,  y)  =  Q-  But  we  may  imue  it  otherwiK. 
tbiu:    Lot  P  and  O^depict  the  variahlet  i  uidy.  one  moving 

Aa  P  moves  unifcnnlv  t^oaaX,  Q  will  slide  np  and  dovq 
■long    Y.   obeyins  /^O.     llie  unmbtisa  of  v-vmhiH  i* 


Google 


CALCULUS,  THB  INFINITESIMAL 


A  D  of  a  first  D  k  called  a  second  D,  writtwi 
variously  f{y),  Di^,  ^.  and  so  on  for  die 
3d,    4tli,    ...    nth    ZJ's.      We    see    at    once. 


;('-;). 


D«- 


=  c- 


A  rational  fraction  must  first  be  decomposed 
into  jHcA  fractions.  The  exponential  «* 
repeats  itself  steadily,  £>ii«<u  =  otvai:  hence 
#(/?)«"  ^  *(a)e",  ^  being  algebraic  and  ra- 
tional. The  log  X  is  at  once  reduced  to  a 
fraction  by  D  log  j^=— .  For  a  product  nw 
we  have  Leibnil^s  Theorem: 


D»{vb)  = 


i."(!L 


1-2 


Li)„ 


(-l)-l" 

«     0     0  0  0.. 
Ml    A    POO.. 
«    ft   ttt.0.  .. 

IE  IE 

m+' 

,^     .    .   .    .  K  . 

■trewn  evenlv  along  ¥.  the  nsKmblage  of  jr-valiu 
Btrewn  onOty  aioag  Y,  but  u  itretchu.  compntK^ 
civmj^cd  in  coisitkM  wiijr*.  The  iCndr  of  y^  b«i 
■tody  of  tba  IMfMole  l<i«v«  o<  thii  r-tuia  bevina  tli 
bliue  <rf  y-vahies. 

T(  now  «  =  i  +  J).,  »  =  !.  +  («  be  complnTorii 
ig=^f(t).    then  K  B  inden' 


onljr  in  the  on 
i(  the  Xy-plu 
may  taks  the  B 
■  4th  dimmdioT 


e.  a(   t 


;  yv- 


u  »•+*•,  «+Wy.  but 
•V.  The  doRuin  of  i 
lane,   as  trtaeh  ' 


'  undo.  L 
);  ta  P  ui 


VV.  obermg  •  =  /(.). 


the  tejttme   of    XY 
will    imC    be    tmifom..    ua^ 
and  aun^ta   in  wuntksa 
hscomea   the   ftudy  of  thn 


irelr  indepBident  of  J^  b 


T  and  V  the  feet  (on  X)  of  tangent  and  normal 

at  P.  Since  yi  =  tan  r,  SN  =  yyx,  ST^y.Xf, 
and  we  easily  express  PN,  PT,  etc  Also,  if 
f  =  an^  of  intersection  of  y=  /{*)  and  y=  F(x) , 


y™i-.  we    write    u^^vy,    u,'~tfiy+vy,,    uf=t>^ 

+2ayi+B3^ un=i>ny  +  nsa~iyi+  .  .  .  +vyn. 

From  these  {»+!)  simultaneous  equations  we 
form  the  elimiiumt  of  the  n  unknowns,  y,  yi, 
yi,  . .  .yn  ■;  this  ^minant  is  linear  in  y»  and 
yields 


1    VV.  con- 
t  in  XY,  Q 


fidded 


of  i^ 
CD  in  generml  v^  n 
wbateTBT  path  of 
if^.^be • 


t(w  study  of  1 
ate  Uxtv  ol  VV.  Al 
the  part  of  the  ^tt"' 
independent 


then  tan  ♦"=?■ 


rr-  If  the  curve*  touch,  the 


1  +?. 
.  _  ...._    =0;  if  they  are  perpendicular,  the 
denominator  •=  0, 

2.  Envelopes.^'Ut  P(j-,  y;  y.'j-KI  (1> 

be  a  system  of  curves  distinguished  by  varying 
values  of  the  parameter  p.     For  any  special 
value  of  p,  Fix,  y;  f  )=K)  will  be  one  curve  and 
F{x,y;p+ip)==0  (2J 

a  neighboring  curve.  Where  do  they  meet? 
What  relation  connects  x  and  v  of  the  inter- 
section, /,  of  any  such  pair?  We  must  com- 
bine (1)  and  (2>  and  eliminate  p.  If  in  the 
result  we  pass  to  the  limit  for  J^=0,  we  shall 
find  the  locus  of  the  intersection  of  consecuHves 


F  (»,  y;  p+  ip)~F  (x.  y;  p) 


we  get 

between  which  and  (1>  we  now  eliminate  p. 
This  eliminant  connects  x  and  y  for  every 
intersection  of  two  consecutives  of  the  svstem, 
every  instantaneous  pivot  about  whicn  the 
curve  starts  to  turn  into  a  neighboring  position. 
But  this  is  not  oil.  It  connects  the  x  and  y 
of  all  other  points  where  meet  two  curves 
(branches)  corresponding  to  the  same  P,  as 
may  thus  be  seen.  Assign  any  pair  of  values 
to  X  and  y,  L  e.,  take  any  point  in  the  plane, 
and  ask  what  members  of  F=^  pass  throu^ 
it,  i.e.,  what  are  the  corresponding  values  of  /? 
There  are  n  such,  if  P  be  of  nth  decree  in  *. 
When  will  two  of  these  f-roots  be  equal? 
Only  when  the  ^-discriminant  of  P~0  van- 
ishes; i.e.,  when  the  eliminant  of  p  between 
F^~K)  and  Fp~0  vanishes,  as  we  know  from 
Algebra.  Hence  this  eliminant  connects  x 
and  y  for  all  points  where  meet  two  curves 
corresponding  to  the  same  or  equal  p's.  This 
will  include  all  cusps  and  nodes  as  well  as 
itutanianeous  pivots;  hence  the  *-eliminant=H) 
will  be  the  equation  of  all  cusp-loci  and  node- 
loci  as  well  as  of  envelope  proper. 

Illustration. —  Find  the  envelope  of  a  straight 
line  AB  on  which  the  intercept  between  X 
and  y  is  a  constant  c.    The  equation  of  AB  is 


Vc»-o» 


-1=.0«P(«, 


a). 


Another  A'B'  of  the  system  is 


intenectinK  palha  of  v.  then  t 


Ji  =  +  0 

IK.     CfomtlricMffy  thia  sianifiea  that 
IS  paths  of  ■;  and  a,  ^  the  corretpond- 


.SV: 


wubr  Ikt  tamt  a*tlt.  Hence  the  analc*  of  Ibe  currilbMi 
triangte  (fl,  e".  ff">  =  the  anelei  of  tSa  ODrreapoodina  cu 
vllineor  triangle,  (f.  fi".   (p;T;Tience  the  two   correipoiidit 


ler  and  Che  Irituns  an  limila. 
a  the  geotnctrit  inlerpr««tion 
fflj  «f  a   Cempla    Vanailt  ^q 


,  intspistatioiia  might  M   iiidefiiiitaljr  ■il«nd«il. 


{«' 


-A.). 


and  /"  of  these  two  with 
AB  are  definite.  As  A'  and  A"  close  down  upon 
and  coalesce  in  A,  /'  and  1",  always  definite, 
close  down  upon  and  coalesce  in  their  common 
limit  /,  the  inilaiUaneoits  pivot  about  which  AB 
starts  to  turn.  Differentiating  and  eliminating 


[ig 


v  Google 


ITO 


CALCULUS,  THB  IHFINITBSIHAL 


a  we  find  Ac  4-cu*ped  Hypocydmd,  xV+yK'™ 
ffi,  as  the  envelope,  or  path  of  the  inttan- 
laneout  pivot  I. 

Hence  Plucleer's  donble  conception  of  a 
curve  as  path  of  a  point  gliding  aking  a  straigjit 
line  tliat  Varm  about  the  point,  and  envelope 
of  a  straigtit  line  that  turns  about  a 
point  that  glides  on  the  straight  line.  Hk 
relation  connecting  the  correspondins:  mag- 
nitudes, arc -length  s  (of  the  path)  and 
angle  <>  ^throu^  which  the  straight 
line  turns),   ts   the  intrinsic  equation  of   the 


valued  detenninalion  widi  many-valued 
inverse,  and  also  of  the  definiteness  of  dif- 
ferentiation as  compared  witli  the  indcfinite- 
ness  of  its  inverse.  Integration  (see  below). 
Some  curves  reproduce  themselves  iir  their 
e  volutes,  notably  Cycloid  and  Logarithmic 
Spiral,  which  latter  inspired  the  engraving 
and  epitaph  on  the  tomb  of  Jacob  Bernoulli 
(1654-1705):  Eadem  mutata  reswgo.  The 
general  theory  of  the  Contact  of  curves, 
Asymptotes,  etc.,  beautifully  exemplifies  this 
Calmrus,  but  cannot  be  treated  here  (see 
Curves,  Higher  Plane). 


ja  i-wvra,   ntyner   riunci. 

curve.  The  DQrjl,  is  named  overage  curvature  Indeterrnlnates. — If  for:r'»abothtermsof : 

of    Js;   Its   limit  - 


is   named   inslanlaneoui 

curvature   («)  at  P.     PlaiiJy    Jo  ■—  Jtj  hence 

dT  dr        li  tan  r    dx -f 

"~<i*  "rftiH^'     ix     •  ds~{.\  +y'')l. 
(N.B.  The  Differential  Triangle  PDQ  formed 
by  4x,  Ay,  is,  yields  at  once 


*{:=) 


fraction  J"=r(^  vanish,  then  y  loses  definite- 
f!o)_0 

f(a)-0- 


ness,  taking  the  unmeaning  fonn,  /  = 
(Cf.  Algebra). 

The  fundamental  example  is  y=      x  —  a' 
for  j'^d.    However,  we  may  still  seek  Lim. 


In  the  drde  «  is  the  constant    ~-,  hence  the 

curvature  of  the  circle  is  the  reciprocal  of  the 
radius.  For  any  point  of  any  curve  the  recip- 
rocal of  this  curvature  is  called  the  radius  of 
curvature,  p;  hence  this  />  at  any  point  is  the 
radius  of  a  circle  of  equal  curvature,  hence 
called  circle  of  curvature. 

To  illustrate.— Dtnw  PT  and  PN,  tangent 
and  normal  to  the  curve;  about  K'  and  K' 
on  PN,  with  radii  p' >  p  and  p"<.p,  through 
P  draw  two  circles,  one  less,  the  other  greater 
than  the  circle  of  curvature.  Let  p'  and  p' 
approach  and  coalesce  in  p;  then  K'  and  K" 
approach  and  coalesce  in  K,  the  centre  .of 
curvature,  and  the  O  about  a  is  the  oseula- 
tory  circle. 

Otherwise,  through  P,  and  Q'  and  Q'  on 
opposite  sides  of  P,  draw  a  circle.  Let  mid- 
normals  to  PQ',  PQ"  meet  PA'  at  S'  S". 
and  each  other  at  S  \m  Q'  and  Q"  approach 
and  coalesce  in  P^  S",  S  ,  S'"  all  approach 
and  coalesce  in  their  common  limit.  5"  (or  A'). 
Hence  the  osculatory  circle  ""circle  through 
three  consecutive  points  of  a  curve,  and  centre 
of  eurvoture  intersection  of  two  consecutive 
normals. 

The  co-ordinates  (u  and  v)  of  K  are  given 

/?< 

nating  x  and  y  between  these  equations  and 
the  equation  of  the  curve,  we  get  the  equa- 
''    1  connecting  u  and  v  for  every  K,  i.e.,  the 


ty.  yi  -t-  1  ^  0,     the     tangents     at 

responding  P  and  K  arc  perpendicular,  the  nor- 
mei  to  the  infolule  is  tangent  to  the  evotule. 
Also,  it  is  easy  lo  prove  that  the  arc-length 
in  Et'olule  can  differ  only  by  a  constant  from 
the  radius  of  currature  (c)  in  Involute.  Hence 
a  point  of  a  cord  held  tight  while  being  un- 
wotmd  from  the  evolute  must  trace  an  in7-olutr; 
hence  the  former  name.  To  any  involute  there 
is  only  one  e\-olute,  but  to  any  wolute  there 
are  infinitely  many  (so-called  parallel)  invo- 
lutes,—an    cxcelloit    illustration    gf    »    one- 


Hx) 


to  assume  this  limit 


i^'O,  thou^  it  would  be  arbitrary 


boux),    I£    X — a    be    removable    from    both 
terms,  we  may  cancel  it  for  *^a,  and  then 


t'+ax+if  for  x-^i 

Lim.  x*— a' 

hence     ,,;.a  — — - 


x=a.      Thus 
;   this  last=3rf  for 

=3a',  butnot 


I.  fix)  _ 
'   ♦(«) 


for  x^^a,  unless  arbitrarily.  Now  ^ 

Lim.  •'  (ai 
^  JT^    for   #(<!)- 0=  f(o)       (L-Hospital). 

Hence  the  ordinary  rule:  Take  the  limit  of 
the  quotient  of  the  D's  of  ihc  terms  at  the 
critical  value.  Or,  expand  the  terms  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a,  simplify,  cancel  the  vanish- 
ing common  factor,  and  evaluate  for  x~v. 
Similarly,  with  proper  modification,  we  treat 

0 
^iand"  — •,  reduced  to -^.    Indeterminate 

exponentials  like    I",  0*  etc.,  are  first  reduced 

0 
to  —  by  passing  to  Logarithms. 

Maxima  and  Minima  Are  ^ints  where  a 
curve  ceases  to  ascend  and  begins  to  descend; 
accordingly  at  such  points  the  D'  must  change 
sign ;  hence  must  pass  throu^  0,  if  continuous. 
This  passage  is  from  +  to  —  for  a  maximum, 
from  —  to  4-  for  a  minimum.  Heiice  the 
ordinary  rule :  To  maximize  or  minimize 
fix),  put  f(x)'=^;  the  r-rwots  will  yield 
maximal  or  minimal  values  ol  f{x)  according  as 
they  make  f(x)  negative  or  positive.  For 
f"  (j-)  "-0,  treat  3d  and  4th  D's  precisely  as  the 
1st  and  2d  D's.  The  same  rules  result  from 
expanding  fix"),  as  by  Taylor's  Theorem. 
Special  cases  (as  of  D  discontrnuons)  call  for 
special  treatment,  often  preferably  geometrical 
or  mechanical. 

The  geometric  depiction  of  a  fnnctioH  of  two 
independent  variables,  :f™f{xs)  or  F{x,  y.  a) 
=^,  is  of  course  a  surface  (S)  :  at  any  p«nt 
(j',y)in  the  plane  erect  the  corresponding  vahK 


[ig 


vGooglc 


CALCULUS,  THB  INFINITESIMAL 


parallel  to  ZX;  then  x  and  <  wouJd  change,  but 
not  y.    Hence  there  would  be  simultaneous  Jx 

aod     Ja,   but    Jy=  0.      Then   L-j    is  written 
^  (Jacobi),  and  is  read  partial  D  of  > 


^  jT  =^-^—?«r(«i/  D  of  B  as  to  y. 

For  if^Hx,  y,!)  institution  fails,  but  we  think 
each  F  in  \x,  y,  a]  as  weighted  with  the  proper  w 
instead  of  erecting  this  w  perpendicular  to 
[x,  y,  t].  As  P  moves,  the  weight  u  changes. 
For  motion  panllel  to  X  both    ^  and  it  aie  0 

and  ijj  '^g^'  eW:-  Of  course,  the  foregoing 
presumes  that  e  and  w  actually  admit  of  the 
derivations  in  question. 

Diffvrentiias,  Partial  ind  Total^-By  Defini- 
tion, dtu=-^.4x^'parHai  Differential  oi  m  at 
tox.etc.    du=-^.Jx  +  ...  =  ^.dx  +  ...= 

du 

total  Diffemntial  of  •*,  ^'*='^-  ^*  +■  ■ .+«  J* 
+,  .  .=lotal  Difference  — tt. 

GeometrictUly,  on  ^^(x,y),  the  path  of  x- 

change  is  parallel  to  ZX,  hence  gj^'tan'',  as 
before.      Similarly  ^  — =tan    it.      The    plane 

>}* 

Qearly   its   equation   is   w — «-■(»  —  *)ar  "'" 

,_  .^ 

''dyiit,v,w  being  the  current  co-ordinates 


an  extension  of  me<Uate  derivation.  Of  course, 
the  possibility  and  definiteness  of  the  opera- 
tions are  implied.    Hence  again 

or  the  Totai  Difffrenliat=^thc  sum  of  the  Pariiat 

Differentials.     For  t—x,    ^  =/i  ■\- }y  ■  yz,   or 

d*^^ft.dx  +f^dy,  a  fundamental  theorem  hold- 
.__..,._.   _.  ,       .  theDO 

Jy) 


-  -=-,   etc.     Hence   the   equations 


of  the  normal  are   ' 
As  to  existence,  the  tangent  plat] 


y,  I  +  Jiz,  and  *,  y  +  Jy,  I  +  iJ^i) ,  pass  a  secant 


Here,  at  (0,  0,0),  ^- 


=  -^  lose 


all  meaning,  as  do  tangent  plane  and  normal. 

In  general  there  is  no  such  notion  as  Total 
Derivative  of  z^fi.x,  j),  x  and  y  independent; 
but  if  both  be  functions  of  an  arbitrary  t,  we 
have  the  Tot<U  D  of  £  as  to  this  tj 

dt  ^di      dx'di  '^dy'Sr 


e  when  at  '(x,  y)  the  DQ 
fix  +  ix,y+  dy)  —fix. 


Ax 

is  an  equably  cotitinuous  function  of  y  and  ix. 
Higher  D's  are  pure  when  the  same  Inde- 
pendent Variable  is  retained,  mixed  when  it  is 

^    ^     aNt  I  3'« »  ^       3>* 

changed     So  -^.    ^    »re    pur«;  but    ^^ 

is  mixed.     In  mixed  D'a  the  question  arises: 
Is  the  order  of  Derivation  indifferentf    The 


3^ 


a^ 


answer  is.  Yes,   ^^  =  ^^.  but  only  under 

conditions.  For  a  power-series  the  case  is 
clear,  but  the  ^neral  investigation  is  subtle, 
and  the  result  is  involved  and  tedious.  The 
theorem  holds:  When,  for  *  in  {a — h,  a  +  h] 


dxm. 


U;Ak.^r) 


exist  and  are  finite,  and  all  the  mixed  ones 
are  continuous  as  to  both  *■  and  y,  then  eveiy- 
where  in  the  same  rectangle  (2h,  2b)  all  the 
other  mixed  PCs  below  the  nth  order  exist, 
and  the  order  of  derivation  is  indifferent 
Also,  if,  besides,  everywhere  in  the  rectangle 
d»f{x,  y) 
■dr--'3y  . 
9'f(x.yi  d-flx,  y) 

dr'-'flj''  fte  ajw-'' 

[a,  b]  are  continuous  as  to  both  x  and  y,  then 
all  other  mixed  DCs  exist  at  [o,  b],  the  order 
of  derivation  being  indifferent.  Space  is  want- 
ing for  the  proofs. 

The  Taylorian  Series  or  Law  of  the  Mean 
may  now  be  extended,  under  proper  conditions, 
to  develop  fix,  y)  near  (x,  y),  thus: 

/(,  +  ».).  +  «-/(,.,)  +  j»2+»2[ 


)f  «th  order,^ 
exist  finite,  and  at 


down  toward  the  same  fixed  position,  nu  mam^i 
how  Jx  and  Jy   approach  0,  i.e.  independently 

of  -jz  and  yx,  then  the  limiting  position  of  // 
is  the  tangent  plane  at  P.  But  at  the  vertex 
P  of  a  cone  (k*  -f- y  ==  m's'fl ,  7/  rolls  forever 
around  the  cone  as  Q  and  R  drde  around  P. 


+|if*'sS+2" 


Jin 


^] 


1  **■  k'^PkPd'ffx  +  Sh,y  +  ny) 

"'"It,  J?  a*-")* 

Symbolically, 

The  last  term  is  the  remainder  Rn,  which  must 
converee  upon  0,  for  «  =*,  to  be  neglected. 
A  sufficient  condition  therefore  is  that  the 
partial  D's  of  /  remain  finite  near  (r,  y)  for 
i»zz*.  This  is  not  a  necessary  condition,  how- 
ever, to  find  which  is  not  easy  nor  attempted 
here. 

Geometrieally,  take  the  tangent  plane  at  P 
as  XY,  the  normal  as  Z.    Develop  «"-/(*,  y) 


[ig 


v  Google 


CALCULUS.  THE  INFIHITBSIIUL 


-A-=*,iy  — *=y. 


ifi'-li+^S^  +J'$}«o,o)+|,-,  ^\. 

Since  X,  y,  t  are  all  infinitesimal  and  ■r^=0^-r^ 

dx  dy 

at  (0,  0,0),  t  is  infinitesimal  of  2d  order.    Call 

the  2d  D's  in  order  A,  B,  C  and  put  jt  =  r  cos  ^, 

fi,  where  i)  is  the  angle  with  ZX  of  a 

j'fcJion,  through 


normal  plane,  making  a  nor 
Z.     Heni»^=i4  cos*' +2 


in*+C8i 


+  |f  l,hcnceLim.-^+4cos*  +ZBcoa*aii« 
+  C  sin  #*,  which  is  easily  seen  to  be  the 
curvature,  "^ — ,  of  this  normal  section.  For 
a  perpendicular  normal  section,  *'=* +ir/2, 
K-ini-L  =^    ^iTa'— 2S  sin  *  cos  *  +  C  cos  «*; 


•4  + 


=j4  +  0,  a  cotutoMl  for  all  pairs 

of  perpendicular  normal  sections  (Euler),  im- 
portant in  Physics  and  formerly  taken  as  - 
measure  of  the  curvature  at  P{0,  0,  0). 

Consider  the  surface  2e  =  Ax'+  2Bxy  +  Cy". 
It  is  a  Pvraboloid  (.Pd) ;  it  fits  on  5  only  at 
P  (0, 0, 0)  elsewhere  departs  from  S.  The  sec- 
tions of  S  and  Pd  are  not  the  same  for  «""e, 
but  close  down  on  each  other  for  c  ^0.  The 
/'((-section  is  an  ellipse,  an  hyperbola,  or  a 
parabola,  according  as  B' — v4C<0,  >0,or— '0. 
Suppose  it  enlarged  under  the  microscope  to  a 
constant  size  as  r=0:'  then  the  ^'-section 
steadily  doses  down  on  it  as  limit 

Hence  Pd  and  S  agree  elementally  at 
/■(O.  0,  0);  also  they  agree  in  curvature  (of 
their  own  normal  sections),  hence  Pd  is  called 
the  osculating  paraboloid  of  5"  at  (0,  0,  0),  All 
these  parallel  seciions,  for  changing  c,  are 
similar,  hence  /lr"+ 2Ba-y  +  Cy'=  1  is  taken 
as  type  and  called  Indicatrix  (Dupin).  This 
indicatrix  is  an  ellipse  lor  B'—AC<rO,  the  S' 
is  cup-shaped  or  synclastic;  it  is  an  hyperbola 
for  5'— ^C>0,  the  5^  is  saddle-shaped  (anti- 
clastic),  like  a  mountain-pass.  The  indicatrix 
has  two  Axes,  tangents  to  sections  of  greatest 
and-^east  curvature  both  of  Pd  and  5  at  P  (any 
point  of  S)  which  are  mutually  perpendicular 
and  named  principal  sections.  Now  let  P  start 
to  move  on  S  facing  along  either  axis  or  prin- 
cipal section  (say  that  of  least  curvature).  This 
axis  starts  to  turn  about  P.  Let  P  continue  to 
move  on  .S"  facing  always  along  the  turning  axis. 
The  tangent  to  its  path  will  give  the  direction  of 
this  axis  at  every  point  of  its  path,  which  path 
is  called  a  Une  of  Curvature  (LC).  Plainly 
through  every  point  of  .?  there  pass  in  general 
two  and  only  two  LCs  (Mongc),  each  ihe 
envelope  on  5'  of  a  system  of  principal  tangents 
to  S.  These  LCs  cut  up  S  into  elementary 
curvilinear  rectangles  and  yield  an  excellent 
system  of  co-ordinates  (u,  v).  If  the  indicatrix 
be  a  circle,  then  all  its  axes  are  principal, 
through  the  point  P  there  pass  an   "  of  LCs, 


every  normal  section  is  principal,  the  point  P 
is  an  umbiiic  or  nctic  point.  If  the  indicatrix 
be  a  parabola,  then  S  is  edged  or  ridged 
(<7liadric)  at  P. 

The  notion  of  lurface-cnrvalure  is  generated 
and  defined  quite  like  that  of  line-curvature. 
Draw  the  normal  ^  to  5  at  every  point  of  the 
border  B  of  JS',  forming  a  ruled  surface,  R. 
Draw  parallel  to  each  N  a  radius  of  a  unit- 
sphere,  forming  a  cone  C  cutting  out  JS",  on 
the  sphere- surface,  which  subtends  a  (so-called) 
solid  angle  Jo  at  the  centre.  .This  we  also 
define  as  the  solid  angle  of  the  JV's,  and  further 
define  the  average  curvature  of  AS  as  the  ratio 

-j^'      (Think  of  a  cord  passed  round  the  gorge 

of  R  and  then  t^htened,  compressing  R  into 
C  without  changing  the  solid  angle).  If  the 
unit  solid  angle  or  stereradian  (Halsted)  be 
subtended  by  r',  the  whole  solid  angle  about 
centre  ■='4t;  then  the  metric  numbers  of  Jo 
and  JS'    are    equal,    hence    T 


i5-^.a 


at  any  P  on  S,  then  X  = ;  moreover,  this 

K  is  not  affected  by  bending  S'  in  any  way  with- 
out stretcmng  or  tearing —  a  beautiful  Gaussian 
theorem  of  profound  philosophic  import.  In 
this  sense,  an  5  that  may  be  flattened  out 
into  a  plane  (a^Devclopahle)  has  0-curvature; 
for  such,  RR'  must  become  «  ;  hence  either 
Jf=«  or  R'^<t>.  But  RR'-^il  +  p'  +  q-)/ 
(rt  —  J*),  where  P=^*x,  ff=«v,  r=xxz,  *=*»», 
(  =  s«  (Euler).  Hence  rt  —  j'^O  is  the  equa- 
tion of  Developahles.  For  Applicables  and  fur- 
ther illustrations,  see  Surfaces,  Theory  of. 

The  difficulty  in  dealing  with  Implicit  Func- 
tions (defined  by  unsolved  equations)  lies  in 
the  Existence-theorems,  which  can  only  be 
stated,  I.  Let  Fix,  y)'H  at  (jr^  y,),  and  have 
1st  partial  D's  finite  and  continuous  about 
(.r.,  y»),  and  F|;=0  at  ixt,  y.)  :  then  there  is  a 
y=='fyix)  that  becomes  yt  for  x'=xt,  and  satis- 
fies identically  Fix,  y)^=0  in  the  vicinity,  and  is 
unique,  and  has  a  D,  yi= fix)  —  —  Fg/F^ 
IL  Quite  similarly  for  /'(j-,y.«)— 0,«— f  (*,  y), 
the  last  statement  being:  Aim  two  partial  ZJ's. 


pariial  1 
tor  n  variables. 


Ft  Fy 

" — K'"^=~f;'' 

Most  generally  (III)  let  f i,  .  . . ,  f »  be  n  func- 
tions of  m  variables  j",  y,  .  .  .  ,  and  n  variables 
w,  v,  .  .  .  ,  all  the  F'%  vanishing  at  (jti,  >,..., 
ui,  Vi,  ■  .  '),  all  admitting  partial  £^s  in  that 

vidnity,  and  /{Fi A,;  «,  r,  ..)+0(p.  176), 

at  ix>,  y.,  .  .  .  ,  uo,  Vs  .  .  .)  :  Iken  there  is  a 
system  of  functions  of  m  independents  ^r, 
y,  ,  .  .  that  become  i*^  ^'^  .  .  .  at  (t*  jij,  .  .  .>, 
that  satisfy  identically  all  the  F's  in  that 
vicinity,  and  that  have  partial  D'&. 

Hence  we  have  as  the  ordinary  rule  for  find- 
ing y,  from  Fix,  y)~=0:  Differentiate  f  as  to  x 
regarding  y  as  a  function  of  x,  as  in  mediate 
derivation,  and  solve  the  result  as  to  Vi. 

To  find  now  maximum  or  minimum  y  in 
Fix,  y)— 0,  we  have  y*  — 0,  .'.  F»=fl;  also, 
therefore,  Fxx  +  F^.ja  =  0.    If  F^  +  0,  ttiere  is 


Google 


CALCULUS,  THB  IHPINITBSIUAL 


*  for  Ftx  and  Ff  lUtt'Signed,  1 

for  Fit  and  Fu  unlike-stgned,  and  no  determi- 
nation for  F=t-0.' 

Often  we  seek  (so-called)  relative  maxitnum 
and  minimum  of  z  =  f(x,  y)  when  Fix,  j)=0. 
The  former  equation  is  a  surface  5",  the  latter 
an  intersecting  surface  determining  a  path  over 
S, —  we  seek  the  peak  and  valley  points  in  this 
path.  Differentiating  we  tind  as  the  prime  i 
dition,  fx.F,  '  "  "  •"  " 
which  and  / 

More  generally  we  seek 
mum  of  a  function  of  (»i  +  «)  variables,  fix, 
v,...ti,  V,...),  under  n  conditions  Fi(x,y,...», 
V.  .,.)-=Oi...F«(j,lF, ...«,!'.  ...)=0-  Theo- 
retically we  might  eliminate  rt  variables  u,  v, , .. 
leaving  the  other  m  independent;  it  is  better  to 
let  them  remain  considered  as  functions  of  the 
M  independents,  x,  y,  .  .  .  Hence,  on  putting 
each  partial  D  ="  0;  we  get  m  equations  which, 
with  the  B  f.^0, . . .  Fn~'0,  form  (m+n)  equa- 
tions for  flniLng  (.m  +  n)  unknowns  x,  y,  .  .  .u, 
V,  w,  .  .  .  To  discriminate  between  maidmum 
and  minimum  by  the  sign  of  (T/  will  now  be 
tedious,  but  often  geometrically  or  mechani- 
cally unnecessary. 

Swifter  and  simpler  is  Lagrange's  'Method 
of  Multipliers.'  We  form  a  new  function, 
*(x,y,.  ..U,v....)~f(.x,v,..  .u,V,...} 
—  ^^F(x,  y,  .  .  .  II,  V,  .  .  .).  Only  so  long  as  each 
f  ""0  will*  ^/  identically  for  all  values  (under 
consideration)  of  the  variables.  Wc  now  de- 
termine these  ^'s  so  as  to  make  vanish  simul- 
taneously all  the  partial  D'&  of  *  as  to  r,  y, . . .  u, 
»,...  The  n  conditions  are  rolled  off  from 
the  II,  V,  .  .  .  upon  the  n  ^'s.  We  may  proceed 
similarly  in  dealing  with  Envelope t,  where 
(n-h  I)   parameters  are  connected  by  n  condi- 

Trantformation  of  Vanables  is  often  neccs- 
«ary,  like  transformation  of  Co-ordinates.  The 
formulae,  simple  at  first,  soon  become  highly 
complicated  and  we  are  led  into .  the  Theory 
of  Substitutions,  Invariants,  Reciprocanis  and 
'IJ.  like,  which  cannot  be  treated  here. 

Integration.^  As  the  Differential  Calculus 
s  the  doctrine  of  Limits  of  Quotients  of  Simul- 
taneous Infinitesimal  Differences,  so  the 
Intecbal  Calculus  is  the^  doctrine  of  Limits 
of  the  Sums  of  Infinitesimal  Products  that 
increase  in  number  while  decreasing  in  size, 
both  indefinilely.  The  type  is  the  quadrature 
of  an  area  {A)  bounded  by  X,  a  curve  y=/(^), 
and  two  end-ordinates,  r  =  o  and  j:  «=-  6.  Cut  it 
into  n  strips,  iA,  standing  each  on  a  Ax; 
their  sum  is  A;  plainly  7 J*-> Jv4>y J*,  Y 
being  the  greatest,  y  the  least,  ordinate  stand- 
ing on  its  own  particular  base  ix.  Sinee 
S3*~^6  —  o,  if  y ^"/(j-jbe  continuous,  finite, 
one-valued  throughout  [a,  h\,  each  Y  —  y  is  an 
«,  hence  "^(Y —  y)4x<_''^x,  or  <(6  — flit: 
hence  Lim.  2(y  — y)ij— 0.    Hence  A 


common  limit  of  every  SyJx,  written 


/: 


-    -  ^  0  ^  t,;  and  umiurlv  *ot  aa^ 


a  and  h.  The  total  sign  of  Integration  is 
I,  meaning 


i  ..  .dxati    ,1  being  an  extended  S,  n 


Limit  of  Sum. 

Plainly, 
merely 


supposedly  integrable  throughout,  from  a  to  b, 
and     to     c.      Also  i  ctxdx=c  i  *(x)dx.      Also 

(    /(a:>i««r  ^'/(aieWCJKte).-*  mere  change 

of  origin.  Also   f  lHx)±tlx)]dx^  f  t(.x)dx± 

f 


t(,x)dx.      We  easily  prove  the  almost  obvious 

Theorem  of  the  Mean:    11  f(x)  '=*{x)  ■  f(j), 
each  factor  integrable,  and    *(x)    always  of 

same   sign,   in    (a,   ^,  then    1      f(:^f(s)dx=' 

Hx)     f    fix)dx,  xsa+e(b—a).     Hence /j  = 

f(b),  /a— — /(o),  where  the  D  is  again  the 
front  of  variatiQtt  of  the  Integral  /  or  Area  A. 
Hence  we  readily  reckon  many  integrals  as; 

»'dx=w 
I  co&xdf^  I 


j  co&xdf^  \mnx\  .  i     aiixds=  { — cogx)    , 

This  is  seen  at  once  from  the  figure  (circle- 
quadrant),  as  also 

seen  from  y*— j-'=r'.  Wc  perceive  that  the 
f(x)  is  always  the  D  of  the  so-called  Indefmile 
Inlegrat,  the  expression  to  be  evaluated  at  b 
and  a.  This  is  easily  proved  variously  to  be 
always  the  case.  Thus,  if  f{x)—t'{x)  for  s 
in  [a,  61,  then  )  /  -  *(fr)  U  -  fVb)  -  f'<*)  =  0, 
for  every  value  of  6  in  the  range  of  Intesra- 
bilily.  Hence  /-^  (b)--C.  For  fr-=a,  C  is 
found  to  be  •"  — #(0);  hence. 


=/>'(.,i.- 


♦(»-♦(»). 


have,  u  firtt  tondilion.  i^^0^%^\  Bnd  umiUfly  tor  any        fx 
watim  at  tndepcoilenti.    Tha    Mcondwr    Cooditioia   an         I    /(; 
too  coaqihcate  tor  dvcuisian  hen.  / 


Hence,  to  calculate  the  integral  of  any 
int^rand  from  a  to  b,  find  the  function  of 
which  the  integrand  is  the  D,  and  Uke  the 
difference  of  its  values  at  b  and  a.  The  D 
of  the  integral  is  the  integnnd,  so  far  as  form 
goes,  but  the  value  depends  on  the  extreme*. 
Since  6  may  be  any  x  m  the  range  of  integra- 
bility,  it  is  common  to  write  it  x,  vsat«  x  in 
double  sense,  not  necessarily  confusing.  So 
long  as  a  is  unassigned,  C  is  undetermined; 
hence    it    is    common    to    omit    a    and    write 


0A«  ^  »(*)  +  C,    where    under    |  we  may 


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CALCULUS,  THB  IHFINmSIHAL 


put  g  or  any  other  symbol  for  ^r.  The  integral 
depends  for  its  form  solely  on  f;  for  its  vaiue, 
on  a  and  h  also. 

Hence  integration  and  derivaiio'i  or  digeren- 

tiation    arc    inverse    operations    and  |  '=D    ', 
D='  I      .     The  direct  D  yields  a  definite  result, 
yields  a  result  definite  only  as 


tive  process.    From  (MVJs-^Wifl  +  wis  we  have 
w^™  I  tui>dx+  I  ueadx,  or  I  tuxdx=^iu~  I  vsnir. 

This  latter   |   may  be  simpli 


the   i 


./. 


Thus  I  cos  x.c 


other  advantages  may  accrue. 
■dx 


to  form,  up  to  an  additive  constant,  C.  (Cf. 
Evolute  and  Involute,  above).  Derivation 
simplifies;  reducing  even  transcendents  _  to 
algebraics;  Integration  complicates,  lifting 
algebraics    and    even    rationals    up    into    tran- 


M-/. 


+  r^;:? 


2  I  CX1&3?  ■dx=x-k-^ 


dx;  nbence 
Similarly    for 

cosine  except 
re   reduced   by 


scendenls  ( 


•  Vtf^ 


3^  and  — I .  Derivation  is      passing  to  the  half-angle,  j 


deductive  and  can  create  no  new  forms. 
Integration  is  inductive  and  creates  an  »  of 
new  forms,  all  defined  as  integrals. 

Operating  directly  on  y^fix)  by  a  series  of 
difFerentiations  as  to  .r,  say  fiD),  we  get 
some  function  of  x.  as  X.  or  *^D)r-X.  If 
we  know  X  and  0,  we  may  seek  that  j£=/(J^) 
that  will  yield  X  on  being  subjected  to  the 
train  of  operations  ?(£))  ;  i.e.,  we  seek  to 
amert  at  once  the  totality  of  operations   #(Z)), 


I   that  y= 


fiD) 


s-fJ  {D)X  ■  This 


is  solving  the  Differential  Equation  $(D)y=X, 
and  is  perhaps  the  most  profound  of  mathe- 
matical operations,  of  immense  and  even  uncon- 
querable   difficulty,   overcome    as   yet   only   in 

special  cases.  Thus  x'  S  ~  **^  +  ''^  =  ^^' 
where  f(D)  m x'D'—ZxD+A.  yields,  as  result 
of  the  inverse  f^(.D)  or  iTm* 

r^x'(A+B  log  jr+T^iV), 
where    A     and     B     are     arbitrary    constants. 
Other   forms   of   #(D),  quite  as   simple,   yield 
far  higher  transcendents. 

Inverting  a  table  of  elementary  D's  we  get 
a  table  of  eUmentary  Integrals.  The  art  is 
to  reduce  other  forms,  if  possible,  to  these 
elementary  forms;  when  impossible,  we  must 
introduce  transcendents  defined  by  integrals. 

Change  of  Variable  is  the  most  fruitful 
method  of  Reduction.  By  mecUate  deriva- 
tion,   D^(«J  =♦'((.)  -fe:   also    £^*(»i)  =  ^'(ii); 

hence  jfi»)dii=t(H)=  jf'(u)  ■  Ur  ■  dx.    In  this 


all  is   supposed  expressed  throngli  x. 


What  is  the  rango  of  such  reductions? 
fVkat  functions  can  «w  thtts  integrate  in  terms 
of  known  functionsf  Few  enough.  Of  Afge- 
briiics, 

I.  Rational  fHnclums,  77^,  t^  deccmiposi- 
tion  into  part-fractions. 

II.  Rational  functions  of  x  and  ItToTj/ 
Put  ^^-«-'    "  being 

L.M.C.  of  P,  P' Herewith  the  I  becomes 

rational  in  «. 

III.  Rational  functions  of  x  and 

Vax'+2bx+c. 
think  of  /^ax*+2bx+c 


'/• 


as  a  come, 
II — u;  as  a  secani  through  a 
,  <^)  of  the  conic,  then  we  may  express 
both  X  and  y  rationally  through  u,  which 
reduces  this  case  to  I;  (",  3)  may  be  taken 
variously.  Generally  we  bring  y"  to  the  form 
of  sum  or  difference  of  two  squares  by  putting 

IV.  Rational  functions  of  x  and  y,  these 
being  co-ordinates  of  a  unicursal  F(x,  y)  "0. 
We  shall  then  have  ji='0{«),  T"f(u),  where 
#  and  ^  are  rational,  whereby  these  Abelian 
Integrals  reduce  to  I. 

The  binomial  r^{a+bx*)P  can  be  reduced  to 
II,  and  hence  integrated,  not  generally,  but 
in   these   important   cases,    by   putting   ((""jr". 

1.  ^  integral;  if —^ — ™j  (r  and  t  integers), 

p«t     flC^B. 

2.  ^^'  integral ;  if  f-=  -^  (r  and  s  integers). 


Hence,  to  pass  from  an  old  to  a 


V  variable     P°^  Va+bv-g. 


0  the  old;  i.e.,  under  the 


-  I    sign, 


3.  "^  -f-f  integral;  if  ^ 
tegcrs),  put  a+bw^nf. 

If  fix)  be  rational  inx.Vo 


-—  (r  and  s 


Of    course,    the    extremes    must    be    properly 
adjusted. 

Integration  by  parti  is  also  a  powerful  reduc- 


*+6,V«-t-t,put 
Ratioiu^  func- 
tions of  sin  X  and  cos  x.  Put  i^toi  -j .  a  very 
important  substitution. 


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CALCULVS,  THB  INFIHITESIMAL 


i  Rational  functions  of  t".    Put  •^■*«, 

3.  Rational  Integral  functions  of  x,  e", 
«t(,  ...  sin  mx,  sin  nx,  . . .,  cos  mx,  cos  nj-,  . . , 
Express  the  sines  and  cosines  throDgh  iinara- 
oary  exponentials.  In  the  result  express  tne 
tinae[iaartes  through  sines  and  cosines.  Here 
are  included  rational  functions  of  the  hyper- 
tine  and  -cosine. 

4.  Rational  Integral  functions  of  x  and  log 
1,01  X  and  Mn~'j.    Put  x^t",  or  ;r=sin  h. 

It  /(^)— R(*,  VT).  r  of  3d  or  4th  deeree 
w  X,  wc  cannot  rationalize  but  must  introduce 
Higher  Transcendents.    Let 
,=   (*  J^^  f* ^ 


■ft)  (7^~e,) 
Here  ^  and  u  are  functions  of  each  other  and 
it  Kcms  natural  to  take  u  as  function,  x  as 


argument;  but  in  /- 


■JvT=; 


sin  /  is  a  much  simpler  (periodic)  function  of  / 
than  /  is  of  x;  hence  we  may  suspect  that  x 
above  is  a  simpler  (periodic?)  function  of  u 
than  H  of  X.  Hence  Abe!  thought  the  theory 
miri)t  be  simplified  by  inverting  the  dependence 
before  him  assumed  —  one  of  the  greatest  div- 
iaation  in  mathematical  history.      We  write 


■f(ii)  tWeieirtrass),  1 


r  ^ 

J  rMVT 


-»-(.). 


HeaceNfl^ —    ,  „_^  .  :•  and  so  on.     Now  just 

r  V  Ttftuii 
as  sine  and  cosine  have  one  period  2r,  so  |^ 
has  two  periods,  2 "and  2"',  it  is  an  Elliptic  or 
Doubly  periodic  function.  The  Theory  of  such 
Functions,  one  of  the  most  august  creations  of 
iht  last  century,  is  conspicuous  in  Analysis. 
Of  Hyper- elliptic  Integrals  there  is  no  space  to 
speak. 

The  integral  of  an  Infinite  Series  may  be- 
found  by  integrating  term  tn*  term  only  when 
the  series  converges  uniformly  within  an  inter- 
ral  comprising  the  extremes  of  the  integration. 

It  is  seen  that  the  integrable  forms  are 
absolutely  many,  relatively  few,  the  integra- 
tiouseDe rally  giving  rise  to'a  new  function. 

Tuns  far  we  have  raised  no  question  as  to 
hiegrability,  the  Inte^nd  being  supposed 
unique,  continuous,  finite  and  therefore  in- 
ttgrable,  in  («,  b].  But  when,  if  ever,  may  we 
let  one  or  more  of  these  conditions  fall?  As 
to  continuity,  Riemann  has  discussed  pro- 
foundly. In  what  cases  is  a  function  integrable, 
and  in  what  not?  and  still  further  precision  has 
tieen  attained  by  Du  Bois  Reymond  and 
Weierstrajs.*  It  b  of  particular  interest  to 
Imow  whether  SyJ*  will  vary  finitely  with 
vaiying  modes  of  divisions  of  [»,  b\.  Riemann 
calls  the  sobtntervals  i,,  it,  .  ,  .  <ln;the  greatest 
fluctuation  of  function-value  in  each  Sit  he 
a^  Dy,  then  must  2iJ*Di  be  inknitesimal. 
ihracc  it  follows  that  when,  at  each  °k  sinks  in- 
atfiniteiy  toward  0,  .the  sum  of  subinlervals, 
in  which  D  is  >ii  itself  is  infinitesimal,  then 
ine  Sum  2  has  a  definite  limit,  the  same  how- 
ever [a,  b]  be  subdivided.     Hence  the  integral 


is  finite  and  tmique  in  [a,  b],  and  when  for 

every  infinitesimal  positive  '  there  is  also  a  posi- 
tive it  such  that  |2 — /]  <^  t  when  each  Jfc<;  S, 

Plainly  such  is  the  case  (1)  {orf(x)  continu- 
ous throughovt  [a,  b] ;  but  also  (2)  when  f{x) 
is  finitely  discontinuous  at  i  finite  number  of 
points  in  [a,  b],  and  when  f{x)  has  an  ' 
of  maxima  and  minima,  or  is  quite  undeter- 
mined   (though  finite)   at  a  finite  number  of 


points  in  [o,  b],  as  si 


i^. 


1 
Ci-l)(i-2) 


at  I  and  2 ; 


the  vicinity  of 
an  «  of  points,  provided  only  aJl  these  points 
of  finite  function-fluctuation  form  not  a  linear 
but  only  a  discrete  mass  of  points  (Punktnienge) 
—  the  function  is  then  said  to  be  only  point 
wise  (punktin)  discontinvous  (Hankel). — Adis- 
crete  mass  or  manifold  of  points  is  an  » 
of  points  in  a  finite  interval  (a—h,  a+h],  so 
distributed  at  subintervals  that  the  mm  of  these 
subinlervals  may  be  made  small  at  will  by 
enlarging  at  will  the  number  of  subintervals. 
Otherwise,  the  mass  is  linear.  Functions 
iinearlv  discontinuous  are  not  integrable.  For 
Cantors  more  comprehensive  theory  of  Derived 
Masses   ('Math.  Ann.,>  XVII.  358/),  see  As- 

Du  Bois  Reymond  has  shown  (*Jour.  f.  d.  r. 
u.  d.  a.  Math.,'  79,  21/)  that  die  product  of 
two  such  integrable  functions  is  itself  inte- 
grable. 

Thus  far  the  integrand  has  been  finite.    Bat 

the  DI  f   ■  ,  ■       ..^tri-y    altkougk    the   into- 


I    fix)dx    loses    meaning;    but    if    the    sum 
I       /(x)<ix-f- I         /(x)^  nears  a  definite  li 


o  matter  bow  a  and 


then  this  limit  i 


Such  is  the  case 


^iproach  0  indefinitely, 
named  value  of  t    fix^dM. 

snly  when  J       f(x)dx  mA 


I        f(x)dx  converge  each  toward  0,  as  o   <•', 

ft,  0',  all  close  down  on  0,  o'  <;  o,  0'  <  0;  L*. 
the  immediate  neiEhbochood  of  f  must  con- 
tribnte  infinitesimsTly  to  the  integral.  Simi- 
larly for  any  number  of  points  not  forming  a 

So,    too,  we  may  let  either  extreme,  as  b, 
— ease  toward    «  if  only  the  total  contribu- 
of   the  infinitely   remote   region   be   infini- 


tesimal, i 


W"(«.  ■imu^&Mm.t^ 


k  i    fMdxtr'toT  b  however  large, 

J  y 

y  being  first  taken  sufficiently  lar^. 

Doable  Intsrnls.  |   f  /(x,7)<f«dy.— Think.of 

a  finite  region  R  in  XT,  at  each  point  of  wluch 

is  erected  a  perpendicular  s,  all  forming  a  cyltn- 

,.  dric  volimic  (K)  bounded  by  XY,  the  surface 


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CALCULUS,  THE  INFINITESIMAL' 


«"/(*.  y).  •">d  the  CTlindric  surface  standing 
on  the  border  (B)  of  R.  To  find  f  we  may 
cut  up  R  into     elements    (JK),   as  by  parallels 


V='Lmx.  y)  JR= 


^/«. 


y)dR.    Here  we  assign 


i?,'  the  integration  stretches 
over  all  of  R,  so  that  B  corresponds  to  the 
extremes  of  simple  integration.  It  is  and 
roust  be  indifferent  in  what  order  the  elements 
JR  are  taken;  hence  we  may  sum  up  first  along 
a  strip  parallel  to  X  and  then  sum  alt  sucC 
strips  along  y.  This  double  summing  is  ex- 
pressed by  ■  Double  Megrat  (II)  thus: 

Here  for  any  value  of  x  the  values  of  y  are 
determined  by  the  equation  of  fl.  Hence  6 
and  6  are  functions  of  x;  but  a  and  a  depend 
on  the  extreme  parallels  to  Y  tangent  to  B, 
hence  are  absolute  constants. 

It  is  geometrically  clear  that  //  is  perfectly 
definite,  but  we  must  ask  in  default  of  Geometry, 
when  does  ^  approach  the  same  limit  inde- 
pendently of  the  function- value  chosen  for  each 
4R  and  fiie  way  in  which  each  JR^O.as  thdr 
numbers  «  ?  Answer:  When  2  DkJRic=0  as 
eadi  dRii=f>,  Dh  bdng  the  greatest  fluctuation 
in  function-value  in  iRk-  When  is  this  the 
case?  Answer:  (1)  When  /(x,  v)  is  con- 
tinuous throughout  R:  (2)  when  /  at  single 
points  or  on  single  lines  (at  "'  points)  be- 
comes finitely  discontinuous  or  indeterminate 
or  oscillatory;  (3)  when  /  becomes  thus 
finitely  discontinuous  or  indeterminate  or 
oscillatory  along  an  "  of  lines  (at  «'  points), 
|7  only  the  sum  of  the  elements  (JR's),  where 
D>',  is  itself  <  E  (infinitesimal) ;  i.e.,  when  the 
linear  masses  do  not  form  an  areal  (or  planar) 
mass,  i.e.,  when  their  initial  elements  form  not 
a  linear  but  only  a  discrete  mass. 

May  f(x,  y)  attain  «  and  //  retain  sense? 
Answer:  If  /  attains  a  definite  ">  but  only 
at  definite  points,  or  along  a  curve  and  of 
order  <I,  then  the  //  remains  definite  and 
finite;  also  the  order  of  int^ration  remains 
indifferent.  Here  the  contribution,  to  the 
//,  =  0  as  the  element  of  area  (in  XY)  shrinks 
toward  0  along  the  curve;  i.e.,  the  volume  V 
shoots  up  to  to  only  along  an  infinitely  sharp 
edge. 

So,  too,  the  region  R  may  stretch  out  any 
way  toward  ">  S  f  shrinks  faster  than  R 
spreads ;  e.g.,  R  may  spread  over  all  the  plant, 
if  in  all  remote  regions  f  becomes  0  of  higher 
than  2d  order.  Minuter  discussion  must  be 
foregone. 

Extremely  important  is  the  changr  of  vwi- 
tibles  in  //.     In  simple  integration  dvurdx 


afx'  ~^^*''  **'  *'  J")-  "^^^  remarlnble 
expression,  introduced  by  Jacobi  and  named 
by  him  the  Functional  Determinant,  is  called 
the  Jacobian  (Salmon).  As  already  exemplified, 
it  plays  the  role  of  derivative  of  the  system 
d{u,v)  dix,  y)  _ 
d(x,y)   d(«,  t) 

—  =1      Ab0"'"""-n^^'''    "^     ^^'"'  " 

du  aCi.yj     d(w,  «)   dfx,  3-)  • 


{«,  »)  as  to  <.x,y). 


In  fact 


jQBtas 

aa  yx  =y„.  Ux.  Ag^n,  if  ^ 

[=0,  thenFfii.i')' 


=0,  then  w= 


d(u,  V) 
a(*.y) 
From  DI  we  readily  pass 


rsj: 


fi'.y. 


:,  and  so  on. 

the  tripU  I, 
!}  dx  dy  di,  and  hence  to  mil- 


a(.,..i.)     I""  «•  «.| 


=p;  under  |    |  ,dx  dy=fidpd^—thia  latter  i: 

nglc.— 
ordina 

=  p    CO! 

n    ?. 
M^tangi 

/// 


fact  the  elementary  curvilinear  rectangle. — To 
pass  from  rectangular  to  spherical  co-ordinates, 

x=P  cos  *  an  *,  y^=p  sin  *  sin  *,  i^p  cos  >, 
whence  /  (x.  y,  »;  P,  *,  W  =P*  an  ?,  and 
P*  aa  f  dp  do  d^  is    in    fact    the    rectangular 

curvilinear  volumetric  element  under 

Analogy  readily  extends  these  forms  to  «-fold 
spaces.  Thus  the  Jacobian  appears  geomet' 
ncally  as  a  real  derivative,  Ihe  limit  of  the 
ratio  of  two  simultaneous  changes. 


f(6)—F(a), where 


e  J*/C.r)rf.r=J 


^ J j" /(«,>)<* 


some^atbanda;  canthedoublt 


integrated  over  the  region  R  also  be  expressed 
through  the  end-values  of  some  F(_x,y)  along 
the  contour  of  K?  This  querj;  is  much  harder 
to  answer,  but  is  answered  similarly:  If  fix.y) 


p.. 


tmder  the 


/• 


whereby  i 


:  pass   fro 


as  variaUe  of  integration.     In  passii^  from 
X,  y  to  «,  9,  under  the  |   |  ,dii  J^T'M  dx  dy,  but 

what  IS  if?     itis    te^"^ai=kTCr 


is  integrable  in  R,  then  in  general 

is  for  every  included  value  of  y  a  contin- 
uous function  of  x,  F  {x,  y),  and  for  every 
included  value  d  x  sm  integrable  function  of  y. 

ThaifbtDl  f  f  f{x,y)dxdy-    f  F{x,   y) 

sin  vds,  where  s  is  the  contour  of  R  and  "= 
slope  of  the  normal  (drawn  inwards  at  any 
point  of  j)  to  the  -i-r-axis.    Tlus  latter  is  a 

curvilinear  I  ,  geometrically  de(»cted  as  3  wait 

bttilt  up  (fM^.  down)  alongthecontouri  of  A.— 


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CALCULUS,  THB  IHIMNITESIUAL 


•///»' 


/  extended  throogiwut 


F  integrated  over  the  entire  surface  (S)  of 
the  volume,  whereby  a  apace-int^ral  is 
turned  into  a  surtace-integral  »nd  conversely: 


+  f^+'% 


us. 


and  form  therefrom  the  three  Jacobians,  by 
deleting  the  cohimns  in  order,  commonly 
written  A,  B,  C.     Hence,  by  easy  substitution 

lor  F:,,  Fg,  F„  S=f  f^/A*  +  £*  +  0  dtt  *• 

I  of  5 
I  plan. 


espondt 
to  pure 


where  Jii  along  the  normal 

to  ij-  on  X  etc.    These  conv 

and  Riemann)   are  equally  important 

and  to  applied  mathematjc  I. 

The  most  immediate  geometric  problem  of 
integration  is  Quadralure,  already  discussed. 
Rectification  is  finding  in  a  straight-length'^^n 
are-length.  This  latter  must  be  defintd  as  the 
common  limit  of  the  length  of  inscribed  and 
drciun scribed  polj^ons  of  which  each  sidci^O. 


Since  n=V  {*«)•+ (yd' 
-*{t). 


■=/ 


///■ 


s  a  function  of  i,  tS'^flx) ;  then  V' 


—  l^Sdx. 


=  'j./dx. 


.S  =  -^i'.  V 


Quadrature  of  a  curved  surface  is  sometimes 
called  Complanation. 

Here  again  the  area  must  be  defined  as 
the  common  limit  of  the  surface  area  of 
polyhedra  inscribed  and  circumscribed,  no 
matter  how.  The  surface  element  dS  or  (^iS) 
atMiut  P  may  be  viewed  as  projected  into 
the  element  dx  dy  in  XY  and  as  having  a 
limiting  ratio  1  with  the  corresponding  element 
JII  in  the  plane  tangent  at  P.  The  slope  of 
this  plane  to  XK—y— slope  of  normal  to  Z; 
„  - .  JS  ,.  JS  JII  ,.  JIT 
Hence  Lim.-T-^-tLim,  -rn-r-r  "Lun,  ;— r-"" 
4xJy  All  Jxiy  JxJy 

=  \F^  +  F^  +  F^\  i/F,;      hence     S  = 


//^ 


\        \i/Ptdsdy,ihengionoi 


in  XY  being  the  projection  thereon  of  S,  under 
obvious  conditions.  Often  the  surface  is 
nven  paramrtricalty,  i.e.,  x,  y  and  i  as  func- 
tions of  the  independents,  h  and  f.    Then  we 

ils];^!' 


the    rectangtHar   tanty 


For  Revolutes,  S—Zf  |  ydf. 
Diffemtiatio  de  Corva 


We 


have  found  the  D  of  an  I  as  to  either  extreme, 

but  the  integrand  may  contain  a  parameter,  thus 

;  P)dx.    The  (  ,  being  then  a  function  of 


/«. 


V(.*ii*+(yi)'dt.    i^= 


,  ,,  _,  .  (t),  be  contimious 
functions  of  t,  with  finite  limits  of  value, 
then  this,  integration  is  possible,  and  the 
curve  is  rectifiable.  Such  is  not  the  case  in 
Weierstrass's  curve ;  there  the  oscillations 
(maxima  and  minima)  are  infinitely  many  in 
every  ndf^borhood  however  small,  nor  is  the 
variation  finite  in  any  such  neighborhood  — 
the  arc  is  infinite  between  any  two  points. 
Volume    is    given    by    triple    Integration, 

dxdy  df,eztrenie6  defined  bj  the  bounding 


Thus. 


-r.- 


Integr.  iDer.  p  is  equivalent  to  Dei 
This  holds  generally,  if  for  a  defin 

fp,  P  +  Jp],  and  for  [a,  61.  ~^  « 


botharand^:rt«i~  r/(x,  P)dx=  f^^^^ d*. 
If  p  appears  in  either  a  or  Ei  or  both,  then 

If  the    I   be   on   integrable    function    of   p', 
F(p),  in     la,  ^,    integrating  as  to  p  we  get 


"f. 


Thus  the  |    may  be  treated  as  function  of 


constant,  as  0,  1,  ±  " ,  and  this  gives  rise 
to  an  important  set  of  concepts  and  to  the 
Theory     of    Definite    Integrals.      Thus,     for 

r^KO— 1  IT 

0<''<1J  ^  7+i^^^^-  ^^  '*  "  function 

of  a. 
uous, 

I      x'-'t-idx,  denoted  by  r(a),  or  better  by 

the  Gaussian  Il(a—1),  through  which  count- 

'MKiS-^ffyl&i-ptdiiir.  8=<i:HM-V„»f«B*,0>«,M- 
]i^i^  P^i^.  i.+y,.  J,+V  *t  d-wrmngo). 


d=,  Google 


vn 


CALCULUS.  THB  INPINITBaiHAL 


less  others  are  expressible^    This  /"-or  //-func- 
tion has  remarkible  properties : 

1.  r(a+i)^=aria),  or  //(a)=»o//(o— 1),— 
the  factorial  property,  |b  ==  «|h—  1.  But  the 
factorial  loses  its  meaning  if  n  b  not  a  posi- 
tive integer,  while  f  and  //  retain  theirs :  thus, 

/•(i)-VT.  r(t)=|.jV'^ 

2.  AajrCl— o)=>  ^^"  Euler's  beautiful 
discovery.  Hereby  arguments  complemental 
to  1  are  set  in  mutual  relation,  as  ^in  (  t  —  «)= 


;  tan  a-tan 


&-")= 


)  that  fro 


lAi) 


we  may  reckon  /"(!).  Hence  we  need  reckon 
r(a)  only  for  a  in  (0,  i),  as  sin  a  only  for  a  in 
[O.T/21. 

r(c)  and  particularly  log  r(a)  may  now  be 
differentiated    with   highly   interesting   results, 

formerly  convergent  for  a>0;  hence  we  may 
integrate  term- wise  from  1  to  a  and  get 
d  leg  r(a)  


-(a 


-  h 


t  +C,.wheiie 


C  is  the  Eulerian  or  Mascheronian  Constant 

E  j[jj  =.r(l)'— S772156649  .  ,  .  calculated  by 

Euler  to  15  and  bv  Legendre  to  19  decimals. 
Hence,  by  a  2a  Imegration, 

log  /■(o)="l'°log- 


a+m 


;(i+.)(.+y)...(i+— ,) 

Such  is  Gauss's  Definition  of  i'{a)  for  every 
finite  a  for  which  no  factor  in  the  denominator 
vanishes.  Herewith  we  are  brought'  to  the 
expires sion  of  functions  not  through  infinite 
series  but  through  infinite  products,  as  already 
exemplified  in  WalUs's  formula : 

2  I's'js's'?' 
This  subject,  of  infinite  range,  cannot  be 
pursued  here  — 'hilU  peep  o'er  hills,  arid  Alps 
on  Alps  arise*  The  fundamental  theorems 
were  rigorously  proved  first  by  Weierstrass 
"  La.  Math.,  LI).     It  may  be 


rig< 
(Jour,  f" 

added  that  the  1st  Eulerian, 


a+;i^.+6 


■rfx, 


is  denoted  by  B{a,h)  (Binet)  and  is  connected 
with  the  2d  1^  Bia,b)l{a+b)^t{a)-rb  and 
being  expressible  thus  sinipl}>  through  r  has 
not  so  much  independent  significance. 

The  central  notion  of  the  Inlcgral  CaUufus, 
the  Limit  of  a  Sum,  is  more  obvious  than  that 
of  the  LUfferenHal  Caiculiu,  the  Liuit  of  a 
Quotient.  The  foundations  of  the  one  are 
also  seen  to  be  much  broader  than  those  of  the 


other,  so  that  the  former  is  not  mrrtly  the  in- 
verse of  the  latter.  Ilie  twain  saie  upon  the 
two  ^eat  aspects  of  History,  the  I^namical  and 
the  Statical,  Proceti  and  Result  While  the 
liuegral  Calculus  borrows  its  speed  and  direct- 
ness from  the  Differential  Calculus,  its  awn 
reaction  upon  this  latter  is  instant  and  powet- 
ful.    Tfati*,  from  integration  'by  parti  we  have 

J  *'iy)dy=yr(7)-  Jr'{y)y<h:-  J  r'(y)ydj 
=  -^y#'M+g-  r*"'C)'))Wy;    and    80  on. 


fW-*{0)-|-*f'{i)-jyr(«  +^  f'W  -.  -  . 
±  r-  I  r^i-+»(y)dy.  To  avoid  the  altenia- 
I  f(a — %)dM  and  proceed 


tion  in  siga  we  take 

as  before:  then  on  putting  a ■^^xs-l-li, 


iJ' 


unft-*-\*+k-*)dit,0<  k  <R. 


Such  is  the  swiftest,  directest,  nearest-lying 
deduction  of  the  fundBmental  Taytai's  Seriet, 
by  which  the  value  of  f  at  (ro+  A)  is  built  up 
out  of  the  value  of  f  and  Its  Di  at  Xo-  The 
At  is  here  yielded  as  a  definite  integral,  from 
which  form  the  other  forms,  as  La^ange'^ 
Cauchy's,  Schldmikh's,  come  at  once  oa  ^'^X' 
ing  the  Maximum -Minimum  Theorem.  This 
development  holds  under  the  two  necessary  and 
sufficient  conditions  (Fringsheim) : 

1.  Thatl|(x)  possess  everywhere  'm\x9,x«-\-R\ 
definite  finite  differential  coefficients  of  every 
finite  order ; 

2.  That  Lim.  pf(")(«,-|-A).  A»  converge  uni- 
formly on  0  (for  »=•  00,  for  all  pairs  (A,  k) 
for  which  0<A<A  -t-  k<R. 

TJie  Infinitesimal  Analysis  or  Method  of 
Limits  is  very  highly  developed  and  is  applica- 
ble to  almost  every  subject  of  exact  thought, 
often  asserting  itself  in  the  most  surprising 
fashion,  as  in  the  Theories  of  Numbers  and  of 
Knots,  to  which  it  might  seem  wholly  alien, 
suddenly  unlocking  and  laying  wide  open  secret 
passwes  Utterly  unsuspected.  In  particular 
the  Integral  Calculus  shows  itself  amazin^y 
and  unendingly  fertile  in  the  generation  of  new 
notions.  As  other  and  still  other  fields  are 
exposed  to  investigative  thought,  the  Calculus 
will  receive  more  and  more  appUcations,  and 
there  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  subtlety  and 
refincmoit  of  its  processes,  to  the  keenness  and 
penetration    that    may    be    given    to    this    two- 


wielded  by  the  mind  of  n 

Historical  Sketch. —  Passing  by  anticipa- 
tions, especially  of  Integration,  that  reach  back 
at  least  to  Archimedes  {287-212  «.C.),  we  come 
to  Barrow's   'Lectiones  opticx  et  geometric^' 


Google 


CALCULUS  OP  VAKIATIONS 


ITS' 


(1669-70).  on  v/bith- Ntwton  collabonte^  hovr 
much  no  one  knows.  Barrow  uaed  the 
Differential  Triangle  even  in  1664  (indefinite 
parvum,  .  .  .  ob  indefinitam  curvae  parvitu- 
dinem),  calling  Jji  a  and  Jj:  r  (as  Fermat  used 
A  and  E  1638).  Newton  was  busied  with 
Series  at  (-ambridge,  1665-66  (eo  lemjyore  pestis 
ingruens  coegit  tne  nine  tugere  —  in  his  famous 
letter,    filling    30   pages    in    the    Opuieula, 


per  sequationes  numero  terminorum  infitiitas' 
(partially  pubHshed  first  in  WalUs's  Works, 
Vol.  II,  1693)  was  shown  to  Barrow,  Collins, 
Lord  Brouneker  in  1669,  wherein  he  nscd  o 
for  a  magnitude  ultimately  vanishing,  as  had 
James  Gregory  already  in  his  'GeometriK  pars 
universalis'  {166?,  Venice).  He  treated  Recti- 
fication, Cubature  and  Mass-Centre  determi- 
nations as  reducible  to  Qnadrature  and  to  be 
solved  I^  introducing  the  notion  of  *Momen- 
tiim'=''instantaneous  change,  thus  JS"'^ 
beyond  Barrow.  Newton's  'Methodus  ^lin- 
onum  et  Scrienim  inlinitaruni'  was  readty 
for  the  press  before  1672,  but  not  printed 
till  173&  In  it  he  proposes,  (1)  to  find  the 
velocity  at  any  instant  from  the  space  trav- 
ersed up  to  each  instant,  (2)  to  find  the  latter 
(space)  from  the  former  (velocity) — the  two 
problems  of  Derivation  and  Integration  con- 
ceived kinnnatically.  The  cquicrescent  mag- 
nitude jr,  as  a  space  is  called  fiuens  ((^valieri 
fluens,  1639,  Napier  fiusus,  1614,  Qavius 
fivert,  1574) ;  the  velocity  he  writes  x  and 
calls  fiuxio  —  our  Derivative  (as  to  the  time  () . 
Momtntum  varies  as  fluxion,  is  written  xo, 
and  corresponds  to  our  Differential  *  (in- 
crementa  indefinite  parva).  This  treatise 
seems  to  have  beeti  revised  after  1673,  hence 
does  not  clearly  attest  Newton's  knowledge 
in  1671.  Uibnitg  wrote,  26  Oct.  1675  (follow- 
ing Cavatieri),  Omnia  w,  etc.;  but  29  Oct.  1675, 

Utile  erit   seribi  i  pro  omn.  ut  \  I  fro  omii.  I 

id  est  summo  ipsorum  i;  again,  the  same  day, 

Htmpe  Ht  I  angtbit,  ita  d  vtimiet  dimmsitmes. 


/ 


aitlem   sigmficat  svmtnam,  d   differentiam. 

There  and  then  was  bom  the  'Algorithm  of 
the  Inferential*  and  Integral  'Calculus.* 
Under  date  of  11   Nov.  1673,  X^ibnitx  wrote 


ydy=i 


but  the  3  was  oHgiiially  5.     His 


•Characteristic  Triangle,'  equivalent  to  Dif- 
ferential Triangle,  he  took  not  from  Barrow 
but  from  Pascal.  Alt  attempts  to  show  any 
real  dependence  of  Leibnitz  on  Newton  have 
failed.  The  genm  of  the  new  Method  were 
abroad  in  the  air. 

Bibliography, —  Leibnitz  and  his  school, 
especially  the  Bemouillis,  poured  forth  memoirs 
abundantly.      Leibnitz'    tirst,    'Nova    Methodus 


etc,'  aopeared  in  the  Leipzig  Acta  Ervilitonun 
1684.  Newton  gave  his  method  of  prime  ana 
ultimate  ratios  in  geometric  form  in  Us  'Philo- 
sophic Naturalis  Principia  Mathemadca,'  1687. 
Jcdiann  Bentouilli's  'Lectiones  Mathemattoe' 
was  the  first  textbook  of  the  Integral  Calculus, 


composed  at  Paris  1691-92,  published  1742; 
Taylor,  'Methodus  incrementorum  <firecta  et 
inveraa'  (1715);  D'Alembert,  'Manoire  sur  le 
cakul  inttgral'  (1739);  Maclaurin,  <A  Treatise 
on  Fluxions'  (1742);  Euler,  <Introductio  in 
Analysin  Infinitorum'  (1748) —  resuming  and 
expanding  all  knowledge  on  the  subject, 
■one  of  the  most  contentful  beautiful,  and 
fruitful  works  that  ever  left  the  press,* — 
'Institutiones  Calculi  Integralis>  (1768-70) ; 
Cramer,  'Introduction  i  1' analyse  des  lignes 
cgurbet  alK&riques*  (1750);  Lacroi:^  *Traite 
du  calcnl  dif.  et  du  cal.  int.*  (1797)  ;  Lagrange, 
'Thiorie  des  foncitions  analytiques'  (1797)  ; 
Cauchy,  <Cours  d'analyse'  (1821),  'Lemons  sur 
le  calcul  diffirentiel'  (1829)  ;  DuhameL  'Cours 
d'analyse'  (1840),  third  edition,  by  Bertrand 
(1674-75);  De  Morgan,  <Diff.  and  Int.  Calculus' 
<I842)  ;  Todhunter,  "Diflr.  and  InL  Calculus' 
0852);  Price.  ■Infinitesimal  Calculus'  (ISM); 
Gerhardt,  'Die  Entdeckung  der  hoheren  Anal- 
ysis' (18SS)  ;  Bertrand,  'TWOti  du  CaL  Diff.  et 
du  Cal.  Int.'  (1864-70)  ;  Hermite,  'Cours  d' Ana- 
lyse' (1873);  Williamson.  <Dif.  and  Int.  Cal- 
ciilus>  (1872-74)  ;  iityer,  'Theorie  der  bestimm- 
ten  Integrate' —  nach  Lejenne-Dirichlet  (I87S)  ; 
Lipschiti,  'Lehrbuch  der  Analysis'  (1877-80); 
Hotwl,  'Cours  de  Calcnl  Infinitesimal'  (1878- 
79);  Dini.  'Analisi  Infinitesimale'  (1877-78), 
'Pondanenti  per  la  teorica  dellc  funzioni  <fi 
variabili  reati'  (1878);  Hamack,  'DieElemente 
der  Dif.-und  Int  Rechnng'  (1831)  ;  StcJi,  'All- 
semdne  Arithmetik'  (1885-86),  'Gnindnige 
der  Differential-  imd  Integral rechnung'  (lS9i- 
9&-99J  ;  Tannery,  ^Introduction  i  la  tfitone  des 
fonctions  d'nnc  variable'  (1886)  ;  Laurent, 
'Traiti  d'Ana^e'  (1885-92);  Picard,  <Trait2 
d'Ataijte^  (1W1-19(13);  Genoccht-Peano,  <Cal- 
colo  difFerenziale  e  prindpii  di  calcolo  int^rale' 
(1884,  (Jerman  translation  1898-99)  ;  Cantor, 
'(^schichte  der  Mathtmatik'  (1SSO-190(M)1)  ; 
Jordan,  <Cours  d' Analyse'  (1893-94-96)  j  Scrret, 
'Cours  de  Cakut  dif.  et  int'  (1868,  Hartnck's 
German  translation,  2d  ed.,  by  Bohlmann  and 
Zermeh),  1899-1901-05) ;  de  U  Vall^  Poussin, 
'Cours  d'AnaIy»e  intinit£simale>  (1903)  ;  (}our- 
Ht,  'Coursd'Analysemathemalique'  (1902-04); 
Humbert.  'Cours  d' Analyse'  (1903-04);  BoreL 
'Lecona  sur  les  fonctions  de  variables  r£el1es' 
(1905) ;  Kiepert-Stegemann,  'Grundriss  der 
Difilerential-  u.  Integral-rechimng'  (190S). 

Elementary  textbooks  on  the  calculus  are 
Iqpon,  and  of  ver^  various  merits,  though  those 
in  favor  at  Amencan  universities  do  not  vary 
much  from  type.  Those  of  Byerly  and  of  Os- 
good are  perhaps  as  good  as  aqy,  Among  the 
older  books,  those  of  Williamson,  though  in 
many  respects  obsolete,  give  a  training  in  the 
purely  formal  treatment  of  the  subject  that  is 
not  to  be  surpassed.  The  more  advanced  lM>oks 
generally  go  By  the  name  of  'Cours  d' Analyse' 
or  'Introductions  to  Analysis' ;  they  partake 
equally  of  the  nature  of  textbooks  and  of  inde- 
pendent investigations.  They  are  only  acces* 
sible  to  those  who  already  have  a  thorough 
grounding  in  the  elements  of  the  Calculus. 

William  Benjauin  SHrrH, 
Professor  of  Malhemafies,  The  Tulane  Uni- 
versity of  Louisiana. 
CALCULUS  OP  VARIATIONS,  The. 
The  Calcuiuj  of  Variations  is  a  natural  out- 
growth of  the  Infimterimai  Calculus  (q.v.) — in 
particular  of  the  Integral  Calculus  (q.v.)  and  of 


:,  Google 


CALCULUS  OP  VARIATIONS 


^pe 


iffi',  ».,  o. . . , 


)dx  are  con^dered,  where 


f(x,  a,,  Oi, . . .)  is  a  function  of  the  variable  of 
integratioD  x  and  of  several  parameters  oi 
ih,  ■  .  .  which  are  independent  of  x.  In  solving 
ditlerential  eqaations  of  (htiy^dy/dx'=f(x,y) 
_..  -„  ; _. — g  dealing  with  a  new  t^»e  of 


integral, 


/"'■ 


y)dx.    Such  integrals,  in  which 


31  is  to  be  replaced  by  a  certain  function  of  *, 
are  called  line  integrais. 

The  integrals  considered  in  the  Calculus  of 
Variations  are  essentially  of  this  kind,  but  we 
shall  see  that  the  more  interesting  pivblems  are 
those  in  which  still  another  element  is  intro- 
duced.   The  integral 


(0 


-/:- 


y,y)dx. 


It  is  at  least  plausible  that  any  conditions  which 
we  may  discover  must,  in  this  particular  ex- 
ample, DC  satisfied  by  this  function. 

It  is  easy  to  see  bow  this  simple  problem 
may  be  generalized.  For  we  might  inquire 
what  is  the  shortest  path  between  a  fixed  point 
and  a  fixed  curve,  or  between  two  fixed  curves. 
Again,  obstacles  may  be  placed  in  the  plane, 
and  the  shortest  path  tnen  sought.  This 
latter  idea  leads  to  an  important  application  of 
the  general  theory:  the  determination  of  the 
shortest  path  between  any  two  fixed  points  of 
a  givea  surface,  the  surface  being  thought  of 
as  an  obstacle  placed  in  the  plane.  The  most 
general  problem  of  the  land  mentioned  above 
may  be  thought  of  as  the  determination  of  3 
certain  shortest  path. 

An  entirely  dbtind  ^neralization  of  the 
nrcceding  problem  is  that  in  which  the  integrand 
derivatives  of  higher  order  than  the 


•^■j  Hx. 


j.y.y'.--  y^'^dx. 


/" 


where  y'^^y/dx,  can  be  evaluated  whenever  y 

is  known  as  a  function  of  x.    Forii  y=H.x)  be     first,  Le,,oI  the  type:  I 

the  known  value  of  y  in  tenns  of  X,  and  if  fix) 

and  1fix)'=df{x)/dx  be  substituted  for  y  and 

y  respectively  under  the  integral  sign,  the  inte- 

^vand  becomes  a  function  of  x  alone,  and  the 

integral  itself  has  a  definite  numerical  value,       j  f(x,  y,  z,...,  y",  /,,,.)dx.    Finally,  the  in- 

at  I^st  under  certain  very  general  restrictions 

which  need  not  be  stated  here.     Thus  to  every 

function  of  x  which  can  be  substituted  for  y 

there  corresponds  a  definite  number  —  tiie  value 

of  X  and  y.     We  shall  denote  the  value  of  / 

relation  y    -  ■    '    •  ^  -  -     .. 

symbol  /• 

The  central  problem  of  the  Calculus  of 
Variations  is  the  determination  of  a  curve 
K\y~-H,x)\,  for  which  tiie  value  of  /,  /«,  is 
less  than  [greater  than]  the  value  of  /  for  any 
other  curve  C  [y~^(j^)l,  which  satisfies  the 
conditions  of  the  particular  example. 

In  most  of  the  simpler  examples  it  is  speci- 
fied or  implied  by  the  conditions  of  the  problem 
that  the  curves  C  considered  shall  all  pass 
through  each  of  two  given  fixed  points  Pi(xi,yi) 
and  Pi  (xi,  Vi),  whose  abscissa;  are  respectively 
Xt  and  *i,  the  limits  of  integration  of  the  inte- 
gral 7.  Hence  only  those  Functions  of  x,  f  («) 
arc  to  be  considered  for  which  ^(rt)^^i  and 

In  order  to  clarify  the  general  problem,  let 
us  consider  the  example 


L=J^Vi+y 


dx. 


This  is  a  familiar  int^;ral;  it  is  the  formula 
for  the  length  of  any  curve  y=^{x)  between 
any  two  of  its  points.  With  respect  to  this 
integral  the  statement  of  the  simplest  prob- 
lem of  the  Calculus  of  Variations  is  as  fol- 
lows: Given  two  fixed  points  Pi  {x^,y,')  and 
Pi  i*i,yi)  in  the  xy  plane;  to  determine  that 
curve  y~^(jr)  joining  Pt  and  Pi  for  which  the 
value  of  the  mtcgral  L  (i.e.,  the  length  of  the 
.  arc  PJ",)  is  at  a  minimum.  Accepting  the 
Euclidean  postulate  that  the  shortest  distance 
between  two  points  is  measured  along  the 
straight  line  Joining  them,  It  is  evident  a  priori 


grations:  y  \  j[x,y,ji,p,q)  dxdy.yibnKPaxiAq 

denote  dt/dx  anddf/dy,  respectively,  and  where 
the  function  to  be  determined  is  a  function 
of  X  and  y  which  is  to  be  substituted  for  e. 
Further  generalizations  arc  evident  and  would 
tend  only  to  confuse  if  stated  here.  We  shall 
return  briefly  to  these  generalized  problems, 
but  we  shall  state  theorems  principally  for  the 
simple  integral  /  in  one  dependent  and  one 
iodotendent  variable.  Many  of  these  theorems 
can  l>e  generalized  without  essential  difficult  to 
the  other  cases  which  have  been  mentioned. 

Returning  to  the  integral  (1),  let  us  consider 
the  history  of  the  problem  very  briefly.  Al- 
though a  previous  problem  had  been  considered 
by  Newton  in  16SP  ('Phil.  nat.  prin.  Math,' 
II,  Sec.  7,  Prop.  34),  tiie  first  problem  which 
pive  rise  to  any  general  theory  and  encouraged 
investigation  was  the  so-called  problem  of  the 
brachistochrone  —  or  curve  of  quickest  descent 
—  which  we  shall  discuss  as  a  particular  exam- 
ple. This  problem  was  stated  by  Johann 
Bemouilli  in  1608,  solved  bv  him  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  by  his  brother  Jacob  in  1701  in  an 
important  memoir  dealing  with  more  general 
problems,  and  by  Enter  in  1744  in  an  important 
treatise  'Melhodus  inveniendi  lineas  curvas. .  .*. 
It  has  remained  of  interest  down  to  the  present 
day,  probably  the  last  paper  concerning  it 
being  that  by  Bolza,  <Bull.  Amer.  Math.  Soc, 
1904.  No.  1,'  in  which  a  final  solution  is  given. 
In  the  paper  mentioned  Euler  first  gave  the 
first  necessary  condition  (known  as  ■Eulet's 
condition,*  or  less  properly  as  "Lagrange's 
condition*)  in  its  general  form,  and  developMl 
the  theory  in  several  directions,  solving  inci- 
dentally many  problems  from  the  fortnal  stand- 
point.    Following  Euler,  Lagrange  introduced 


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CALCULU8  OP  VARIATIONS 


nuoy  simplifications  and  genera  I  ixations  ia  a 
scries  of  important  papers  (cf.  his  'Works,' 
and  his  books  'Thiout  Oes  fooctioDs'  and  'dl- 
cul  des  fonctioos' >'  I"  particular  the  Method 
of  Uultiphers  for  the  treatmuit  of  problems  of 
relative  extrema,  which  we  shall  discuss  briefly, 
ii  due  to  Lagraoge.  The  other  prominent 
names  in  the  ear(y  history  are  Legendr^  ior 
whom  the  second  condition  is  named;  (^usa, 
who  first  studied  double  integrals  with  variable 
limits;  Jacobi,  who  discovered  the  condition 
which  bears  his  name ;  and  Du  Bois  Reymond, 
who  ioitiated  the  verv  modern  critical  develop- 
ment of  the  theory.  We  shall  restrict  ourselves 
lo  a  reference  to  Todhunter,  'A  History  of  . . , 
die  Calculus  of  Variations, . . '  (C^bridge 
1861);  and  Pascal,  'Calcolo  delle  variuiom* 
(Milan  1897,  German  trans,  by  Schepp, 
1899);  and  Kneser,  'Variationsrechnung'  aad 
'Ency.  der  Math.  Wiss,  II  A  8,  190^;  and 
Bolza,  'Lectures  on  the  Calculus  of  Variations' 
(Chicago  1905).  In  these  books  exact  and 
complete  references  to  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject and  notes  concerning  its  history  up  to  the 
dates  of  publication  may  be  found.  It  should 
be  noted  that  only  the  latter  of  these  books  con- 
tains references  to  the  important  developments 
published  since  1900. 

PreciH  Statement  of  the  Protalem. —  It  is 
evident  upon  examination  that  the  naive  con- 
ception of  the  problem  doea  not  oermit  of  exact 
mathematical  treatment.  For  de&niteness,  let  us 
suppose  that  tbe  function  fl-r,y,y')  in  <1)  is 
an  analytical  function  of  its  toree  arguments 
inside  of  a  certain  three-dimensional  region  R, 
which  may  be  finite  or  infinite,  but  which  ex- 
pressly does  not  include  any  points  at  infinity. 
Let  us  also  restrict  ourselves  to  curves  of  the 


K;  in  the  case  of  tbe  we^ 
extremum,  they  must  lie  close  to  K  and  vary 
only  a  little  from  K  in  direction;  in  the  case 
of  a  limited  extremum,  they  most  cut  K  at 
least  once  in  every  vertical  strip  of  width  ^. 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  if  K  is  to  render  /  an 
extremum  (of  any  sort),  fix)  must  in  general 
satisfy  the  equation 

(6) 


which  is  known 


y-+S^y+ 


^1 

Lagrange's)   equation.     For  we  have 


m  U 


ay 

dxBy'      by 
Eule/s  (or  less  property  a 


'<F=r]^/]A:,     *(A^+-?(x),  *'(»4+?'{*)fjt, 

which  must  be  a  minimum  [maximum]  for 
fC*)=0.  Replacing  v(i)  by  «.*(*),  iriiere^x) 
is  an  arbitrary  function  and  >  is  a  variable  para- 
meter, le  Will  evidently  be  a  function  oi  the 
parameter  e  alone : 


(!)    /.—  ?(•) 


=/:- 


\x),'t +  ».->.,  i>'  +  e-X')dx. 


valued  function  of  x  in  the  interval  jti  ^x^  xi , 
and  where  f(x*)  and  f  (jr,)  are  equal,  respcc- 
dvely,  to  tbe  ordinates  y>  and  yi  of  the  fixed 
points  P.  and  P,.  We  shall  call  these  ■corves 
of  the  class  B.*  If  there  is  a  sin^e  one  of  these 
curves  y=Xjr),  or  K,  for  which  /,  is  less  than 
[ereater  than]  /«  for  any  other  curve  C 
\t'*{x')]  of  the  class  B,  that  curve  K  is  said 
lo  render  the  given  integral  /  an  absolute  mini- 
mum |maximimi|.  It  is  evident  that  this  will 
rarely  occur,  as  is  also  the  case  in  extrema  of 
fnnclions  of  a  single  variable.     If  we  now  set 

(2)  Hx)  =  i>(x)  +V[x)  .  i.e.,  ?(x)«f(x)--fC*), 
and  if  there  exists  a  positive  number  o  such 
iliat  It  is  less  than  [greater  than]  /e  whenever 
die  condition 

(3)  \iix)<\S,     \i'(x)\<  S.  x,<x^x,. 

then  K  is  said  to  render  the  integral  I  a  weaii 

RiintrnKM  (maximum]  among  the  curves  -of  the 

class  B.    If  instead  of  (3)  we  merely  requite 

the  condition 

{«  Mx)\<S.  x,<:x^x,. 

ihe  curve  K  is  said  to  render  a  strong  minimum 

[maximum].    If  in  addition  to  (3)  |or  (4)]  we 

also  require  Ibat 

,(«)=:.  9. 

(S)     x.+ii—2)  ■  *^*(^>.-(-(»— I)  -'^x,, 

<=2,3.  ...(n-t-1), 
•bere  H  'i  '^Xi'^Xt,  the  curve  K  is  s»d  to 
nJiiA  I  a   limited  tiieak    Ittrong] 
[MwumitM]. 


It  is  readily  demonstrated  that  the  ordinary 
rule  applies  and  that  we  can  have  an  extremum 

(9)  d/e/*=J^(0=    r^  {MX.  f+e-k  ,  ♦'-f-.-A')! 
whm  e=0.   or   P'(0)"  P  (/»  ■  A  +f^y)dx=^0  , 


where /,=<'f/dy, 
term  by  parts,  we 

etc     Integrating  the   second 

(10)      r(0)=0  = 

[*(«)/»■(*,  *,*')li^ 

+  /2*w|/»<*'  *■  *'^ - S-^i^t* 

*.f')\dx. 

for  *=.ri. 

*— ;r.  and 

Cn)J^i(*)JArC« 

*'*')-£fv'<.'-* 

♦-Lx-O. 

But  Mx)  was  itself  any  permissible  function  of 
X,  and  it  is  not  hard  to  prove  that  the  inte^^l  of 
such  a  product,  of  which  one  factor  is  arbitrary, 
can  vanish  only  if  the  other  factor  vanishes. 
This  gives  precisely  the  equation  (6).  Certam 
further  considerations  are  necessary  to  show 
that  this  proof,  which  implicitly  assumes  the 
existence  of  the  second  derivative  of  i'(x),  does 
not  involve  any  restrictions.  (Cf.  Bolza,  'Lec- 
tures,' Oiap.  I). 

Assuming  the  further  details  without  proof, 
it  tKComes  evident  that  any  curve  K,  y^^ix), 
which  is  to  render  /  a  minimum  (of  any  sort) 
must  satisfy  tbe  differential  equation  (6). 
Since  /  and  its  derivatives  are  known  functions, 
(6)  is  an  ordinary  (Kflerential  equation  of  tbe 
second  order,  linear  in  rf'y/ir'  ("^y" ) .  TTie 
coefficient  of  f  is  rf'//rfy*(— /,V>.  H  thb 
coefficient  /^V  does  not  vanish,  one  and  on^ 
one  K^utioR  of.  (6)  passes  throuj^  »  given 


d=vGe^ogIc 


CALCULUS  OF  VAKIATIONS 


(12)  y-=fix,<:^. 

Any  one  of  these  solutions,  i.c^  any  soludon 
whatever  of  (6)  is  called  an  estremal.  Hence 
the  required  curve  K,  if  it  exists,  must  be  an 
extremal,  and  it  is  necessary  to  search  for  it 
only  among  the  extremals.  But  K  was  to 
connect  P,  and  Pi.  Usually,  however,  there 
is  only  one  of  the  extremals  (1^)  which  passes 
ihrou^  two  given  points,  for  the  equations, 

(13)  >=/(»,  «.^).  y.=/(*.,a,«, 
usually  determine  o  and  p,  and  hence  also 
determine  a  sinsle  extremal  joining  Pa  and  Pi. 
If  this  is  actually  the  case,  either  that  extremal 
is  the  required  solution  K,  or  else  there  is  no 
solution  of  [he  problem. 

A  large  number  of  special  cases  lead  to  dif- 
ferenlial  equations  which  can  be  solved  directly. 

For  example,  if  I' 

/(*-  y,  /)= V  r+j^  ,  whence  f^=f^frv-=f^ 
=/^  =  0,/^=y7(H-B')*  .  /vV=  1/(1  +y')'.aiid 
the  equation  (6)  takes  the  form  y^^.  The  only 
solutions  of  this  differential  equation  are  the 
straight  lines  y=0ji:+6.  It  follows  that  if 
there  is  any  curve  of  the  class  B  in  the  plane 
alone  which  the  distance  between  two  given 
fixed  Doints  is  at  a  minimum,  that  curve  is  the 
strai^t  line  joining  the  two  points.  This 
result  is  independent  of  the  Euchoean  postulate, 
and  depends  only  upon  the  definition  of  length 
by  means  of  the  preceding  intetrraL 

The  problem  of  the  brachistocrone,  men- 
tioned abovCj  is  to  find  the  curve  along  which 
a  particle  with  initial  velocity  v,  will  descend 
moM  quickly  from  a  given  initial  point  P,  to 
another  given  point  P,,  It  is  easy  to  show  that 
the  time  of  descent  is  given  by  the  formula 


^  j*"  V I +?"«*,««  shall  have 


»iVV— 2f(»-: 
hence  Euler's  equation  (6)  is 


dxW)   rfx\vr+7iv* 


which  gives  at  once  y'^=^('(\+y'')(v,+2g 
(xi — x)).  This  equation  may  be  readily  solved 
in  parameter  form,  and  we  find : 


jr-C ^  ("-sin*.), 

where  "*^-= — V  ». 

These  extremals  are  cycloids  on  horizontal 
bases,  the  radius  of  the  generating  circle  being 
(A+By/Z,  and  one  cusp  bein^  at  the  point 
M,_  C),  Further  investigation  is  necessary  to 
decide  just  when  a  given  pair  of  points  can  be 
connected  by  such  a  cycloid  fcf.  Bolza,  'Lec- 
ttires,'  p.  236).  If  such  a  cycloid  can  be  drawn, 
we  can  infer  that  it  is  the  solution  if  there  is 
any  solution.  If  no  such  cycloid  can  be  drawn, 
we  cdn  infer  that  there  is  no  solution  in  the 
region  R. 
'-'The  pnAlcm  of  finding  the  geodetic  lines 


=/: 


minimizing  the 


where  j™*Cr,y)    is   Uie   surface   and  where 
£=  1+t'x,  F  =  ixtf,  G=\+A.      Euler's  equa- 
tion therefore  'coinudes  with  the  usual  equation 
for  the  gvodelic  lines : 
i-  (       Gy-  +  F       \  ^E, +  2fi,y'+Ci,y\ 

aqd  the  geodetic  tines  are  the  extremals  of  this 
problem,  i.e.,  no  line  not  a  geodetic  can  be  a 
shortest  line  on  a  surface. 

Though  the  proof  of  the  necessity  of  Euler's 
condition  was  satisfactory,  even  in  a  cruder 
fomi,  to  the  oricnnators  of  the  subject,  a  desire 
to  formulate  suliicient  conditions  arose.  Thus 
Le^endre  showed  that  a  second  necesiary  con- 
dihon  for  a  minimum  [maximum]  is  that  the 
condition 

/y-^-C*,  ♦(*),  r(.x)  )>0[  <  0  1  torx^xS,^ 
be  satisfied  akmg  the  supposed  solution  y~'^{t) 
between  the  end  pMuCs.  We  shall  prove  thJ^ 
and  we  shall  see  that  the  same  condition  is 
actually  a  sufficient  condition  for  a  weak  lim- 
ited miniiiinm  if  tbc  sign —^ be  removed. 

jacobi  then  showed,  by  means  of  the  second 
-variation  of  the  given  ute^l,  that   a   Ikiri 

is  tint  the  quantity 

J(x.  »)=?.{  r)>h(»)— *(*)>!.(*>) 
should  not  vanish  for  any  value  of  jr  In  the 
interval  x«<  x  ■^»,  where  J    (.f,  J't)  is  a  solu- 
tion of  the  equation 

which  vanishes  for  x-^xt.  The  proof,  which  is 
omitted,  can  be  found  in  Bolza,  'Lectures,' 
Chap.  2.  A  beautiful  geometrical  mterpretatioit 
of  tnis  condition  exists;  if  we  consider  the  one 
parameter  family  of  exterminals  throi^li(;r>,yi), 
and  call  thdr  envelope  E,  the  extremal  wluch 
joins  xt  to  any  point  beyond  its  point  of  taa- 
geney  with  E  cannot  poisibly  render  the  in- 
tegral a  minimum  [maximum]  between  those 
two  points,  i.e.,  the  envelope  of  the  extremals 
through  (jTi,  vi)  bounds  all  the  points  which 
can  possibly  be  reached  by  a  minimizing  ex' 
tremal  from  x. 

It  was  long  believed  that  Jacobi's  condition, 
together  with  the  previous  two,  was  a  sufiicicnt 
condition.  That  such  is  not  (be  case  was  first 
pointed  out  by  Weierstrass,  who  also  showed 
that  Jaeobi's  condition,  while  not  sufficient  for 
a  minimum  in  general,  is  sufficient  for  a  weak 
Minimum  (if  tne  point  (jti,  ji)  lies  inside  the 
envelope  of  the  extremals  throu^  {xt,  >). 
Cf.  Bolza,  'Lectures,'  Chap.  3. 

That  the  preceding  conditions  are  not  suffi- 
cient is  most  readily  seen  by  giving  an  actnal 
example  in  which  the  extremal^  Ihotigh  all  the 
above  conditions  are  satisfied,  ao  not  minimize 
the  integral.  Such  is  the  example  (sec  Bolza, 
'Lectures,'  p.  73), 

f(x.y,y')--y'^iy+l): 
Here  the  extremals  are  straight  lines,  but  it  is 
easy   to   join   two   points   for   which    ^ll    the 
■preceding  conditions   are  satisfied  by   a    simple 
broken  hne  for  which  the  value  of  the  integral 


-/™)' 


d=v  Google 


CALCULUS  OB  VARIATIONS 


Is  less  than  that  along  the  straiglit  line  extremal. 
Of  course,  the  comparison  liae  used  varies  cod- 
siderably  from  the  straight  line  extremal  in 
direction,  tbough  not  in  position. 

Weierstrass,  in  1879,  gave  a  fourdi  necessary 
condition.     He  defines  a  new  function. 

Then  WHerstrtu^s  (fourth)  necessary  conrfi- 
iion  for  a  miirimum  (maximum]  is 

fi(*. y.y.py^o  [g.Q]x,<x  <x,, 

where  x,y,p  are  the  values  of  x,y.dy/dx  along 
the  extremal  between  the  end  points,  and  where 
^  is  any  finite  number  whatever.  (Cf.  BoUa, 
'Lectures,*  Chap.  3).  Since  we  have 
Limit  lEfx.y.y.pn  J.  ,  ,  ,1 
y=p[  (y-p)'  J  2^'  "jy'-K, 
it  follows  that  it  is  also  necessary  that  ft'y'^  0, 
which  is  precisely  the  second  {Legendre's)  nec- 
essary condition  mentioned  above.  It  is  easy  to 
show  that  if  (a)  the  end  points  can  be  joined  by 
an  extremal  K,  (i)  a  one  parameter  family  of 
extremals  \y=^x,  a)\  can  be  found,  one  of 
which  is  K  ttself,  and  one  and  only  one  of  which 
passes  through  each  point  of  the  plane  near  K, 
so  that  y'^^Pix,  y)  can  be  found,  i.e.,  >■  function 
which  gives  the  slope  of  the  extremal  of  the 
family  at  any  point  {x,  y)  near  K,  then  the 
integral 

/=  J^  l/(«.y.P)  +  (y- P) U{'',y.P)\dx 


where  C  is  any  curve  of  the  cla.-%  B  in  the  field 
about  K.  since  It=JtF=Je-    It  follows  that  the 

Ei''.y.y.P)^o,   *.<*^«>, 
for  all  X  and  y  near  K  and  for  the  function 
Pi^r  y)  JtiBt  mentioned  and  for  any  finite  value 
of  y'  whatever,  is  a  sufficient  condition  for  a 
strong  minitnittn^i{  the  sign  of  equality  holds 


onljr  for  *— y*.    ff.  Osgood^  'Annals  of  Mathe- 
matics,' II,  3;  Bolza,  *  Lectures,'  Chap.  3. 

It  is  possible  to  show  (cf.  Hedrick,  ^Bull. 
A.  M.  S.,'  IX,  1)  that  for  a  limittd  minimum 
the  conditions  remain  the  same  except  that 
Jacobi's  condition  may  be  omitted.  The  condi- 
tions in  the  various  cases  may  be  summarixed  in 
the  following  scheme : 


Limited  variatioas 

UDlimiUd  variolioni 

W«k 

Strong 

Wak 

Stmw 

1 

JSJ. 

Wcientiw'a 

jKobi?' 

EnlCT'.. 

4 

i 

Eulcr'a. 

EulCT-s. 
lufficieat. 

Eulcr'. 

St 

Euler-... 

j«-.bi-. 

wfficienl. 

It  is  seen  en  glancing  at  the  table  that  from 
the  simple  conditions  (Euler's  and  Leeendre's) 
for  linuted  weak  vanadon  we  proceed  to  any 
other  case  t^  adding  Weierstrais's  conditions  in 
the  case  of  a  strong  minimum,  and  Jacobi's  in 
case  of  an  unKmited  mimimum,  only.  A  fifth 
necessary  condition  for  a  strong  extremum,  in- 
d^tendent  of  all  the  others,  has  been  discovered 
by  BoUa. 

In  special  problems  the  iilcsomeness  of  these 
conditions  can  sometimes  be  circumvented.   For 


|iX>/" 


instance,  giiten  a  problem  in  tvhich 

all  values  of  x,  y,  y*,  then  the  necessary  and 
sufficient  condition  for  a  limited  strong  Minimum 
is  the  possibility  of  finding  a  solution  of  Euler's 
equation  joining  the  titio  given  end  points.  Such 
is  the  case  in  flie  geodetic  problem  and  also  in 
the_ integral  which  leads  to  Hamilton's  principle: 


a  each  of  diese  cases,  fortunately,  a  limited 
's  all  that  is  desired.    Sitidlar 


mplificatior 


for  all  values  of  x,  y,  y*.  For  then  Legendre's 
and  Weierstrass's  conditions  are  always  satis- 
fied, and  may  be  abstracted  from  the  above 
table.     For  this  reason  Hilbert  baa  called  a 

problem  in  which  ^  >0  lor  all  x,  y,  y'  con- 
tained in  a  singly  connected  region  R,  in  which 
the  given  end  points  lie,  a  'regular'  problem  of 
the  Calculus  of  Variations. 


Considering  the  exampli 


■Jl' 


1  -f  ydx,  we 


E(x.  y.  y.  p) 


2 


— /i,V(*.y.0,/?f5^ 


it  follows  that  such  an  example  surely  satisfies 
Weierstrass's  sufficient  condition,  provided  that 
a  field  exist  in  the  manner  specified  above. 
But  in  this  case,  since  the  extremals  arc  all 
straight  lines  in  the  plane,  it  is  obvious  that  ' 
all  other  conditions  are  satisfied.  Hence  the 
straight  line  joining  any  two  points  actually 
minimises  the  given  integral,  i.e.,  the  straight 
line  is  the  "shortest*  line  between  any  two  of  its 
points  if  the  preceding  integral  be  the  definition 
of  length. 

In  the  problem  of  the  brachistocfarone,.  men- 
tioned above,  it  is  shown  that  the  extremals 
found  (cycloids)  actually  render  the  integral 
of  the  problem  a  minimum  provided  no  cusp 
lies  between  the  end  points.  (Cf.  Bolza,  'Lec- 
tures.' Chap.  4,  pp.  126,  136,  1-16). 

Returning  to  the  integral  which  defines 
length,  it  is  evident  that  some  other  integral 
might  as  well  have  been  selected  as  the  defini- 
tion of  lengtii,  if  we  are  not  to  assume  an  intui- 
tive knowledge  of  it  The  variety  of  choice  is 
limited  only  by  the  selection  of  those  properties 
which  we  desire  to  have  hold.  This  leads  very 
naturally  to  The  Inverse  Problem  of  the  Cal- 
culus'of  Variations:  Given  a  set  of  curves  which 
form  a  two-parameter  family.  What  is  the  con- 
dition that  they  be  the  extremals  of  a  prob- 
lem of  the  Calculus  of  Variations?  What  are 
the  conifitions  that  Ihcy  actually  render  -  the 
intsgral  .tkuai  diMSitered    a.^minimvao}.    Let 


d=,  Google 


IM  CALC 

y  =  F{x,  a,  b)  be  the  given  family.  Then  (cf, 
Bolza,  'Lectures,'  p.  31)  the  integrand  of  any 
integral  for  which  these  are  extremals  must 
satisfy  the  equation 

dy    dy'dx    ay'3y^     ^  •'•'^■ayay 

where  y"  =  G(x,  y,  y')  b  the  differential  equa- 
tion of  the  given  family.  This  equation  for 
/(•■'.  yi  y')  always  has  an  in&nite  number  of 
soluttOQS,  of  which  only  those  are  actually  solu- 
tions of  the  given  inverse  problem  which  satisfy 
the  relation  /  ^y  >0,  and  these  are  solutions  in 
any  region  free  from  envelopes  of  one-para- 
meter families  of  the  mven  extremals.  Some 
interesting  conclusions  tor  particular  forms  are 
to  be  found  ia  a  ^per  by  Slromtfuist,  'Trans- 
actions of  American  Mathematical  Society' 
(1905). 

Another  interesting  class  of  problems  are  the 
so-called  isoperimetnc  problems.  The$e  are 
problems  in  which  a  further  restriction  is  placed 
upon  the  solution  by  requiring  that  it  sluJl  sive 
a  second  (gnven)  integral  a  given  value.  Such 
is,  for  examjile,  the  problem  of  finding  the 
curve  of  maximum  area  with  a  given  perimeter. 
The  problem  is  treated  by  means  of  the  so-called 
method  of  multipliers,  which  is  too  long  for 
presentation  bere.  Consult  Bolza,  'Lectures,* 
Chap.  6. 

This  article  is  too  short  to  give  any  account 
of  the  details  of  the  work  for  double  integrals. 
Suffice  it  to  saj;  that  the  known  methods  follow 
closely  those  given  above  for  simple  integrals. 
In  the  other  possible  problems  mentioned  above 
the  same  holds  true.  An  interesting  appli- 
cation of  these  other  problems  occurs  in  the 
well-known  Problem  of  Diricklet,  which  is  fun- 
damental in  mathematical  work.     Another  ' 


based  upon  Hamiltoti's  Princible  or  one  of  the 
analogous  mechanical  principles.  The  modem 
methods  have  made  these  theories  more 
rigorous. 

Bibliography. —  The  following  is  a  list  of 
the  more  important  works  and  articles  published 
in  America  concerning  the  Calculus  of  Varia- 
tions: Bliss,  'Thesis'  (Chicago  1901);  and 
various  papers,  'Annals  of  Mathematics'  and  . 
'Transactions  of  the  American  Mathematical 
Society' ;  Bolza,  various  papers,  'Bulletin  Amer- 
ican Mathematical  Society' ;  'Transactions 
American  Mathematical  Society,'  etc.  (1901- 
06)  ;  brochures  published  in  the  Chicago  Decen- 
nial publications,  including  the  Lectures  on  the 
Calculus  of  Variations  mentioned  above 
(Chicago  1904)  ;  Carll,  'Calculus  of  Variations' 
(New  York  1885)  ;  Hancocl^  various  papers  in 
"Annals  of  Mathematics'  and  'Calculus  of 
Variations'  (Cincinnati  1894)  ;  Hedrick,  articles 
in  'Bulletin  American  MaUiematical  Society' 
(1901-05)  ;  Osgood,  'Annals  of  Mathematics' 
(II,  3)  and  'Transactions  American  Mathemati- 
cal Society'  (II) ;  WUttemore,  'Annals  of 
Mathematics'  {U,  3). 

The  fordgn  literature  is  well  collected  for 
reference  in  the  footnotes  to  BoUa's  lectures 
and  in  the  following  books  and  articles : 
Kneser,  '  Variation  srechnung'  (Braunschweig 
1900)  ;  'Encv.  d.  Math.  Wiss..'  (II,  A  8)  (Leip- 
zig 1904)  ;  Moigno-Lindeloff,  'tJalcul  d«  Varia- 
tions' (Paris  1861);  Pascal,  'Cakob  delle 
Variazioni'     (Milano     IfliT"      '" 


Leipzig  1899):  Todhunter,  'History  of  the 
Calculus  of  Variations'  (Cambridge  1861) ; 
Zermelo  u.  Hahn,  <£ncy.  d.  Math.  Wiss^'  (11 
A  8a}  (Leipzig  1904). 

The  literature  is  al  _ 
tensive,  covcriDg,  as  it  does,  a  period  o 
200  years.  It  is  evident  that  the  more  important 
papers  for  present  use  are  those  of  recent 
date. 

An  important  ^lasc  of  the  subject  which  has 
necessarily  been  overlooked  is  the  general  proof 
\>y_  Hilbert  (1900)  that  at  least  an  trnfroper 
minimum  always  exists.  Consult  Bolsa,  'Lec- 
tures,' (chap.  7). 

Eable  Ravmond  Hedrick, 
Professor  of  Matkematict,  University  of  Mis- 

CALCUTTA  («the  ghaut  or  landing-place 
of  Kali*  from  a  famous  shrine  of  this  god- 
dess), India,  the  capital  of  the  presidency  and 
province  of  Bengal,  and  until  1911  the  capital 
of  British  India,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Hoogfal^  (H&ghli),  a  branch  of  the  Ganges, 
about  80  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The 
Hoo^ly  is  navigable  up  to  the  dty  for  vessels 
of  4,000  tons  or  drawing  26  feet;  the  navt^- 
tion,  however,  on  account  of  sand-banks  which 
are  continually  chan^ng  their  size  and  portion, 
is  dangerous.  The  rnrer  opposite  the  dty  varies 
in  breadth  from  rather  more  than  a  quarter  to 
three-quarters  of  a  mile.  The  city  may  be  said 
to  occupy  an  area  extending  along  die  river  (or 
about  five  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
stretching  eastward  to  a  distance  of  neariy 
two  miles  in  the  south,  narrowing  in  the  norui 
to  about  half  a  mile.  The  eastern  boiindary  is 
nominally  formed  by  what  is  known  as  the 
Circular  road,  the  Lower  (Circular  road  form- 
ing part  of  the  southern  boundary.  Another 
eastern  boundary  on  the  north  is  the  Circular 
Canal,  which  runs  for  some  distance  parallel  to 
the  Circular  road.  The  southwestern  portion 
of  the  area  thus  spoken  of  is  formed  by  the 
Maidan,  a  great  park  stretching  along  the  river 
bank  for  about  one  and  tiirec-quarter  miles, 
with  a  breadth  in  the  south  of  one  and  a  half 
miles.  This  grassy  and  tree-studded  area  is 
one  of  the  ornaments  of  Calcutta;  it  is  inter- 
sected by  fine  drives,  and  is  partly  occupied  by 
public  gardens,  a  cricket  ground,  race-course, 
etc.,  and  partly  by  Port  William,  which  rises 
from  the  river  bank.  The  fort  was  built  in 
1757-73,  having  been  begun  by  Clive  after  the 
battle  of  Plasscy,  and  is  said  to  have  cost  about 
$10,000,000.  Along  the  river  bank  there  is  a 
promenade  and  arive  known  as  the  Stiand 
road,  which  has  for  the  most  part  been  re- 
claimed from  the  river  by  successive  embank- 
ments. Along  the  east  side  of  the  Maidan  runs 
Chauringhi  road,  which  is  lined  with  magnifi- 
cent residences,  and  forms  the  front  of  the 
European  fashionable  residential  quarter. 
Along  the  north  side  of  the  Maidan  runs  a 
road  or  street  known  as  the  Esi^nade,  on  the 
north  side  of  which  are  the  old  Government 
House  and  other  public  buildings.  The  Euro- 
pean commercial  quarter  lies  north  of  the  Es- 
?Ianade,  between  it  and  another  street  called 
lanning  street,  having  the  river  on  the  west 
The  centre  of  (his  area  is  occupied  t^  Dal- 
housie  square  (enclosino'  a  large  tank  or  res- 
ervoir), and  here  there  are  a  number  of  public 
buildings  including  the  post-ofBce,  telegraph 


d=,  Google 


CALCUTTA,  IHDIA 


THE  JAIH  TEMPLE,  CALCUTTA 


d=v  Google 


d=,  Google 


CALCUTTA 


186 


office,  custom  house,  BengRl  secreUriat,  etc. 
Th«  European  retail  trading  quarter  occupies 
a  small  area  to  the  east  of  the  above  area. 
Everywhere  outside  of  the,  European  quarters 
Calcutta  is  interspersed  with  basils,  or  native 
hamlets  of  mud  nuts,  which  form  great  out- 
lying suburbs.  *The  growth  of  the  European 
quarters,    and    the     municipal    clearings    de- 


1   all   din 

but  es]>ecia11y_  toward  the  east.  .  .  .  They 
have  given  rise  to  the  reproach  that  Calcutta, 
while  a  citv  of  palaces  in  front,  is  one  of  pi^- 
Btyes  m  the  rear."  First  among  the  pubhc 
buildings  is  old  Government  House,  the  vice- 
regal residence,  situated,  as  already  mentioned, 
on  the  Esplanade.  It  was  built  in  1799-1804, 
and  with  its  erounds  occupies  six  acres.  Four 
wings  exlenff  toward  the  four  points  of  the 
compass  from  a  central  mass  which  is  crowned 
with  a  dome  and  approach  from  the  north  by  a 
splendid  flight  of  steps.  The  High  Court,  the 
town-hall,  the  Bank  .of  Bengal,  the  currency 
office,  ^ost-office,  etc,  are  among  the  other  pub- 
lic buildings  in  this  locality,  while  further  to 
the  north  stands  the  mint,  near  the  banks  of  the 
Hooghly.  The  chief  of  the  Anglican  churches 
in  Calcutta  is  the  cathedral  of  Saint  Paul's, 
at  the  southeastern  comer  of  the  KCai- 
dan,  a  building  in  the  "In do- Gothic"  style,  with 
a  tower  and  spire  201  feet  hi^  consecrated 
in  1847.  Saint  John's  Church,  or  the  old  ca- 
Aedral,  is  another  important  church,  in  die 
graveyard  surrounding  which  is  the  tomb  of 
Job  Chamocl^  founder  of  Calcutta.  The  chief 
Presbvterian  church  is  Saint  Andrew's,  or  the 
Scotch  Kirk,  a  handsome  Grecian  building  with 
a  spire.  The  Roman  Catholics  have  a  cathe~ 
dral  and  several  other  churches ;  and  there 
are  also  places  of  worship  for  Greeks,  Parsees 
and  Hebrews.  Hindu  temples  are  numerous 
but  uninteresting ;  among  the  Mohammedan 
mosques  the  only  one  of  note  is  that  which  was 
built  and  endowed  bv  Prince  Ghulam  Moham- 
med, son  of  Tippoo  Sultan.  The  rvligious.  edu- 
cational and  benevolent  institutions  are  numer- 
ous. Various  missionary  and  other  reUgious 
bodies,  British,  European  and  American,  are 
well  represented.  There  are  four  government 
colleges  —  the  Prewdency  Collie,  the  Sanskric 
College,  the  Mohammedan  College  and  the 
Bethune  Girls'  School.  There  are  five  colleges 
inainly  supported  by  missionary  efforts;  besides 
several  others,  s<nne  of  them  under  native  man- 

Xment  Other  educational  institutions  in- 
le  Calcutta  Medical  College,  a  government 
school  of  art,  Campbell  Vernacular  Medical 
School  and  a  school  of  engineering  at  How  rah, 
on  the  western  side  of  the  river.  Besides  these 
tbeie  is  the  Calcutta  University,  an  examining 
and  degree-conferring  institution.  Among  die 
hospitals  are  the  Medical  College  Hospital,  the 
General  Hospital,  the  Mayo  Hospital  (for  na- 
tives), and  the  Eden  Hospital  for  women  and 
children.  The  Martiniere  (so  named  from  its 
founder.  General  Martin,  a  Frenchman  in  the 
East  India  Company's  service)  is  an  important 
institution  for  the  board  and  education  of  in- 
digent Christian  children.  Elementary  and 
other  schools  are  increasii^  in  numbers.  The 
Asiatic  Society  was  founded  by  Sir  W.  Jones 
in  1784  for  the  study  of  the  languages,  litera- 
ture and  antiquities  of  Asia.  The  Botanic  Gar- 
den occupies  a  Urge  area  pn  the  ri^t  bank  of 


the  river.  Calcutta  possesses  a  number  of 
public  monuments,  most  of  them  in  or  about 
the  Maidan.  Several  governors -general  are 
thus  commemorated,  as  also  Sir  David  Ochter- 
lony  and  Sir  James  Outram,  'the  Bayard  of  the 
East,°  of  whom  there  is  an  admirable  equestrian 
statue  by  Foley.  The  city  is  lighted  partly  by 
gas,  partly  by' electrici^.  There  is  an  extensive 
system  of  tramways.  The  sanitation  of  Cal- 
cutta, though  vastly  improved  in  recent  years, 
is  still  defective,  more  especially  in  the  sub- 
urban districts,  where  the  haslis  or  native  huts 
are  so  numerous.  The  Calcutta  Improvement 
Commission  was  formed  in  1912  to  aid  in  town 
planning  and  in  the  improvement  of  public 
health.  One  difficulty;  in  the  wav  is  the  site  of  - 
the  city  itself,  which  is  practically  a  dead  level. 
An  act  which  came  into  force  in  1889  brought  a 
large  additional  area  mider  the  municipal  au- 
thorities, and  since  then  much  has  been  done 
in  the  way  of  drain^,  opening  up  of  arterial 
streets,  alignment  of  roads,  etc  The  water 
supply  has  also  been  ereatly  increased,  and  fil- 
tered water  from  the  Hooghly  (there  is  a  pump- 
ing station  at  Palta,  16  miles  above  Calcutta) 


sides  a  supply  of  unfittered  water  for  washing 
and  other  purposes.  The  mortality  through- 
out the  entire  municipality  in  1912  was  &.1 
per  1,(XX},  a  great  improvement  on  former  times, 
and  the  birth-rate  21.06  per  1,000.  The  death- 
rate  is  far  higher  among  the  natives  than 
among  the  Europeans,  ana  in  the  native  quar- 
'  said  to  be  seldom  absent.    The 


ong  tt 

s  dholi 


est  are  November,  December  and  January.  The 
mean  temperature  is  about  79*,  the  average 
rainfall  a  little  over  66  inches.  The  port  of 
Calcutta  extends  for  about  10  miles  along  the 
river,  and  is  under  the  management  of  a  Dody 
of  commissioners.  Opposite  the  city  it  is 
crossed  by  a  great  pontoon  bridge,  which  gives 
communication  with  Howiah  for  vehicles  and 
foot  passengers,    and   can   be  opened  at  one 

roint  to  let  vessels  pass  up  or  tiown.  It  cost 
1,100,000.  Besides  the  accommodation  for 
shipping  furnished  by  the  rivfer,  there  are  also 
several  docks.  The  trade  is  vety  large,  Cal- 
cutta being  the  commercial  centre  of  India. 
There  is  a  very  extensive  inland  trade  by  the 
Ganges  and  its  connections,  as  also  by  rail- 
ways (the  chief  of  which  start  from  Howrah), 
while  almost  the  whole  foreign  trade  of  this 
part  of  India  is  monopolized  bv  Calcutta  In 
1913-14  the  gross  tonnage  of  tne  shipping  in- 
ward and  outward  was  over  6,926,817  tons;  the 
total  of  exports  and  imports  at  the  wet  docks 
was  about  4,80(^000,  tons.  The  total  over-seas 
trade  in  merchandise  during  the  fiscal  year 
ended  31  March  1916,  amounted  to  $45^786,- 
505.  The  year's  imports  were  valued  at  $167,- 
666,650  and  the  exports  at  $285,119,855.  The 
chief  exports  are  opium,  jute  and  jute  goods, 
tea,  grain  and  j>ulse,  oilseeds,  raw  cotton,  indigo, 
hides  and  skins,  silk  and  sitk  goods,  seeds, 
coal  and  coke,  raw  hemp,  mica,  etc.  "The 
most  important  imports  are  cotton  goods,  sugar, 
metals,  machinery,  oils,  railway  plant  and  roll- 
ing stock,  cutlery,  salt  and  spices.  The  jute 
manufacture  is  extensively  carried  on,  also 
that  of  cottons. 

The  first  factoiy  in  Bengal  of  the  East  India 


v  Google 


iBe 


CALD  ARA — CALDBRON 


Company,  which  was  incorporated  by  royal 
diarter  in  the  year  1600,  was  establisbed  at 
Hooghlv,  28  miles  farther  op  the  river,  in  1644. 
Job  Chamock,  the  company's  agent,  was 
driven  out  of  this  settlement  in  1686,  and  the 
English  then  occupied  part  of  the  present  ^te 
of  Calcutta,  which  in  1689-90  became  the  head- 

Siiarters  of  the  commercial  establishments  of 
le  company  in  Bengal.  In  1700  the  company 
acqlrirea  from  Prince  Aiim,  son  of  the  Em- 
peror Aurungiebe,  the  three  villages  of  SutS- 
nati,  Kalikata  (Calcutta)  and  Govindpore,  for 
an  annual  rent  of  1,195  rupees,  and  these 
formed  the  niKleus  of  the  present  city.  The 
original  Fort  William,  named  after  William 
■  III,  was  built  in  1W6,  on  a  site  considerably  to 
the  north  of  the  present  fort  Calcutta  was 
taken  and  plimdered  by  Suraj-nd-Dowlah  in 
■1756^  and  retaken  by  Lord  Clive  in  1757,  To 
the  capture  by  Suraj-ud-Dowtah  belongs  th« 
episode  of  the  "Black  Hole*  <q.v.)  of  Cal- 
cutta. When  the  British  recovered  possession, 
much  of  the  town  was  in  ruins  and  had  to  be 
rebuilt,  so  that  it  may  be  said  to  date  only 
from  1757.  Clive  built  the  new  Fort  William 
on  the  site  of  Govindpore,  between  1757  and 
1773.  In  1773  Calcutta  became  the  seat  of  Brit- 
ish government  for  the  whole  of  India,  and  so 
continued  umil  1911,  when  announcement  was 
made,  for  political  and  climatic  reasons,  of  a 
change  of  capital  to  the  city  of  Delhi,  the  an- 
cient seal  of  the  Mogul  empire.  Pop.  (1911) 
896,067. 

CALDARA,  Polidoro.    See  Casavaggio. 
GALDER,  Alexander  Stirlinc,  American 


sculptor,  whose  work  is  represented  by  the  Gen- 
eral Meade  statue  in  Fairmount  Park,  and  by 
the  sculptural  decorations  in  Ihe  aly  hall, 
Philadelphia,  after  early  instruction  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy,  went  to  Paris  and 
studied  under  Chapu  and  Falguiere.  On  his 
return  he  was  appointed  instructor  in  the 
School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia.  Among 
his  notable  productions  are  'The  Dozing  Her- 
cules,' 'Primeval  IDiscontenl; '  'The  Han  Cub,* 
'TheMiner,'  'Narcissus'  and  the  six  heroic 
figures  of  kading  Presbyterian  theologians 
above  the  entrance  to  the  Witherspoon  Building 
Philadelphia. 

CALDBR,  James  Alexander,  Canadian 
statesman;  h.  Ingersoll,  Ontario,  17  Sept.  1868. 
He  was  educated  at  Ingersoll  Public  School, 
High  School,  Winnipeg,  and  was  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Manitoba  in  1888.  He  entered 
■  the  teaching  profession,  was  principal  of  Moose 
Jaw  High  School  1891-94,  inspector  of  schools 
for  the  Northwest  territories  1894-1900  and 
deputy  commissioner  of  education  for  the  terri- 
tories 1901-05.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  of 
the  territories  in  1906.  He  was  elected  to  the 
local  legislature  of  Saskatchewan  for  South 
Regina  in  190S,  but  was  defeated  in  1908,  and 
afterward  represented  Saltcoats.  As  Provincial 
Treasurer  and  BJinister  of  Education  in  the 
Scott  ministry  he  showed  a  thorou(ch  mastery 
of  the  details  of  legislation  and  was  aided  by  his 
singularly  lucid  expository  style.  In  1910  he 
became  Minister  of  Railways.  During  the  ill- 
ness of  Premier  Scott  he  was  acting  head  of 
the  government,  and  on  his  retirement  he  de- 
oHned  the  succesMon  in  favor  of  William  Mar- 


Immigration  and  Colonization. 

CALDSRA,  Chile,  a  scayort  in  the  province 
of  Atacama,  25  miles  by  rail  from  the  city  of 
Copiap6,  and  connected  also  by  rail  with  other 
points  of  the  central  valley  and  west  coast. 
Among  (Hiilean  ports,  Caiaera  ranks  as  15th 
in  the  value  o£  imports  and  as  19th  in  the  value 
of  exports.  For  the  mineral  productions  of 
this  region,  the  climate  and  agricultural  prod- 
ucts (with  the  aid  of  irrigation)  see  Chile, 
Pop.  about  3,000. 

CALDERON,  Frandaco  Garda,  Peruvian 
statesman:  b.  Arequipa  1834;  d.  Lima,  Peru. 
21  SepL  1905.  At  the  age  of  21  he  was  a  pro- 
fessor of  jurisprudence,  a  member  of  the 
Peruvian  Congress  1867  and  Minister  of  the 
Treasury  1868.  After  the  occupation  of  Lima 
by  Ihe  Chilean  army,  during  the  war  between 
Chile,  Peru  and  Bolivia.  1879-81,  he  was  made 
president  of  a  provisional  government  formed 
under  the  protection  of  the  (^lean  authorities, 
Februaty  1881.  His  government  was  reco^- 
niaed  by  the  United  States,  the  Central  Amen- 
cain  republics  and  Switzerland.  He  pledged 
himself  to  conduct  ias  government  upon  pnn- 
ciples  ttot  opposed  to  the  fundamental  con- 
ditions demanded  by  Chile  for  the  final  arrange- 
ment of  peace,  but  failing  to  do  this,  he  was 
arrested,  6  Nov.  1881,  by  order  of  Gen.  Patrick 
Lynch,  rear-adntiral  and  general-in-chief  of 
the  Chileans,  and  sent  as  a  plisoncr  to  Val- 
paraiso. Upon  his  return  to  Lima  in  1886  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Senate  and  was 
made  rector  of  the  University  of  San  Marcos. 
He  worked  earnestly  for  its  rehabilitation  after 
the  war  and  by  1886  its  restoration  was  in  great 
part  effected,  new  buildings  constructed  and 
normal  university  life  resimied.  He  aided  in 
securing  the  Grace  contract  through  which 
Peruvian  finances  were  placed  on  a  sound  basis 
and  the  commercial  stability  of  the  country  as- 
sured a  great  degree  of  permanency.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  'Dictionaiy  of  Peravian  Juris- 
prudence,' a  standard  work.  Consult  Mark' 
ham,  C.  R.,  'Histoiy  of  Peru'  (Chicago  1892) ; 
Garcia's  'Le  Periu  con  tempo  rain  >  (Paris 
1907) ;  Martin,  P.,  'Peru  of  the  Twentieth 
Century'   (London  1911). 

CALDEROH,  fillip  Hermogenca,  Eng- 
lish painter,  of  Spanish  parentage;  b.  Poitiers, 
3  May  1833 ;  d.  London,  30  April  1898.  He  was 
Ihe  son  of  Juan  Calderon,  at  one  time  professor 
of  Spanish  hterature  in  King's  College,  London. 
Coming  to  England  about  1845.  he  became 
shortly  afterward  the  pupil  of  a  civil  engi- 
neer; but  his  artistic  abiUty  was  so  pronounced 
that  his  father  allowed  him  to  devote  himself 
to  the  study  of  art  at  the  British  Museum  and 
the  National  Gallery.  In  18S3  he  went  to  study 
under  Picot  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  in 
Paris.  He  first  exhibited  at  the  Academy  in 
1853,  his  picture  being  named  'By  the  Waters 
of  Babylon.'  Among  the  many  pictures  he 
subsequently  produced  are  'Broken  Vows' 
(1857);  'Far  Away'  (1858);  'The  Ga<Jer's 
Daughter'  (1858);  'Never  More'  (1860)^; 
'Liberating  Prisoners  on  the  Young  Heir's 
Birthday'  (1861);  'After  the  Banie>  (1862). 
one  of  his  most  snccessfnt  works;  *Tl>e  EnglUh 


d=y  Google 


CALDSROM— CALDBRbN  lA  LA  BARCA 


187 


, J  Day  of  ....  

of  Saint  Bar*oIomew>  (1863);  'Her  Most 
High,  Noble  and  Puissant  Grace*  (1865),  the 
last  two  being  among  his  finest  works; 
<Whither?>  (1867  — his  diploma  picture)  ; 
•Sighing  His  Soul  Out  in  His  Lady's  Face' 
(1869);  'Spring  Driving  Away  Winter*  (1870): 
»0n  Her  Way  to  the  'I^rone*  (1871),  a  sequel 
to  his  masterpiece  of  I86S;  'Victory'  (1873); 
'Half-hours  with  the  Best  Authors';  'La 
Gloire  de  Dijon'  (1878)  ;  'Renunciation  of 
Saint  Elizabeth  of  Hungmy'  (1891,  National 
Gallery,  London),  probaUy  his  greatest  work; 
■Home  They  Brought  Her  Warrior  Dead' ; 
'Aphrodite'-  'The  Answer'  (1897);  and 
<Ruth>  (1897).  Elected  A.R.A.  in  1864,  he  be- 
came, three  years  later,  a  full  academician. 
He  gained  in  1867  the  first  French  gold  medal 
awarded  to  an  English  artist,  and  in  the  »ame 
jrear  was  made  keeper  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
m  which  position  he  remained  until  his  death. 
In  'Broken  Vows'  he  betrayed  a  tendency  to 
the  pre-Raphaelite  style,  but  he  did  not  retain 
this  style  very  long.  His  work  betrays  his 
French  technical  training,  while  his  subjects 
reflect  &i^lish  popular  sentiment. 

CALDSRON,  Sentfin  BstebanM,  Spanish 
writer:  b.  Malaga,  Spain,  1799;  d.  Madrid.  7 
Feb.  1867.  He  was  professor  of  poetry  and 
rhetoric  at  Granada,  1822-30,  but  resigned  and 
went  to  Madrid.  There  he  collected  a  library 
of  old  Spanish  literature,  especially  of  ballads, 
whether  manuscript  or  in  print;  the  collection 
is  in  the  National  Library  at  Madrid.  He  wrote 
a  volume  of  poems,  "Poesias  del  Solitario' 
(1833);    a   )        -     .™   -    ■  .    -.    . 

(1838),   and    a  veiy  v  .      , 

Literature  of  the  Moriscos.'     He  also  \ 

'The  Conquest  and  Loss  of  Portugal'  and  a 
charmiug  volume  of  'Andaludan  Scenes' 
(1847). 

CALDERdN  DB  LA  BARCA,  Pedro, 
Spanish  poet  and  playwright:  b.  Madrid,  17- 
Jan.  1600;  d.  thert  25  May  1681.  His  long  life, 
which  enibtaced  the  reigns  of  three  kings,  one 
of  whom,  Philip  IV,  was  a  generous  patron, 
and  exerted  a  profound  influence  upon  the 
dramatist's  art. by  demancUng  of  him  spectacular 
fila^s  for  his  theatre  in  the  royal  palace,  co- 
incided with  the  golden  age  of  the  Spanish 
drama,  and  his  death  marked  its  dose 

Of  Calder6a'a  fife  little  is  known  exc^t  that 
it  was  uncventftd  and  blameless,  in  which  re- 
spect he  contrasts  favorably  with  his  famous 
contemporary  and  rival,  -  Lope  de  Vega.  His 
father,  who  was  of  noble  origin,  served  as  secre- 
tary to  the  Treasury  Board  under  Philip  II 
and  Philip  III.  When  nine  years  of  age.  Cal- 
der6n  was  sent  to  the  Jesuit  College  at  Madrid, 
from  which,  at  the  age  of  14,  he  entered  the 
University  of  Salamanca,  not  without  first  giv- 
ing evidence  of  precocity  and  an  interest  in 
the  drama  by  writing  a  play,  known  now  only 
by  title,  'The  Chariot  of  Heaven'  (i.e.,  Eh- 
jah's).  The  infJuence  of  Jesuit  teaching  is 
seen  <n  his  plays,  where  the  dramatist  reveals 
an  unusual  fondness  tor  dialectics.  Some  of 
his  most_  successful  dramas  defend  the  attitude 
of  Jesuits  toward  the  doctrine  of  freewill. 
T^ese  influences  were  continued  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Salamanca,  whose  professors  stoutly 
championed  the  Jesuit  cause  against  the  pro- 
fessors of  the  University  of  Cohnbra.    At  Sala- 


manai  Cali)er6n  studied  mathematics,  phdoso- 
phy,  geography,  history,  civil  and  canon  law, 
and  graduated  in  1619.  While  at  the  university 
he  continued  to  write  plays,  and,  according  to 
his  pane^rist  and  earliest  biographer,  Vera 
Tassis,  with  such  marked  success  that  his  name 
became  knovm  throughout  Spain.  Nevertheless, 
he  planned  to  enter  the  legal  profession  in  his 
native  city,  but,  as  he  himself  records,  the  de- 
sire to  win  a  PP'^  '"  ^  poetical  lonrtiament 
organized  in  1620  to  honor  the  patron  saint  of 
Madrid,  Saint  Isidor,  made  a  poet  of  him.  He 
failed,  however,  to  win  a  prize,  but  in  a  second 
contest  two  years  later  he  was  awarded  a  third 
priie  for  a  euphuistic  poem  of  little  promise. 
More  significant,  as  indicating  the  esteem  in 
which  he  was  already  held  by  contemporary 
writers,  is  the  fact  that  he  contribtned  one  of 
three  commendatory  poems  to  tlie  oflidBl  ac- 
count of  the  second  contest  prepared  by  Lope 
de  Vega.     In  1625  Calder6n  entered  the  army 


court  of  Philip  IV  as  a  Idnd  of  official  play- 
wright and  master  of  the  revels.  For  these 
services  he  was  honored  with  knighthood  in 
1636,  and  later  was  granted  a  pension.  In  order 
to  qualify  for  a  chaplaincy  endowed  by  his 
maternal  grandmother  in  his  parish  diurch, 
San  Salvador,  he  became  a  priest  in  16S1.  It 
is  usually  stated  in  bio^phies  of  Older6n  that 
he  now  ceased  to  write  for  the  secular  stage 
and  produced  only  *autos  sacnunentales"  for 
the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi.  Documents  pub- 
lisbed  by  Pirei  Pastor  (1905)  show,' however, 
that  he  wrote  plays  at  rare  intervals  for  the 
royal  theatre  in  the  palace  of  the  Buen  Retiro. 
(^lder6R  WAS  by  nature  a  serious  and  pious 
man,  and  his  literary  production  from  1651  on 
consists  almost  .  entirely  of  "autos  sacra- 
mentales,*  most  of  which  were  adaptations  of 
Us  earlier  secular  plays.  In  1653  Philip  IV 
appointed  C^1der6n  to  a  chaplaincy  in  Los  Reyes 
Nuevos  at  Toledo,  but  the  absence  of  the  poet 
from  the  court  proved  unsatisfactory  to  the 
King,  and  so  in  1663  be  made  him  one  of  his 
honorary  chaplains  at  Madrid.  On  his  death, 
in  1681,  all  Spain  mourned  for  him.  Foreign 
scholars  vied  with  Spaniards  in  paying  tribate 
to  his  memory. 

During  his  long  life  he  had  been  honored 
by  royalty,  and  the  principal  cities  of  Spain 
commissioned  him  annually  to  write  their  *autos 
sacramen talcs.*  Manv  of  his  plays  had  been 
translated  into  French  and  Italian.  In  Spain 
his  dramatic  works  remained  popular  until 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  when 
pseudo-classical  critics  singled  him  out  as  the 

Secial  butt  of  their  attacks  on  the  national 
ama.  In  1763  the  performance  of  "aulos 
sacramentales^  was  forbidden  by  law.  (3al- 
derdn's  plays  were  censured  for  the  importance 
given  in  them  to  intrigue,  with  the  consequent 
neglect  of  character  study.  His  britliant,  but  at 
times  pompous  and  euphuistic  style  —  especiatty 
In  plays  composed  for  the  royal  theatre  — also 
met  with  disapproval.  About  the  year  1800 
romantic  critics  of  Germany,  especially  Fried- 
rich  Schlegel.  started  a  furore  for  Calder6n 
which  made  him  during  two  decades  die  most 
popular  dramatist  of  modem  times.  This  ex- 
travagant enthusiasm  for  the  Spaniard  Is  wdl 
exemplified  in  Shelley,  who  read  bis  plays 
*with  inexpressible  wonder  .and  dclls^t,*  and 


.Google 


188 


caldbr5n  y  bbltran— caldwslz. 


was  inspired  'to  throw  over  their  perfect  and 
glowing  fonns  the  grey  veil  of  my  own  words, ■ 
with  wliat  success  is  seen  in  his  famous,  al- 
though often  inaccurate,  rendering  of  parts  of 
'Tiie  Wonder-Working  Magician.*  At  present, 
partly  because  of  a  natural  reaction,  and  partly 
because  critics  like  Crillparter  and  Menindez 
y  Pelayo  have  set  up  the  counterclaim  of  his 
more  spontaneous  and  less  conventional  con- 
temporary, Lope  de  Vega,  Calder6n  is  held  in 
less  esteem  than  formerly. 

Gll<)er6n's  plays  cao  be  groufied  under  five 
headings,  as  follows:  (1)  Religious  or  sacred 
I^ys,  to  which  class  belong  three  of  bis  most 
successful  works,  'TTie  Wonder-Working 
Magician'  (q.v.),  'The  Devotion  to  the  Cross* 
and  'The  Firm  Prince.*  These  plays  have  as 
their  themes  conversion  from  paganism,^  the 
repentance  of  a  sinner,  who  thereby  receives 
pardon,  and  the  fortitude  of  a.  Christian  hero. 
(2)  Philosophical  plays,  the  best-known  being 
'Life  is  a  Dream*  (q.y.).  (3)  Tragedies,  or 
30-ca.lled  honor  plaj^  a  representative  work  of 
this  peculiarly  Spanish  type  of  play  being  'The 


fled  the  customs  of  the  dramatist's  a^.  It 
was  of  these  plays  that  Goethe  was  thinking 
when  he  ronarked  that  CaJder6n's  characters 
are  as  alike  as  bullets  or  leaden  soldiers  cast 
in  the  same  mould.    In  this  type  of  play  Cal- 


mentales,*  in  which  Calder6n  was  acknowlec^ed 
a  master  without  a  peer.  The  modern  reader 
is  interested  only  in  the  few  lyrical  passages 
which  occur  at  rare  intervals  in  arid  wastes  of 
philosophical  or  theological  discussions  and 
abstractions. 

Bibliography, —  '  Biblioteca  de  Autores  £s- 
panoles'  (Vols.  VII,  IX.  XII,  XIV,  LVIII); 
'Select  Plays'  (ed.  N.  MacCoU,  London  1883)  ; 
'Six  Dramas  of  Calder6n>  (freely  trans,  by  E. 
Fitzgerald,  London  1903) ;  Schmidt,  F.  M.  V.,  . 
'Die  Schauspiele  Calder6n's'  (Elberfeld  1857)  ; 
M.  Menendez  y  Pelayo,  'Calder6n  y  su  Teatro* 
(Madrid  1881);  Breymann,  H.,  'Calderon- 
Studien'  (a  pretentious  but  incomplete  and  in- 
accurate bibliography,  Munich  190S). 

MiLTOff  A.  Buchanan, 
Professor  of  llaUan  and  Spanish,  University  of 

Toronto. 

CALDERdN  Y  BBLTRAN,  Fernando, 
Mexican  dramatist  and  poet:  b.  Guadalajara, 
20  July  1809;  d.  Ojocaliente,  18  Jan.  1845. 
Tliroughout  Spanish  America  his  piays,  such  as 
'The  Journey,*  'Anne  Boleyr'  and  'The  Re- 
turn of  the  Crusader,"  have  been  extremely  pop- 
ular.   As  a  lyrical  poet  his  work  is  characterized 


CALDBRWOOD,  David,  Scottish  cler^- 
man  and  ecclesiastical  historian :  b.  Dalkeitii 
1575;  d.  Jedburjr,  29  Oct.  1650.  In  1604  he  was 
settled  as  a  minister  of  Crailing,  in  Roxburgh- 
shire, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
opposition  to  episcopal  authority.  _  In  1617  he 
was  bani^ed  from  the  realm  for  his  contumacy 
and  went  to  Holland,  where,  in  1623,  he  pub- 
lished his  famous  work  entitled  'Altare  Da- 
mascenum*.  He  retonied  to  Scotland,  and  be- 
came minister  of  the  cbutch  ol  Pencattlaad, 


near  Edinbui^  and  in  1643  was  appointed  odc 
of  the  committee  which  compiled  die  directory 
for  public  worship  in  Scotland.  He  then  en- 
gaged in  writing  the  history  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  in  continuation  of  that  of  Knox,  a 
work  which  was  printed  for  the  Woodrow  So- 
ciety, with  a  life  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Thomson, 
from  bis  manuscript  in  1842-49,  in  eight 
volumes. 

CALDBRWOOD,  Henry,  Scottish  pbiloso- 
pher:  b.  Peebles,  10  May  1830;  d.  Edinbur^ 
19  Nov.  1897.  He  received  his  earW  education 
at  the  Edinburgh  Institution  and  High  School. 
He  afterward  attended  the  universi^  of  that 
city,  and  while  a  student  published  his  'Philoso- 


pied  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  chief  works 
are  his  'Handbook  of  Moral  Philosophy' 
(1872)  ;  'Relations  of  Mind  and  Brain'  (1W9)  ; 
'Evolution  and  Man's  Place  in  Nature*  (1893)  ; 
'The .  Relations  of  Science  and  Religion' 
(1881):  and  a  <Ufe  of  David  Hume*  (1898). 
He  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  work  for  edu- 
cational and  temperance  reform.  Consult  the 
biography  (London  1900)  by  his  son,  W.  C 
Calderwood,  and  D.  Woodside,  which  contains 
a  chapter  on  C^lderwood's  philosophy  by  A.  S. 
Pringle-Patlison. 

CALDICOTT.  Alfred  Jame^  English 
musician  and  composer :  b,  Worcester,  England, 
1842;  d.  24  Oct.  1897.  After  studying  at  Leip- 
zig under  Richter  and  Moscheles  he  was  organ- 
ist of  Saint  Stephen's  Church  in  his  native 
town  for  a  time,  becoming  professor  in  die 
Royal  College  of  Music  in  1882.  Among  his 
works,  besides  many  songs,  glees,  etc.,  are  the 
cantatas  'The  Widow  of  Nam'  (ISBl)  and 
'A  Rhine  Legend'  (1883);  and  the  operettas 
'A  Moss  Rose  Pent*  (1883)  and  'Old 
Knockles'    (1884). 

CALDWELL,  Alexander,  American 
banker:  b.  Drake's  Ferry,  Huntington  County, 
Pa„   1   March  1830.     He  attended  public  and 

Erivate  schools  until  16  years  of  age.  In  1847 
e  enlisted  as  a  soldier  in  the  Mexican  War, 
entering  the  company  of  his  father,  who  was 
killed  at  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 
In  1848  he  returned  to  Columbia,  Pa.,  where  he 
entered  a  bank,  and  later  took  up  business.  In 
1861  he  removed  to  Kansas^  where  he  engaged 
in  the  transportation  of  military  supplies  to  the 
various  posts  on  the  plains,  and  became  largehf 
interested  in  railroad  and  bridge  building.  He 
was  elected  to  tlje  United  States  Senate  as  a 
Republican,  took  his  seal  4  March  1871  and 
served  until  24  March  1873,  when  he  resigned. 
He  is  president  of  the  Kansas  Manufacturing 
Company  and  president  of  the  First  National 
Bank  of  Leavenworth  since  1897. 

CALDWELL,  Chulet  Hnuy  Bromedge, 
American  naval  officer:  b.  Hingfaam,  Mass.,  H 
June  1828;  d.  Boston,  30  Nov.  1877.  He  did 
a  notable  service  in  an  expedition  ^^inst  a 
tribe  of  cannibals  inhabiting  one  of  the  Fiji 
Islands,  defeating  them  in  a  pitched  battle  and 
destroying  their  town.  In  the  Civil  War  he 
commanded  the  Itasca,  taUog  part  in  the  bran- 


Digitized 


6,  Google 


CALDWBLL— CALBB 


bardment  of  Torts  Jackson  and  Saint  Philip 
and  the  Chabnette  batteries,  and  in  the  capture 
of  New  Orleans.  He  was  promoted  commodore 
in  1874. 

CALDWELL,  Howard  Walter,  American 
historian:  b.  Bryan,  Ohio,  26  Aug.  1858.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  University  of  Nebraska 
in  1^  and  is  professor  of  American  history 
and  jurisprudence  there.  He  has  written  'His- 
tory of  the  United  Sutes,  181S-1861'  (1896); 
'Studies  in  History'  (1897) ;  'A  Survey  of 
American  History*  (1898)  ;  'Some  Great  Amer- 
ican Legislators'  (1899)  ;  'Life  of  Henry  Clay' 
(1899) ;  'Expansion  of  the  United  States' 
(1900)  ;  "Education  in  Nebraska'  (1902)  ; 
•Civil  Government  of  Nebraska'  (1902) ; 
'Source  History  of  the  United  States'  (1909); 
■'Outlines  with  References  for  American  His- 
tory 1783-1877>  (1910). 

CALDWBLL,    James,    American    clergy- 
man: b.  Charlotte  (Toun^,  Va.,  April  1734:  d. 
24  Nov.  1781.    After  ^aduating  at  the  CdIIckc 
of  New  Jersey,  now  Princelon  University,  He 
became  Presbyterian  pastor  at  Elizabethtown. 
During   the   growing   antagonism   between    the 
colonies  and  Great  Britain,  he  warmlj;  took  the 
side  of  the  former,  and  when  hostilities  began, 
became   chaplain   to    the   New   Jersey   bri^de, 
and    tooic    an    active    share    in    its    campaigns, 
fighting  ''with  the  sword  in  one  hand  and  the 
Bible  in  the  other.^    Irritated  at  the  unexpected 
and    obstinate  resistance  made  by   the  Jersey 
troops    and   yeomanry,    the    Enehsh    began    to 
burn  the  houses  and  pillage  the  property  of 
the  villagers  at  Connecticul  Farms.     In  one  of 
the    houses   was   the    family   of   Mr.   Caldwell, 
whose  wife  had  retired  to  a  bade:  room  with  her 
two   youngest  children  —  one  an  infant  in   her 
arms  —  where  she  was  engaged  in  prayerj  when 
a  musket  was  discharged  through  the  wmdow. 
Two  balls  struck  her  m  the  breast  and  she  (ell 
dead  upon  the  Aoor.       On  23  June  General  Knyp- 
hausen    made  a  second  incursion   with   about 
5,000  troops.    On  this  occasion  he  passed  over 
the   saiae   route  to   Springfield,   where  a  battle 
was  fougjbt.    Among  the  most  active  in  the  Aght 
was  the  chaplain  Caldwell.    The  British  were 
compelled  to  retrace  their  steps,  which  they  did 
with    all    possible   rapidity.     He   was   shot   and 
killed    by   an   American   sentinel   in  the   course 
of  a  dispute  over  a  package  the  tatter  desired 
to   examine.     The   soldier   was   tried  and  exe- 
cuted for  murder  later.     In  1846  a  monument 
was  raised  to  (^dwell's  memory  in  Elizabeth. 
CALDWELL,  Jowph,  American  edudator : 
b.  Lammington,  N.  J..  21  April  1773 ;  d.  Chapel 
Hill,  N.  C.  24  Jan.  1835.    He  was  graduated  at 
Princeton    in    1791,   delivering   the   Latin    salu- 
tatory, and  then  taught  school  in  Lammington 
and   Elizabethtown,   where  he  began  the  study 
of   divinity.     He  became  tutor  at  Princeton  in 
April     1795,   and    in    1796   was    appointed   pro- 
fessor   of    mathematics    in    the    University    of 
North  Carolina.    He  found  the  institution,  then 
only    five    years   old,   in   a   feeble   state,   nearly 
destitute    of   building,   library   and   apparatus, 
and  -  to    him  is  ascribed  the  merit  of  having 
saved    it    from   ruin.     He  was   made   its   presi- 
dent in   1804  and  held  the  ofRce  till  his  death, 
with   ibe  exception  of   the  years   from   1812  to 
1817.     Princeton  gave  him  the  degree  of  D.D. 
in  1816.     In  1824  ne  visited  Europe  to  purchase 
apparatus  and  select  books  for  the  Ubraty  of 


the  university.  A  monument  to  his  memory 
has  been  erected  in  the  grove  snrrounding  the 
tmiversity  buildings.  He  published  'A  Com- 
pendious System  of  Elementary  Geometry,' 
with  a  subjoined  treatise  on  plane  trigonometry 
(1822),  and  'Letters  of  Carleton'    (1825). 

CALDWBLL,  WOUam,  Scottish- American 
educator:  b.  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  10  Nov. 
1863.  He  was  graduated  from  the  university 
of  his  native  city  and  was  assistant  professor 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  that  institution 
1887-&  In  1891  be  was  called  to  the  Sage 
School  of  Philosophy,  Cornel!  University, 
New  York;  in  1892  to  the  University  of 
Chicago,  and  from  1894  to  1903  he  was  profes- 
sor of  moral  and  social  philosophy  in  the 
Northwestern  University  at  Evanston,  111.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  Macdonald 
professor  of  moral  philosophv  in  McGiil  Uni- 
versity, Montreal,  He  has  pubhsbed  '  Schopen- 
hauer s  System  in  Its  Philosophical  Signifi- 
cance' (1896);  'Prapnatism  and  Idealism' 
(1913);  and  contribuuons  to  the  leading  psy- 
chological and  philosophical  reviews. 

CALDWBLL,  Idaho,  dty,  count);-seat  of 
(Canyon  County  on  the  Oregon  Short  Line  Rail- 
road, 26  miles  direct  west  of  Boise.  It  is  id 
the  Payett-Boise  Reclamation  project,  a  rich 
farming  region,  yielding  wheat,  flour,  cereals, 
fruits,  potatoes  and  live  stock.  It  has  munid- 
pdly  owned  waterwortts,  a  Camej^e  library, 
courthouse,  city  hall,  and  the  College  of  Idaho 
is  situated  here.  Here  30  Dec.  1W6,  ex-Gov^- 
emor  Sfeunenberg  was  assassinated  by  Harry 
Orchard.     Pop,  3,543. 

CALDWELL,  Kan.,  dty  in  Sumner  (^)unty, 
on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the 
Atchison,  Topetca  and  Santa  F£  and  Kansas 
and  Southwestern  railroads.  The  principal  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of  ice  and  flour. 
There  are  two  banks  whose  combined  resources 
amount  lo  $1,750,000.  The  public  buildings  in- 
clude two  primary  and  one  grade  and  high 
schools,  a  city  hall,  Carnegie  library,  opera 
house.  The  government  is  by  a  commission, 
and  the  municipalitv  owns  its  light  and  water 
plants,  which  have  been  brought  up  to  date  re- 
cently at  a  cost  of  $95,000.    Pop.  2,500. 

CALDWELL,  N.  J.,  dty  in  Essex  County, 
on  the  second  ridge  of  the  Orange  Mountains^ 
10  miles  west  of  Newark,  the  county-seat,  ana 
oil  the  Eric  Railroad.  It  is  mainly  a  residential 
dty,  has  two  banks  with  combined  resources  of 
$2,000,000,  and  taxable  property  of  an  aggregate 
value  of  $3,5OaOO0.  There  are  three  public 
schools  and  a  Carnegie  library  and  town  hall. 
Pop.  3,500. 

CALDWELL,  Ohio,  villa^  county-seat  of 
Noble  County,  on  the  Ohio  River  and  Western 
and  the  Cleveland  and  Marietta  railroads,  35 
miles  north  of  Marietta.  Coal  mines  and  oil 
wells  are  worked  and  the  village  owns  water- 
works  and   electric- lighting  plant.     Pop.    1,430. 

CALDWELL,  Tex.,  town  and  county-seat 
of  Burleson  County,  on  the  Gulf,  Colorado  and 
Santa  Fe  Railroad.  87  miles  east-northeast  of 
Austin.  It  is  the  trading  centre  of  a  stock 
raising  and  cotton  growing  region  and  has  cot- 
ton-gin, oil  and  grist  mills,  ice-factory  and 
brick  yards.    Pop.  1,476. 

CALEB,  son  of  Jephunneh^  a  descendant  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  or  according  to  sotae  an- 


.Google 


ISO 


CALEB  WIUJUUIS  —  CALEP 


tborittM  a  foreigner  of  Kenezite  origin  incor- 
porated with  that  tribe,  according  to  Ussher 
bom  1530  B.C:.,  was  sent  with  Joshua  aad  10 
others  to  examine  the  land  of  Canaan,  When 
Joshua  had  conquered  the  country,  Caleb  re- 
minded the  Jews  of  the  promise  which  had 
been  made  by  God,  that  th^  ^ould  eojoy  this 
country.  He  obtained  the  city  of  Hebron  for 
his  share  of  the  spoil,  bcsiegea  and  ca{iturcd  it, 
and  drove  out  three  giants,  or  Anaklm.  He 
then  marched  against  Kirjath-se[Aer,  and  of- 
fered his  daughtei  Acisah  to  the  first  who 
should  enter  it  Othniel,  his  nephew,  was  the 
successful  aspirant  for  the  fair  Jewess.  Con- 
sult Moore.  'Judges'  (1895);  Myer,  ed.  'Die 
Entstehung  des  Judentums'  (1896)  ;  id,,  'Die 
Israeliten  und  ihre  Nachbarstamme*    (1W6). 


read  book  of  William  Godwin,  published 
in  1794,  embodies  many  of  the  ideas  of 
the  audior's  celebrated  <^InqUiry  Concern- 
ing Political  Justice.'  The  hero,  from 
whom  the  book  takes  its  name,  a  lad  of  hum- 
Ue  origin  but  uncomcnon  intelligence,  becomes 
involved  in  the  ifter  effects  of  a  feud  between 
two  wealthy  and  infltKntial  country  gentle- 
men. Tyrrel,  a  brutal,  boorish  squire,  and  the 
tnore  courteous  and  refined  Falkland,  Becom- 
ing possessed,  throush  an  inordinate  curiosity, 
of  the  secret  that  his  roaster,  Falkland,  had 
murdered  Tyrrel  and  allowed  the  blame  to  lie 
on  innocent  men.  Williams  is  unrelentingly  per- 
secuted by  his  master.  Lodged  in  iail  at  Falk- 
land's instigation  on  charge  of  felony,  the  hero, 
after  one  unsuccessful  attempt,  finally  escapes, 
and  in  the  course  ot  his  adventures  meets  with 
many  classes  of  society  —  highwaymen,  arti- 
sans, "blood-hunters"  and  magistrates  —  but 
never  escapes  the  consequences  of  Falkland's 
malevolence.  The  thesis  of  the  book  is  the  in- 
equalitv  of  man  before  the  law.  Having  in- 
nocently incurred  the  enmity  of  the  influential, 
Williams  cannot  henceforth  obtain  either  legal 
or  social  redress.  The  results  of  injustice  are 
also  illustrated  among  other  members  of  the 
humbler  classes,  and  a  secondary  thesis  of  the 
book  is  that  many  thieves  and  highwaymen  are 
driven  to  their  mode  of  life  sim^  through  in- 
justice of  laws  and  customs.  Falkland's  de- 
sire to  preserve  his  reputation  at  all  hazards 
and  Tyrrel's  exclamation  that  the  lives  of  20 
such  as  his  ward  are  not  worth  one  hour  of 
his  convenience,  are  typical  of  the  anti-social 
feeling  that  Godwin  attacks, 

Throuj^out,  the  book  is  written  in  a  vigor- 
ous and  vivid  style,  which,  in  spite  of  its  con- 
scious stateliness,  retains  vitality  and  has  made 
it  one  of  the  minor  clashes  of  English  litera- 
ture, A  short  account  of  the  relation  of 
'Caleb  Williams'  to  the  theories  of  the  time 
is  to  be  found  tn  H.  N,  firailsford's  'Shelley, 
Godwin  and  Their  Circle,' 

WiiitAif  T.  Bhettster. 

CALEDONIA,  the  name  by  which  the  por- 
tion of  Scotland  north  of  the  rivers  Forth  and 
Clyde  first  became  known  to  the  Romans,  The 
year  80  of  the  Christian  era  is  the  period  when 
Scotland  first  becomes  known  to  history.  The 
invasion  of  Czsar  did  not  immediately  lead  to 
the  permanent  occupation  of  southern  Britain. 
It  was  only  in  the  year  43  that  the  annexation 
of  this  portion  of  the  island  to  the  Roman  em- 


pire began.  It  was  completed  superficially 
about  78,  and  two  years  were  occupied  in  recon- 
ciling the  natives  to  the  Roman  ydce,  Agricola 
then  moved  northward,  invading  Scotland  by 
the  eastern  rpute,  and  occupyiiw  the  country  up 
to  the  line  of  the  Friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth. 
Agricola  ran  defensive  works  across  this  line, 
and  hearing,  in  the  third  ^ear  of  his  occupation, 
rumors  of  an  or^nized  invasion  in  preparation 
by  the  Caledonians,  a  name  applied  to  the 
dwellers  north  of  the  boundary,  he  resolved  to 
anticipate  them,  and  again  advanced  north'- 
ward.  The  Roman  army  marched  in  three  di- 
visions. The  weakest,  consisting  o£  the  ninth 
legion,  was  attacked  by  the  barbarians,  who 
fought  their  way  to  the  Roman  camp.  Agricola 
came  to  the  rescue,  and  the  Romans  were  vic- 
torious. The  Roman  army  now  advanced  to . 
Mons  Grampius,  where  they  found  the  enemy, 
30,000  strong,  under  a  chief  named  Galgacus, 
Agricola  had  to  stretch  his  line  as  far  as  he 
deemed  prudent  to  prevent  bein^  outflanked. 
The  auxiliaries  and  Romanized  Bntons  were  in 
the  centre  and  front,  the  legions  in  the  rear. 
The  Caledonians  are  described  as  riding  furi- 
ously about  in  chariots  between  the  two  camps. 
Each  chief  (Roman  and  Caledonian)  made  a 
set  speech  to  his  followers;  that  of  Galgacus 
was  peculiarly  eloquent  The  Caledonians  were 
armed  with  small  shields,  arrows  and  large 
pointless  swords.  Their  chariots  routed  the 
Roman  cavalry,  but  afterward  became  embar- 
rassed in  the  broken  ground;  and  when  the 
Roman  auxiliaries  charged  the  masses  of  the 
enemy  with  the  gladius,  they  gave  way  before 
a  method  of  fignling  to  which  they  were  un- 
accustomed. The  site  of  the  battle  remains 
undetermined.  The  name  Caledonia  is  first 
used  by  Pliny,  who,  as  well  as  Tacitus,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  it  from  Agricola.  The 
name  is  applied  by  Ptolemy  to  one  of  the 
nutneroua  populations  of  North  Britain.  The 
use  of  the  name  by  Tacitus  gave  it  immediate 
popularity  with  the  Romans  and  to  the  same 
source  its  subsequent  popularity  in  Britain  is  to 
be  traced.  Caledonia  as  a  name  for  Scotland 
has  been  much  used  by  poets.     Consult  Smith, 


CALEDONIA  SPRINGS,  Canada,  town 
of  Prescott  County,  Ontario,  on  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railroad,  65  miles  west  of  Montreal,  a 
health  resort  frequented  for  its  alkaline  springs. 

CALEDONIAN  CANAL,  in  Scotland, 
counties  of  Inverness  and  Argyle.  connects  the 
North  with  the  Irish  Sea,  extending  from  Mur- 


The  total  length  is  60^  miles,  of  which  the 
lochs  compose  37j^,  It  was  built  to  shorten  the 
distance  between  Kinnaird's  Head  and  the 
Sound  of  Mull,  which  had  offered  a  very  diffi- 
cult passage.  By  the  canal  route  the  distance 
was  reduced  from  500  to  250  miles.  It  allows 
passage  of  ships  of  500  lo  600  tons.  The  canal 
was  begun  in  1S03.  and  opened  for  navigation 
about  the  close  of  1823. 

CALEP,  Robert,  American  merchant  of 
Boston:  b.  about  1648;  d.  Roxbury,  Mass.,  13 
April  1719,  His  fourth  son,  also  named  Robert, 
died  in  1722  or  1723,  aged  about  41.    One  or  the 


v  Google 


CALBNDAS 


other  of  these  men  was  the  author  of  a  re- 
markable book  on  the  witchcraft  delusion  in 
New  England.  The  best  authorities,  notably 
Jstnes  Savage  and  Wm.  F.  Poole,  ucribe  it  to 
the  younger,  who  was  about  23  when  it  ap- 
peared. The  book  was  entitled  <Uore  Wonders 
of  the  Invisible  World'  (London  1700),  the 
title  being  snggested  by  Cotton  Mather's  'Won- 
ders of  the  Invis9>le  World.*  The  substance  of 
il  had  been  circulated  in  manuBcript  several 
years  previous  to  its  publication  and  its  mali- 
cious attacks  on  Cotton  and  Increase  Uather 
caused  a  bitter  and  life-long  quarrel  between 
tbe  fonner  and  the  author.  The  boc4c  abounds 
in  malicious  innuendoes,  directly  charges  the 
Mathers  with  inciting  and  bdng  in  fim  sym- 
[athy  with  the  Salem  tra^dies,  and  accuses  the 
Boston  ministers,  in  their  advice  of  IS  June 
VffZ,  of  endorsing  the  Salem  methods.  When 
ibe  bo<j[  was  printed  and  came  back  to  Bostoii 
it  was  denounced  and  hated  because  it  was  an 
imtruthfu]  and  atrocious  libel  on  the  pubdic 
sentiment  of  Boston,  and  on  the  conduct  of  its 
ministers.  Il  is  said  that  Increase  Mather 
publicly;  burned  it  in  the  Harvard  College  yard. 
The  animus  of  tbe  boc^  has  been  greatly  nus- 
understood,  and  tbe  popular  idea  that  Calef 
was  a  stalwart  agent  in  putting  an  end  to  Salem- 
witchcraft  is  both  a  myth  ana  a  delusion.  Its 
historical  value  and  the  author's  character  have 
been  greatly  overrated.  His  ^personal  histofy 
is  a  blank  which  the  most  assiduous  investiga- 
tion has  never  been  able  to  fill,  or  even  to  sup- 
ply with  the  most  common  details.  It  is  not 
known  where  or  when  he  was  bom,  when  be 
died  or  where  he  was  buried,  although  he  lived 
in  Boston  and  his  will  is  on  file  in  the  Suffolk 
records.  His  book  has  now  becoiAe  veiy  rare 
and  copies  bring  high  prices  in  the  book  auc- 
dons.  It  was  reprinted  at  Salem  m  17%  1823 
and  1861,  and  at  Boston  in  1828  and  1865. 

CALBNDAS,  a  system  of  dividing  time 
into  years,  months,  weeks  and  days  for  use  in 
civil  life,  or  a  register  of  these  or  similar 
divisions.  Among  Qie  old  Romans,  for  want  of 
such  a  register,  it  was  the  custom  of  the 
pontifcx  maximus,  on  the  first  day  of  the 
month,  which  began  with  the  new  mooii,  to 
proclaim  (caUtre)  the  month,  with  the  festivals 
occurring  in  it  Hence,  calenda  (the  first  of' 
the  month) '  and  calendar.  The  periodical  oc- 
currence of  certain  natural  phenomena  gave  rise 
to  tbe  first  division  of  time.  The  apparent  daily 
revolution  of  the  sun  about  the  earth  occasioned 
the  division  into  days.  The  time  at  which  a  day 
begins  and  ends  has  been  differently  fixed,  the 
reckoning  being  from  sunrise  to  sunrise,  from 
sunset  to  sunset,  from  noon  to  noon,  or  from 
midnight  to  midnight.  The  changes  of  tbe 
moon,  which  were  observed  to  recur  every  29 
or  30  days,  suggested  the  division  into  months, 
but  the  month  now  used,  though  nearly  equal 
to  a  lunaticHi,  b  really  an  arbitrary  unit;  and, 
as  a  still  longer  measure  of  time  was  found 
necessary  for  many  purposes,  it  was  supplied 
by  the  apparent  yearly  revolution  of  the  sun 
round  the  earth,  producing  the  changing  sea- 
fom.  The  lime  of  this  revolution  is  now  known 
to  be  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes  and  46 
'Kondi,  but  as  it  has  at  various  times  been 
rcrkoned  diffcfently,  this  has  given  rise  to  cor- 
respondii^  changes  in  the  calendar.  This  unit 
of  time  is  called  a  solar  year.     Tbe  division 


into  weeks,  which  has  been  Almost  universally 
adopted,  is  not  foimded  on  any  natural  phe- 
nomenon, and,  as  it  originated  in  the  Easl^  has 
been  attributed  to  the  divine  command  to 
Moses  in  regard  to  the  observation  of  the 
seventh  day  as  a  day  of  rest.  By  other  author- 
ities it  has  been  ascribed  to  the  number  of  the- 
principal  planets,  a  theory  supported  by  the 
names  gfven  to  the  days.  It  was  not  used  by 
the  Greeks,  nor  by  the  Ramans,  till  the  tune  of 
Theodosius.  The  great  influence  of  the  sun's 
course  upon  the  seasons  naturally  attracted  the 
attention  of  men  at  all  periods  to  this  phe- 
nomenon ;  accordingly  all  nations  in  any  dc- 
ifree  civilized  have  adapted  the  year  as  the 
ongest  unit  of  time.  The  rear  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  was  based  on  tne  changes  of  the 
seasons  alone,  without  reference  to  the  lunar 
month,  and  contained  365  days,  which  were 
i£vided  into  12  months  of  30  days  each,  with 
five  supplementary  days  at  the  end  of  each 
year.  The  Jewish  year  consisted  of  lunar 
months,  of  which  they  reckoned  12  in  the  year, 
intercalating  a  13th  when  necessary  to  main- 
tain the  correspondence  of  the  particular 
months  with  the  regular  recurrence  of  the 
seasons.  The  Greele  in  the  earliest  period 
also  reckoned  by  lunar  and  intercalary  months. 
They  divided  the  month  into  three  decades,  a 
system  also  adopted  long  afterward  at  the  time 
of  the  French  Revolution.  It  possesses  the  ad- 
vantage of  making  the  smaller  division  an  exact 
measure  of  the  larger  and  under  it  the  num- 
ber of  a  day  in  the  ID-day  period  readily  sug- 
gests its  number  in  the  month.  The  Greeks 
in  the  time  of  Solon  had  a  year  of  12  months 
alternately  of  29  and  30  days,  the  total  num- 
ber of  days  being  354,  and  the  year  being  very 
nearly  equal  to  a  lunar  one.  Soon  afterward  a 
month  of  30  days  began  to  be  intercalated  every 
other  year  in  order  to  reconcile  their  year  with 
that  founded  on  the  sun's  movement,  but  as  the 
error  was  still  very  large  the  intercalary  month 
was  afterward  omitted  once  in  four  times.  The 
Jewish  and  also  the  Greek  year  thus  both  va- 
ried in  duration  acci>rding  as  the  intercalarv 
month  was  introduced  or  omitted.  This,  with 
the  uncertainty  as  lo  the  exact  duration  of  the 
year,  was  a  constant  source  of  confusion. 

Various  plans  for  the  reformation  of  the 
calendar  were  projwsed  from  time  to  time;  but 
all  proved  insufficient  till  Melon  and  Eucte^ 
mon  finally  succeeded  in  bringing  it  to  a  much 
greater  degree  of  accuracy  by  fixing  on  the 
period  of  19  years,  in  which  time  the  new 
moons  return  upon  the  same  days  of  the  year 
as  before  (as  19  solar  years  are  very  nearly 
equal  to  235  lunations).  (See  Cycle).  This 
mode  of  computation,  first  adopted  by  the 
Greeks  about  432  b.c,  was  so  much  approved 
of  that  it  was  engraven  with  goldeii  letters  OD 
a  tablet  at  Athens.  Hence  the  number  showing 
what  year  of  the  moon's  cycle  any  given  year 
is  is  called  the  golden  number.  This  period  of 
19  years  was  found,  however,  to  be  about  six 
hours  too  long.  Tlus  defect  Cajippus,  about 
102  years  later,  endeavored  to  remedy,  but  still 
failed  to  make  the  beginning  of  the  seasons  re- 
turn on  the  same  fixed  day  of  the  year. 

The  Romans  first  divided  the  year  into  10 
months,  but  they  early  adopted  the  Greek 
method  of  lunar  and  intercalary  months,  mak- 
ing the  lunar  year  consist  of  354,  and  after- 


=,  Google 


CAUNDAS 


w&rd  of  355  days,  leaving  10  ar  11  day*  and 
a  fraction  to  be  Eun>Iied  by  the  inlercalaiy  di- 
visioa.  ThU  arrangement,  which  was  puced 
under  the  charge  of  the  pontiffs,  continued  until 
the  time  of  Osar.  The  first  day  of  the  mouth 
was  called  the  calends.  In  March,  May,  July 
and  October,  the  15th,  in  other  months  the  13th, 
was  called  the  ides.  The  ninth  day  before  the 
ides  (reckoning  inclusive)  was  called  the  nones. 
The  other  days  of  the  months  they  reckoned 
forward  to  tne  next  calends,  nones,  or  ides, 
whether  in  the  same  or  the  succeeding  month. 


reckoning  would  be  the  l^fth  day  before  the 
nones,  which  in  that  month  fell  on  the  7th. 
The  8th  of  January,  In  which  month  the  nones 
happen  on  the  Sih,  and  the  ides  on  the  13th 
was  called  the  6th  before  the  ides  of  January. 


the  calends  of  the  following  month.  From  the 
inaccuracy  of  the  Roman  method  of  reckoning 
it  appears  that  in  Gcero's  time  the  calendar 
brought  the  vernal  equinox  almost  two  months 
later  than  it  ought  to  be.  To  check  this  irregu- 
larity Julius  Csesar  invited  the  Greek  astrono- 
mer Sosigenes  to  Rome,  who,  with  the  assist' 
ance  of  Marcus  Fabius,  invented  that  mode  of 
reckoning  which,  after  him  who  introduced  it 
into  use,  has  been  called  the  Julian  calendar. 
The  chief  improvement  consisted  in  restoring 
the  equinox  to  its  proper  place^  in  March.  For 
this  purpose  two  months  were  inserted  between 
November  and  December,  so  that  the  year  707 
(46  B.C.),  called  from  this  circumstance  the 
year  of  confusion,  contained  14  months.  In 
the  number  of  days  the.  Greek  computation  was 
adopted,  which  made  it  365;^.  The  number 
and  names  of  the  months  were  kept  unaltered 
with  the  exception  of  Quin tills,  which  was 
henceforth  called,  in  honor  of  the  author  of  the 
improvement,  Julius.  To  dispose  of  the  quarter 
of  a  day  it  was  determined  to  intercalate  a  day 
every  fourth  year  between  the  23d  and  24th 
of  February,  This  was  called  an  intercalary 
day,  and  the  year  in  which  it  took  place  was 
called  an  intercalary  year,  or,  as  we  term  it,  a 
leap  year. 

Tnis  calendar  continued  in  use  among  the 
Romans  until  the  fall  of  the  empire,  and 
throughout  Christendom  till  1582.  The  festivals 
of  the  Christian  CHiurch  were  determined  by  it. 
With  regard  to  Easter,  however,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  have  reference  to  the  course  of  the 
moon.  The  Jews  celebrated  Easter  (that  is, 
the  Passover)  on  the  14th  of  the  month  Nisan 
(or  March)  ;  the  Christians  in  the  same  month, 
but  always  on  a  Sunday.  Now,  as  the  Easter 
of  the  CJhristians  sometmtes  coincided  with  the 
Passover  of  the  Jews,  and  it  was  thoiwht  un- 
christian to  celebrate  so  important  a  festival 
at  the  same  time  as  the  Jews  did,  it  was  re- 
solved at  the  Council  of  Nice,  325  a.d.,  that 
from  that  time  Easter  should  be  solemnized  on 
the  Sunday  following  the  first  full  moon  after 
the  vernal  equinox,  which  was  then  supposed 
to  take  place  on  21  March.  As  the  course  of 
the  moon  was  thus  made  the  foundation  for 
determining  the  time  of  Easter,  the  lunar  Cycle 
of  Melon  whs  taken  for  this  purpose ;  accord- 
ing to  which  the  year  contains  365^  days,  and 
the  new  moons,  after  a  period  of  19  years, 
return  on  the  same  day  as  before.    The  mac- 


curan'  of  this  comlnnation  of  die  Juliu)  year 
and  me  Itmar  cycle  must  have  soon  discovered 
itself  on  a  cranparison  with  the  true  time  of  the 
commencement  of  the  equinoxes,  siooe  the  re- 
cdved  lengd)  of  365^  days  exceeds  the  true  by 
about  11  minutes;  so  that  for  every  such  Julian 
year  the  equinox  receded  11  minutes,  or  a  day 
m  about  13Q  years.  In  consequence  of  this, 
in  the  16di  century,  the  vernal  equinox  had 
changed  its  place  in  the  calendar  from  the  21st 
to  the  10th:  that  is,  it  really  took  place  on  the 
10th  instead  of  the  2tst,  on  which  it  was  placed 
in  the  calendar.  Llu^  Lilio  Ghiraldi,  fre- 
quently called  Aloysias  Lilius,  a  physician  of 
Verona,  projected  a  plan  for  amoiding  the 
calendar,  which,  after  nis  death,  was  presented 
by  his  brother  to  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  To 
carry  it  into  execution,  the  Pope  assembled  a 
number  of  prelates  and  learned  men.  In  1577 
the  propos^  diange  was  adopted  by  all  the 
Catholic  princes;  and  in  1582  Gregory  issued  a 
brief  abolishing  the  Julian  calendar  in  all 
Catholic  coimtnes,  and  introducing  in  its  stead 
the  one  now  in  use,  under  the  rome  of  the 
Gregorian  or  reformed  calendar,  or  the  new 
mie,  as  the  other  was  now  called  the  old  style. 
Tlie  amendment  ordered  was  this:  tO  days  were 
to  be  dropped  after  4  Oct  1582,  and  the  15tb 
was  reckoned  immediately  after  Ae  4th.  Every 
lOOtb  year,  which  by  the  old  style  was  a  leap 
year,  was  now  to  be  a  common  year,  die  4th 
century  divisible  by  four  excepted;  that  is,  1600 
was  to  remain  a  leap  year,  but  1700,  1800,  1900 
of  the  common  length,  and  2000  a  leap  year 
E^ain.  In  this  calendar  the  length  of  the  solar 
yrar  is  taken  to  be  365  days,  5  bains.  49 
minutes  and  12  seconds,  the  diSerence  between 
which  and  the  true  length  is  immateriaL  In 
Spain,  Portugal  and  the  greater  part  of  Italy 
the  amendment  was  introduced  according  to 
the  Pope's  instructions.  In  France  the  10  days 
were  dropped  in  December,  the  10th  being 
called  the  2(hh.  In  Catholic  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many and  the  Netherlands  the  change  was  in- 
troduced in  the  following  year,  in  Poland  in 
1586,  in  Hungary  1587.  Protestant  Germany, 
Holland  and  Denmark  accepted  it  in  1700,  and 
Switzerland  in  1701,  In  the  Carman -empire  a 
difference  still  remained  for  a  considerable 
time  as  to  the  period  for  observing  Easter.  In 
England  the  Gregorian  calendar  was  adopted 
in  17S2.  in  accordance  with  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  the  previous  year,  the  day  after 
2d  September  becoming  the  14th,  Sweden  fol- 
lowed in  1753.  Russia  and  Greece  still  adhere 
to  the  Julian  calendar,  which,  by  the  interjec- 
tion of  two  more  days,  18O0  and  1900  being 
regarded  as  leap  years,  now  differs  from  the 
Gregorian  calendar  by  13  days.  Thus  14  Jan. 
1917  of  *e  new  style  will  be  1  Jan.  1917  in 
Greece  and  Russia. 

The  change  adopted  in  the  English  calendar 
in  1752  embraced  another  pcnnt.  There  had 
been  previous  to  this  time  various  periods  fixed 
for  the  conunencement  of  the  year  in  various 
countries  of  Europe.  1b  France,  from  the  time 
of  Oiarles  IX,  tlie  year  was  reckoned  to  begin 
from  1  January;  this  was  also  the  popular 
reckoning  in  England,  but  the  legal  and 
ecclesiastical  year  Mgan  on  25  March.  The  1st 
of  January  was  now  adopted  as  the  befnnning 
of  the  legal  year,  and  it  was  customary  for 
some  time  to  give  two  dates  for  the  period 
intervening  between  1  Jannaty  and  25  Mardi, 


.Google 


diat  of  the  old  and  that  of  the  new  year,  u 
January  1752-53. 

In  France,  during  the  Revolutiaiiary  epoclL 
a  new  caleiuJiar  was  introduced  by  a  decree  of 
the  National  Convention,  24  Nov.  1793,  The 
new  reckoning  was  to  begitt  with  22  Sept  1792, 
tht  day  on  which  the  first  decree  of  the  new 
republic  had  been  proniiilgated.  The  year  was 
made  to  consist  of  12  months  of  30  days  eacK 
and,  to  complete  the  full  niunbcT,  five  fite  days 
(in  leap  year  six)  were  added  at  the  end  of 
die  vear.  Instead  of  weeks,  each  month  was 
divided  tnlo  three  pans,  called  decades,  con- 
sisting of  to  days  each;  the  other  divisions 
being  also  accomitiodated  to  the  decimal  system. 
This  calendar  was  abolished  at  the  command  of 
Napoleon,  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate,  9  Sept. 
18D5,  and  the  common  or  Gregorian  calenoar 
was  re-established  on  1  January  of  the  follow- 
ing year.  The  Mohammedans  emplov  »  lunar 
Sar  of  354  days  and  12  lunar  months,  which 
ve  alternately  29  and_  30  days.  Thirty  years 
form  a  cycle  and  11  times  in  every  cycle  an 
extra  day  is  added  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The 
L J  .t_  g  jjj  ^^j  corresiiond  ;     ' 


f  faU  a 


Muharram,  Saphar,  Rabia  1,  Rabia  II,  Jomadi 
I,  loDiadi  II,  Rajah,  Shaaban,  Ramadan,  Shar 
wall.  Dulkaada  and  Dulkeggia.  The  Moham- 
medan era  is  computed  from  the  first  day  of 
the  year  of  the  Hejira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed 
to  Medira.  It  corresponds  with  15  July  622 
of  the  Christian  era.  The  Mohammedan  year 
which  began  on  28  Oct.  1916  was  the  15th  year 
of  the  4Sth  cycle,  or  the  year  1335  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan era.  See  also  Chronolocy;  Cycle; 
Epoch  ■  Hejira. 

Bibliographr.!— Boll,  'Griechbches  Kalen- 
dar'  (Heidelberg  1910);  Bowditch,  'Numeral 
tion.  Calendar  Systems  and  Astronomical 
Knowledge  of  the  Mayas'    (Cambridge,  Mass., 

1910)  ;  Bumaby,  'Elements  of  the  Jewish  and 
Mohammedan  Calendar*  (London  1901) ; 
Langdon.  'Tablets  from  the  Ardiives  of 
Urehem,  with  a  Comfilete  Account  of  the 
Origin    of    the    Sumenan    Calendar'     (Paris 

1911)  ;  Mahler,  'Etudes  sur  le  caJendrier 
tgyptien*  <ib.  1907)  ;  Plunket,  'Ancient  Caleit- 
dars  and  Constellations'  (London  1903) ; 
Schram,  'Kalendariographische  und  chronol- 
ogische  Tafeln>  (Leipzig  1908). 

CALGARY,  Canada.  The  dty  of  Calgary 
is  situated  in  the  province  of  Alberta,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Sow  and  Elbow  rivers,  640 
miles  west  of  Winnipeg,  and  2,262  miles  west 
of  Montreal.  The  site  is  picturesque,  a.s  the 
city  lies  in  a  species  of  natural  bowl.  From 
Calgary,  the  Rodgr  Mountains  80  miles  away 
are  clearly  visible.  Before  the  advent  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  30  years  ago,  Cat- 
gaiy  was  an  important  trading  post  and  head- 
quarters for  the  ranching  country  of  southern 
Alberta.  With  the  establishment  of  through 
transcontinental  communication,  Calgary  as- 
sumed a  place  on  the  map  and  rapidly  began  to 
develop  commercially. 

Situated  as  it  is  at  the  entrance  of  two  great 
passes  through  the  mountains  and  surrounded 
by  both  a  fine  agricultural  and  ranching  coun- 
try, Calgary  has  naturally  become  an  import- 
ant railway  centre.  Lines  belonoiitg  to  the 
Canadian  Pacific  run  north  to  E«nontOn  and 
south  via  Lethridge  through  the  Crowi'i  Neat 


AST  188 

Pass.  The  dty  is  also  Krved  1^  the  liaea  of 
the  Grand  Tnmk  Pacific  and  the  Canadian 
Northern. 

The  city  has  an  altitude  of  3,410  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  enjoys  a  bracing  and  healthful 
climate.  The  average  temperature  is  352  and 
the  raiiifall  19  inches.  While  low  temperatures 
are  of  regular  occurrence  in  the  wmter,  the  . 
climate  is  agreeably  modified  by  the  warm 
Oilnook  winds  which  frequently  bring  a  cold 
spell  to  a  sudden  and  welcome  close. 


built  city,  and  is  fortunate  in  having  neattiv 
extensive  qnarries  of  excellent  sandstone.  Caf- 
gary  stone,  as  it  is  called,  has  been  used  with 
excellent  eflect  in  the  Provincial  Parliament 
Buildings  at  Edmonton.  Handsome  public  and 
office  buildings  and  business  blocks  line  the 
downtown  streets.  Knox  Presbyterian  Church, 
built  of  Calgary  stone,  is  one  of  the  finest  speci-  ' 
mens  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  western 
Canada. 

Government.— Calgary  was  founded  in 
1883  and  incorporated^  in  1894.  Its  municipal 
government  consists  of  an  elective  mayor  and 
council  and  an  elective  board  of  commissioner). 
Calgary  employs  a  slightly  modified  form  of 
the  single  tax.  The  dty  owns  its  own  electric 
street  railway,  with  60  miles  of  trackage  in 
operation.  It  operates  its  own  gravity  water 
system  and  sewerage  system,  and  owns  its  own 
asphalt  paving  plant  Natural  gas  sdls  for  35 
cents  per  1.000  cubic  feet,  and  at  li  cents  for 
power.  Water  power  has  also  been  brousjit  in 
and  of  this  31,100  horse  power  is  already 
available. 

Rel^ion  and  Edncatbn.— Calgary  i 


of  Andican  and  Roman  Catholic  bishop- 
all  the  leading  religious  denomina- 
tions are  well  established.     Educational   facili- 


ties are  amply  and  generously  provided.  There 
are  32  public  and  high  schools,  four  Roman 
Catholic  separate  schools  and  a  Normal  School. 
The  provindal  government  opened  in  1916  an 
Institute  of  Technology  and  Manual  Arts. 

InduBtrial  Progress^  Western  Canada  is 
substantially  an  agricultural  country,  but  Cal- 
gary has  had  a  considerable  industrial  develop- 
ment, and  is  the  chief  distributing  centre  be- 
tween Winnipeg;  and  the  Pacific.  Though  coal 
is  not  mined  m  tlie  immediate  vicmity,  it  is 
worked  on  an  extensive  scale  at  Lethbridge  and 
Bankhead,  both  of  them  points  within  100  miles. 
Natural  gas  has  been  piped  into  the  city  from 
Bow  Island,  100  miles  distant.  Oil  was  dis- 
covered in  1914  a  short  distance  south  of  Cal- 
g»Ty,  and  the  indications  are  promising.  The 
foothills  of  the  Rocldes  to  the  west  form  an  ' 
admirable  gruing  country  and  large  herds  of 
stock  are  raised.  These  eontribute  the  raw 
material  for  the  successful  stockyards  and  ex- 
tensive packing  plants  which  are  amon^t  Cal- 
gary's most  important  indnstries.  Excellent 
clays  for  bridonaking^  exist.  Calgary  is  the 
site  of  one  of  the  Dominion  government's  great 
interior  storage  devators  and  has  become  an 
iiBDortant   centre    in   the   grain    trade.    Large 


i  carried  o 


aerated  waters  beer,  etc.  The  Canadian  Pad- 
fic  has  erected  at  Calgary  car  shops  costing 
over  $3,500,000,  with  an  annual  y^age  bill  of 


d  by  Google 


^400,000.       Pop.       (191 1 )      43,704 ;      special 
Dofninion  census  of  1916.  55,000. 

WiLUAH  A.  R.  Keri, 
Dean  of  the  University  of  Alberta. 
CALHOUN,  kal-hoon',  John  Caldwell, 
American  statesman:  b.  Abbeville  District,  S. 
C.  18  March  1782;  A  Washington,  D.  C,  31 
March  1850,  He  was  graduated  with  distinc- 
tion at  Yale  College  in  1804,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  South  Carolina  bar  in  1807.  After  serv- 
ing for  two  sessioni  in  the  legislature  of  his 
native  State,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1811.  From  that  time  until  his  death,  a  period 
of  nearly  40  years,  he  was  seldom  absent  from 
Washington,  being  nearly  the  whole  time  in 
the  public  service,  either  in  Congress  or  in  the 
Cabmet  When  he  first  enterea  Congress  the 
disputes  with  England  were  fast  approaching 
actual  hostilities,  and  he  immediately  took  part 
with  that  portion  of  the  dominant  party  whose 
object  was  to  drive  the  still  reluctant  admin- 
istration into  a  declaration  of  war.  They  suc- 
ceeded, and,  as  a  member  of  the  Committee  on 
Foreign  Relations,  he  reported  a  bill  for  de- 
claring war,  which  was  t)assed  in  June  181Z 
When  Monroe  formed  his  administration  in 
1817,  Calhoun  became  Secretary  of  War,  a  poet 
which  he  filled  with  great  ability  for  seven 
years,  reducing  the  affairs  of  the  department 
from  a  state  of  great  confusion  to  simplici^ 
and  order.  In  IB24  he  was  chosen  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  under  John  Q. 
Adams,  and  again  in  1828  under  General  Jade- 
son.  In  1828,  a  protective  tariff  was  enacted 
which  bore  veiy  heavily  on  the  agriculturists  of 
the  South  and  hence  was  known  tbrouahout 
that  section  as  'The  Tariff  of  Abominabons." 
Mr.  Calhoun  pre^red  a  paper  declaring  that 
the  ■United  States  is  not  a  union  of  the  people, 
but  a  league-  or  compact  between  sovereign 
states,  any  of  vdiich  has  the  ri^t  to  judge  wbea 
the  compact  is' broken  and  to  pronounce  anf 
law  to  be  null  and  void  which  violates  its  con- 
ditions.* This  paper  was  iuued  by  the  leg- 
islature of  South  Carolina  and  was  known 
as  'The  South  Carolina  Exposition.'  This 
view  of  the  United  States  constitution  as  » 
compact  between   the  States  had   been   many 


drawn  up  by  James  Madison,  often  styled  the 
■Father  of  the  Constitution,"  and  the  utter  by 
Thomas  JcffersoD.  The  Kentucky  resolutions 
had  suggested  nullification  as  a  remedy.  Alex- 
ander Hamilton  in  The  Federalist  frequently 
spoke  of  the  United  States  as  a  'Coofedente 
Republic*  and  a  *ConfederB<y*  and  called  the 
constitution  a  'compact.*  Washin^on  fre- 
quently referred  to  the  constitution  as  a 
'compact,*  and  spoke  of  the  Union  as  a  'Con- 
federated Republic*  At  the  time  of  the  Louisi- 
ana Purchase  Hon.  Timoth;^  Pickering  of 
Massachusetts  advocated  the  nght  and  advisa- 
bility of  secession  and  Hon.  Josiah  Quim^  of 
the  same  State  in  1811  expressed  similar  views. 
Hence  John  C  Calhoun  propounded  no  new 
or  strange  doctrine,  but  one  which  had  found 
advocates  before,  and  in  the  NorUh  as  well  as 
in  the  South. 

In  1S38,  the  friendly  relations  between  Mr. 
Calhoun  and  President  Jackson  were  broken 
off,  when  the  latter  ascertained  that  Calhonn 
had  sought  to  have  him  called  to  account  for 


his  acts  in  the  Seminole  War.  This  breach 
was  still  further  enlarged  when  Cilhoun  re- 
fused to  co-operate  wim  President  Jackson  in 
the  effort  to  reinstate  Mrs.  Eaton  in  Waking- 
ton  society. 

When  Mr.  Calhoun  found  that  the  repeal  of 
the  tariff  of  1828  could  not  be  secured  tnrou^ 
President  Jackson,  he  resigned  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency and  entered  the  Senate  from  South  Caro- 
lina. On  26  July  1831  he  published, a  paper 
favoring  free  trade  and  declaring  that  the 
'great  conservative  ijrinciple  of  Union  is 
nullification.*  The  tariff  question  was  settled 
by  a  compromise  in   1832. 

Mr.  Calhoun  feared  that  the  slavery  quarrel 
would  some  day  disrupt  the  Union  and  there- 
fore endeavored  to  check  all  (Uscussion  of  this 
issue.  He  opposed  Jackson's  removal  of  the 
funds  from  the  National  Bank  and  also  assailed 
the  'spoils  system.*  He  supported  Van  Buren's 
■sub-treasury  system,*  favored  his  re-election 
and  secured  for  him  the  electoral  vote  of  South 


Secretary  of  State  under  that  President  was 
largely  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  an- 
nexation of  Texas.  He  regretted  the  division 
of  the  Union  into  sections,  but,  recogniziuR  a 
fad  which  already  existed,  he  advocated  a  dual 
executive  one  from  the  North,  the  other  from 
the  South,  each  having  the  power  to  veto  an 
act  approved  by  the  other-^  thus  preventing  the 
passage  of  any  law  offensive  to  either  section. 
His  motive  in  this  was  the  preservation  of  the 
Union,  which  be  dearly  loved. 

He  died  31  MaYdj  1850.  having  spent  the 
last  few  uionths  of  his  life  in  writing  his  'Dis- 
quisition on  Government'  and  his  'Discussion 
on  the  Constitution  and  Government  of  the 
United  States'  which  has  been  pronounced  the 
most  remarkable  discussion  of  the  rij^ts  of 
minorities  ever  written.  Mr.  Calhoun  was  of 
attractive  personality  and  of  irreproachable 
character,  to  which  Daniel  Webster  testified  in 
his  grand  eulogy  on  the  great  South  Carolinian. 

His  'Collected  Woifa'  appeared  1853-54, 
and  his  correspondence,  editea  by  Jameson,  in 
1900.  Consult  Lives  by  Jenkins  (1851):  Von 
Hoist  (1882):  Bemon,  'Thirty  Years'  View> 
(1854);  Dodd.  'Statesmen  of  the  Old  South' 
(New  York  1911);  Hunt,  'J.  C.  Calhoun' 
(Philadelphia  1908) ;  Peck,  H.  C,  'The  Jack- 
sooian  Epoch'  (1906) ;  Peck,  H-.  T.,  <American 
Party  Leaders'  (New  York  1914);  and  Cal-. 
houn's  correspondence,  edited  by  J.  F.  Jameson 
(1900). 

J.  T.  Dexby, 
Author,  History  of  Georgia. 

CALHOUN,  Simon  Howard,  American 
Congregational  missionary,  linguist  and  trans- 
lator: b.  Boston  1804:  d.  1876.  A  graduate  of 
Williams  College  in  1829,  from  1836  to  1874  he 
labored  as  a  missionary  in  the  Levant  and  Syria. 
An  expert  in  Turkish  and  Arabic  he  collabo- 
rated with  William  Goodell  on  the  first  Turkish 
translation  of  the  Bible. 

CALHOUN,  wniiun  JamM,  American 
diplomat :  b.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  5  Oct  1848.  He 
practised  as  a  lawyer  at  Danville,  III.,  from  1875 
to  1898,  when  he  removed  to  Chicago  to  become 
senior  member  of  the  law  firm  of  Calhoun.  Ly- 
ford  &  Sbeean.  In  IGO?  President  McKinlejr. 
had  appointed  him  spcdal    commisskmer    to 


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CALI — CALICO.PRIHTIHG 


195 


Cuba  and  in  189E^  member  of  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission.  President  Roosevelt 
ippointed  him  special  commissioner  to  Vene- 
luela  in  1905  and  he  served  as  Mini»ter  to 
Quna  from  1909  to  1913.  The  subsequent 
Chinese  policy  of  Pre^deut  Wilson  was 
severely  criticised  t^  bim. 

CALI,  ka-le',  Colombia,  South  America,  a 
diy  near  the  confluence  of  the  Call  and  Cauca 
rivers  in  the  department  of  Cauca,  and  north  of 
Popayan,  the  capital  of  that  department.  It  is 
one  of  the  ancient  cities  of  the  republic 
(founded  in  1536)  and  to-day  is  important  on 
account  of  its  location  in  an  agricultural  district 
and  on  the  Pacific  Kailway,  from  Buenaventura 
to  Call  and  thence  throu^n  the  Cauca  Valley,  a 
iQtal  distance  of  108.1  miles.  Cali  is  also  con- 
nected by  a  short  steam  tramway  with  the 
Cauca  River.     Pop.  27,?47. 

CALICB,  Count  Mefairkh,  Diplomatist, 
ambassador  and  linguist  of  international  fame: 
b.  August  1831 ;  d.  Goerz,  28  Ai^.  1912.  His  first 
activities  began  in  the  year  1857  when  he  was 
ippomted  consul  for  die  Dual  Monarchy  at 
Constantinople.  I^tcr  he  served  in  Liveipool, 
Qitna  and  Japan.  In  167^  while  the  Serbian 
War  was  in  progress,  he  was  sent  with  full 
powers,  by  Count  Andrassy,  as  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  representative,  to  the  eventful  conference 
that  ended  in  initiation  of  hostilities  between 
finssia  and  Turkey.  At  the  conference  Count 
Ignaticff,  the  Russian  Plenipotentiary,  strongly 
nrged  armed  entry  into  Serbia,  but  was  resisted 
ir/  Lord  SaUsbunr,  supported  by  Count  Calice. 
In  1880  Baron  Calice  was  appointed  Austrian 
Ambassador  to  tbe  Porte, —  which  position  he 
bdd  for  26  years.  Notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  he  presented  four  ultimatums  to  Turkey, 
be  was  at  all  times  a  trusted  friend  of  the  ex- 
Snltan.  Baron  Calice  was  the  oldest  active 
diplomatist  in  Europe,  and  became  the  dean  of 
the  diplomatic  corps  in  Constantinople. 

CALICO-PRINTING,  the  art  of  produc- 
ing on  calico  or  cotton  clotli  variegated  patterns 
by  the  process  of  printing^  the  object,  as  a  rul^ 
bong  to  have  the  colors  composing  uie  desi^s 
U  fast  as  possible  to  washmg  and  other  m- 
finences.  It  is  similar  to  the  art  of  dyeing,  but 
Offers  from  it  in  so  far  that  the  coloring  mat- 
ters are  fixed  on  certain  parts  of  the  fabric 
only,  to  form  a  pattern.  _  Linen,  wool  and  silk 
fabncs  are  printed  in  a  similar  manner,  but  less 
extensively.  The  ori^n  of  the  art  of  printing 
improbably  coeval  with  that  of  dyeing  (q.v-). 
India  is  generally  regarded  as  the  birthplace  of 
calico-pnnting,  and  the  word  calico  is  derived 
from  the  name  of  the  Indian  town  Calicut, 
where  it  was  at  one  time  extensively  manufac- 


lit  century.    Indian  printed  chintz  calicoes 

introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  and  the  brst  attempts  at  imitating 
mem  in  Europe  are  said  to  have  been  made  in 
Holland,  but  at  what  exact  date  is  uncertain. 
^Be  art  however,  soon  spread  to  Germany  and 
England,  where  it  is  said  to  have  been  mtro- 
duced  about  1676.  two  o(  the  earliest  works  be- 
mg  siuiated  at  Ri^unond  on  the  Thames,  and 
al  Bromley  Hall,  Essex.  In  1738  calico  print- 
works were  established  in  Scotland  in  the 
»eigfaborhood  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1764  at  Bam- 


ber  Bridge,  near  Preston,  in  Lancashire.  At 
the  present  time  the  chief  seats  of  the  calico- 
printing  trade  in  Great  Britain  are  still  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Glasgow  and  Manchester. 
The  chief  European  seat  of  calico-priatinK  is 
Mulhausen,  in  Germany,  and  it  is  practised  in 
various  towns  in  France,  Austria,  Russia,  Swit- 
zerland, Holland  and  the  JJnited  States, 

Calico-printing  is  of  a  highly  complex  char- 
acter, and  enlists  not  only  the  co-operation  of 
the  arts  of  designing  engraving,  bleaching  and 
dyeing,  but  also  an  important  element  of  suc- 
cess,  the   science   of   chemistry. 

The  first  operation  to  which  the  gray  calico 
is  submitted,  as  it  comes  from  the  loom,  is  that 
of  singeing.  This  consbts  in  burning  oR  the 
loose  downy  fibres  from  the  surface  by  passing 
the  pieces  rapidly,  in  an  open  and  stretched  con- 
dition, over  red-hot  plates  or  a  lovf  of  smoke- 
less Bunsen  gas  flames.  The  object  of  singe- 
ing is  to  obtain  a  smooth  printing  surface  on 
the  calico,  thus  ensuring  the  produaion  of  dear, 
sharp  impressions  during  the  printing  process. 
The  next  operation  is  that  of  bleaching,  which 
consists  in  boiling  the  fabric  witb  weak  alkaline 
solutions,  followed  by  a  treatment  with  cold 
dilute  solutions  of  bleaching-powdcr  and  acid, 
interspersed  with  frequent  washings  with  water. 
By  these  means  the  natural  impurities  of  the 
cotton  are  removed,  and  the  calico  ultimately 
presents  a  snow-white  appearance.  A  number 
of  pieces  are  now  stitched  together,  wrapped 
on  a  wooden  roller,  and  passed  throng  a  so- 
called  shearing  macnine,  in  which,  by  means  of 
a  spiral  cutter  similar  to  diat  in  a  lawn-mower, 
any  projecting  knots,  loose  fibres  or  down  are 
finally  removed.  In  this  condition  the  calico  is 
ready  for  the  printer. 

The  printing  of  the  patterns  upon  the  cloth 
may  be  carried  out  in  various  ways,  the  earliest 
method  being  by  means  of  wooden  blocks,  on 
which  the  figures  of  the  patterns  stood  out  in 
relief.  Where  several  oolors  were  employed  in 
one  pattern,  a  block  for  each  color  was  neces- 
sary. In  a  set  of  blocks  for  one  pattern,  each 
block;  although  at  first  having  the  same  design 
drawn  upon  it,  was  cut  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  ultimately  transferred  only  a  single  color, 
which  appeared  in  diHerent  parts  of  the  pat- 
tern. When  all  the  blocks  had  been  applied, 
the  various  colors  printed  completed  the  origi- 
nal design.  To  ensure  accurate  juxtaposition 
of  the  colors,  each  block  was  furnished  with 
brass  points  at  the  comers,  in  order  to  guide 
the  workman.  The  printer  first  furnished  the 
face  of  the  block  with  the  requisite  color  by 
pressing  it  several  times  on  a  piece  of  woolen 
clotb  suitably  stretched  and  supported  on  a  so- 
called  color-sieve,  and  which  nad  been  previ- 
ously brushed  over  with  color  by  a  boy  altend- 
ant.  The  printer  then  applied  the  block  to  the 
surface  of  the  calico,  which  was  stretched  on  a 
Long  table  covered  with  felt,  striking  the  bade 
of  the  block  with  his  hand  or  with  a  small  mal- 
let The  operaticoi  of  Mock  printing  was  slow 
au4  tedious  and  thougli  mai^  improvements 
have  been  introduced,  and  it  can  even  be 
eiTected  by  mechanical  power,  as  in  the  so- 
called  Perrotine  machine,  it  ts  now  only  em- 
ployed to  a  very  limited  extent  for  certain 
special  kinds  of  work.'  Another  mode  of  print- 
ing, introduced  about  1760,  is  by  means  of  en- 
graved copper-plates,  but  its  employment  is 
also  similarly   restricted. 


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CALICO-FRIMTUra 


The  modem  method  of  printiiiK,  which  dates 
from  178S,  is  effected  tnr  means  of  engraved 
copper  cylinders,  and  this  method  has  now 
practically  superseded  all  others. 

The  method  of  engraving  employed  varies 
according  to  tiie  kind  of  pattern  to  be  put  on 
the  roller.  In  the  case  of  very  large  patterns 
the  figures  are  engraved  by  hand  on  the  cylin- 
ders themselves  with  the  use  of  the  ordinary 
tools  of  the  copper-plate  engraver.  For  smaller 
designs,  however,  which  are  often  repeated,  it 
is  usual  in  the  first  instance  to  engrave  the  pat* 
tern  by  hand  on  a  very  smalt  cylinder  of  soft 
steel  in  intaglio,  just  as  it  will  ultimately  ap- 
pear on  the  copper.  This  steel  cylinder,  which 
■a  called  a  die,  is  then  tempered  to  a  high  degree 


n  which  the  pattern  is  thus  made  to  appear 
relief.  This  last  cylinder,  called  the  mill,  is 
then  hardened,  and,  being  pressed  against  the 
copper  cylinder,  the  figures  are  indented  and  the 
roller  is  ready  for  use.  In  the  first  instance  the 
original  pattern  of  the  designer  has  always  to 
be  reduced  or  enUrged,  so  as  to  repeat  an  exact 
number  of  times  over  the  roller  to  be  engraved. 
In  order  to  reduce  the  amount  of  skilled  labor 
one  repeat  only  of  the  pattern  is  engraved  on 
the  die;  the  mill,  which  is  of  larger  diameter, 
has  two,  three  or  four  repeats;  while  the  num- 
ber of  repeals  on  the  circumference  of  the  cop- 
per cylinaer  is  still  greater.  A  third  method  of 
eugniving,  which  has  now  largely  sufjerseded 
the  foregoing,  is  that  of  etching,  in  conjunction 
with  the  pantograph  system  of  transferring  the 
design  to  the  copper  roller.  The  roller,  being 
coated  uniformly  with  a  bituminous  varnish, 
has  the  pattern  traced  on  the  varnish  in  the 
pentagraph  machine  by  a  set  of  diamond  points. 
and  it  is  then  submitted  for  a  very  brief  period 
to  the  action  of  nitric  acid.  In  the  parts  where 
the  pattern  has  been  traced  the  varnish  is  re- 
moved, there  the  copper  la  speedily  attacked  by 
the  acid,  and  the  pattern  is  thus  etched  upon  it 
After  removing  the  varnish  the  roller  is  ready 
for  printing. 

The  cylinder  printing  machine  consists  of  a 
large  central  iron  drum,  around  which  are  ar- 
ranged one  or  more  engraved  copper  rollers, 
according  to  the  number  of  colors  to  be  printed 
simultaneously.  Each  roller  is  provided  with 
the  means  of  making  several  adjustments,  in 
order  to  determine  uie  exact  position  of  the 
color  which  it  prints.  The  central  drum  is 
wrapped  with  cloth,  and  it  is  further  provided 
with  an  endless  blanket  and  back-cloth,  so  as  to 
present  a  yielding  surface  to  the  printing 
rollers.  Tne  cloth  to  be  printed  passes  from  a 
roll  behind  the  machine,  round  the  central  drum 
in  a  tightly  stretched  condition,  while  the  sev- 
eral printing  rollers  press  forcibly  a^inst  it. 
Each  roller,  as  it  revolves,  is  fed  with  color 
from  a  small  trough  below,  the  superfluous  color 
being  scraped  ofF  the  plain  surface  of  the  roller 
by  means  of  a  sharp-edged  steel  blade,  or  *doc- 
tor,"  thus  leaving  the  color  only  in  the  en- 
graved portions.  As  the  rollers  thus  charged 
with  color  press  against  the  cloth,  the  latter 
absorbs  or  withdraws   the  color  from  the  en- 


it  passes  over  a  series  of  steam-heated  flat  irons, 
chests  or  cylinders,  and  is  thus  dried. 

In  close  connection  with  the  printing- 
machine  department  is  the  so-called  color- 
house  or  color-shop,  where  the  solutions  of 
coloring  matters  are  suitably  thickened  and 
made  ready  for  the  printer.  The  color-house 
is  provided  with  ntmierous  steam-heated  cop- 

Kr  pans,  so  arranged  on  supports  that  they  can 
readily  turned  over  for  emptying  or  clean- 
ing.   The    color    mixtures    are    stirred    widi 


fore  use.  The  thickening  of  the  color  solutions 
with  starch,  8our,  gum,  dextrine,  albumen,  etc, 
is  necessary  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  the 
color  by  capillary  attraction  beyond  the  printed 
parts,  and  thus  ensure  sharp  and  neat  impres- 
sions. Near  the  color-house  is  a  chemical 
laboratory,  and  a  drug  room  containing  the 
store  of  coloring  matters,  dyewood,  extracts, 
thickenings^  chemicals,  etc 

The  various  classes  or  styles  of  calico-prints 
are  usually  arranged  either  according  to  the 
chief  (ferestuffs  employed  or  their  mode  of  ap- 

flication.  Each  of  these  primary  styles  may  be 
urther  separated  into  subdivisions,  of  wnich 
the  most  important  are  the  discharge  and  resist 
s^les,  which  refer  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
pattern  is  produced.  The  following  include  the 
chief  s^Ies  of  calico-prints  at  present  in  vogue: 
Madder  Style. — This  is  so  named  because 
the  chief  dycstuff  formerly  employed  in  it  was 
madder.  This  dyeitulf  belongs  to  the  class  of 
so-called  mordant-colars.  Such  dyestuSs  are 
worthless  if  employed  alone  by  the  calico- 
printer  and  only  furnish  useful  colors  if  applied 
m  conjunction  with  certain  metallic  silts  or 
mordants,  of  which  the  chief  ones  here  em- 
ployed are  the  acetates  of  aluminum  and  iron. 
At  first  the  pattern  is  printed  on  the  white 
oalico  with  these  or  similar  mordants  alone,  and 
only  after  diey  have  been  suitably  fixed  is  the 
madder  or  other  similar  coloring  matter  ap- 
plied in  the  dye-bath,  where  for  the  first  time 
the  desired  colored  pattern  appears.  The 
aluminum  mordant  yields  red  and  pink,  iron 
yields  purple  or  black,  a  mixture  of  iron  and 
aluminum  yields  chocolate,  etc  The  fixing  of 
the  mordant  after  printing  and  drying  b 
effected  by  passing  die  printed  calico  throu^ 
the  so-called  ageing-machine  a  large  chamber 
suitably  heatetf  and  charged  with  moisture, 
where  the  acetic  acid  of  the  printed  mordants  is 
driven  off,  leaving  the  aluminum  salt  in  an  in- 
soluble form  on  the  calico,  A  more  complete 
fixing  of  the  mordant  is  subsequently  effected 
by  pssing  the  fabric  through  solutions  con- 
taining silicate  or  arseniate  of  soda,  and  a  final 
washing  completes  its  preparation  for  dydng. 
The  dyeing  operation  consists  in  boiling  the 
fabric  m  a  solution  or  decoction  of  the  requisite 
dyestufE,  After  dyeing,  the  stained  unprinted 
portions  are  cleaned  and  purified,  while  the 
printed  colors  are  rendered  more  brilliant  by 
washing,  soaping,  coloring,  etc.  Variety  06 
effect  is  produced  by  printing  the  same  fabric 
two  or  tnree  times  (print,  cover,  pad)  with 
various  designs  before  proceeding  to  the  age- 
ing, etc.  If  in  the  first  instance  a  portion  of 
the  pattern  is  printed  with  lime-juice  (citric 
acid),  it  resists  or  prevents  the  fixing  of  the 
mordants  applied  over  it  in  the  second  and  third 
imntings,  and  the  part  remains  undyed  and  ap- 


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CAUCO-P3UNTING 


10T 


pears  as  a  so-CBlIed  resist  white.  In  a  simi- 
br  manner  stannous  cbtoriik,  mixed  with 
ahrniinum  acetate  before  printing,  resists  the 
fixing  of  iron  mordants  printed  over  the  aliuni-  ■ 
num  mordant^  and  a  resist  red  pattern  under  a 

Kiple  cover  is  obtained,  presuming  madder  to 
the  dyestuff  empioyiw.  Alizann  now  re- 
places the  madder  formerly  used,  and  simitar 
variegated  effects  are  obtained  if  other  mordant 
dyestuffs  are  employed,  for  example,  cochineal, 
quercitron  bark,  etc  Formerly  a  preparation 
of  madder,  termed  garancine,  was  largely  em- 
ployed, and  gave  rise  to  the  garancine  style,  in 
which  the  colors  were  fuller  and  dariter,  the 
prevailing  hues  being  browns,  chocolates,  drabs, 
etc.  Since  the  range  of  colors  yielded  in  the 
madder  style  is  limited,  additional  colors,  as 
neen,  blue  or  yellow,  may  be  printed  in  by- 
olock  after  dyeing,  etc.,  and  are  fixed  by  steam- 
ing. If  the  whole  fabric  is  evenly  impregnated 
with  mordant  by  means  of  a  "padoiiig-machine* 
and  dried,  and  Uien  a  pattern  is  printed  over  the 
mordant  with  lime-juice,  the  mordant  is  re- 
moved or  diacharsea  in  the  printed  parts,  and 
remains  while  in  the  subsequent  dyemg.  Sudi 
a  print  would  be  termed  a  padded  style  with  dis- 
durge  white. 

Stoam  Style. —  Many  coloring  matters,  dif- 
fering from  each  other  widely  in  character,  are 
fixed  by  the  operation  of  steaming:  instead  of  by 
(h'dng,  so  that  this  style  is  somewhat  varied  in 
character.  Ordinary  steam-colors  consist  of  a 
thickeoed  mixture  of  dyewood  extract  and 
mordant,  with  the  addition  of  assistant  metallic 
salts  and  adds.  The  mixture  is  printed  upon 
the  white  calico,  winch,  after  dr^ng,  is  exposed 
from  a  half  to  one  hour  in  closed  chambers  to 
the  action  of  steam.  This  steaming  operation 
effects  the  combination  of  (jbe  coloring  matter 
and  mordant,  and  the  color  b  thus  developed 
and  at  the  same  time  fixed  upon  the  calico. 
Black  is  produced  with  logwood  extract  and 
chromium  acetate,  scarlet  is  produced  with  coch- 
ineal extract  and  stannous  cnloride.  The  prints 
are  washed  and  dried  after  steaming,  the  colors 
being  usually  bright,  but  not  very  fast.  Steam- 
colors,  fast  to  light  and  soais  are  obtained  in  a 
similar  manner  by  printing  mixtures  of  alizarin 
and  allied  coloring  matters  with  mordants,  and 
then  steaming.  These  are  used  in  the  so-called 
madder  extract  or  steam  alizarin  style,  in  which 
re4  pink,  purple,  etc,  appear.  In  the  pigment 
style  use  is  made  of  pigments,  or  insoluble 
colored  mineral  powders  as  ultramarine-blue, 
chrome  jrellow,  Guignet's  green,  etc.  These  are 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  egg  or  blood  albumen, 
printed  and  steamed.  The  albumen  coagulates 
on  steaming,  and  thus  adheres  firmly  to  the 
doth,  at  the  same  time  enclosing  the  pigments 
within  the  coagulum.  Such  colors  are  fast  to 
light  and  soap,  and  may  therefore  be  printed 
simultaneously  with  the  steam  alizarin  colors 
for  the  production  of  variegated  fast  nrints. 
Another  class  of  colors  are  the  so-called  basic 
colors,  as  magenta,  aniline  blue.  etc.  Thdr  so- 
lutions '  may  also  be  thickeneo  with  albumen, 
trinted  and  steamed,  to  give  fast  steam-colors. 
I  is  more  usual,  however,  to  print  a  mixture  of 
the  thickened  color  solution  and  tannic  acid, 
and  to  pass  the  steamed  print  through  a  boiling 
solution  of  tartar  emetic.  By  this  means  an  in- 
soluble color-lake  (tannate  of  antimony  and 
color-base)  is  fixed  on  the  calico,  which  is  fast 
to  soairing  but  not  to  light    Basic  colors  ap- 


plied in  this  manner  are  now  usually  printed 
along  with  the  steam  alizarin  colors,  instead 
of  pigments,  thickened  with  albumoi,  and 
variegated  fast  prints  are  thus  obtained.  Loose 
pigment  colors  are  basic  colors  thickened  with 
starch  or  gum  tragacanth  only,  and  then 
steamed.  Such  prints  do  not  even  stand  wash- 
ing with  cold  water. 

Tnrkey-red  Style.— In  this  stj^le  use  is 
made  of  the  fact  tliat  turkey  red  is  at  once 
bleached  by  the  action  of  chlorine.  Plain  dyed 
turicey-red  calico  is  printed  with  tartaric  add, 
dried  and  passed  through  a  solution  of  bleach- 
ing-powdcr.  In  the  printed  parts  chlorine  gas 
is  evolved,  the  red  is  destroyed  and  a  white  dis- 
diarge  pattern  u  produced.  A  blue  pattern  re- 
sults if  Prussian  blue  is  added  to  the  printing 
mixture;  yellow  is  obtained  if  a  lead  salt  is 
added,  and  the  fabric  is  afterward  passed 
through  bichromate  of  potash  solution,  where- 
by yellow  chromate  of  lead  is  produced;  Krecn 
results  from  a  mixture  of  the  blue  and  ydlow ; 
black  is  printed  direct  These  and  other  dis- 
charge colors  may  also  be  obtained  by  other 
methods. 

Iq^o  St:^e.— Of  the  numerous  indigo 
styles  in  use  it  is  only  possible  to  refer  to  one 
or  two  of  the  most  important.  Indigo  blue  pat- 
terns on  a  white  ^[round  are  obtained  by  print- 
ing a  thickened  mixture  of  findy-ground  intUgo 
ai^  caustic  soda  on  white  calico,  previously  im- 
pregnated with  glucose.  A  subaecjuent  steaming 
'  reduces  the  indigo  to  indigo  white,  and  causes 
it  to  penetrate  the  fibre,  while  a  final  washing 
oxidizes,  regenerates  and  fixes  the  color.  A 
resist  white  pattern  on  a  blue  ground  is  ob- 
tained by  first  printing  upon  white  calico  a  re- 
sist paste  composed  of  gum,  or  flour,  China  clay, 
sulpbate  of  copper,  fete  When  the  printed 
calico  is  dyed  in  the  indigo  vat  the  paste  resists 
the  entrance  of  the  color,  partly  in  a  mechanical 
and  partly  in  a  chemical  manner,  hence  the  blue 
is  only  nxed  in  those  parts  which  are  unpro- 
tected b]r  the  paste,  after  the  removal  of  which 
by  washing,  the  white  pattern  appears.  Vari- 
ous resist  colors,  as  yellow,  green,  etc,  are  ob- 
tained by  the  addition  of  different  chemicals  to 
the  paste  and  altering  the  after-processes.  A 
discharge  while  pattern  on  a  bine  ground  is  oh- 
tained  by  printmg  on  plain  indigo-blue  dyed 
calico  a  solution  of  iHcbromate  of  potash  thick- 
ened with  gum,  and  then  passing  the  fabric 
throu^  a  solution  contaimng  sulphuric  and 
oxalic  acids.  During  this  passage  there  is 
liberated,  in  the  printed  parts  only,  chrotnic 
add,  which  at  once  oxidizeg  and  destroys  the 
blue,  producing  the  desired  white  pattern. 
Colored  dischar^  patterns  are  produced  simi- 
larly by  employing  albumen  thidcentng  instead 
of  gum  thickening,  and  adding  to  the  printing 
mixture  such  pigments  as  are  not  affected  1^ 
adds,  for  example,  vermilion,  chrome  yellow, 
Guignet's  green,  etc. 

This  method  is  now  being  superseded  by 
the  Freiberger  process,  a  simpler  and  more  pro- 
ductive way  of  discharging,  the  reagents  used 
being  dther  chromic  aad,  sodium  chlorate  or, 
in  some  cases,  bromate  and,  still  more  recently, 
nitrates.  This  latter  method  passes  the  cotton 
fabric  imprinted  with  nitrate  discharging  color 
through  hot  and  concentrated  sulphuric  add 
and,  hy  accurate  control  of  the  strength,  tem- 
perature and  time  enmsed,  not  only  preserves 
the  fabric  in  undiminTshed  strength  hut  obtains 


CiQ 


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188 


CALIFORNIA 


the  most  accurate  and  pemianent  <U$cbargo 
effects. 

Bronze  Style.. —  Manganese  brown  or 
bronze  is  decolorized  by  reducing  agents ;  hence 
-white  discharge  patterns  on  a  bronze  ground  are 
obtained  by  pnnting  plain  manganese- brow n- 
dj^d  calico  with  a  mixture  of  stannous  chloride 
And  oxalic  acid,  and  then  steaming.  Colored 
discharge  patterns  are  obtained  if  coloring  mat- 
ters are  added  to  the  jprindng  mixture  which  ar« 
not  affected  by  rcducinGr'agents,  or  which  even 
require  stannous  chloride  as  a  mordant  to  de- 
vefop  the  color  as  Prussian  blue,  chrome  ^1' 
low,  Persian 'berry  yellow,  Brazil-wood  pink, 
safranine,   acridine  orange,  etc. 

Aniline  Black  Style^Anitine  black  being 
a  product  of  the  oxidation  of  aniline,  jiatterns 
in  this  color  on  a  white  ground  are  obtained  by 
printing  a  thickened  solution  of  atulioe  hydro- 
chloride containing  the  oxidizing  ^ent,  sodium 
chlorate  and  a  salt  of  copper  or  vanatUum. 
When  tne  printed  fabric  is  sli^tly  steamed  or 
exposed  to  a  moist,  warm  atmosiuiere,  the  im- 
pression, which  is  at  hrst  devoid  of  color,  grad- 


print  calico  qyed  with  mese  colors,  as  bcnzopur- 
purine,  chrysopheniae,  benzoazurine,  Milado 
brown,  etc^  with  a  mixture  containing  stannous 
acetate,  zinc  powder,  or  other  similar  reducing- 
agent,  and  then  steam  the  printed  fabric,  to  ob- 
tain white  discharge  patterns.  IE  there  be  added 
to  the  printing  mixture  such  mordants  and 
coloring  matteri  as  are  not  affected  by  reduc- 
ing-agenti^   for  example,   safranine,  auramine. 


!tv  of  colored    discharges    are  ob- 

■.tly  as   in   the  bronze  style.     Many 

of  the  beniicune  colors  may    also    be    printed 


tained,  exactly 


white  calico  to  furnish  color  design!^ 
but  such  prints  are  not  particularly  fast  to 
washing. 

A  newer  method  of  printing  on  cloth 
l:^  a  lithographic  process  has  recently 
been  invented.  The  principle  involved  is 
printing  lithograidiically  upon  the  fabric  with 
Uthogiaphic,  or  oil,  colors  and  dispensinf^  with 


. „ ._  i  rich  black.    The  color  b 

extremely  fast  to  light,  alkaUs,  acids  etc,  and 
it  is  largely  employed  bv  the  printer,  both  alone 
and  in  conjunction  with  dyed  or  steam  colors. 
The  development  of  the  black  during  the  age- 
ing or  oxidizing  process  occurs  only  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  mineral  add,  hence  resist  whites  are 
obtained  by  first  printing  the  design  on  the 
white  calico  with  thickened  solutions  of  sub- 
stances of  an  alkaline  or  reducing  character  or 
salts  of  organic  acids,  as  acetate  of  soda,  and 
then  printing  or  padding  over  all  with  the  ani- 
line black  mixture,  ageing,  steaming,  etc.  Where 
die  design  is  printed  the  alkalinity  entirely  pre- 
vents the  development  of  the  black.  Pigment 
colors  thickened  with  albumen,  also  certain 
benzidine  colors,  containing  an  admixture  of 
chalk,  acetate  of  soda,  etc.,  are  largely  em- 
ployed in  this  manner.  These  retist  colors 
may  also  be  printed  immediately  after  the  ap- 
plication of  tne  aniline  black  mixture,  before 
the  development  of  the  color  by  ageing. 

Azo  Color  Style,— The  so-called  insoluble 
azo  colors  result  from  the  interaction  of  an 
azo  compound  and  a  phenol.  Two  methods  of 
printing  based  upon  this  principle  are  employed. 
One  method  is  to  print  the  design  with  a  thick- 
ened solution  of  ^-naphtfaol  on  the  while  calico, 
and  then  pass  the  fabric  through  a  very  cold 
solution  of  the  azo  compotmd  (developing- 
bath),  when  tiie  design  at  once  appears  in  a 
color  corresponding  to  the  azo  compound  em- 
ployed. Another  method  is  to  print  the  design 
with  a  thickened  solution  of  the  azo  compound 
upon  calico  which  has  been  previously  impreg- 
nated with  a  solution  of  sodium-naphthol  and 
dried;  in  this  case  the  color  of  the  design  is  de- 
veloped in  the  moment  of  impression.  The 
necessary  azo  compounds  are  obtained  by  the 
action  of  nitrons  add,  on  salts  of  amido  sub- 
stances for  example,  paranitnuiiline,  naphthy- 
1am  ine  nitrotoluidine,  dianisidine,  etc.,  each  of 
which  yields  a  distinct  color,  bright  red,  daret 
red,  orange,  blue,  etc.  The  naphthol -prepared 
cloth  and  also  the  azo  compounds  are  somewhat 
unstable,  so  that  this  st}de  is  not  successfully 
printed  without  considerable  care.  The  ii 
soluble  azo  colors,  also  the  direct        '   -  "■ 


used.  The  actual  process  is  c 
in  ordinary  calico  printing,  but  instead  of 
ordinary  copper  rollers  being  used  for  impress- 
ing the  pattern  the  effects  arc  obtained  1^  the 
use  of  continuous  metal  plates,  or  tubes,  upon 
which  the  designs  are  transferred  directly  in 
the  manner  employed  in  ordinary  lithographic 
printing  on  ,paper.  It  is  said  to  cheapen  pro- 
duction greatly,  for  as  soon  as  an  order  is  com- 
pleted oi  one  design,  the  rollers  may  be  cleaned 
and   fresh  patterns   immediately   transferred. 


CALIFORNIA,  principal  Pacific  Coast 
Sute  of  United  States  (No.  31  in  order  of  ad- 
mission), bounded  north  by  Oregon,  south  by 
Mexico  (Lower  California),  east  by  Nevada 
and  Arizona,  west  by  Pacific  Ocean.  Extreme 
length  about  800  miles,  coast  line  1,097  miles, 
greatest  width  about  270  miles.  Area  (No.  2 
in  United  States),  158,360  square  miles  (2,380 
water).  Pop.  (1910)  (No.  21  in  United  States) 
2,377,549,  an  increase  of  892,496  (60.1  per  cent) 
since  the  census  of  1900.  Pop.  (1916)  2,938.654. 
an  increase  of  561,105  (23.6  per  cent)  in  six 
years. 

Topogrxphy  and  Climate.— Its  peculiar 
shape,  determined  less  by  political  than  by  nat- 
ural delimitations,  gives  California  a  charai.ter 
unique  among  the  Slates,  dimalically  and  eco- 
nomically. It  has  a  range  of  climate  alt  its  own, 
and  its  boundaries  include  all  the  climates  in 
North  America.  It  is  longest  of  the  States; 
and,  in  proportion  to  its  length,  narrowest.  It 
corresponds  with  an  area  which  upon  the  At- 
lantic seaboard  should  run  as  far  inland  as  does 
South  Carolina,  and  as  long  coastwise  as  from 
Charleston  to  Boston.  Tliia  in  itself  gives 
large  range  of  climate  by  latitudes ;  but  Its  to- 
pography and  its  colimitations  greatly  increase 
this  range.  Its  peculiar  projection  or  "leaning 
out"  upon  the  Pacific;  its  enormous  coast  line 
(somewhat  less  than  one-fifth  total  coastline  of 
the  United  States)  ;  and  particularly  its  'ex- 
posure* to  the  west  and  south  upon  this  great 


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CALIF 
Estimated  popnk 

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ORNIA 
tlon.  3 

tTIES 

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mcORPOSATBD  CITtRS 
BTC. — Continued 

IoImg  San  BoinanUne'.'.V 

ES.aao  San  Dieco 

4e3J>ia  San  Franolaao. , .. 

■H  San  Jacdnto 

3B.903  San  Jaw 

lit  San  Juan 

S.47t  SanLeandia 

S,1i1  San  Loll  Obllpo 

4,U4  SanUateo FS 

loioa?  SantaAna.','.'.'.' 
14,S4B  SanUBarban.. 

4.140  Santa  Claia 

lIlSO  Santa  Uaria'.'.V. 

I.'lIS  Santa  PaoU  .'.'. 

l!lS3  Ssuaailto . . : . . . 

1.14S  Savteus 

l.Ml  SBbattoiiol 

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1.300  Sierra Uadrc... 

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2.ME  Vsntnra . 

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4.SS0  Vlf&Ua OS 

4,440  WaUODVlUe....      "  ■ 

'401  Wliestiand'.* '. :  i 

4,800  Whlttler 

I.IOJ  WIUIIB 

'SIO  Wluten'r.l!'./ 
1,187  Woodland 


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d=,  Google 


CALIFORNIA 


equalizer ;  its  contact  on  the  east  with  the  *Great 
AJnerican  Desert*;  its  hn^e  mountain  systems; 
and  its  orographic  protection  against  the  north, 
are  all  vital  factors  in  determining  its  atmos- 
pheric temperament.  While  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board is  made  humid  by  the  warm  Gulf  Stream, 
and  is  open  to  the  north  (its  mountaitts  being 
scaltered,  low  and  well  inland),  California  is 
screened  from  the  Arctic  air-currents  by  a  vast 
Alpine  range,  almost  unbrolcen  in  its  whole 
length  and  with  its  lowest  passes  50  j>er  cent 
higher  than  the  highest  peak  east  of  Colorado. 
The  State  has  120  peaks  exceeding  8,000  feet, 
41  exceeding  10,000  feet  and  11  exceeding 
13,000  feet.  From  its  northern  boundary  down 
to  Point  Conception,  California  is  wauied  by 
the  cold  Kuro  Siwo,  or  Japan  current,  swinging 
back  from  the  Arctic ;  and  the  exposure  is 
largely  westerly.  From  this  point  southward 
the  exposure  is  more  southerly,  the  Japan  cur- 
rent  is  deflected  far  ofT-shore,  and  the  coast  is 
sheltered  by  a  long  line  of  islands.  Tempered 
on  one  side  by  an  equable  ocean,  on  the  other 
bv  1,000  mites  of  arid  lands,  the  chmate  of  Cal- 
iiomia  is  still  further  differentiated  b^  its 
mountain  systems.  Roughly  speaking,  it  is  all 
'under  wall.'  Two  huge  cordilleras,  inosculat- 
ing at  the  north  and  south,  form  an  aimost  com- 
plete circumvallation  of  the  great  agricultural 
region;  while  to  the  south,  though  the  ranges 
are  much  broken  down,  there  is  somethitig  like 
a  repetition  of  this  pattern,  on  a  much  smaller 
scale;  the  whole  forming  something  like  an 
inverted  figure  8.  In  their  major  loop,  these 
ranges  enclose  one  great  central  valley,  practi- 
cally level,  of  18,000  sauare  miles, —  or  about 
the  aggregate  area  of  Massachusetts,  New  Jer- 
sey and  Delaware,—  screening  it  from  the  Arc- 
tic; and  filtering  the  winds  from  sea  and  desert. 
This  great  rampart  is  broken  down  only  at  the 
Golden  Gate,  through  which,  in  a  mile-wide  pas- 
sage, the  drainage  of  this  enormous  water^ed 
reaches  the  sea.  In  their  imperfect  minor  loop, 
there  is  a  broken  congeries  of  valleys  aggregat- 
ing an  almost  equal  area,  sheltered  from  the 
desert,  but  as  a  rule  open  southerly  toward  the 
here  warmer  sea.  To  the  east  of  the  main  wall 
lies  a  large  but  almost  uninhabited  area,  strictly 
desert,  and  part  of  the  great  interior  wastes. 
The  inclination  of  the  State  to  the  west,  and  its 
consequent  southern  exposure,  is  indicated  by 
the  fact  that  despite  its  narrowness  the  ex- 
tremes are  three-fourths  as  far  apart  in  longi- 
tude as  in  latitude.  The  southeast  comer  or 
San  Bernardino  County  is  nearly  500  miles 
more  easterly  than  False  Cape;  while  from  Ore- 
gon to  the  Mexican  line  the  north  and  south 
distance  is  about  655  miles. 

The  Coast  Range,  altitude  2,000  to  8,000  feet. 
rather  closely  follows  the  coast  line  from  Ore- 
gon to  Point  Conception ;  south  of  which  topo- 
graphic hinge  it  so  breaks  down  as  to  be 
relatively  unimportant.  The  Sierra  Nevada 
proximately  following  the  east  line  of  the  State, 
at  an  average  distance  of  50  to  100  miles  there- 
from, is  'the  largest  and  most  interesting  chain 
of  mountains  in  the  United  States*  (J.  D. 
Whitney).  Really  part  of  the  gigantic  spine 
which  extends  from  Lower  California  to 
Alaska,  this  range  in  California  is  600  miles 
long  and  75  to  100  miles  wide  —  its  base  cover- 
ing four  times'  the  area  of  Massachusetts.  The 
snow-line  avers^s  about  30  miles  wide.  Its 
surpassing  peak   (Uount  Whitney,  highest  in 


die  United  States)  is  1^322  fe«t  (Langley).  It» 
passes  average  11,000  feet,  the  lowest  being 
9,000  feet,  and  the  most  used  (Kearsarge) 
12,000  feet.    The  western  slope  is  gradual,  aver- 


.  the  lughest  peak  in  the  United  States  o... 
looks  down  nearly  15,000  feet  into  Death  Valley, 
some  200  feet  below  sea-level.  This  vast  gran- 
range  is  the  most  remarkable  re^ster  of 
glacial  action  on  the  continent.    Decapitated  by 


'perhaps  a  vertical  mile*  (Mufr)  it  is  still  the 
most  Alpine  Cordillera  in  North  America.  It 
holds  1,500  glacial  lakes  —  the  lake  Hne  being 
at  about  8,000  feet.  Of  small  residua!  glaciers, 
Muir  has  counted  65  between  36°  30"  and  39°. 
Its  Yoseniilcs  (including  the  famous  one  so- 
called,  the  Hetch-Hetchy,  and  minor  ones)  are 
noted  among  geologists  as  well  as  travelers  — 
well-like  vall^s  gouged  deep  in  the  granite  by 
glaciers,  and  of  scenery  nowhere  surpassed.  The 
nicest  water-fall  in  the  world  (the  Pioneer, 
3,270  feet)  is  in  this  region.  Upon  the  huge 
moraines  left  by  that  continental  incubus  of  ice 
grow  the  noblest  coniferous  forests  in  the  world 
—  greatest  in  variety  of  species,  in  density  of 
merchantable  lumber  and  in  size,  age  and  beauty 
of  trees.  These  forests  cover  44,700  square 
miles  (a  larger  area  ihan  the  entire  States  of 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, Rhode  Island,  Delaware  and  Mary- 
land together).  California  is  fifth  in  area  of 
forests  and  second  in  stand  of  lumber  (200,- 
000,000,000  feet,  exceeded  only  by  Oregon  with 
225,000,000,000  feet).  Eghteen  national  forests 
reserves  in  the  State  cover  19,508,000  acres. 
The  cut  of  1916  was  nearly  three  timesr  that  of 
1890.  It  comprised:  redwood,  490,828,000 
feet;  Western  (white)  pine,  494,973,000  feet; 
Douj^as  fir,  141,200,000  feet;  sugar  pine,  165,- 
461,000  feet;  white  fir,  85,918,000  feet:  spruce, 
ia000,000  feet;  cedar,  16,587,000  feet;  hemlock, 
50ftOOO;  other  trees.  25.00(^000  (1,430,467,000); 
shingles,  ties,  etc.,  130,000,000  feet;  a  total  of 
1,560;467,000  feet.  To  this  should  be  added 
30,000  cords  of  Ian-oak  bark,  valued  at  $600,000. 
Total  value  of  product,  1916  (exclusive  of  fuel) 
£47,000,000.  Fuel  wood  amounts  to  about 
^,000^000.  The  Big  Tree  {Sequoia  Gigantea) 
IS  the  largest  and  oldest  of  growing  things  on 
earth ;  averaging  275  feet  high  and  20  feet 
diameter.  The  largest  reach  over  325  feet  high 
and  38  feet  diameter,  with  an  age  of  5,000  years. 
Muir  'never  saw  a  Big  Tree  that  had  died  a 
natural  death.*  The  other  Sequoia  {Semper- 
virtiu),  or  California  redwood,  covers  an  area 
of  about  2,000  square  miles.  It  is  second  only 
to  the  Big  Tree  in  sire,  reaching  18  feet  diam- 
eter; an<r  like  it  is  found  nowhere  else.  It 
belongs  to  the  Coast  Range,  as  the  Big  Tree 
to  the  Sierra.  It  is  almost  exclusively  used  in 
California  for  sheathing.  The  immunity  of  a 
city  like  San  Francisco  from  great  fires,  though 
windy,  faill-built,  and  of  'frame,'  is  largely  due 
to  the  low  infiammabili^  of  this  redwood  lum- 
ber. The  sugar  pine,  the  noblest  pine  yet  dis- 
covered, reaches  245  feel  high  and  18  feet 
diameter;  the  yellow  pine  220  feet  high  and  8 
feet  diameter;  the  Douglas  spruce,  king  of 
spruces,  200  feet  high,  6  feet  diameter;  the 
Libocedrus,  or  incense  cedar,  150  feet  high 
and  7  feet  diameter;  the  white  silver  fir  2EI0 


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CALIFORNIA 


feet  high,  6  feet  diameter;  tbe  'magnificent* 
silver  fir  250  feet  hi^  and  S  feel  diameter. 
The  nut  pine,  or  pinon,  is  a  small  and  shabby 
tree,  but  of  great  economic  importance  in  feed- 
ing the  Indians  and  horses ;  in  a  good  year  its 
crop  of  excellent  nuts  is  enormous  —  estimated 
(Uuir)  equivalent  to  50,000  acres  of  wheat  in 
food  value.  These  are  often  fed  to  horses 
instead  of  barley.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
oaks  (which  reach  great  size) ;  also  maples, 
yews,  birches,  alders,  sycamores,  cottonwoods, 
aspens,  madronos,  etc.  A  California  palm 
ilVashitigtoHia)  is  nadve  in  mountain  cafions 
along  the  southerly  desert,  and  is  now  largely 
used    for    street    omaroentatioa      Specimens 

Elanted  by  the  Franciscans  have  reached  a 
eight  of  80  feet.  The  flora  of  the  State  in- 
cludes about  2,500  species,  and  is  of  great  in- 
terest. In  the  great  central  valley  in  February 
or  March  one  can  travel  400  miles,  treading 
flowers  at  every  step;  and  as  much  is  true  in 
other  parts  of  the  State.  _     _^ 

No  other  State  contains  a  moiety  ofTne 
vast  number  of  exotic  trees  now  in  ttlifomia. 
Fruit,  ornamental  and  shade  trees  from  every 
country  in  the  world  have  been  acclimated  here. 
Nearly  U.OOO.OOO  tropical  fruit  trees  are  bearing 
in  1918.  Millions  of  •pepper-trees"  (.Molte) 
from  Peru  are  used  on  streets,  etc. ;  and  of 
Australian  eucalyptus  (introd.  1858),  there  are 
now  over  15,000,000,  including  about  100  varie- 
ties, for  fuel  and  ornament  Setlina  3,000,000 
acres  to  orchard  and  other  trees  within  a  gen- 
eration has  partially  balanced  the  deforestation, 
though  not  where  needed  to  offset  tbe  denuda- 
tion of  the  watershed  by  lumbering  uid  forest 

The  most  striking  meteorologlcdl  feature  of 
California  is  perhaps  the  ordering  of  its  seasons, 
of  which  it  baa  practicsl^  but  two,  the  wet  and 
dry.  The  winter,  or  'rainy  season,*  is  approx- 
imately from  late  October  to  late  April,  with  15 
to  25  rsiny  days,  an  annual  predpitatkm  rang- 
ing from  23.53  inches  for  San  Francisco  (and 
far  greater  in  the  extreme  north)  to  14.56  inches 
for  L«s  Angeles,  and  10  for  San  Diego.  For 
six  months  after  1  May,  rain  is  pracdcally 
unknown,  except  showers  in  die  high  mountun 
regions.  In  1917-18  there  were  361  days  with 
only  ^  inch  of  rain  in  t«s  Angeles,  the  largest 
dty  west  of  Saint  Louis.  In  the  high  Sierra 
die  winter  precipitadon  takes  tbe  fotm  of  snow, 
with  an  annual  fall  of  30  to  50  feet,  thus  sup- 
plying the  natural  reservoirs  which  feed  the 
streams,  upon  irrigation  from  which  agricultare 
lar^ly  depends.  But  in  Oregon,  whidi  bonndi 
Cakfomia  on  the  north,  we  hare  tbe  familiar 
eastern  seasons;  and  aeain  in  Ariicaia  and 
Nevada,  abutting  upon  die  east,  winter  snow 
and  summer  rains  characteriie  the  meteorology. 
Thus,  dimadcally,  California  differs  ahoeether 
from  all  its  neighbors  and  has  well  been  called  an 
■Island  on  Land.*  Within  its  ovra  limits,  also, 
it  has  extraordinary  range  of  climates^  as  it 
were  in  strata,  following  the  topographic  con- 
tours. Thus  in  the  vicinity  of  Los  Angeles  il 
is  possible  at  times  to  take  a  sleigfa-ride  within 
12  miles  of  the  dty  on  one  side  (and  looking 
down  upon  blossoming  orange  groves  not  five 
miles  distant),  and  by  an  hour's  ride  to  bathe  in 
the  Pacific,  which  has  here  a  winter  temperature 
of  60°.  Within  a  short  journey  from  almost  any 
given  point  one  may  find  almost  any  variety  of 


climate,  from  below  sea-level  to  nearly  15,000 
feet  above  it;  from  the  extreme  bnt  arid  and 
non-prostrating  heat  of  the  desert  to  eternal 
snow ;  from  palms  and  perennial  roses  to  the 
primeval  coniferous  forests,  or  to  the  desola- 
tion of  alkaline  Sabaras.  Altbougfa  all  Califor- 
nia shares  the  seasonal  peculiarity  of  *Califomia 
climate,'  the  northern  and  sonthem  parts  of 
the  State  —  roughly  dividing  at  Point  Concep- 
tion and  tbe  Tehacbejrf  Range  — are  verv  un- 
like meteorologically.  The  upper  jwrdon  is  rel- 
atively humid,  with  more  than  twice  the  south's 
average  rainfall,  with  tar  larger  streams  and 
vastly  richer  forestation.  At  Crescent  City,  on 
the  far  coast,  predpitation  often  reaches  80 
inches  per  year.  The  trend  of  the  coast  is  here 
northerly,  and  the  region  shtres  somedungof 
the  extraordinary  humidity  of  Oregon.  The 
smallest  predintation  is  in  the  desert  southeast 
corner,  averaging  only  three  inches  annually  at 
Yuma.  The  seven  counties  habitually  termed 
■Southern  California*— thoagh  the  ([eographic 
southern  half  of  the  State  would  include  13 
counties  —  have  an  average  rainfall  of  but  about 
15  inches.  This  predpitation  is  insufEdcnt  to 
ensure  crops,  except  cereals  (which  are  not 
irrigated  but  depend  on  the  rains).  This  broad 
difference  between  the  two  sections  in  rainfall 
has  been  chief  factor  io  an  extraordinaiy  differ- 
ence of  development  within  the  last  30  years. 
Compelled  by  aridity  to  resort  to  irrigation, 
compelled  by  the  magnitude  of  the  task  to  as- 
sociative effort,  the  southern  communities  have 
suddenly  developed  a  generic  type  of  agriculture 
and  of  life  quite  unlike  anything  else  in  the 
Union.  The  oaragraph  on  population  shows 
something  of  tne  disproportionate  setdin^-up  of 
the  southern  end  of  the  State  — an  entire  re- 
versal of  the  balance  which  obtained  for  nearly 
60  years,  during  which  the  Dopuladon  was  over- 
whelmingly about  "the  Bajr  and  San  Frandsco 
was  practically  California,  socially,  politically 
and  nnancially. 

About  San  Frandsco  there  is  a  steady  and 
brisk  wind  movement,  flowing  in  throng  the 
narrow  gap  of  the  (jolden  Gate.  In  southern 
California,  while  there  is  daily  ebb  end  flow  of 
air~currents  (in  the  morning  from  off  the  seiL 
and  at  ni{^t  down  from  the  mountains),  a  real 
wind  is  very  rare.  Hurricanes  and  cydones  are 
absolutely  unknown  in  the  State.  Despite  the 
great  heat  of  tbe  deserts,  and  high  mercury 


stroke  is  unknown.  Seasonal  diseases,  t>^oids, 
malarias  and  pemidous  fevers,  summer  diseases 
of  children,  gastric  or  hepatic  diseases,  are  rare. 
Mean  summer  temperature  San  Francisco  60° ; 
winter  mean  51°;  greatest  daily  range  temper- 
ature Los  Angeles  29°,  as  against  69^  for  Bos- 
ton. The  modern  migration  to  California  has 
been  largely  attracted  by  this  unique  and  hos- 
pitable dimate,  free  from  the  dangerous  heats 
of  summer  and  the  bitter  winter  cold  of  the 
regions  east  of  the  Rock?  Mountains,  In  the 
inhabited  portions  of  this  State,  extreme  cold 
is  onknown ;  while,  owing  to  rapid  radiation, 
the  summer  nights  are  always  so  cool  as  to  call 
for  blankets. 

The  fauna  of  Cjilifomia  is  peculiarly  inter- 
esting, and  indudes  considerably  over  100  spe- 
des  of  mammals,  tboug^i  the  larger  game 
varieties  have  ia  a  half  cenluiy  beeo  neariy 


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CALIFORHIA 


IWMoM  AuMnlian  Eucalyptiu  la  tb«  rij^ 


f oU-beuioc  onace  crooM  to  tta  Mtj 


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CAUPORNM. 


901 


extenninated  At  tbe  Amencan  occv^aticHi,  dk 
were  seen  in  droves  of  tbaiuandi.  Great  ntan- 
bcrs  were  killed  from  the  deck  of  steamen 

flying  to  Sacramento.  Occupation  of  the  State 
J  Indians  immemorially,  and  by  Spaniaids  for 
nearly  a  century,  had  not  appreciably  dimin- 
ished the  wild  animals;  but  tue  same  wanton 
ipirit  which  in  a  score  of  years  extenninated 
tens  of  millions  of  the  American  bison  on  the 
great  plains  has  in  California  niade  the  great 
mammals  nearly  extinct  The  gmzlv  bear  (the 
State  emblem)  once  in  great  abun<umce  in  all 
parts  of  the  State  is  now  scarce;  the  black, 
cinnamon  and  brow^  bear  are  more  common, 
diough  rare.  Sea  lions  of  a  ton  weight  are 
still  fomid  along  the  coast,  and  their  populous 
rookeries  a  few  hundred  feet  from  the  *GiS 
House"  in  San  Francisco  are  an  object  of  in- 
terest to  travelers.  The  California  lion,  moun- 
tain lion  or  puma,  is  stilt  not  infrequent,  and 
wildcats  abound  in  the  mountains.  The  coyote 
is  cotnmon  and  of  utility  in  decimating  the 
hordes  of  rabbits,  thougfi  an  ill-judged  bounty 
on  coyote  scalps  has  of  late  years  much  reduced 
the  numbers  of  this  small  wolf.  The  beaver, 
once  in  vast  numbers  here,  is  now  confined  to 
the  remotest  streams;  and  die  valuable  sea  otter 
is  almost  extinct,  filack-tailed  and  mule  deer 
are  still  reasonably  frequent;  but  the  antelopes, 
which  once  roamed  the  nordiem  and  southern 
valleys  in  great  bands,  have  hardly  a  repre- 
sentative left  The  same  is  true  of  the  moun- 
tain sheep  (Ovis  Avtmott},  once  common  in  all 
the  higher  ranges.  Speimophlles,  or  ground 
squirrels,  and  five  species  of  gotiher,  are  in- 
numerable and  a  great  pest  to  the  farmer  as 
well  as  carriers  of  bubonic  and  other  diseases. 
The  Federal  and  State  governments  are  making 
scientific  campaigns  to  exterminate  them.  Mil- 
lions have  been  poisoned.  The  true  gray  squir- 
rel is  common  in  the  north.  Jack  rabbits  and 
totton-tails*  pe  abundant  m  _  all  parts  of 
the  State,  despite  community  'drives"  in  which 
sometimes  tens  of  thousands  are  killed  in  a  day. 
The  birds  of  CaUforma.  number  above  350 
species.  The  largest  winged  creature  in  North 
America  is  the  California  condor.  Quail  of  two 
species  are  in  vast  abundance  throughout  the 
State. 

EarthqoakM.^  While  the  Pacific  Coast  of 
North,  Central  and  South  America  in  general 
is  peculiarly  liable  in  recent  geolt^cal  times 
to  seismic  disturbances.  California  has  never 
CTOcrienced  an  earthquake  of  the  second  magni- 
tude,  nor  probably  even  of  the  fourth.  The 
only  first-degree  earthquake  in  die  United 
States  was  that  of  New  Madrid,  Mo.,  in  1811. 
The  largest  city  in  the  world,  if  biiilt  upon  its 
epicentre  would  have  been  irremediably  wiped 
off  the  mspi  California,  has  never  had  an  earth- 
quake approaching  in  severity  that  of  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.  in  1886k  Tbe  most  serious  *trem- 
blores*  of  California  were  tn  1812  when  the  fall 
of  the  Musion  tower  of  San  Juan  Capbtrano 
killed  30  persons  in  tbe  church,  but  did  no 
U>ecial  damage  elsewhere  in  the  village;  and 
1872  when  some  old  adobe  bouses  in  Owens 
Valley  collapsed  and  killed  19  Mexicans.  The 
*Eajtfaqnake*  of  San  Francisco,  April  1906,  was 
a  very  minor  shock  (geologically)  —not  above 
die  6tii  or  7di  maRnituoe,  It  broke  rusty  water- 
mains  fai  the  30  tee!  of  sand  with  whidi  tower 
San  Franciaco  is  ■filled*.    It  threw  down  a  f  eir 


decrepit  frame  buildings,  on  the  same  sand 
'fill,*  but  not  a  sinsle  respectable  structure  in 
the  ci^.  Fire  caumit  in  one  of  the  wrecked 
tenements;  and  half  San  Prandsco  was  con- 
sumed because  there  was  no  water  to  check  the 
fire.  In  Charleston,  practically  every  Iniildlng 
was  wrecked  by  the  earthquake. 

The  unremitting  tension  upon  the  crust  of 
the  entire  earth  has  found  its  'safeW-valves* 
in  Cahfomia.  The  earthquake  "faults*  are  not 
only  known  and  visible;  but  mapped  There  is 
no  excuse  for  building  towns  or  reservoirs 
across  one  of  diese  "faults."  For  this  reason, 
the  foremost  gcolo^sts  agree  (vid  Bmnner) 
that  California  is  safer  from  earthquakes  than 
are  manv  States  where  these  safety-valves  have 
not  yet  been  developed,  and  earthquakes  are  ai 
yet  strangers. 

River  ByBtems,— As  in  most  arid  States, 
the  drainage  of  California  is  simtJe.  For  some 
300  miles  on  its  southeastern  c6ge  the  State  is 
bounded  by  the  Colorado  River,  which  rises  in 
tbe  Roc^  Mountains  in  Colorado  and  flows 
1,360  miles  to  the  Gulf  of  California.  It  has  no 
tributaries  whatever  from  California,  all  east- 
bound  streams  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  being 
lost  in  the  desert  On  the  western  coast,  thouga 
a  few  rivers  reach  the  sea  (like  the  Klamad^ 
Mad,  Eel  and  Salinas)  they  are  relativeljr  un-' 
important  and  incidental.  The  real  drainage 
^tem  of  the  State  has  outlet  through  San 
Frandsco  B^  and  the  Golden  Gate,  by  two 
chief  inland  rivers  iriiicfa  join  about  60  miles 
northeast  of  San  Francisco.  Both  rise  in  tbe 
Sierra  Nevada,  the  Sacramento  (370  miles  long) 
to  tbe  north,  the  San  Joaquin  (350  miles  long) 
to  the  south.  Their  main  course  averages  along 
nearly  the  median  lin^  north  and  south,  thrau^ 
near^  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  State.  Tbey 
have  no  tributari^  worlliy  of  the  name  from  tbe 
great  westerly  mountain  wall,  the  Coast  Range; 
their  waters  being  fed  almost  exclusively  from 
the  vast  Alpine  (£am  which  is  in  effect,  thourii 
not  politically,  the  eastern  boundary  of  Cali- 
fomia  down  to  latitude  35°  30".  Their  import- 
ant feeders  from  the  Sierra  are  the  Feather,- 
Yuba,  Cosimines,  American,  Mokelumne,  Kem, 
Kings,  etc  All  these  are  fine  mountain  tor- 
rents, beloved  of  sportsmen,  and  flowing  throu^ 
magnificent  scenery,  but  not  of  rank  as  water- 
ways. The  most  important  is  the  Feather,  which 
has  a  large  drainage  area.  Several  streams  in 
southern  California,  like  the  Los  Angeles,  San 
(labriel  and  Santa  Ana,  reach  the  sea,  but  all 
are  practically  exhausted  by  irrigation  uses, 
except  during  winter  flood-water.  The.  many 
streams  from  the  abrupt  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  all  disappear  in  alkaline  'sinks," 
—  like  Pyramid  Lake,  the  Mojave  River,  Mono 
Lake  and  Death  Valley,— and  never  even  in 
flood  reach  the  ocean  by  their  great  natural 
conduit,  the  Colorado  River. 

The  total  mean  annual  run-off  (in  acre-feet) 
of  32  chief  California  rivers  is  59,078,200.  The 
Colorado  River  Ss  enormously  largest,  widi 
16,900,000  acre-feet:  tbe  Sacramento  next  with 
9,770,000;  die  Feather  5380,000;  American  3,- 
820,000;  Yuba  3,050,00a  The  San  Joaquin, 
IGngs,  McQoud,  Merced,  Stanislaus  and  Link 
rivers  all  exceed  1.000,000  acre-feet;  and  the 
Tuolumne  2,000,000.  Seven  others  exceed 
500m 

The  Sacramento  and  Colorado  are  navigable 
to  lig^-draft  tteamers  to  the  State  capital  and 


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CALIFORNIA 


to  Nefdks,  ropectivelj.  The  Ucn  of  Cali- 
fornia are  not  impDrtant  as  to  navigation. 
Tulare  Lake,  receiving;  the  drainage  of  the  Kcm, 
Kaweah  and  Kit^^s  nvera,  is  7G0  sqoarc  miles 
in  area,  but  only  40  feet  deeg^  In  ver^  hi^ 
water  its  overflow  reaches  the  San  Joaquin ;  but 
ordinariljr  its  income  of  waters  is  cared  for  bf 
evaporatioiL  Lake  Tatioe  in  the  extreme  north, 
at  an  elevation  of  6,200  feet,  is  20  miles  tot^ 
and  1,500  feet  deep,  and  famous  for  the  purity 
of  its  watera,  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  its 
trout  It  is  the  largest  of  the  gladal  lakes,  of 
irtiich  there  are  a  great  number  in  tbt  Sierra, 
mostly  at  altitudes  exceeding  the  highest  moun- 
tain summits  east  of  Colorado.  The  lower-lying; 
lakes  of  the  State  are  mostly  without  ontl^ 
and  of  various  d^rees  of  bracldshness,  culmi- 
nating in  the  'sink*  of  the  Amargosa  River 
ncariy  200  feet  below  sea-level  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  nuige,_  where  evaporation  has  left 
vast  alldline  depositi,  now  of  great  commercial 
■valne. 

Gedofr^— The  main  axis  of  the  Siem 


summits  are  capped  with  volcanic  materials. 
Uount  Shasta  in  me  far  north  is  an  extinct  vol- 
cano (14,470  feet).  So  also  is  Lassen's  Peak 
(tC^577  feel^,  of  late  years  sometimes  emitting 
smoke.  This  granite  core  is  flanked  by  a  very 
heavy  mass  of  alatr,  metamorphic  rocks, — 
mostly  aigillaceous,  cnloritic  and  talcose  slates, 
—  constituting  the  great  auriferous  belt  of  the 
Sierra.  The  Coast  Range  is  made  up  almost 
entirely  of  cretaceous  and  tertiary  marines, 
chiefly  sandstones  and  bituminous  shales.  It  is 
in  this  belt  tiiat  the  retxnt  vast  development  of 
petrotetmi  has  been  made. 

Besides  the  vast  reaches  of  alluvial  soils 
in  the  lower  valleys,  irfiich  were  first  selected 
for  agriculture,  an  enormout  area  of  disinte- 
grated granite  gravels  along  the  foothills  and 
first  aecuvitiea  has  been  found  the  most  produc- 
tive soil  in  the  State,  Muticnlarly  with  reference 
to  valuable  crops.  These  great  gravel  beds, 
which  seem  to  the  farmer  from  the  blade  'bot- 
toms* of  Ohio  the  most  unpromising  of  soils, 
are  in  reality  rich  in  all  the  elements  of  plant 
food.  The  vast  majority  of  the  valuable  or- 
chards, particularly  of  southern  California,  are 
planted  upon  this  granitic  detritus;  and  with- 
out exception  the  finest  oranges  and  other 
citrus  fruits  ccane  from  this  soiT  The  relative 
aridity  of  California,  long  supposed  to  be  a 
curse,  is  now  known  to  be  a  two-fold  blessing. 
Exhaustive  analyses,  comparative  with  every 
portion  of  the  Union,  show  these  gravels  to 
average  much  richer  in  chemical  constituents 
than  soils  leached  out  by  excessive  lainfall. 
Furthermore,  the  fact  that  precipitatitm  is  not 
invariably  stiffident  to  ensure  crops  has  cmn- 
V  pelled  irrigation,  which  does  ensure  them;  so 
that  farmers  in  the  arid  lands  have  much 
greater  crop-certainty  than  those  of  regions 
with  most  abundant  runfall. 

Agricnltnrer—  In  no  item  of  its  history  has 
California  been  more  unlike  other  States  than 
in  development  and  seQuences  of  agriculture. 
The  first  (and  for  60  years  commercially  chief) 
industry  was  cattle  —  derived  from  herds  in- 
troduced from  Mexico  by  Viceroy  Galvei.  Vtfi, 
and  chief  wealth  of  the  Mission  establishments 
and  Spanish  colonists.  It  was  a  generation 
after  the  American  occupation  before  agricul- 


tore  was  seriously  undertaken ;  and  for  anotiicr 
term  of  years  it  was  chiefly  a  gigantic  seasonal 
^gamble  with  the  weather*  in  dry-farming  of 
cereals.  The  characteristic  features  of  agri- 
culture op  to  about  1870  were  enormous  hold- 
ings,—  reckoned  by  at  least  tens  of  thousands 
of  acres, —  with  the  siiu^e  crop  (almost  ei- 
cluuvely  wheat  and  baiiey)  and  purchase  of 
every  other  article  of  necessity  or  luxury.  On 
areas  of  hundreds  of  square  miles  apiece  there 
were  an  individttal  or  corporate  owner,  a  single 
crop,  a  few  hundred  hirelings  at  the  height  of 
the  season  and  their  temporary  quarters.  A 
few  of  these  enormous  ranchos  still  survive; 
and  Miller  and  Lux  still  farm  about  1,000,000 
acres,  with  20,000  acres  in  a  single  field.  But 
within  a  groeratlon  the  typical  character  of 
agriculture  in  C^ifornia  ha3  radically  changed. 
The  greatest  record  drought  (1864)  which  not 
only  destroyed  grain  but  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  cattle  (60,000  head  being  sold  that 
year  in  Santa  Barbara  at  37!i^c.  per  head), 
exclusion  of  the  Chinese,  who  had  been  the 
chief  reliance  for  labor  on  the  great  ranchos, 
the  fall  in  wheal,  and  other  factors,  led  to  the 
brealdng  up  of  these  gigantic  domains.  A 
slight  idea  of  the  change  mav  be  had  from 
the  census  fact  that  in  l850  tne  average  size 
of  all  California  farms  was  4)456.6  acres;  and 
in  1910,  318  acres.  Along  with  this  great 
dry-fann  gambling — for  such  it  was  —  sheep 
became  a  leading  industiv  in  the  State,  par- 
ticularlv  in  southern  California,  But  the  enor- 
mous uicrease  in  value  of  land  has  reduced 
sheep  to  a  valuation  of  $17,000,000.  The  city 
of  Pasadena  (Pop.  40,000}  was  a  sheep  pasture 
in  1870. 

Within  about  30  years  — that  is,  since  1885, 
—  the  general  character  of  California  farming 
has  changed  to  small  holdings,  occu^ed  not 
by  tenants  bnt  by  American  owners,  with  fam- 
ifies,  with  diversified  crops,  and  obliged  to 
purchase  only  the  luxuries  of  life;  with  inten- 
me  methods  and  certainty  (by  irrigation)  of 
crops.  California  has  now  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  all  the  irrigators  in  the  United  States. 
The  average  size  of  irrigated  farms  is  in 
southern  California  21}^  acres ;  in  rest  of  State 
about  82  acres.  The  typical  California  farm 
under  the  modem  r^me  is  perhaps  10  acres; 
irrigated  either  by  its  own  pumping  plant  or 
from  a  community  ditch,  and  yielding  an  annual 
income  of  not  less  dian  $200  per  acre  and  some- 
rimes  $900. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  single  factor  in  bring- 


Siate,  all  seedlmgs,  and  detiving  from  Mexico, 
where  the  fruit  was  introduced  by  the  Span- 
iards nearly  three  and  a  half  centuries  earlier. 
In  1873  two  seedless  orange  trees  from  Braril 
were  sent  from  the  Dqpartment  of  Agriculture 
in  Washington  to  Riverside,  Cat.  From 
these  two  parent  trees  has  spnii%  the  modem 
orange  industrv  of  California  —  and  practically 
of  ate  Uniteo  States;  as  IHorida,  the  only 
other  orange  State  in  the  Union,  yidds  onh* 
one  -box  of  oranges  to  Califomia's  two.  Mil- 
lions of  trees  ^fted  from  their  "buds'  are  now 
bearing  in  this  State,  and  the  hereditary  fruit, 
seedless  and  delicto  us,  leads  the  American 
market.  This  crop,  highly  retnunerative,  and 
practically  continuous  (shipments  being  made 
every  montti  in  tke  year)  has  been  for  these 


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SOUTBERn  CAUFORnU  PAI.US 


CALIFORHU  ROSE  GARDEN 


d=y  Google 


CAUFORniA 


1  Ht.  Tkoulpali,  MW  8u  hudsco 


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C&LIPOUfIA 


reaxms,  and  sMthetic  ones,  a  large  sttraction  to 
I^h-clus  imm^ration,  and  an  important  factor 
in  shaping  ^ricultural  metbods.  For  develoi>- 
ment  of  tne  industry,  see  statistics  below. 

In  deciduous  fruits,  total  production,  ship- 
ments fresh,  canned  and  dried.  California  has 
within  a  generation  come  to  lead  the  Union ; 
as  it  leada  in  all  tropical  fruits. 

Beet  Sngar.— California  was  the  first  success- 
ful grower  of  sugar  beets,  and  has  by  far  the  lar- 
iat factories.  In  1909  it  was  second  to  Colorado 
m  the  value  of  its  beet-sugar 
000),  or  25  per  cent  of   the  ... 

sugar  industry  of  the  United  States  originated 
at  Alyarado,  Alrarado  County,  Cal.  In  1916 
tbe  output  of  its  11  beet-sugar  factories  was 
472,770,100  pounds  of  sugar;  valu^  $30,800,000. 
In  1917  the  number  of  beet-su^r  factories  and 
acreage  planted  to  beets  had  increased  in  one 
year  over  26  per  cent  Cahfomia  beets  aver- 
age 7  per  cent  hi^er  in  surar  thui  those  of 
other  States.  The  effect  of  the  great  war  and 
government  control  on  agriculture  in  California 
(as   elsewhere)    is   not  yet  to    be    prophesied- 

Erticularly  as  to  beet  sugar,  wheat,  b^ns  ana 
e-stock.  In  1917  the  production  of  sugar 
beets  was  2,636,80^000  pounds.  Within  a  &c- 
ade  California  has  become  the  greatest  pro- 
ducer of   beans    (navy   and   frijol,   but   pnnci- 


i,  19  la 


Ou>r           Acw  Yield                      

H>y  Mod  f  or- 

■n 1,S33.HT  i,3ZT,130  Kru  (55.125.000 

GnuD l.Stl.OOO  «T.571,000biuh.  47. SOT. 000 

PoUtos....       100. 000  10,571,000  buih.  4.230,000 

Oniom 2.S5O,D0Obuih.  1,400.000    . 

Dnbcui*...       558,000  «, 100,000  buih.  20.000. ODO 

Ctkrj 1,K»  2,600cjui  1,000,000 

BuiitHwu..       144,300  4;2.770,lD0nw.  3O,S0O,0OO 

Ri« SO. 000  5,600,000  ibL  9,saa,ooo 

Cotton 117,000  as,ODO  bala  2,574.000 

Waal ll,«00,D00Ib>.  1,552.000 

Hop* 1»,V91  21.552,5(»1l«.  4,S69,D00 

Svcet     poU- 

to«>. 6.000  WCDOObiuh.  7M.000 


1917  there  were  8,035,000  bushels  at  double 
the  value  per  bushel.  This  industry  is 
practically  confined  to  Ventura,  Los  Angeles, 
Orange  and  San  Diego  counties.  Within  less 
than  3  decade,  also,  cotton  has  come  to  count  in 
the  agricultural  resources  of  California.  Im- 
perial County,  organized  1907  (a  recently  re^ 
claimed  desert,  often  compared  with  the  valley 
of  the  Nile),  now  produces  annually  65.000 
bales  of  cotton  (40  per  cent  Durango  or  long- 
staple)  worth  $9,380,000  besides  a  great  variety 
of  other  vegetable  products.  It  lies  along  the 
Colorado  River,  just  north  of  the  Mexican  line. 
Ten  years  ag;o  a  desert,  it  has  now  a  population 
of  50,000.  with  several  small  cities  and  tens  of 
thousands  of  acres  under  cultivation  by  a  huge 
irrigating  system  from  the  river. 

With  modem  refrigerator  freight  c^rs,  a 
vast  quantity  not  only  of  citrus  and  deciduous 
fnuts,  but  even  of  fresh  vegetables,  is  now 
shipped  from  California,  2.000  to  3.000  miles  to 
the  Eastern  States,  including  some  800  carloads 
of  celery  annually  from  one  small  town.  Straw- 
berries arc  in  the  Los  Angeles  market  every 
month  of  the  year,  but  are  shipped  (as  are 
blackberries,  raspberries,  loganberries,  etc.)  to 
Ariiona  and  New  Ucxico  only  in  summer;  as 
are  also  the  famous  canteloupes  and  water- 
melons. California  is  foremost  producer  of  the 
most  cxtraordinaiy  of  forage  plants,  the  Ara- 
bian-Spanish-Mexican alfalfa.  This  produces, 
under  irrigation,  about  one  ton  per  acre  for 
each  of  four  to  eight  cuttings  per  annum.  In 
1917  it  sold  at  526  per  ton.  In  1910  there  were 
487,134  acres  planted  to  alfalfa;  in  1916^  862,- 
534   acres. 


Up  to  1808  the  ho^  industry  of  the  Untied 
States  was  all  in  Maine,  Vermont  and  Massa- 
chusetts. Soon  New  York,  with  better  soil,  had 
a  monopoly;  then  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  be- 
came important  hop-growers.  In  1916  five 
counties  of  California  produced  more  hops  than 
alt  the  rest  of  the  United  States.  In  1916  the 
Uve-stock  in  the  State  consisted  of  468,000 
horses,  valued  at  $45,396,000;  70,000  mules, 
valued  at  ^,120,000;  591,000  milch  cows, 
valued  at  $39,597,000;  1,636.000  other  eatlle, 
valued  at  $62,332,000;  2,524,000  sheep,  valued  at 
$1&911,000;  994,000  hogs,  valued  at  $10J}39,000; 
and  poultry  valued  at  $19,000;000,  making  a 
total  value  of  $201,395,006. 

In  the  same  year  the  total  vakie  of  the  State's 
dairy  products  amounted  to  $40,310,105,  con- 
sisting of  70,030,174  pounds  of  butter,  worth 
|19,181j264;  7,745.124  pounds  of  cheese,  worth 
$1,203,592;  and  other  produce  valued  at  $19,- 
925^9. 

The  sensational  achievements  of  Luther  Bur- 
bank  in  hybridizing  fruits  — for  instance,  the 
creation  of  a  larse  plum  without  any  pit  wlut- 
ever — are  already  world-famous.  Almost  as 
remarkable  results  have  been  reached  in  floricnl- 
ture:  Seeds  and  bulbs  are  raised  on  a  great 
scale;  carnations,  calla  lilies  and  other  flowers 
being  grown  outdoors  by  the  lO-acre  field.  A 
lar^e  proportion  of  the  Itower  seed  of  the 
United  States  is  grown  in  California,  and  it 
supphes  most  of  the  mustard  of  the  nation. 
The  total  area  of  California  farms  is  now  over 
46,000  square  miles,  considerably  exceeding  the 
entire  area  of  States  of  Uassachu setts.  New 
Hampshire  Vermont,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Is- 
land and  Maprland.  The  State  was  eleventh 
in  the  Union  in  per  capita  value  of  farm  prod- 
ucts ($88)  and  fifth  In  value  of  products  of  farm 
($1,816  as  compared  with  Ohio,  $929)  in  1900. 
California  had  in  1910,  87,670  farms;  total 
value  of  farm  property,  $1,448,560,000;  K>tal 
value  of  farm  products  18W,  $131,690,606.  Total 
acreage  in  farms,  27383,000  acres,  of  which 
11,380,000  acres  are  improved.  The  area 
farmed  decreased  3  per  cent,  1900  to  1910.  In 
1850  there  were  872  farms;  in  1860,  18,716;  in 
1870,  23,724,  The  development  of  farming  is 
briefly  indicated  as  follows  to  1910— the  latest 
Federal  figures  available.  The  great  i 
since  1910  cannot  be  ofiicially  stated. 


Yeak      nunis        Acna 


Omuf 

Acn> 

ViBld.biiAdi 

■M 

7,425,000 
39,150.000 

&S;.-. 

1,000 
M,000 

,.iS:8S 

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9M 


CALIFOKHIA 


had  over  3,000  fams  each;  Santa  Oar^  3,995; 
Sonoma,  3,676:  and  Fresno,  3,290.  Of  all  farms, 
84,692  were  farmed  by  whites;  the  rest  by 
Indians,  Chines^  ne^rves,  Japanese 

Dairy  cows  had  increased  nearly  one  hun- 
-  dred-fofd  since  1850,  in  1910  being  464,000. 
Horses  (1910),  462,000;  mules.  68.000;  sbeep, 
2,325,000:  swine,  749,000 ;  of  other  cattle  there 
were  1,155,000.  Total  value  of  domestic  animals 
1910,  $1 19,487,452  —  including  poultry  and  bees,. 
S4,566,629:  animals  sold  and  slauditered, 
115,754,985;  poultry  and  eggs,  $6,356,746;  wool, 
11,707,088.  Sheep  and  wocJ  decreased  steadily, 
from  IK^,  with  the  great  increase  in  value 
of  lands  for  farming. 

From  1850  to  1900  the  population  increased 
sixteen- fold ;  number  of  farms  over  eighty- 
fold.  California  was  one  of  the  few  Slates  in 
1900  that  in  30  ^ears  added  more  to  its  agri- 
cultural than  to  Its  other  population. 

Irrigation  and  Hortlcultnre.—  Develop- 
ment of  the  new  and  characteristic  agricultural 
era  in  California  is  outlined  by  these  statistics 
from  the  last  available  census  (1910). 


eovemment  experimental  stations  in  Arixona. 
In  1916  the  Coachella  Valley  produced  $65,000 
of  dates.  The  acreage  has  vastly  increased 
since.  There  are  over  7,000  bee-keepers  in  the 
State,  owning  more. than  600,000  colonies.  The 
production  of  honey  in  I9I6  was  11,100.000 
pounds,' valued  at  $642,000. 

California  was  first  (1769),  and  is  still  prac- 
tically the  only  State  to  produce  the  olive  and 
its  oil.  Thirty-eight  counties  now  grow  the 
olive,  though  only  in  half  a  doien  is  it  import' 
ant.  There  are  about  a  million  bearing  trees 
in  the  State,  and  half  as  many  not  yet  bearing. 
The  California  'ripe*  olive  has  become  of  great 
commercial  importance;  while  the  "dehydrated" 
seems  destined  to  become  even  more  popular. 

The  annual  production  of  oil  ( 1916)  is 
1,000,000    gallons;     packed    olives,     18,000.000 


A^ 

Acts 

Viloa 
crop 

gSSS-:::: 

isleii 

!:iS:I!J 

tM.43J.43a 

Of  the  72,542  farms  in  the  State,  25,675  or 
35.4  per  cent  were  irrigated,  an  increase  of  44 
per  cent  in  10  years;  the  number  of  irrigators 
mcreased  in  the  same  term  87  per  cent,  showing 
the  great  subdivision  of  the  lands  —  nearly 
twice  as  many  people  living  on  the  same  area. 
Total  cost  of  canstruction  of  all  irrigating  sys- 
tems, $19,181,610;  so  thi  irrigated  crop  of  1899 
alone  pud  nearly  $14,000,000  in  excess  of  total 
cost  ot  works.  Los  Angeles  County  led  by  far 
in  number  of  irrigators  (4,066) ;  only  Fresno 
(2,459)  having  one-half  as  many.  In  number  of 
acres  Fresno  County  was  far  in  the  lead,  widi 
283,737  acres;  Kern  next  with  112,533  and 
Merced,   111,330.     Of  the  total   1,445,872 


^ted  i 


1,- 


;  irrigated  from  streams.  There 
were  2,361  artesian  welb  and  10,924  ijumped. 
By  1914,  the  pumping-plants  for  irrigation  nad 
increased  to  24,589.  More  than  half  the  flowing 
artesian  wells  in  the  United  States  were  in 
California;  and  a  large  number  of  farms  were 
served  by  electric  power  pumped  from  under- 
ground wells. 

Of  deciduous  orchard  trees  there  were  in 
the  State,  in  1916:  Apples,  61,752  acres;  apri- 
cots, 96.716  acres:  cherries,  13,484  acres;  figs, 
10,872  acres ;  peaches,  107,971  acres ;  pears,  40,- 
324  acres;  plums.  22,805  acres;  others,  19,000 
acres;  a  total  of  372,924  acres  planted  to  de- 
ciduous orchard  trees.  In  1916  the  shipments 
of  fresh  deciduous  fruit  from  50  counties  of 
northern  California  were  17890  carloads; 
from  the  seven  counties  of  southern  California 
450  carloads,  having  a  total  value  of  $29,500,000. 

In  1916  the  citrus  fruits  (orange,  lemon  and 
grape-fruit,  nearly  all  from  southern  Cali- 
fornia), were  192,607  acres;  shipments  reached 
a  total  of  45.083  carloads,  valued  at  $41,348,000. 

Dates   were   recently   introduced   from  the 


Of  dried  fruits  the  output 
any  other  State. 

1  larger  than  in 

DubdPrvit 

1913          1016 

Pnma 

ISS^:::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

6s|i»a    lulsoo 

Total 

Almonds  and  walnuts  are  not  'commercially* 
produced  elsewhere  in  the  United  States.  Both 
crops  have  more  than  quadrupled  in  a  decade. 
In  1916  the  yield  was,  for  California,  3,400  tons 
of  almonds  and  12,800  tons  of  walnuts. 
.  CaUfornia  produces  95  per  cent  of  the  United 
States  almond  crop;  and  over  four  times  the 
nation's  importation  of  this  nut.  The  aguacate, 
avocado  or  alligator  pear  (from  Guatemala)  is 
of  recent  introduction,  but  there  are  already 
over  35,000  trees  in  southern  California;  and 
the  ordinary  income  is  ^00  per  tree  —  the  fruits 
selling  as  rarities  at '50  cents  to  $1.25  each. 
In  the  last  census  year  the  number  of  plum  and 
prune  trees  was  greater  than  the  total  number 
of  all  deciduous  orchard  trees  10  years  before. 
The  number  of  apricot  trees  had  more  than 
doubled  in  the  decade. 

Total  number  of  semi-tropical  fruit  trees 
had  increased  from  1.809,161  to  8,996,459  in  the 
decade.  Of  the  latter  number  62.8  per  cent 
were  orange  trees;  17  per  cent  olives;  16.6  per 
cent  lemons;  2.1  per  cent  figs.  Other  trees 
included  were  guavas,  kaki,  limes,  pineapples, 
pomelos,  etc  The  counties  of  San  Bernaroin^ 
Los  Angeks,  Riverside  arid  Orange  contained 
more  than  four-fifths  of  the  orange  trees.  The 
number  for  the  State  increasea  nearly  five 
times  in  10  years.  Orange  and  lemon  ship- 
ments increased  about  ei^t-fold  in  the  decade. 
San  Diego  and  Los  Angeles  counties  contained 
■more  than  half  the  lemon  trees  of  the  State, 
the  number  being  more  than  18  times  as  great 
as  10  years  before.  There  were  5,648,714 
orange:  1,493,113  lemon;  1,530,164  olive  trees 
in  the  State. 

Strawberries,  blackberries,  raspberries,  logan- 
berries and  other  small  fruits  are  valued  at 
about  $2,000,000.  Fifty-two  of  the  57  counties 
raise  grapes.  California  is  the  principal  wine- 
producer  of  the  Union,  yielding  more  than  one- 
half  the  total  product 


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CAJUIFORNIA 


Vitkulture^  California  has  over  90,000000 
Brapc-Tines  (more  than  all  the  rest  of  the 
Union),  occuf^ng  356,009  acres;  rgiresenting' 
in  investment  of  1150,000,000.  The  State 
shimed  in  1916  10,741  carloads,  valued  at  $13,- 
000,000.  It  is  the  only  raisin  State.  In  1916 
it  shipped  (from  22  counties,  thotif^  Fresno  i» 
centre)    128,500  tons  of^raidns^    The  seeded- 


erown  frotn  3,50 
1916. 

GUTB  PtOOUCT*. 


Qamatity 


13.0. , 

1».161.47S      ■  ItM.SW.OW.M 

Bnndy 3,027.S91      ■  J 

50.000     •  JO.OOO  00 

l.OOO.OOOboItlM  2.000.000.00 

imiUBVnm 11.741  cuteadj  11,000,000,00 

RwiiW Ua.500toB»  16,000,000.00 

The  best  *dry*  wines  are  grown  almost  ex- 
clauvely  in  the  northern  half  of  the  State;  the 
best  sveet  wines  exclusively  in  the  sonthem. 


alcohol  after  1  April  1918.  This  is  the  lai^est 
city  in  the  West  thus  to  restrict.  It  permits 
the  14  per  cent  clarets  of  the  North,  but  in- 
hibits the  21  per  cent  ports,  sherrys  and  other 
fortified  sweet  vrines  of  the  South.  California 
is  comniitted  to  a  policy  of  "local  option,'  as 
regards  the  liquor  problem,  but  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  smaller  cities  are  (nominally) 
•bone  dry."  On  1  April  1918,  the  200  saloons 
in  Los  Angeles  (600000  population),  closed  their 
doors,  being  ■voted  out",  by  a  large  city  ma- 
jority. It  was  then  the  largest  city  in  the  Union 
without  liquor  license.  The  effect  of  the  'pro- 
hibitory' movement  on  the  whole  grape  in- 
dustry and  the  100,000  persons  directly  depend- 
ent upon  it  can  be  inferred.  The  ordinance  was 
voted  in  November,  and  became  efEective  only 
four  months  later.  This  was  virtual  confisca- 
tion of  several  million  dollars  in  stock,  leases, 
licenses,  fixtures,  etc.  At  the  same  time  there 
were  still  1,750  places  in  San  Francisco  where 
'hard  drinks*  could  be  secured. 

Hming^As  early  as  1690,  Loyola  C^asalto 
s  seeing  placer  gold  in  California;  lai 


gold  was  found  on  San  Franusquito  Creek, 
Ventura  Coun^,  about  45  miles  from  Los 
Angeles,  and  was  'washed*  there  by  Mexicans 
on  a  modest  scale.  On  19  Jan.  184&  James  W. 
Marshall,  an  American  from  New  jersey,  em- 

f toyed  by  the  Swiss  pioneer,  John  Sutter,  in 
laildins  a  saw-mill  near  Coloma,  on  the  north 
fork  of  the  American,  picked  up  yellow  metallic 
flakes  in  the  mill-race ;  the  news  spread  in  spite 
of  efforts  to  suppress  it,  and  in  a  few  months 
the  gold  rush  was  on.  Up  to  1848  the  whole 
Uaitcd  States  had  produced  less  than  $12,000,000 
in  gold  since  the  lUscover^  of  America;  in  five 
years  following,  California  alone  yielded  over 
^58,000,000.  The  annual  gold  product  of  the 
State,  from  the  discovery  lo  1859  inclusive,  was 
io  million  dollars,  5.  10,  45,  75,  85,  65,  65;^,  65, 
57.  50  and  50.  The  total  gold  output  from 
1848  to  1  Jan.  1918,  was  $1,673,594^. 
It  now  avenges  21;^  million  per  year.  This 
first  bonanea  in  United  States  history  had  a 
profound    economic,    sociologic    and    politicaJ 


effect.  'Sound  money*  was  as  yet  udcnown 
in  this  cotintry;  silver  and  gold  together  in 
the  whole  Union  up  to  1848  had  not  reached 
$25,000,000  in  total  outpnt;  and  the  instabili^ 
of  the  currency  prior  to  the  California  gold 
discovery  is  familiar  to  students.  The  Cali- 
fornia gold-find  not  only  precipitated  such  a 
shifting  of  population  as  had  not  before  been 
dreamed  of  on  this  continent;  it  not  on^ 
brought  about  the  admission  to  the  Union  of 
a  State  distant  2,000  miles  from  any  other 
State, —  California  was  the  first  State  in  the 
geographic  western  half  of  the  United  Slates, 
and  sixth  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,— it 
furnished  the  finances  for  the  great  civil  cleav- 
age nominally  most  concerned  with  slavery,  and 
gave  the  free  States  a  majority  in  the  United 
States  Senate.  It  is  probably  not  fanciful  to 
hold  that  this  'irrepressible  conflict*  could  not 
so  soon  have  opened  had  the  nation  been  so 
short  of  bullion  and  of  credit  as  It  was  prior 
to  the  gold  discovery  of  1848,  Furthermore, 
in  1859,  almost  exclusivdv  with  CaKfomia  cap- 
hal,  labor,  enterprise  and  machinery,  the  great 
silver  bonanzas  of  Nevada  (just  across  the 
Sierra)  began  the  remarkable  record  of  21 
jrears,  in  wUch  they  produced  over  $306,000,000 
m  bullion. 

The  first  mining  in  California  by  Americans 
was  crude,  as  it  had  been  in  Mexican  days  — 
*washing  out*  the  auriferous  gravels  in  flie 
■gotd  pan.*  The  first  step  in  advance  was  the 
•rocker,*  employing  two  men,  and  foreshadow- 
ing a  certain  assoaative  effort.  Next  came  the 
•Long  Tom,*  which  made  also  for  stability, 
since  it  could  not  be  carried.  Then  came  the 
sluice-box,  a  small  wooden  fiume  with  wooden 
rilHes  on  the  bottom,  behind  which  the  gold 
sank  and  was  saved,  while  the  lighter  sand  and 
gravel  were  swept  on  by  the  swift  current.  In 
1852,  E.  E.  Matteson,  a  Connecticut  Yankee, 
invented  hydraulic  mining,  the  greatest  advance 
ever  made  in  the  placers.  Water  under  high 
'  "'  iKh  a  nonle  called  the 
300  feet  with  such 
noitle  force  that  a  crowbar  could  not  be  thrust 
into  the  jet,  ate  away  whole  hillsides  almost  as 
hot  water  (hsintegrates  sugar,  the  detritus  pass- 
ing throu(^  long  rifiled  sluice-boxes.  While 
this  invention  was  the  most  essential  yet  made 
in  mining,  it  was  long  disastrous  to  ultimate 
development  of  the  State,  agriculturally.  In 
1880  it  was  proved  by  engineers'  measureroentB 
that  on  the  Yuba  River  alone  more  thaJi 
100,000,000  cubic  ^ards  of  gravel  had  been 
washed  by  ^drauhcs  into  the  oedof  the  streaiiL 
raising  it  70  feet,  and  burying  15,000  acres  of 
farm  lands  under  die  dfbrls.  After  a  long  and 
letter  fight,  the  'anti-Stickens*  campai^  ended 
in  1884  in  favor  of  the  a^cultural  interests, 
and  hydraulic  ^tuning  in  (^Ufomia  has  never 
since  been  on  a  large  scale. 

■Quart*  mining* — that  is,  deep  mitilng  on 
the  original  veins  from  whose  waste  the  placen 
derive — began  in  1851,  but  did  not  take  chief 
rank  for  many  jrears.  Now  it  is  the  principal 
form  of  gold  mining  in  this  State;  and  as  it 
re<imres  large  capital,  experience  and  time,  gold 
mining  no  longer  attracts  the  iQultilude,  thou{^ 
the  State  annually  produces  three  times  as  much 
gfAd  as  set  all  die  East  in  a  fever  three-fonrdis 
of  a  century  ago.  CalifiHnia  is  the  only  ante- 
bdtuiR  State  in  the  Union  which  has  never  had 


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soe 


CAUFOSNIA 


■soft  money"  or  a  d^reciation  of  cttrrwicy.  The 
largest  mint  in  the  world  is  located  in  San 
Frandsco. 

In  the  'sixties,  extensive  experiments  were 
made  bv  Thomas  Scott  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  to  develop  petroleum  in  California, 
even  shipping  around  the  Horn  barrels  for  the 
expected  product.  For  various  reasons,  chieflr 
administrative,  the  experiment  failed. 

Petroleum— In  1875,  J.  D.  Whitney  (of 
Yale),  perhaps  the  greatest  geologist  of  the 
United  Eitates,  and  for  years  State  geologist  of 
California,  stated  that  while  there  *wer« 
surface  indications  of  petroletun,  it  was  ge- 
ologically impossible  that  California  should 
become  a  great  producing  petroleum  State, 
and  there  could  not  be  flowing  oil  welli 
like  those  of  Pennsylvania,"  The  enormous 
surface  indications  in  many  parts  of  the  Coast 
Range  tempted  further  exploration ;  and  within 
a  year  after  Professor  Whitney's  prophecy,  oil 
was  struck  in  Los  Angeles  County  at  Puente; 
and  soon  thereafter  in  Los  Angeles  City  and 
also  in  Ventura  County.  By  lw3,  there  were 
afcout  100  wells  in  California  producing  in  the 
year  400,000  barrels.  By  1900,  the  annual  prod- 
uct had  increased  to  4,324,434  barrels,  with  1,590 
producing  wells,  and  470  drilling.  In  February 
1918,  the  total  number  of  producing  wells  was 
8,158.  A  majority  of  the  California  oil  wells 
are  flowing  when  first  tapped.  The  famous 
*Lake  View*  spouted  about  90,000  barrels  a  day 
for  a  long  time,  and  continued  to  flow  for  more 
than  a  year.  Other  wells  have  spouted  frcnn 
30,000  down  to  10.000  barrels  a  day.  The  life 
of  a  flowing  well  varies  from  six  months  to 
three  years.  For  these  great  gushers,  whole 
valleys  are  dammed  up  as  reservoirs  are 
dammed  for  water;  and  the  petroleum  product 
makes  lakes  of  large  size.  Tne  oil  flclds  touch 
17  counties  in  a  line  over  600  miles  long.  The 
vast  majority  of  the  product  is  in  eight  counties 
in  the  south  in  the  following  order  (1916)  : 

Comcn  Bkt*1*  Value 

S«ra S4,1]0.S0V  04,691.246 

Ptmqo 14,5H,2M       7,530.611 

Onm<e 13,198.591       S,TS0.66e 

SBitaBvbum 4,501.206      3,571.752 

UaAngtla 3.B7S.i68       1,871.930 

Otho- conntiai 971 .537       1.002,109 

TdW 90,262,357  t57,«21.334 

Oil  wells  are  from  700  to  4,000  feet  deep. 
In  the  Summerland  district,  in  Ventura  County, 
most  of  the  production  is  from  wells  put  down 
in  the  bed  of  the  ocean  from  piers.  Thousands 
of  miles  of  pipe-lines  deliver  at  tide-water  the 
product  from  Kem  River  and  other  districts. 
In  1916  (except  for  Oklahoma  which  has 
recently  outstripped  it)  California  produced 
nearly  SO  per  cent  of  the  total  petroleum  of  the 
United  States  and  over  10  times  as  much  as 
Pennsylvania. 

California  locomotives  nearly  all  burn  crude 
petroleum,  as  do  the  steamers.  Steam  and 
electric  roadbeds  are  •oiled"  for  thousands  of 
miles.  An  overwdiehning  majotity'of  the  mann- 
facturers  of  the  State  use  it  for  fuel.  It  is 
equivalent  to  coal  at  about  $3  per  ton.  TTiere 
can  be  no  fuel  famines  in  California.  The 
mud  road  has  disappeared  from  the  progressive 
sections.  Farmers  drive  (mostly  by  auto  and 
truck)  to  market  over  unsurpassed  boulevards 
made    by    mixing   the   universal    disintegrated 


granites  with  crude  oil  and  steam-rolling  the 
surface.  The  production  of  natural  gas  in- 
creased from  $34378  in  1900  to  $2,871,751  in 
1916— a  gain  of  82  times  in  16  years.  Twelve 
cotmties  produce  this  commodity  but  die  output 
is  overwhelmingly  from  Kem  (over  60  per  cent 
of  total),  Santa  Barbara,  Orange,  Fresno,  Los 
Angeles  ami  Ventura  counties,  in  that  order. 
One  pipe  line  (the  'Midway")  transmits  23,- 
OOC^DOO  cubic  feet  per  24  hours,  and  is  107  miles 
long.  In  1916  there  were  31  plants  in  the  State 
making  gasoline,  having  an  aggregate  capacity 
of  61,400  gallons  per  Say.  The  petroleum  of 
California  in  its  varying  forms  has  not  only 
been  one  of  the  greatest  industrial  and  economic 
factors  of  the  Slate,  but  has  contributed  to 
Paleozoology  the  most  extraordinary  find  in 
history — 'not  even  surpassed  by  the  remarkable 
deposits  of  actual  fossils  at  Agate  Springs, 
Neb.—  the  "La  Brea  Itancho,*  partly  within  the 
cily  limits  of  Los  Angeles,  discovered  in  1906, 
a  unique  preservative  of  Pleistocene  remains. 
In  a  space  of  about  1,400  feet  Iodk,  northwest 
by  southeast  and  150  feet  wide,  mousands  of 
skeletons  have  been  discovered,  of  which  many 
were  before  unknown  to  science.  In  the  same 
area,  crude  oil  is  still  bobbliog  up;  and  jack- 
rabbits,  owls  and  smaller  animals  are  cau^t 
in  it  at  night,  taking  it  for  water,  and  being 
*bogged  down."  Id  the  Pleistocene  [Kriod. 
southern  California  was  a  tropical  jungle 
roamed  by  the  largest  land  mammals.  The 
drying  up  of  the  rcRion,  the  extinction  of 
tropica]  forests  and  of  lakes  and  water -courses, 
brought  about  the  rapid  extinction  of  these 
ancient  species.  On  the  "La  Brea*  is  a 
little  pona  of  about  an  acre  of  asphaltum 
springy,  still  bubbling.  In  Pleistocene  days,  the 
Imperial  elephant  came  down  here  to  water, 
and  was  caught  in  this  olea^'nous  quicksand. 
Sabre-tooth  tigers  sprang  upon  their  backs  and 
devoured  them  alive  —  and  other  tigers  dis- 
puted the  prey;  and  all  slowly  sank  down  to  be 
preserved  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  for 
science,  to-day.  The  skeletons  of  SO  species  of 
mammals  and  50  of  birds  have  been  exhumed 
here,  and  new  material  is  conslandy  coming  up. 
The  great  bird  of  14  feet  wing  spread  —  the 
tcratomis  —  is  the  largest  oi  tne  winged 
creation  found  here.  The  sabre-tooth  tiger  was 
known  to  science  before,  but  none  wi£  tusks 
reaching  below  the  lower  lip.  In  this  incom- 
parable cemeterj^  have  been  taken  out,  already, 
630  sabre-tooth  tigers  with  an  average  length  of 
10  inches  for  those  great  canine  teeth,  seven 
inches  below  the  gums.  The  first  complete 
skeleton  of  the  Imperial  elephant  was  taken  out 
here;  and  16  other  specimens  have  been  found. 


little  sloth,  the  antelope  and  a  cat  as  large  as  the 
jaguar  (whereas  the  puma  was  before  the 
largest,  except  the  lions  and  tigers).  Other 
museams  have  fragments  of  the  giant  ground 
sloth;  but  the  only  complete  specimen  is  from 
here.  Of  the  little  sloth,  here  are  the  only  II 
skulls  known.  This  is  the  only  place  known  in 
the  world  where  bones  have  been  preserved  in 
asphalt.  They  are  not  fossils,  and  their  dur- 
ability is  a  matter  of  surmise,  though  they  are 
in  perfect  preservation  and  not  (nable  as  if 
they  had  been  btiricd  in  soil.    The  Miiseum  of 


Digit  zed 


=,Googlc 


CALIFORNIA 


Hiitorr,  Sdence  and  Art,  in  Los  AngclES,  hu 
1  vast  quantity  of  material  unmounted,  and  15 
uamples  motuiEed  of  the  most  important  of 
these  unique  prehistoric  creatures,  Tbe  owner 
of  1^  Brea>  tuts  donated  32  acres  of  this  waste 
Itnd,  and  Los  Angeles  County  will  build  a  park 
ud  subsidiary  museum  on  the  spot  around  this 
(teath-]ut,  miich  attracted  these  (orgottoi 
animals  of  the  Pleistocene  period.  The  petro- 
letMB  'trap*  will  be  maintained  as  it  has  been 
for  so  long;  except  that  it  will  show  the  modem 
ezcivatioiis  and  some  bones  m  tilu. 

HinlDS  Ontpvt  in  1»16  and  1917^  Cali- 
fonia,  wCile  first  in  present  annual  output  of 
^Id,  IS  ovenvhelminffly  first  in  total  produc- 
non;  having  produced  more  than  all  the  rest  of 
tbe  United  States  put  together.  It  is  second 
in  output  of  copper,  eighth  in  stiver,  first  in 
borax  and  soda,  second  in  petroleum,  fifth  in 
salt,  first  in  asi^altum,  tungsten,  quicksilver 
(with  two-fifths  of  the  totaJ  production  of  the 
world) ;  and  with  a  range  of  mineral  produc- 
tions  entirely  without  parajlel  in  North 
America. 

The  principal  products  with  their  respective 
values  were  (1!)17)  : 
CoW til.soo.ooo 

Coppw IT  .000,000 

PetnlBOB ST,411,3M 

OwkBlnr 1,500.000 

PMMh  (by  kelp) 3.700,000 

hoih.  nmenl l.ZOO.OOO 

aiwr 1,«0,000 

OIlK 39,*7«,773 

In  1917,  total  value  of  mineral  products  for 
California  was  $142,100,107,  excluding  ketp  and 
many    other    products    amounting    to    about 

iem.000. 

Interesting  odier  items  in  mineral  produc- 
tion (1917)  were 

Bnuudtsda 0.000,000 

Ci^t 6,100,000 

Biick »,«»,000 

Lad 1.000,000 

Nitnlgu 1.871,751 

I^WMi  omntntw 4,000,000 

Zbc 1.000,000 

BmMiiu  itona 5,100,000 

Chnauu MO. 000 

Mbnl  imter 470.000 

Pyrin 1*5,000 

Potl«ycl»w IIS.OOO 

'— -                    3B5,000 

aoo.ooo 

100,000 


The  total  metal  output  of  the  589  active 
mines  of  California  for  1916  amounted  to  a 
value  of  $39,749,263.  a  figure  $7,485,419  greater 
than  for  1915,  and  a  new  record  in  tbe  mining 
history  of  the  State.  But  this  increase  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  greatly  enlarged  output  of 
copper,   line   and   lead;    for   the   gold  output 


valued  at  $21,41(1741;  silver,  2,664,354  fine 
ounces,  valued  at  $1,687,345;  copper,  55,897,118 
pounds,  valued  at  $13,750,691;  cine.  15,256,485 
pounds,  valued  at  £2,044,369;  lead,  12,407,493 
luunds,  valued  at  $856,117- 

Tbe  reduction  in  the  gold  output  was  nearly 
all  in  the  deep-mine  production,  and  Is  laid 
I^nly  to  the  two  months'  strike  of  miners  in 
|ne  Mother  Lode  district,  and  partly  to  the 
Ijlltier  wagA  paid  at  the  copper  mines,  which 
ojw  away  a  considerable  body  of  miners.  The 
PWMs  are  credited  with  40  per  cent  of  the 


total  yidd,  as  compared  widi  38  per  cent  for 
1915.  More  than  seven-eiriiths  of  the  placer 
total  was  recovered  by  die  53  dredges  through- 
'out  the  State.  The  largest  dredging  operations 
were  carried  qn  in  Yuba  County,  where  13 
dredges,  some  of  them  the  largest  ever  built, 
were  at  work  during  the  year.  Some  platinum 
also  was  obtained  by  the  dredges.  The  largest 
output  of  copper  was  in  Shasta  Ojunty,  which 
produced  50  per  cent  more  than  in  19)5.  The 
lead  output  was  nearly  three-fold  that  of  1915, 
and  nearly  all  came  from  Inyo  County.  Shasta 
and  Inyo  counties  produced  nine-tenths  of  the 
zinc  output,  and  ban  Bernardino  0>unty  the 
remaining  tenth.  The  total  tonnage  of  ore 
mined  and  treated  in  California  in  1916  was 
3,187,642  short  tons.  From  this  was  recovered 
an  average  value  of  $9.7?  per  ton  —  a  figure 
surpassing  the  former  record  ton- value  of 
$7^  made  in  19lS,  by  24  per  cent. 

Minor  mineral  products  (1917)  by  thousand 
dollars:  Antimoinr  5,  asbestos  5,  barytet  10, 
bituminous  rock  60,  coal  25,  dolomite  15,  feld- 
spar 7,  fuller's  earth  4,  gypsum  45,  infusorial 
earth  60,  iron  3,  limestone  155,  marble  40, 
platinum  25,  potash  25,  silica  35,  soapstone  IS, 
soda  8S. 

Haaufacturea. —  For  its  first  80  years  en- 
tirely pastoral,  for  its  next  20  years  chiefly 
mining,  for  the  next  60  years  overwhelmingly 
devoted  to  agricijture,  horticulture  and  vib- 
culture,  C^lifOTTiia  has  in  the  last  decade  (to 
1917)  become  the  ninth  manufacturing  State 
in  the  Union,  This  is  due  not  alone  to  Uie  vast 
range  of  productivity  but  still  more  to  the  un- 
precedented development  of  petroleum- fuel  and 
hydro-electric  power.  Between  a  population  of 
%,S97  in  1850  and  2,938,659  in  1916,  California's 
population    increased    31 -fold.      Its    economic 

Crogress  has  been  perhaps  as  surprising.  The 
Imted  States  census  of  1914  shows  nearly  5000 
manufacturing  industries,  of  which  71  produce 
more  than  $501^000  a  year  eadi  (including  four 
that  exceed  $50,000,000  and  11  between  $10,- 
000,000  and  $50,000,000).  Value  increasett,  in 
five  years,  more  than  value  increase  of  United 
States  as  a  whole. 

1899  1014 

Nombor  ot  «M*bllilmiaals. .                  4,997  10,057 

PenoBt  •Bgageil *  176.547 

CuiUl tl'9.467.BM  tT36.10S,4SS 

Sabnc*  ud  WM« 47,3aS,]54  140,B42,«91 

Vihn  o(  prodDcU 157, 585, 5"         


Percentage  of  increase  1899-1914,  establish- 
ments 101.3;  avenge  number  of  wage-earners, 
80,6;  value  of  products,  176.9;  value  added  by 
manufaclure,  186,1. 

Aside  from  manufacturing  products  covered 
in  other  tables  for  petroleum,  fisheries,  fruit 
and  vegetable  canning,  lumber,  etc.,  some  im- 
portant manufactured  products  may  be  assem- 
bled as  follows : 


Cansus  1914 — iMDunav 


EoUbliib-        Vilue  o! 

108   tso,oti,sio 


d=,  Google 


CALIFORNIA 


Detailed  statistici  of  minor  manufaclaret 
may  be  found  in  the  census  of  manufactures  of 
the  Department  of  Commerce,  United  States  of 
America. 

Even  in  the  four  years  since,  the  issue  of  the 
last  (1914)  bulletin,  enormous  diangea  have 
taken  place  in  nearly  every  item. 

The  canninK  of  fruits  and  vegetables  has 
reached  its  highest  development  in  California; 
and  in  output  this  State  easily  leads  the  Union. 
More  than  one-half  of  all  the  canned  peaches; 
more  than  two-ihirds  of  all  the  canned  pears; 
nearly  one-half  of  all  the  caxuied  cherries ; 
nearly  four-fiftbs  of  all  the  canned  plums ;  more 
than  one-half  of  alt  the  canned  beans;  more 
than  one-h^f  of  all  the  dried  fruits,  produced 
W  the  whale  United  States,  are  from  California. 
The  increase  in  all  items  of  manufacturing  had 
been  by  far  largest  in  Los  Angeles,  where,  for 
instance,  the  percentage  of  increase  in  a  decade 
(to  1905)  had  been  in  number  of  establishments, 
88.7:  number  of  wage-earners,  107.7:  value  of 
products,  115.3.  Another  new,  but  higUy  im- 
portant mdustrial  advance,  is  the  long-distance 
transmission  of  electric  power  from  mountain 
streams.  In  this  California  has  for  years  led 
the  world.  When  a  33,000-volt,  82-mJte  line 
from  San  Bernardino  Uountaing  to  Los 
Angeles  was  installed  (1900),  it  far  exceeded 
any  other  line  in  the  world  m  length  and  volt- 
age. Then  40,000  vohs  were  brought  140  miles 
from  Ytdia  River  to  Oakland  —  with  cable 
crossing  Carquinez  Straits  by  suspension  span 
of  4,400  feet,  300  feet  in  air.  The  longest 
power  transmission  in  the  world  was  that  from 
Colgate  to  San  Francisco,  211>j  miles.  Plants 
have  been  built  to  transmit  %000  horse  power 
from  Kem  River,  116  miles,  to  Los  Angeles; 
and  120,000  horse  power  from  San  Joaquin 
River,  180  miles,  to  San  Francisco ;  and  218 
miles  to  Los  Angeles.  One  electric  company 
expended  $250,000  ^er  month  for  a  year,  in 
electric  development  in  and  aronnd  Los  Angeles. 
Two  companies  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State  are  developing  169,000  horse  power  for 
long-distance  transmission.  Not  only  are  nearly 
^1  streets  and  houses  lighted,  and  street-cars 
propelled  by  this  new,  far-fetched  'fuel,"  but 
thousands  of  the  smaller  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments arc  run  by  hydro-electric  motors. 

The  first  hydro-electric  plant  in  the  world 
was  operated  at  Frank fort-on- Main  in  1894; 
the  second  (first  commercial)  at  Folsom,  Cal., 
in  1895  to  light  Sacramento  (State  capital). 
California  was  not  only  a  pioneer,  but  still  leads 
in  hydro-electric  development.  In  1917  there 
were  about  85  plants  in  California  with  aggre- 
gate maximum  capacity  of  9,000,000  horse 
power;  which  will  be  greatly  increased  by  plants 
now  building.  There  are  luies  carrying  as  hi(^ 
as  150,000  volts,  operating  at  'heads"  of  over 
2,000  feet,  or  a  pressure  of  approximately  875 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

For  the  last  20  years  ship-building  has  made 
a  great  advance,  and  California  became  the 
third  State  in  the  Union  in  this  industry.  The 
Ortgon,  Olympia,  Ohio  and  other  United  States 
war  vessels  were  bnilt  in  San  Francisco.  Long 
Beach,  Los  Angeles  County,  has  also  become 
important  in  the  building  of  war  ships.  The 
first  successful  concrete  vessel  was  launched  in 
1918,  and  brge  vessels  of  different  types  are  on 
the   way. 

Commerce  and  HavigKtioa,  ate— The  po- 


sition of  California  (commaniling,  from  the  best 
seaports  in  5,000  miles  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  the 
shortest  routes  to  the  Orient),  is  reinforced  by 
its  enormous  coastline.  The  littoral  of  the 
United  States  is  divided  prsctically  into  thirds 
—  Atlantic,  Gulf  and  Pacific,  California  hat 
two-thirds  of  the  total  United  States  frontage 
upon  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  nearly  one-fifHi 
of  the  total  coastline  of  the  United  States.  Alt 
this,  added  to  its  relation  as  outlet  for  an  enor- 
mous inland  territory,  including  not  only  CaK- 
fomia  but  New  Mezica  and  Anzona,  gives  great 
importance  to  its  commerce.  San  Francisco 
(1905)  though  the  11th  dty  of  the  Union  in 
population  was  third  in  commerce.  Its  exports 
for  1916  were  $127,598,531  and  imports  S117,- 
128,253  (including  exports  to  Chuia  $4,357,956 
and  to  Japan  $24,818^).  Operations  in  the 
Philippines  and  development  of  the  Oriental 
trade  are  bringing  about  for  California  the 
realiiation  of  Seward's  prophecy  (about  1865) 
that  "the  Pacific  is  to  be  the  chief  theatre  of  the 
worid's  activities.*  The  Bay  of  San  Francisco, 
with  a  shore-line  of  3O0  miles,  open  to  the 
ocean  only  by  the  mile-wide  Golden  Gate,  and 
receiving  through  the  two  great  central  rivers 
the  dramage  of  the  vast  interior  valley,  is 
reckoned  among  the  world's  best  harbors.  SaA 
Diego  at  the  extreme  south  has  a  well-sheltered 
natural  harbor,  entrance  to  which  has  been 
improved  by  the  government.  Los  Angeles  har- 
bor (formerly  San  Pedro)  is  the  most  import- 
ant artificial  harbor  and  ranks  close  second  to 
San  Francisco.  Other  roadstead  wharves 
serve  rapidly  growing  commerce.  California 
had,  in  1917,  19  lines  of  ocean  steamers 
— p^ing  to  China,  the  Philippines^  Sandwich 
Islands,  Alaska,  Mexico,  Panama,  Chile,  and  13 
coastwise.  Of  six  lines  of  river  steamers,  five 
concern  San  Francisco  and  its  river  system. 
The  Sacramento  River  is  navigable  to  the  dty 
of  that  name. 

Kelp. —  In  1916  an  important  industir, 
unique  to  California  (and  practically  confined 
to  southern  California)  was  initiated  by  the 
Los  Angeles  Chamber  of  Commerce,  largely 
through  the  instrumentality  of  the  director  of 
the  Southwest  Museum.  This  was  the  syste* 
matic  harvesting  of  the  vast  beds  of  kelp 
(maerocystit  pyrifera,  with  also  the  fielago' 
pkyeus  parva  and  bulkeana),  which  slnrt  the 
littoral  from  about  Point  (lincepdon  to  San 
Diego.  These  kelp  beds  cover  50,000  acres. 
*Kelp  pirates*  had  for  several  years  ravished 
the  beds  to  a  small  degree  b^  a  crude  method, 
and  extracted  the  potash  still  more  crudely; 
destroying  the  plants  which  they  tore  out  by  tne 
roots,  and  causing  great  havoc  among  the  jroung 
fish,  of  which  the  most  important  have  their 
spawning-beds  and  nurseries  in  this  same  kelp'' 
field.  State  legislation  has  now  been  secured 
to  regulate  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  by 
scient^c  methods,  so  that  it  will  be  enduring. 
Kelp  is  'the  alfalfa  of  the  sea."  The  more  it  is 
cut  (scientifically)  the  better  it  thrives.  There 
are  (1918)  eight  corporations  with  plants,  with 
an  investment  of  $6,000,000,  "heading"  kelp 
with  a  fleet  of  special  boats  of  12  to  600  wet- 
tons  capacity,  and  with  reciprocating  knives 
which  cut  the  kelp  not  over  five  feel  below  the 
surface,  without  any  injury  whatever  to  this 
curious  marine  plant,  or  disturbance  to  the 
myriad  fish-spawn  sheltered  thereby;  and  carry 
the  harvest  to  be  treated  in  gretU  modem  plants. 


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CAUPIHUnA- 


Tbe  pKxhKt  of  potash  (xlMag  m  1918,  at  $450 
a  ton,  multiplied  about  700~fal<l),  amounts  to 
$%700,00a  The  wet-tons  harvested  in  1917 
were  400,000;  yielding  6,000  tons  of  poUsh  at 
IK  per  cent  of  potash  to  the  wet-ton.  The 
large  content  of  anunonia  and  iodine  by- 
products is  veiy  Important,  and  is  already  being 
saved  —  though  too  recently  for  accurate  statis-- 
tics.  The  harvest,  under  this  sdeotific  treat- 
ment, lasts  all  the  year,  three  crops  annually; 
the  average,  per  sere,  hang  7^  wet-tons.  No- 
method  is  yet  known  of  increasing  the  acret^CB 
of  the  kelp  beds;  but  under  the  present  syitem 
the  crop  will  be  perennial.  About  7S  per  cent 
of  the  possible  gatherlnc;  is  now  harvested.  On 
accotmt  of  its  vital  relation  to  the  important 
fisheries  of  California,  the  administTation  oi 
this  industry  has  wisely  been  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  State  game  and  fish  commission. 
Whether  to  be  rated  amon^  the  'agricultural,* 
■manufacturing"^  or  'manne"  products,  this 
■Sea  Alfalfa,'  in  view  of  the  constant  value 
of  potaali,  ammonia  and  iodine;  the  inexhaust- 
ible field,  and  its  proximi^'to  factories  by  rail 
make  this  extraordinary  industry  of  southern 
California  worthy  the  attention  of  economists. 
Tlie  first  commercial  production  of  potash 
in  California  was  in  1914  from  10  tons  oi  kelp. 
The  first  potash  dertved  from  *(nimrai* 
sources  was  produced  as  a  by-product  from 
■cement  treater"  dust,  at  Riverside,  in  1915.  The 
yield  of  potash  from  purehr  mineral  sources  for 
1917  was  approximately  120,000  tons,  valued  at 
5^200,000.  This  is  principally  from  the  'cement 
Ireater*  dust  in  Riverside  County  and  the 
evaporation  of  the  natural  brines  in  Searles 
Lake,  San  Bernardino  County.  Eiglit  cor- 
porations are  now  engaged  in  me  manufacture 
of  mineral  potash ;  and  m  spite  of  the  youth  of 
this  industry,  it  is  already  important.  The 
development  of  the  mineral  industry  is  barely 
begun,  and  its  potentialities  can  hardly  be  esti- 
mated. The  kelp  potash  can  be  practically 
measured  as  above.  But  the  mineral  potash 
cannot  be.  But  it  is  the  consensus  of  producers 
that  there  is  an  enormous  possibility  for  the 
mineral  potash  industry  in  the  great  deposits 
now  being  developed  in  California. 

Piaheriear^  In  1865  there  were  650  vessels. 


was  San  Frandsco.  Half  a  century  later,  San 
Francisco  was  still  the  foremost  whaling  port  of 
the  New  World,  but  die  industry  had  shrunk 
to  $132,000.  Lon^  Beach,  southern  CaKfomta, 
is  important  in  this  fishery;  whale  meat  has  be- 
come a  valued  market  food.  The  State  Is  the 
richest  in  marine  and  fresh-water  fish;  and 
ranks  second  or  third,  at  present,  in  the 
canned  pack.  This  was  until  recently  almost 
altogether  salmon.  But  within  a  few  years  the 
so-called  "Tuna*  (really  the  albacore),  and  the 
sardine  have  become  rivals  of  the  salmon  pack. 
The  centre  of  this  indust^  is  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia, at  Los  AngelcS  Harbor  (formerly  San 
Pedro).  Another  important  fishing  and  can- 
ning point  is  San  Diego.  The  total  pack  for 
southern  California,  1916,  was: 


for  northern  CaMfoniia,  for  1916,  had  increased 
from  50^000  cases  to  250,000  cases.  Japanese 
and  Chinese  and  other  alien  fishermen  oiy  lar^ 
quantities  of  fisb  which  are  not  recorded  in. 
State  or  Federal  statistics.  Throu^iout,  the 
fisbcTTnen  are  about  90  per  cent  aliens.  Statis- 
tics are  not  readily  available,  under  a  loose 
nrstem  of  Stale  supervision.  Probably  now 
that  the  (overoment  has  taken  control  of  the 
food  supply  it  will  toon  be  easy  to  get  some  ac- 
curate Idea  of  this  product,  which  is  enor- 
moosly  larger  than  the  recorded  statistics. 
Among  the  most  important  marine  fishes  are 
the  cucken-halibnt,  sole,  torn  cod,  rock  cod,  rock 
baas,  mackercL  Spanish  mackerel,  barracuda, 
poinpano,  sano-duv  r^^  sn^mer,  flounder  and 
other  valued  varieties,  besides  many  fish  of 
lesser  estimation.  These  marine  fish  are  in  the 
market  the  entire  year,  at  reasonable  prices. 
The  San  Francisco  market  lists  133  varieties  on 
sale  in  seasons.  Of  the  fresh  water  fish,  the 
striped  bass  of  the  Sacramento  River  is  aa 
esteemed  delicacy.  Salmon,  sturgeon,  steel-head 
trout,  rockfish  and  smelL  running  from  sea  to 
stream,  are  abundant  and  famous.  Within  the 
last  30  years  all  varieties  of  trout  (besides  the 
native)  have  been  successfully  colonized  ia 
California,  which  now  exceeds  any  other  State 
in  the  varieW,  size  and  abundance  of  trout 
Black  bas^  shad,  codfish,  crab,  etc.,  have  also 
made  handsome  growth*  here.  For  game  fish 
and  spor^  California  is  admitted  to  lead  the 


Catalina  Island,  which  has  built  aboni  itself  an 
international  annua)  tournament  with  cups  and 
gold  medals  and  Strict  laws.  The  record  tuna 
of  251  pounds  and  the  blade  sea  bass  of  3B0 
pounds  were  taken  with  tight  rod  and  reel  and 
21-strand  lint  The  coast  is  very  rich  in 
shell  fish.  It  is  against  the  law  to  have  in  one's 
possession  a  crab  less  than  six  inches  tti 
diameter.  But  though  large,  they  are  delidous. 
Shrimps  are  abundant  Crawfish,  like  the 
eastern  kibster  b  flavor  but  without  mandible*, 
are  abundant.  The  native  oyster  is  small  hut 
flavoraome;  and  eastern  oysters  propagate  well 
here  and  are  excellent  in  flavor.  Mussels, 
dami,  razor-shells,  coddea  and  other  edible 
ntoUusks  arc  in  great  abundance.  The  moUusk 
most  prited  by  the  qicnre,  thooj^  still  little 
known,  is  die  abakm&  Its  beautiful  shell  i* 
familiar  to  collectors  all  over  the  world,  when 
polished — a  beautiful  nacre  nnivalve,  measur- 
ing from  aiz  incites  lonf^  diameter,  upward 
(six  inches  being  the  minimum  allowed  by  law). 
It  require*  much  labor  to  pry  >t  from  the  roda^ 
aad  still  more  to  beat  it  into  edibility ;  but  whes 
properly  maoerated  it  ia  deemed  the  highest 
delicacy  in  the  narlcet.  All  game  fish,  as  well 
as  all  game  quadrupeds  and  birds,  are  pro- 
tected by  strict  State  laws,  rigidly  enforced. 
The  State  has  12  fish  hatcheries,  turning  out  an- 
nually, of  fry:  trout,  17,000,000;  quinnat  sal- 
mon, 20.000,000;  shad,  1,000,000. 

The  Uount  Shasta  hatchery  produces  more 
salmon  and  trout  fry  than  any  uitchery  in  the 
world.  Besides  these  State  hatcheries,  there  are 
four  hatcheries  and  egg-collcction  stations 
under  Pedeial  control 


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fllO 


CAX.IFI»lfXA 


The  value  of  mafiiM  fiih.  fre^  in  1917  was 
$11,795,000;  packed,  £15^5,000;  a  total  value  of 
$27,030,000. 

lUilroada  and  Street  Railway*^- In  1870 
the  Sute  had  525  miles  of  r^lways,  7,52E)  in 
1910  and  12,145  in  1916.  This  milea^  pertains 
chiefly  to  the  gnat  transcontinentat  lines  of  the 
Central  and  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Atchison, 
Topckft  and  Santa  Vt,  with  ranch  more  than 
half  the  total.  There  are  three  other  railroad* 
of  over  500  miles  each,  five  more  of  over  100 
miles  and  30  shorter  lines.  Several  other  trans- 
continental lines  have  tenninab  in  Los  Angdes 
over  leased  trackage ;  and  the  "Salt  Lake* 
(San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  uid  Salt  Lake) 
running;  over  its  own  rails  586  miles,  except 
about  So  miles,  leased.  In  1870  there  was  no 
urban  rail  transit  whatever.  In  1873  Hallidie 
in  San  Francisco  invented  the  first  successful 
urban  rapid  transit  in  the  world;  and  the  re- 
sultant cable  system  is  still  probably  without 
parallel,  as  ii  also  the  urban  and  mtcmrbaa 
electric  system  centred  in  Los  Aneeles.  In 
1916  there  were  3,032  miles  of  electnc  raitways 
in  the  State.'more  than  half  in  four  connties  of 
southern  California.  These  interurban  electrics 
run  50  to  70  miles  an  hour,  on  110-pound  rails. 
The  principal  lines  are  Pacific- Electric  (Los 
Angeles),  with  trackage  of  1,059  miles;  Los 
Angeles  Railway,  392  -  United  Railroads,  Saa 
Francisco,  286;  San  Francisco-Oakland  termi- 
nals, 263;  Northern  Electric  Railway,  165;  30 
other  roads,  865. 

Stata  Finaocca.— State  bonded  indebted- 
ness $39,073,500;  bonds  voted  but  not  sold, 
$23,875,000.  Except  for  the  Panama-Pacific  Ex- 
position, the  State  has  levied  no  ad  valorem 
taxes  on  real  or  personal  property  since  1910. 
Its  principal  revenue  is  from  taxes  levied 
against  ^ross  receipts  or  value  of  franchises  of 
corporations.  For  the  fiscal  year  1917-18  these 
amount  to  $16,344,275. 

Toul  assessed  valuation  of  State  (1917)  : 
realty,  $1^^96V60;  personal.  $1,861,642,947; 

Banka. —  The  great  immigration  of  'well- 
to-do*  people  has  proportionately  increased  the 
banking  business.  In  1917  there  were  264 
national  banks  as  against  147  in  1909  and  421 
SlAte  banks  as  against  239  in  1909.  The  clear- 
ings in  1916  aggregated  $5,531,109,926  and  $7,- 
295,714,819  in  1917.  On  30)un«  1916  the  total 
bank  deposits  were  $997,635,191.61^  of  which 
$468^716,944.43  was  in  commercial  and  $528^- 
918,247.23  in  savings  banks. 

EAtcation,—.  California  probably  still  leads 
the  Union  in  proportionate  enrolment  of  cxillege 
Students,  having  1  to  every  419  of  total  popula- 
tion, and  surpasses  New  England  in  pro  rata  of 
pupils  in  secondary  schools.  The  following 
table  shows  the  present  status  and  the  recent 
progress  in  education  in  CaKf ornia : 

1910  (917 

Mmntiar  of  Bonnal  ■ehooli 5  t 

Mombn  of  Uah  idtook lU  US 

derBBten 2.lt9              5. DM 

TMchm  m  iHt>lk  (dMoli lO.TW            IV. 074 

Panik  to  pnWc  tduKte 349.145         SM.2t4 

V4hu  of  adiwl  prapeitr tM.Ml.TOI  fK.WW.Sll 

Aimiial  euBdltBM  fet  fclndli. .  «,OaO,000    94,133.131 

NmnbvotQatlMn IJ 

Number  of  ttiicUiit«  oDfcUed  bi 

-— IS,  134 


California  has  two  great  free  univenilies. 
The  State  University  at  Beiiceley  ranks  high 
among  American  universities  in  number  of 
undergnuluate^  and  in  total  number  of  students 


about  14th  in  sue  among  the  universities 
of  the  world.  Resources,  $7,260,000;  sumrarted 
by  State  tax  of  two  cents  on  every  $100  valua- 
tion. Mr*.  Phoebe  A.  Hearst,  widow  of  United 
States  Senator  Hearst,  has  contributed  ^rcat 
sums  to  the  university,  and  has  secured  la  a 
competition  open  to  all  the  world  (won  by  M. 
Binard  of  Paris),  a  complete  architectural  plan 
whose  buildings  will  cost  at  least  $10,000,000. 
Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Universi^  was  founded 
in  1891  b}r  Governor  and  United  States  Senator 
Leland  Stanford  and  wife.  The  widow  later 
turned  over  to  the  university  the  complete  en- 
dowment diey  designed,  amounting  to  neariy 
$30,000,000.  A  harmomous  architectural  plan, 
of  symmetry  and  beauty  pnrivaled  at  present 
by  any  university  in  the  world,  hjas  already  been 
carried  far  enough'  to  accommodate  the  1.200 
students  (of  whom  one-third  axe  women)  and 
has  cost  several  millioni.  University  affairs  in 
California  are  in  the  hands  of  noted  educators 
from  the  East;  standards  are  high,  and  friendly 
rivalry  has  done  much  to  promote  educational 
affairs  throu^out  the  State ;  while  the  two  uni- 
versities have  together  over  six  times  the  en- 
rolment that  the  one  had  a  generation  ago. 
The  accrediting  n^tem  has  been  developed  to 
hi^  e£Sciency.  Coeducation  in  both  univer- 
sities is  not  an  experiment,  but  acknowledged 
success.  There  is  a  large  number  of  colleges, 
private  schools,  seminaries,  academies  and  other 
educational  institutions,  besides  those  tmder 
State  supervision;  also  medical  law,  art,  music, 
dentistry,  business  and  other  schoob.  Educa- 
tionally, California  ranks  very  high  in  the 
Union.  A  large  number  of  distinguished 
teachers  have  been  attracted  hy  climatic  and 
other  considerations.  It  pays  its  teachers  in 
public  schools  an  average  salary  of  $943. 

Public  Libraries.— There  are  in  the  Slate 
(191S)  826  {>ubhc  and  semi-public  libraries,  in- 
cluding institutional  and  professional  (school, 
college,  law,  medical,  etc.),  besides  111  asso- 
dalion  ana  33  subscription  libraries.  The 
•free  county  library*  has  become  an  important 
feature  for  outlying  rural  communities,  giving 
them  most  of  the  advanta^s  of  a  great  urban 
libra^.  Forty-one  counties  maintain  these. 
The  branches  of  the  free  public  libraries  num- 
ber 2,836.  Total  number  of  volumes  (1916)  in 
127  leading  free  public  Ubrarics,  3,319.667. 
There  are  1/5  librarv  buildings ;  18  built  hy  Uieir 
corrununities,  144  Dy  Andrew  Carnegie  (b 
which  case  the  community  furnishes  the  site  and 
a  permanent  annua)  maintenance  of  10  per  cent 
01  the  endowment)  and  13  b>;  other  donors. 
The  largest  public  libraries  are  in  Los  Angeles. 
San  Francisco,  Slockion  and  Oakland.  Library 
schools  are  maintained  V  the  State  Library  at 
Sacramento  and  the  Riverside  Public  Library. 
There  are  training  classes  at  Los  Angeles  and 
other  points. 

In  proportion  to  population,  California  has 
twice  as  many  periodicals  as  New  England  At 
the  last  Federal  census  rtiere  were  in  San  Fran- 
cisco alone  242  in  13  languages.  In  1914 
(United  States  Department  Commerce)  there 
were  in  the  State  975  publications  in  16  Ian- 


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CAZ.ITOUIIA 


ait 


nuges,  induditiK  English,  wbkh  had  of  coune 
ue  vast  preponderance  in  number  and  circula- 
tion. There  were  IS  foreign-lanenage  dailies  — 
including  five  each  in  Chinese  and  Japanese,  two 
each  in  French,  Italian  and  German  and  repre- 
sentatives in  Portuguese,  Spanish,  Greek,  Swed- 
ish, Danish,  Croatian,  Armenian,  Serbian, 
Hungarian  and  Russian. 

California  periodicals,  1914   (United  States 
census) : 


,.„„„™. 

Bogtiidi 

Ciic 

^Ss; 

Cite. 

n. 

1| 

1,340,807 
613.7*2 

1.0T3.867 

It 

£&:■■■■;: 

»,300 

41, SOD 
Si;63« 

910 

3.SM.IS7 

65 

Ml  .091 

Largely  populated  by  educated  people  from 
all  over  the  world,  and  o£  recent  migration, 
California  has  extraordinary  activity  in  all 
educational,  philanthropic,  religious,  fraternal, 
literary  and  similar  organizations.  The  Y,  M. 
C.  A.  has  68  associations  with  30,641  members 
14,000,000  value  in  buildings,  £852,000  annual 
expenditure.  Los  Angeles  has  the  largest  asso- 
ciation  in  the  State,  and  probably  in  America, 
with  (1917)  8,095  members,  $9(K341  value  in 
buildings  and  $433,772  annual  expenditures. 
The  Association  raised  in  1917  $2,360,000  for 
war  and  other  purposes. 

The  Y.  W.  C.  A.  has  12  city,  14  student  and 
1  county  associations,  with  total  membership 
34,820-  valuation  o£  buildings  $927,208;  annual 
expenditures  $390,393.  A  special  quest  for 
funds  in  1917  raised  $450,000.    Particular    " 


museums  of  scientific  importance  b  the  State — 
in  Berkeley,  San  Francisco  and  Stanford,  with 
the  Southwest  Museum  in  Los  Angeles  and  the 
County  Museum,  with  its  wonderful  array  of 
Pleistocene  seoti-fossils. 

ChurcheB.— Though  founded  and  civilized 
by  the  Catholic  Franciscan  Friars  in  17«»  (the 
first  Protestant  sermon  being  preached  here  80 
years  later),  California  is  richer  per  population 
in  Protestant  churches  than  most  of  the  Puri- 


328,631  (an  increase  of  60  per  cent  in  10  years) 
and  under  25  denominations.  These  churches 
contributed  to  missionary  purposes  in  1916 
$1,650,926.  Los  Angeles  city  had  281  Protestant 
churches  with  58,685  members  or  10  per  cent  of 
the  population.  San  Francisco  had  100  such 
churches  with  15,713  members,  or  3J^  per  cent 
of  the  population.  Los  Angeles  County  leads 
the  State  with  104,418  members  or  31  per  cent 


Twelve  denominations  maintain  17  Protestant 
religious  schools  and  colleges,  of  which  more 
than  half  are  in  southern  (California.  It  is 
widely  recogniied  that  lack  of  co-ordination 
causes  great  wastefulness  in  this  church  work. 

The  Cliristian  Science  churches  have  multi- 
plied in  number  and  membership  very  greatly  in 
the  last  decade;  but  no  statistics  are  available. 
They  are  not  included  in  the  list  of  Protestant 
or  other  churches. 

The  Catholics  have  539  churches,  'of  which 
298  have  resident  priests,  155  mission  stations, 
15  orphan  asylums  and  8  homes  for  the  aged. 

Church  membership  is  as  fallows: 


S'rls.  The  C^ifornia  Federation  of  Women': 
ubs  numbers  485  clubs  and  38393  members 
(1917).  The  war  greatly  stimulated  humanita- 
rian work  already  existing,  and  caused  the 
formation  of  scores  of  new  organizations.  The 
Red  Cross  raised  in  its  June  and  December 
1917   campaigns  in  Los  Angeles   County  alone 

over  ti.m,m. 

California  includes  as  residents  many  famous 
musicians.  Los  Angeles  is  one  of  the  few 
cities  in  the  United  States  which  maintain  x 
symphony  orchestra.  Communal  singing  has 
not  advanced  as  far  here  as  in  a  few  other 
cities,  though  it  is  in  progress;  but  there  are 
feiv  cities  where  good  music  can  beheard  so 


Los    Angeles   are   internationally^  ft ,   

there  are  many  musical,  theatrical  and  other 
clubs  throughout  the  State,  besides  women's 
clubs,  which  have  been  of  serious  import  in  the 
development  of  musical  and  art  culture. 

Other  organizations  peculiar  to  the  State 
arc  the  Native  Sons  of  ihe  (golden  West  and 
the  Native  Daughters  of  the  C^lden  West, 
patriotic  associations  composed  of  persons  bom 
ui  California — perhaps  the  only  State  in  the 
Union  where  such  a  thing  obtains.  Each  num- 
bers tens  of  thousand  of  members  and  scores 
of  local  chapters,  called  "Parlors.*  The  Land- 
marks Club  was  the  first  corporation  in  the 
United  States  to  save  historic  monuments,  and 
has  done  a  great  work  in  preserving  the  old 
missions  of  (^tifomia.    There  are  half  a  doxen 


92.065 

Prejbyteriui 50.704 

BBptiB 41,503 

CDOanBMMIU] J1.640 

Chrutan 31.5Z2 

EpJKopaliMi 2B,SS4 

AU  oChs  19  Protaatant  deoomiaMioiu SO. fill 

Total  Pntotut 3ZS.63I 

Ckdulic 523.231 

Charities  and  Penal  Institutions.— Cali- 
fornia has  two  State  prisons,  three  industrial  re- 
form schools,  five  asylums  for  insane,  one  for 
deaf,  dumb  and  blind,  and  a  great  number  of 
public  and  private  hospitals,  asylums,  orphan- 
ages, etc.  There  are  64  orphan  homes,  of  which 
38  receive  State  aid.     There  is  also  a  Federal 

Srison  on  Alcatraz  Island  in  San  Francisco 
ay. 
Militsry  and  Havsl  Establishments. — 
There  are  garrisons  and  fortifications  at 
the  harbors  of  San  Francisco,  Los  Angles  and 
San  Diego  —  respectively  "The  Presidio,"  Fort 
MacArthur  and  Port  Rosccrans.  'There  is  also 
a  navy  yard  at  Mare  Island,  and  an  arsenal  at 
Benicia.  The  largest  training  camp  in  CZali- 
fornia  in  the  Great  European  War  was  Fort 
Keamej;,  located  near  San  Diego.  Under  con- 
tract with  the  government  there  is  being  built 
in  1918  a  large  number  of  wooden  and  steel 
and  concrete  ships,  of  3,000  tons  and  upward, 
for  commerce  during  and  after  the  war.  This 
ship-building  is  almost  exclusively  in  Los  An- 
geles Harbor,  Long  Beach  and  San  Francisco. 
State  Government. —  Stale  officers  elected 
for  four  years,  except  assemblymen  for  two ;  no 
bar  to   re-election;   governors  salary,  $6,000; 

Dp   .ec=,  Google 


sia 


CAUFOKIOA 


two-thirds  rote  in  each  house  passes  Ull  over 
governor's  veto.  If  he  does  not  act  on  any  Wll 
within  10  days,  it  becomes  law,  unless  adjourn- 
ment of  legislature  prevents  return  of  ftll,  in 
whidi  case  it  becomes  operative  if  within  10 
days  after  such  adjournment  the  governor  ap- 
proves iL  Legislature  limited  to  40  members  m 
senate,  80  in  house;  meets  biennially,  in  Janu- 
ary of  odd-nnmbered  years.  Sessions  not 
limited,  but  pay  allowed  members  for  only  GO 
days — $8  per  day,  with  traveling  expenses  uid 
mileage  10  cents  per  mile.  No  bill  can  be  in- 
troduced after  SOth  day  of  session.  State  consti- 
tution is  notable  for  numerous  restrictions  on 
legislative  action;  provision  for  threes  fourths' 
majority  verdict  of  juries  in  civil  cases ;  and 
prtmibition  of  Chinese  suffrage  and  of  employ- 
ment of  Chinese  on  State  worics  or  by  corpora- 
tions. The  initiative,  referendum  and  recall 
■re  also  in  full  use.  California  was  sixth  State 
to  adopt  'Woman's  Suffrage.*  There  are  40 
State  commissions,  expending  annually  nearly 
SS,O0O,OO0.  California  is  represented  in  the 
National  Congress  by  two  senators,  nine  con- 
gressmen (prior  to  apportionment  of  1901,  seven 
congressmen).     Electoral  vote,  nine. 

PopnlBtton. —  The  settlement  of  California, 
steadily  progressive  for  65  years,  has  been 
marked  by  two  of  the  most  remarlcable  shift- 
ings  of  population  anywhere  recorded.  Every- 
thing considered,  the  'Gold  Rush"  of  1848-49 
has  no  parallel.  In  first  12  months  after  the 
discovery  of  a  small  flake  of  gold  at  Sutter's 
Mill,  42,000  Americans  from  flie  far  Eastern 
States   made  their  way  across  the  unbroken 


plains  with  wagons.    This  great  nuKr^t 
'       '  '    niptedh  for  years.    Its  < 


,  . finest  clipper ,_ 

that  had  ever  been  built  were  constructed  for 
the  California  trade.  In  1845  the  white  popu- 
lation of  California  was  about  5,000:  4,000  of 
whom  were  Spanish  Califomians,  360  'Ameri- 
cans," 300  English,  Scotch  and  Irish,  and  the 
remainder  'scaltenng.*  By  1850  this  number 
had  increased  to  92,597;  by  1860  to  379,994. 
That  is,  in  12  years  over  370,000  persons  reached 
California  by  an  overland  journey  of  2,000 
miles;  or  by  a  voyage  of  19,000  miles  around  the 
Horn  in  sailing  diips ;  or  by  the  5,000  mile  voy- 
age by  way  of  Panama,  with  its  difficult  pas- 
sage of  the  isthmus.  For  the  first  decade  this 
precipitate  migration  was  overwhelmingly  of 
men;  and  this  preponderance  of  males,  with 
dearth  of  famihes  and  of  women,  colored  in 
almost  every  social,  political  and  economic  as- 
t^ct  the  early  fortunes  of  the  State,  The  scar- 
city of  home  life,  and  profligate  abundance  of 
money,  brought  about  an  era  of  luxury  in  pri- 
vate and  public  expenditures  on  such  a  scale  as 
was  then  hardly  dreamed  of  in  the  Eastern 
States.  San  Francisco  had  less  than  150,000  peo- 
ple when  it  began  to  build  the  largest  hotel  in 
the  world  —  covering  two  and  a  half  acres  and 
costing  $7^00,000.  Everything  was  in  this  pro- 
portion. Enormous  subscriptions  were  sent  to 
relieve  great  catastrophes  of  fire,  pestilence  or 
war.  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Huge  gifts  were 
ma(K  to  education  and  other  public  utilities,  on 
a  scale  never  yet  surmssed  and  at  that  time  else- 
where unheard  of.  For  a  generation  San  Fran- 
cisco was  a  proverb  the  world  over  of  princely 
living  and  princely  giving-.  This  lai^fe  popula- 
tion   of    young    men,    v^^rous,    adventurous, 


mostly  tuattacboi  far  from  home  and  the  con- 
ventions, and  under  excitation  of  sudden  wealth, 
shaped  and  established  such  an  epoch,  social 
and  financial,  as  no  other  American  State  has 
■  comparably  known. 


It  was  only  after  the  first  decline  i 
gings*— alter  the  tiursuit  of  gold  b 
a  fortuitous  scramble  for  sur^ce  nu^^ts. 


■diggini 

less  a  i 

and  mining  had  come  to  demand  ddll,  pa^ence, 
and  business  methods  —  that  attention  began 
to  be  paid  to  the  soil  Though  for  80  years 
the  Franciscan  missionaries  bad  already  proved, 
in  little  oases  about  their  missions^,  the  won- 
derful ferdlity  of  California,  the  andi^  of  cli~ 
mate  and  the  'look*  of  the  lan<^  so  unlike  in 
color  and  texture  to  soils  recognized  as  fertile 
at  home,  led  the  adventurers  to  believe  for 
y«rs  that  California  was  worthless  except  for 
mining  and  stock-raising.  It  was  only  when  the 
real  lecundi^  of  the  soil  began  to  he  under- 
stood that  character  of  population  underwent 
essential  change.  Immigration  in  the  first 
decade  was  almost  purely  of  male  fortune- 
hunters,  with  no  thought  of  permanent  resi- 
dence. They  came  to  get  rich  and  go  home. 
But  when  the  slow  comprehension  dawned  that 
in  agricultural  possibilities  the  State  was  incon- 
nvably  richer  than  in  mineral  resources,  and 


building,  an-  entirely  di£Fereot  type  of  migra- 
tion began  —  the  migration  of  families.  This 
stream,  small  at  first,  has  continued  steadily 
since  about  1870.  In  188G  the  completion  of  a 
competing  railroad  into  southern  California  — 
to  which  its  first  transcontinental  line  had 
demands      brought  but    slow   increase    of   populat 


development  —  precipitated  another  migration 
numencally  greater  uian  the  gold  rush,  almost 
as  rapid,  far  longer  continued  and  of  entirely 
different  category.  It  was  characteristically  of 
well-to-do  and  educated  families,  without  the 
heroic  qualities  of  the  pioneers,  but  of  much 
higher  average  in  the  dvic  and  financial  scale. 
They  came  not  to  tame  a  wilderness,  but  to 
enjoy  such  a  land  as  travelers  seek  along  the 
Mediteri^nean.  They  came  by  Pullman  cars 
instead  of  'prairie  schooner*;  instead  of  felling 
forests  thCT  planted  groves  of  tropical  fruits: 
instead  of  building  frontier  cabins,  they  erected 
a  class  of  homes  such  as  probably  cannot  be 
found  among  an  equal  population.  It  is  only 
by  reference  to  the  peculiar  character  of  this 
migration  that  the  development  and  progress 
of  California  in  all  soaal,  educational  and 
nfaterial  lines  during  the  last  25  years  seems 
at  all  credible. 

In  1880  the  population  was  864,M4;  in  1890; 
1,208,130;  in  1«0,  1,485,053;  in  1910,  2,377,549, 
an  increase  of  60.1  per  cent  since  the  census  of 
1900;  in  1916  it  was  2,938^654,  The  recent  great 
increase  in  population,  however,  has  been  dis- 
proportionately in  the  seven  southern  counties 
of  the  State.  Much  more  than  half  of  the  State 
gain  for  20  years  has  been  in  eight  counties,  in- 
cluding in  tne  northern  halt  of  the  State  only 
the  ci^  and  county  of  San  Frandsco.  Since 
1B80,  Los  Angeles  had  by  1910  outstripped  in 
population  99  other  American  cities  then  numer- 
ically lai^er.  In  1900  it  was  the  36th  city  in 
the  Union  in  popubcion,  and  only  13  cities  in  the 
Union  had  gained  as  many  people  in  the  decade. 
There  are  58  counties,  with  116  incorporated 
cities  and  towns ;  50  places  exceeding  5,000  popu- 


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CAUFORNIA 


I  Ttu  Bit  oI  iLnlon,  Suta  CaUHiu  Iiltnd 

S  Tha  JviilpMO  Sen*  CtOM  on  HodbI  KabMsni;  RlTMiid*  "the  dly  tl  onnfa  ■»*«■" 
cappad  Vonnl  Sao  Bamaidiiu)  (11,SM  tact)  In  tha  dlatanca 


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CALIFORHIA 


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Ulion;  25  exceeding  10,000;  and  12  exceeding 

23,00a  Of  toul  population  of  1,485,053  (1900), 
wliites  were  1,402.727;  colored,  11,045;  Chinese, 
45,753;  Japanese.  10,151;  Indians,  15.377.  The 
total  males  were  820,531;  females,  664,522. 
Population  has  doubled  in  IQIS;  but  these  pro- 
poitioos  are  practically  maintained.  While  in 
most  of  the  far  Eastern  States  the  excess  of 
females  to  males  is  increasing,  in  California  the 
growth  is  iieadily  toward  a  balance.  Of  the 
total  poptiiation,  1,117,813  were  native  born  and 
367,240  foreini. 

The  15,377  Indians  in  California,  compris- 
ing at  least  14  difCerent  lin^stk  stocks,  live 
prucipally  on  three  reaervattona  in  the  north, 
on  I  at  Yuma,  and  32  'mission^  reservations,  all 
on  the  edge  of  the  desert  in  the  south.  They 
are  mostly  self -supporting,  peaceful  and  fairly 
industrious  farmers,  with  government  day 
schools  everywhere  among  tbem;  besides  whid^ 
2^34  Indian  children  are  in  public  schools. 
Their  chief  art  b  ba&kel- making,  in  which  some 
tribes  lead  the  world  for  beauty  and  value  of 
product  The  record  price  for  a  basket  is 
t2,000;  but  prices  average  from  $5  to  $50.  The 
government  is  now  encouraeing  this  industry  by 
teaching  it  in  Indian  schools. 

Chief  Citiea.— For  more  than  60  years  San 
Francisco  was  the  largest  cit^  west  of  Saint 
Louis  (about  2,000  miles  by_  rail),  and  by  far  the 
largest  on  the  entire  Pacific  Coast  of  North, 
Central  and  South  America.  Within  a  decade 
it  has  been  outstripped  by  Los  Angeles,  which 
has  now  C_1918)  some  60,000  more  population. 
San  Francisco  is  still  the  foremost  city  of  the 
whole  Far  West  in  business,  commerce,  bank 
clearings  and  shipping.  From  a  population  of 
2,000  in  February.  5,000  in  July  and  20,000  in 
December  of  1849  (the  first  results  of  the  gold 
rush),  it  had  I^  the  census  of  1850  about  25,000; 
and  nas  increased  steadily  since  as  shown  by  the 
appended  table.  The  extraordinary  growth  of 
Los  Angeles  has  come  from  New  Ent^and  and 
its  pioneer  migrations  as  northern  New  Yorl^ 
the  "Western  Reserve*  of  Ohio,  northern  In- 
diana, Illinois,  Iowa,  etc.  At  the  annual  picnic 
of  the  Iowa  Societies  (one  for  each  county) 
held  annually  in  Los  Angeles  County,  there 
are  more  Iowa  people  present  than  the  total 
population  of  any  city  in  Iowa.  The  New  Ehe- 
land  'State  Societies"  are  also  very  large.  In 
1880  Los  Angeles  was  the  135th  city  of  the 
Union  in  population;  in  1910  it  was  12th  in 
population,  fifth  in  number  of  buildings  erected, 
and  eighth  in  value  of  new  buildings;  and  first 
in  expenditure  per  capita  for  new  buildings. 
In  1918  it  was  about  the  eighth  city  in  the 
Union  in  population.  The  first  Federal  census 
of  California  was  in  18S0.  The  following 
fisuies  will  show  sufficiently  the  proportionate 
growth  of  the  State  and  its  leadirig  cities ; 

ISSO          1S7D  1890  IBIS 

autt 92.S9T     560,247  1.Z0S.1JO  1,9X,6S9 

SuPnncteao..     M.OOO     149,473  29B,<<97  463. S16 

LwAnedM l.filO        5. 728  50,39!  Ml},811 

OtUMoiTT] 48.682  1SS.6M 

SuDnoo 16.199  90,330 

SBtunoto 26.5«6  73.000 

Bertoky 5,101  60,000 

Fremo 10, BIB  43.000 

PhkIkb 4,SS2  46.430 

Stockton 4,124  42.000 

LoflcBach 364  31,152 

Rivenide 4,6SJ  19,763 

Sujoii 11.060  34.000 

Alimcd* 11,165  30.000 

SuBemarduio 4.012  IR.OOO 


The  first  large  aviation  field-meet  in  the 
United  States  was  held  in  Los  Angeles  County 
about  1911.  Until  recently  surpassed  by  a  field 
in  Texas,  the  North  Island  Field,  San  Diego 
was  the  largest  in  the  country.  Up  to  date,  1918, 
it  has  had  the  fewest  fatalities,  the  cbmatic 
conditions  making  this  location  particularly 
adaptable  for  the  training  of  beginners  in  avia-. 
tion.  Los  Angeles  is  the  world's'  chief  centre 
of  the  "Moving  Picture*  industry;  the  expendi- 
ture within  ue  city  W  the  film  industries 
amounting  to  about  $20,000,000  a  year,  and  the 
actors  including  nearly  all  the  famous  stage 
favorites.  The  fact  that  weather  conditions  are 
favorable  nearly  all  the  year  is  i 


that  of  the  Alps,  from  perpetual  summer  and 
roses  to  snowbanks  and  glaciers  and  deserts  and 
almost  every  other  geographic  range  can  be 
duplicated  within  easy  reach  of  the  various 
studios,  of  which  there  are  a  large  number. 
£^pt  and  Babylon  and  Switzerland,  France; 
England  and  New  England,  South  America  — 
the  pictures  of  these  are  almost  entirely  "lo- 
cated' in  southern  California.  As  with  Florida, 
Switzerland  and  parts  of  New  England,  the 
tourist  must  be  reckoned  by  the  economist 
among  the  assets  of  the  State.  This  is  over- 
whelmingly the  case  in  the  southern  counties, 
where  the  tourist  influx  amounts  in  value  to 
from  $75,000,000  to  $100,000,000  per  year.  In 
191S^  over  250,000  tourists  visited  southern  Cali- 
fornia. Unlike  the  case  of  other  summer  or 
winter  resorts  the  number  of  tourists  who  re- 
main permanently  or  return  soon  to  become 
residents  causes  the  increase  in  population 
which  has,  no  parallel  in  United  States  history. 
The  climate,  the  scenery,  the  romance  of  the 
missions  and  other  history,  the  educational  and 
other  advantages,  the  class  of  population  al- 
ready here,  the  growth  of  automobiling  and  the 
unrivalled  facilities  tor  this  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia have  conspired  with  other  causes  to  make 
it  the  most  visited  State  in  the  Uiiion.  Its 
permanent  immigration  is  small  from  foreign 
countries  except  By  individuals.  Its  great  growth 
comes  from  the  better  classes  of  the  Extern 
States.  From  Point  Concepdon  on  to  San  Diego 
(nearly  half  the  total  coast-line  of  the  State) 
the  littoral  is  dotted  with  dozens  of  cities,  towns 
and  resorts  largely  depending  upon  their  in- 
terests of  bathing,  boating,  fishing,  yachting,  etc. 
The  most  important  of  these,  from  north  to 
south,  are  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura,  Santa 
Monica,  Venice,  Ocean  Park,  Redondo,  Long 
Beach,  La  Jolla  and  Coronado  at  San  Diego. 
The  important  seaside  towns  have  their  en- 
closed swimming  tanks ;  but  many  people  take 
surf  baths  every  month  in  the  year.  Fof 
climatic  reasons  above  staled,  the  seaside  above 
Point  Concepcion  is  not  as  popular  nor  as  popu- 
lous for  marine  diversions,  the  water  and  the 
weather  being  alike  loo  cool.  Perhaps  the  most 
famous  of  these  seaside  resorts  is  the  island  of 
Catalina,  about  20  miles  off  coast  from  the 
harbor  of  Los  Angeles,  with  its  placid  bay  and 
its  remarkable  'Marine  Gardens*  which  are 
viewed  through  glass-bottom  boats ;  and  its 
fishing  which  is  internationally  famous.  Cali- 
fornia is  the  paradise  of  the  automobilist,  and 
has  more  auto-^ehicles  per  cajnta  than  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  Within  10  years  (end- 
ing with  1917)  over  $40;00(U)00  have  been  spent 


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CALIFORNIA 


by  State  and  counties  on  'good  roads* — of 
native  asphalt  and  sravel,  largely  founded  on 
concrete,  and  generally  smooth  as  a  table.  One 
can  ride  almost  from  end  to  end  of  the  State 
on  these  luxurious  roads  —  and  over  1,000  miles 
in  Los  Angeles  County  alone.  There  are  many 
extraordinary  scenic  drives  —  some  over  a  mile 
.  above  the  sea.  This  has  naturally  led  to  the 
decimation  of  deer,  duck,  rabbits,  quail  and 
trout,  as  well  as  the  multiplication  of  cars. 
There  were  in  1917  over  400,000  auto-vehicles 
in  the  State  —  about  two-thirds  in  the  southern 
half.    Southern  California  has  also  the  largest 

¥:r  capita  number  of  telephones  in  the  world, 
he  automatic  telephone  was  perfected  here. 
The  number  of  telephones  in  California,  I  Jan. 
1918,  was  669,470.  being  one  telephone  to  every 
4.3B  persons;  for  San  Prandsco,  130,175,  being 
one  to  every  3.56  persons;  for  Los  Angeles, 
132,662,  being  one  telephone  to  every  3.79  per- 
sons. Comparison  is  often  more  graphic  and 
more  instructive  than  mere  figures.  California 
has  a  total  area  practically  equal  to  that  of 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachu- 
setts,   Connecticut,   Rhode   Island,   New  York 


Straits  Settlements,  Cyprus  and  Hongkong 
together;  or  our  Philippines,  Hawaii,  Porto 
Rico,  Samoa  and  Guam,  _mth  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut  thrown  in.  California  has  in 
its  18  'National  Forests*  more  acres  of  ircat 
trees  than  the  total  area  of  the  States  of  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode 
Island  and  Delaware  —  and  nearly  another 
Delaware  thrown  in ;  and  the  national  reserves 
are  less  than  half  the  forestation  of  the  State. 
California  has  enough  primal  desertto  blanket 
most  of  New  England.  But  in  that  same  desert 
is  more  mineral  production  per  annum  {except 
coal  and  oil)  than  is  recorded  tor  all  States 
east  of  the  Alleghanies  in  all  their  history. 

California's  hay,  grain  and  alfalfa  fields  are 
nearly  as  large  in  area  as  the  States  of  Con- 
necticut and  Delaware.  California's  fruit  farms 
cover  more  than  twice  the  area  of  Rhode  Is- 
land r  and  California's  acreage  to  vegetables 
another  Rhode  Island.  Nor  do  these  figures 
for  vegetables  include  half  another  Rhode  Is- 
land in  cultivated  home- lots.  California's 
acreage  in  beans,  sugar,  beets  and  potatoes  is 
15  per  cent  larger  than  Rhode  Island. 

History. —  The  name  California,  for  which 
so  many  preposterous  derivations  have  been 
urged,  is  taken  from  a  Spanish  romance  called 
'Sergas  de  Esplandian'  ('Exploits  of  Esplan- 
dian')  by  Ordonez  de  Montalvo  (translator  of 
*Amadis  de  GauP),  printed  about  1510,  and 
often  mentioned  in  old  sources.  "California* 
was  a  niytbicalisland "on  therighthand  of  the 
Indies,  very  near  the  Terrestrial  Paradise,* 
peopled  with  Amazons  and  GrifRns.  The  name 
was  first  applied  to  the  peninsula  (discovered 
by  Jimenez  1533)  and  is  first  recorded  thus  in 
Preciado's  diary  of  Ulloa's  coastwise  voyage 
in  1539.  In  time  it  came  to  be  used  indefinitely 
for  the  whole  Pacific  Coast  from  the  peninsula 
practically  to  Nootka;  and  later  'tiie  Cali- 
fornias,*  differentiated  into  Baja  (or  Lower) 
California  and  Alta  (Upper)  Cahfomia,  the 
former  including  about  wlu.t  is  now  the  Mexi- 
can Peninsular  Territory.  The  first  European 
to  touch  the  present  State  was  Alarcon,  who 


went  up  the  Colorado-  River  some  hundreds  of 
miles  in  1540.  The  first  seaboard  exploration 
wa*  by  Cabiillo  1542;  and  the  next  important 
coast  exploratioDS  were  by  Sir  Francis  Drake 
1579,  and  Vizcaino  1602.  The  first  colonizaUon 
of  Upper  California  was  in  1759  by  the  Fran- 
ciscan missionaries  under  Junipero  Serra,  with 
a  small  escort  of  Spanish  troops.  These  pioneer 
missionaries  had  by  1800  founded  13  missions, 
whose  total  population,  mostly  Indian  neo- 
phytes, was  13,000.  Three  other  missions  were 
established  by  1823.  The  mission  period  lasted 
about  65  years;  converted  over  80,000  Indians; 
erected  in  the  wilderness  at  least  $1,000,000 
worth  of  buildings,  and  had  developed  stock- 
raising  and  wheat  on  a  scale  which  astonished 
Humboldt  In  1334  the  Mexican  government 
'disestablished*  the  missions  and  confiscated 
their  property.  The  Indians  were  scattered, 
and  perished  in  great  numbers.  The  buildings 
were  plundered  and  left  to  decay.  At  present 
the  L^dmarks  Club  (incorporated)  is  pre- 
serving the  mission  edifices.  The  State  passed 
from  Spanish  rule  to  that  of  the  Mexican  repub- 
lic, 1821 ;  was  seized,  practically  without  resist- 
ance, by  the  United  States  in  1845,  and  ceded  by 
Mexico  at  close  of  Mexican  War;  admitted  to 
the  Union,  9  Sept.  1850.  The  American  dis- 
covery of  gold  caused  an  unprecedented  trans- 
continental migration  (see  Population).  Aside 
from  the  great  impetus  given  steam  and  clipper 
ships,  the  migration  had  other  unique  features 
—  like  the  Merchants'  Express,  which  employed 
5,000  men,  2,000  wagons  and  20.000  yoke  of 
oxen  in  freighting  across  the  continent ;  and 
the  Pony  Express,  which  carried  mail  (letters 
only)  at  $5  per  half  ounce,  1,950  miles  horse- 
back from  Independence,  Mo.,  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, in  10  days;  and  the  Butterfietd  stages,  8 
limes  a  month  between  Saint  Louis  and  San 
Francisco,  via  Texas  and  New  Mexico ;  quickest 
time,  21  days  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 
Extraordinary  records  were  made  in  this  over- 
land traffic.  Robert  H.  Haslam  («Pony  Bob") 
made  one  continuous  ride  of  380  miles;  and 
William  F.  Cody  ("Buffalo  Bill*)  one  of  384, 
without  stopping  except  for  meals  and  to 
change  horses  —  both  as  riders  of  the  Pony 
Express.  The  quickest  time  made  bythb  route 
(1,950  miles),  was  7  days,  17  hours.  The  growth 
of  this  overland  IrafKc  led  California  capital- 
ists, heavi]:^  subsidized  by  government,  to  build 
a  transcontinental  railroad.  Ground  was  broken 
at  Sacramento  for  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad 
8  Jan.  1863.  The  road  was  completed  by  driv- 
ing of  a  spike  of  pure  California  gold  1^  Gov- 
ernor Stanford  in  the  presence  of  distinguished 
company  at  Promontory,  Utah,  10  May  1869.  In 
1877  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  from  Texas 
tidewater  to  San  Francisco  was  completed.  In 
1885  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fi  Railroad 
reached  Los  Angeles  from  Saint  Louis ;  and  in 
about  1910  was  extended  to  San  Francisco. 
The  latter  and  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad 
are  among  the  longest  railroad  systems  in  the 
world,  the  former  with  a  mileage  of  8,648  and 
the  latter  with  a  mileage  of  7,065.  The  modem 
development  of  California  dates  from  competi- 
tion of  Hiese  two  lines  during  the  decade  be- 
ginning 1886. 

The  swift  creatign  of  an  American  common- 
wealth by  the  Midden  horde  of  adventurous 
pioneers  upon  whom  that  duty  at  once  devolved 


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CALIFORNIA 


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CALIFORNIA 


erers, 
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fevered  by  cnonnous  and  sudden  gains,  without 
dties  or  laws  or  communication  with  the  ontr 
side  world,  within  a  year  installed  soberly  and 
firmly  all  essential  machineries  o£  an  American 
State;  The  desperadoes  who  flocked  in  from  all 
parts  oE  the  world — including  a  large  contin- 
gent of  Australian  convicts — were  utnly  sup- 
pressed, though  not  at  once.  Between  1849  and 
1356  there  were  in  San  Francisco  alone  1,000 
homicides  and  seven  executions.  In  1856  the 
second  vigilance  committee,  composed  of  the 
best  dtizcns,  after  full  and  formal  trial, 
publicly  hanged  half  a  doien  of  the  worst  des- 
peradoes, and  banished  scores  of  others  on  pain 
of  death.  Since  that  time  life  and  properly  have 
been  quite  as  safe  in  California  as  in  the  East- 
ern States.  Chinese  exclusion,  though  finally  a 
national  measure,  was  broUKht  about  by  Cali- 
fornia, which  then  contained  a  ungorily  of  all 
Chinese  in  this  •  country.  In  1879  Cuifomiti 
voted  exclusion  br  154,638  to  883.  The  num- 
ber of  Chinese  in  the  State  has  decreased  from 
75,132  in  1680  and  72,472  in  1890  to  4S.753  in 
190O.  The  bitterness  aroused  fy  the  exclusion 
struggle  has  passed,  and  Climese  are  well 
treated. 

California  entered  the  Union  as  A  free  State, 
thus  giving  balance  of  power  to  the  North.  In 
State  elections  since  the  war  it  has  be«i  pecul- 
iarly independent,  having  gone  Democtstic  in 
1867,  1675,  1882.  1886  (Democratic  governor  and 
Republican  lifu tenant-governor,  who '  became 
governor  by  his  superior's  death)  and  1894; 
Republican  in  1871,  1879,  1890,  ia«  and  1902. 

In  politics^  California  is  counted  *Safe  Re- 
publican.* For  its  first  half  century  it  came 
near  alternating  between  the  two  great  parties; 
but  from  1902  to  1918  has  elected  onlj^  Republi- 
can governors  (including  a  "Progressive*).  In 
national  politics  it  has  given  its  electoral  vote 
in  the  same  16  years  for  only  one  Democratic 
President  — Wilson,  second  terra.  This  was 
lately  by  the  women's  vote,  and  on  the  slogan 
■He  kept  us  out  of  war.»  Tlie  presidential  vote 
of  California  was  decisive.  California  was  the 
sixth  State  to  adopt  (1911)  equ^  suffrage,  and 
the  first  State  of  considerable  siie  —  being  ttiore 
than  double  the  total  population  of  the  five 
earlier  equal  suffrage  States.  In  1916,  out  of  ti 
population  of  3,000,000,  the  total  registra- 
tion was  U14^446;  the  total  vote  nearly  80 
per  cent  of  this,  ranging  from  39  per  cent  to 
46  per  cent  women.  No  woman  has  been 
elected  to  a  Federal  or  Slate  ofBce;  about  30 
have  been  appointed.  In  counties  and  cities, 
over  50  women  have  been  elected  to  ofTice — 
from  18  superintendents  of  schools,  to  one 
county  clerk  and  the  only  councilwoman  in  the 
county  (Los  Angeles).  There  are  several 
policewomeuj  probation  officers,  etc.;  and  many 
serving  on  civic  commissions.  The  question  of 
their  etigibiKtv  on  juries  is  not  yet  (1918)  dc- 
lennine^  and  depends  on  the  ruling  of  the 
judge.  Women  have  procured  the  introduction 
and  enactment  of  over  a  dozen  humanitarian 
laws  of  varying  importance  and  value,  chiefly 
concerned  with  women  and  children,  prohibition 
and  ?(he  social  evil.* 

Next  to  the  gold  excitement  (see  Mining 
and  Population)    the  most  sensational  et^  in 


California  hiatoir  was  the  great  boiuiua  alvo- 

Sriod  from  1859  to  188a  The  mines  were  in 
evada,  but  were  owned  in  San  Franosco,  and 
an  era  of  stock-gambling  theretofore  unheard 
of  in  history,  and  probauly^  not  vet  surpassed, 
sprang  from  their  sensational  yield.  Stocks  on 
the  San  Francisco  board  irose  $1,000,000  a  day 
for  many  months,  and  sales  in  one  year  were 
$120,000,000.  Everybody  gambled  in  stock, 
from  bankers  to  scrubwomen.  In  1875,  with 
less  than  200,000  population,  San  Francisco  had 
100  millionaires.  The  'Consolidated  Virginia* 
muies  paid  $l,000/)00  per  month  dividend  for 
nearly  two  years.  One  lode  was  valued  at 
nearly  $400,000,000:  $250,000,000  was  spent  in 
'developing*  a  small  group  of  hills.  The  deca- 
dence of  these  great  bonanzas,  following  the 
subsidence  of  gold  mining  to  sober  methods,  at 
last  turned  more  general  attention  to  agricul- 
ture, the  real  wealth  of  the  State.  (See  Agri' 
cuUurt).  In  1880  California  was  first  in  the 
Union  only  in  gold,  sheep  and  quicksilver:  all 
other  industries  being  far  down  the  list.  It  il 
now  first  in  gold;  ninth  in  sheep;  first  iii 
diversity  of  cro^s;  first  in  wines,  total  fruits, 
canned  fruits,  dned  fruits,  barley;  first  in  num- 
ber of  irrigated  farms;  first  in  average  wagei 
in  manufacturing  establishments ;  first  in  borax, 
asphalt  quicksilver,  platinum ;  second  in  cop- 
per; third  in  wheat;  first  in  beet  sugar;  first 
in  hops ;  first  in  oranges,  lemons,  olives  and  all 
;  . — ;_   fruits^  honey,   prunes,   walnuts,   al- 


,  third  in  ship-building;  second  in  pe- 
troleum; fifth  in  total  value  products  per  farm; 
eleventh  in  value  of  fartn  products  per  capita; 
twelfth  in  total  value  of  manufactured  products. 

The  highest  California  gold  product  in  any 
one  year  was  $85,000,000.  The  total  agricul- 
tural products  for  1916  were  $194,566,000;  and 
total  value  of  manufactured  products  (1916) 
$712,800,764. 

A  South  Sea  bubble  as  wild  as  the  (Tom- 
stock  silver  stock-craze  was  the  great  "Land 
Boom*  of  southern  California  1886-87,  & 
period  of  land-gambling  never  quite  equaled  in 
any  other  part  of  America.  An  area  as  large  as 
New  England  was  involved,  with  varying  in- 
tensity; but  the  chief  focus  of  excitement  was 
in  Los  Angeles,  San  Bernardino  and  San  Diego 
counties.  Scores  of  thousands  of  city  lots  were 
staked  out  far  from  towns;  hundreds  of  miles 
of  cement  sidewalks  and  curbs  were  laid : 
scores  of  big  hotels  and  other  buildings  erected 
as  baits,  and  great  quantities  of  lands  (pur- 
chased at  from  $10  to  $30  per  acre)  were  sold 
in  town  lots  at  $1,000  to  $10,000  per  acre.  In 
Los  Angeles  County  albne,  with  a  population 
then  not  over  50,000,  real  estate'  transfers 
recorded  m  1887  were  over  $100,000,000.  Ex- 
cursion auction  sales  of  new  'towns*  some^ 
times  realized  $250,000  in  a  day;  and  $100  was 
often  paid  for  place  in  the  line  waiting  for  a 
sale  to  open.  The  collapse  of  this  gigantic 
bubble,  early  in  1888,  was  as  extraordinary  in 
its  freedom  from  diraster  as  it  had  been  in  its 
inflation.  Not  a  bank  failed,  nor  a  business 
house  of  respectable  standing;  and  while  desert 
town  lots  reverted  to  acreage  and  acrea^ 
values,  all  really  desirable  real  estate,  rural  and 
urban,  has  constantly  advanced  ip  value  every 
year — thanks  to  the  uninterrupted  continoance 
of  large  and  wealdiy  immigration.    BuihUng  a( 


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CALIPORNIA 


bones  and  scttins  oat  of  orchards  contuue  on 
xn  eztiaordinary  scale.  *LocaI  apdoa'  is  in 
ioKt;  and  neanv  all  towns  of  southern  Call' 
fomia  are  'prohibition.* 


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exhaustively  indexed  and  by  one  author) ;  Ban- 
croft, H.  H..  'History  of  California'  (/  vols., 
1S90,  by  anonymous  staR,  and  inadequately  in- 
dexed): Hittell,  J.  S..  •Histoiy  of  San  Fran- 
cisco* i\&76,  concise  and  reliable,  to  its  date). 
Mission  Period;  Duhaut-Qlly,  A.,  'VoyaBc 
autour   du  monde,    1826-29*    (2  vols.,   1835); 


•Glimps 


.    i  Coasts*    (1886),  reprinted 

tn  'Liiimpses  of  California  and  the  Missions' 
(1902);  Englehardt,  F.  Zephyrin,  'Missions  and 
Missionaries  of  California*  (4  vols,  and  index 
vol.) ;  Oinch,  'California  and  its  Missions' 
(2  vols  j  ;  Carter,  C  F.,  'California  Missions* 
(a  careful  digest  of  all  Important  facts  about 
Oie  Missions  in  a  small  book) ;  Chase,  T. 
Smeaton.  and  Saunders,  Chas.  F.,  'The  Cali- 
fornia Padres  and  their  Missions*  (1915).  The 
vast  bulk  of  sources  on  this  period  is  in  Span- 
ish, and  inaccessible  to  English  students. 

Contemporary  writers  on  Pioneer  period 
American  occupation:  Colton,  Rev.  Walter, 
'Three'Years  in  California'  (1850) ;  Thornton, 

{■  Q;  'Oregon  and  California  in  1848*  (2  vols., 
849) :  Bryant,  Edwin,  'What  J  Saw  in  Cali- 
fornia* <1849);  Revere,  Lieut.  J.  W.,  'Tour  of 
Duty  in  California*  (1849);  Soult,  F^  'Annals 
Of  San  Francisco'  (1855);  Taylor,  Bayard. 
'CaUtomia  and  Mexico*  (1850),  and  'Home 
and  Abroad'  (1862,  2d  series) ;  Majors.  A.  M. 
(manager  'Merchants'  Express"),  'Seventy 
Years  on  the  Frontier*  (1893)  ;  Newmark,  Har- 
ris, 'Sixty  Years  in  SoiUbem  Call  fomia* 
(1916). 

Mining:  Shinn,  C  H_  'Mining  Camps' 
(1885)  and  'Story  of  the  Mine'  (1896);  also 
both  Hittells,  svp. 

Physiograihy,  Mountains  and  Forests:  Muir 
John.  'The  Mountains  of  California^  (18M), 
and  'Our  National  Paries'   (1901). 


Climate,  lioitnt  Development  and  General: 
arner,    Chas.    Dudley,    '  Ch 
Nordhoff,  ChM,  'CxUforaia  for  Health,  Pleas- 


Italj'    (1892); 


ore  and  Rcudence*  <1882),  and  'Northern 
California*  (1874);  Van  Dyke,  T.  S,  'South- 
em  California*  (1886),  a>d  'Millionaires  of  a 
Day*  (1892)  (Land-Boom)  ;  Undley  and  Wid- 
ney.  'California  of  the  South'  (1896)  ;  "H.  H.> 
as  above;  Snvthe,  Wm.  E.-  ^Conquest  of  Arid 
America'  (1900);  Lamnui,  Chat.  F.,  'The 
Right  Hand  of  the  Continent*  (in  press). 

Slatistical:  Census  United  States;  Cali- 
fornia State  Reports;  Bulletins  United  States 
Census,  California  State  Bureaus,  California 
Development  Bureau;  McCarthy's  'Stadstidan 
and  Economist*  (San  Francisco) ;  rid.  Reports, 
United  States  Department  Agriculture,  etc 
Chablcs  Fletcher  Li7kmis, 
Pounder  Emeritus,  The  Southwest  Mnseum, 
Founder  and  President,  Landmarits  Club. 

CALIPORNIA,  GtiU  at,  or  SEA  OP 
COSTSZ,  an  arm  of  the  PadSc  Ocean,  sep- 
antiog  Lower  (^lifomia  from  the  Mexican 
mainland  It  is  700  miles  in  length,  varies  in 
width  from  40  to  100  miles,  xnd  has  a  depth 
rangiiu;  from  600  feet  near  the  had  to  over 
6^000  teel  nev  the  mouth,  containing  many 
Isbndi  in  the  upper  part  There  is  but  little 
navigation  carried  on  there.  On  the  weatem 
co«st  are  pearl  flaheries.  The  gulf  was  dis- 
covered by  Cortec,  and  for  some  time  wte 
called  after  tun.  The  river  Colorado  empties 
into  the  northern  extremity. 

CALIPORNIA.  Lower  or  Old,  a  territory 
of  the  republic  of  Mexico,  forming  a  peninsula 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  united  on  the  north  to 
the  continent,  from  which  it  is  separated  on 
the  eas^  throughout  its  entire  length,  by  the 
Gulf  of  California.  It  extends  from  about 
lat.  22*  40*  to  32'  4^  N.  It  is  about  750  miles 
in  len^h,  and  in  different  places  30,  60,  90  and 
150  miles  wide.  The  coast  forms  many  capes, 
bays  and  havens,  and  b  fringed  by  numerous 
islands.  A  chain  of  mountains  extends  throudi- 
out.  of  which  the  greatest  height  is  from  4,500 
to  4,900  feet  above  the  sea.  the  latter  being  the 
height  attained  tv  its  culminating  point,  Cerro 
de  la  Giganta.  The  chain  is  almost  destitute 
of  vegetation,  having  only  here  and  there  a  few 
Stunted  trees  or  shrubs.  It  has  a  single  vol- 
cano_,  and  possesses  distinct  traces  of  volcanic 
origin.  The  foot  of  the  range  is  covered  with 
cactuses  of  remarkable  size.  Some  of  the 
hollows,  where  the  soil  is  formed  of  decom- 
posed lava,  are  tolerably  fertile.  On  the  plains 
the  soil  is  often  of  me  richest  qualiw.  and 
when  the  advantage  of  irrigation  can  be  ob- 
tained, raises  the  most  abundant  crops;  but 
this  advantage  often  fails,  owing  to  the  great 
deficiency  of  water.  Rain  seldom  falb  in  sum- 
mer, in  most  of  the  region  ranging  from  under 
10  to  25  inches,  and  the  streams  are  very  in- 
significant. The  climate  varies  much  accord- 
ing to  locality.  On  thc_  coast  of  the  Pacific 
the  temperature  ranges  in  summer  from  58* 
to  71°.  At  a  distance  from  the  coast,  where 
the  sea  breeze  is  not  enjoyed,  the  summer  heat 
is  excessive.  The  princi[nl  food  products  are 
maize,  manioc  wheat,  grapes,  oranges.  lemons. 
pineapples  and  other  choice  fruits ;  cattle  rais- 
ing, fishing,  gold  mining  and  pearl  fishii^  are 
also  succes»fully  carried  on.     La  Paz.  in  th« 


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CALIFOKNIA 


KOth,  is  the  cmmtxl ;  Ensenada,  in  the  north,  U 
a  risniB  port.  Lower  California  was  explored 
tnr  order  of  Corttx  in  1532-33,  ana  was 
mited  W  Drake  as  early  as  1579.  In  1697  the 
lesnits  formed  estaUistuneota  in  the  t<:riitory, 
bnilt  villages  and  raissionL^and  in  some  meas- 
ure dvilixed  the  natives.  On  their  ezptdsion  in 
1767,  the  missions  wer«  carried  on  by  the 
Dominicang.  Fop.  about  52,244>  of  whom 
probably  about  half  are  indians. 

CALIFORNIA,  Pa.,  borourii  in  Washing- 
ton County  on  the  Monongaliela  River,  SO 
miles  south  of  Pittsburgh,  on  the  P.,  V.  and  C. 
Railroad.  The  largest  coal  mine  in  the  world 
is  located  here  (Vesta  No.  4).  There  are  also 
manufactures  of  glass  bottles  and  foundry  and 
machine  shops.  The  resources  of  the  two 
banks  amount  to  $1,735,045.  The  Southwestern 
Slate  Normal  Schools  and  the  borough  public 
and  high  school  are  situated  here.  Tne  latter 
and  the  borough  building  are  fioe  structures. 
The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a  coundl 
of  seven  members.    Pop,  about  2,500. 

CALIFORNIA,  UiuTCrdtr  of,  a  univer- 
sity which  is  a  part  of  the  State  educational 
mtem  in  California,  but  supported  as  well  by 
the  income  from  endowments  and  by  national 
aid. 

In  1869  the  College  of  California,  which  had 
been  incorporated  in  1S55  and  which  had  car- 
ried on  collegiate  instruction  since  1860,  closed 
its  work  of  instruction  and  transferred  its  prop- 
erty, on  terms  wliich  were  mutually  agreed 
upon,  to  the  University  of  California. 

The  university  was  instituted  by  a  law  which 
received  the  approval  of  the  governor,  23  March 
1868.  Instruction  w^s  begun  in  Oakland  in  the 
autumn  of  1869.  The  commencement  exercise* 
of  1873  were  held  at  Berkeley,  16  July,  when  the 
university  was  formally;  transferred  to  its  per- 
manent home.  Instructioa  began  at  Berkeley  in 
the  autumn  of  1873.  The  new  constitution  of 
1879  made  the  existing  organixatioti  of  the  imi- 
versity  pcrpetnaL 

The'  i)rof essional  schools  were  contemplated 


le  governor  and  lieutenant-governor  of 

the  State,  the  speaker  of  the  assembly,  the  State 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  presi- 
dents of  the  Stale  Agricultural  Society  and  the 
Mechanics'  Institute  of  San  Francisco,  and  the 
iwvsident  of  the  imiversitj  (all  regents  ex  c^- 
cio),  »nd  16  others  appointed  by  the  governor 
for  a  16-Tear  term  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  senate.  The  uni.ersity  comprises  the 
following  colleges  and  departments:  (1)  In 
Berkeley:  the  colleges  of  letters  and  science, 
commerce,  agriculture  (courses  at  Berkeley; 
farms  and  laboratories,  etc.,  at  Davis,  River- 
side, Wbittier,  Chico,  Santa  Monica,  Tulare 
CoimtT,  Meloland  and  Kearney  Park,  Fresno 
County),  mechanics,  mining,  civil  engineering, 
chemistry;  the  schools  of  architecture,  educa- 
tion, jurisprudence,  medicine  (first  year  and 
part  of  second  year)^  the  university  extension 
division,  the  California  Museum  of  Vertebrate 
Zoology ;  (2)  at  Mount  Hamilton:  the  Lick 
Astronomical  Department  (Lick  Observatory); 
(3)  at  Santiago,  Chile:  the  D.  O.  Mills 
Observatory;  <4)  in  San  Francisco:  the  Cali- 
fornia School  of  Fine  Arts,  the  Hastings  Col- 
lege of  Law,  the  medical  school  (part  of  second 


mllege  of  pharmacy,  the 


of  anthropol- 


agy,  arduBolocy  and  art;  (5)  in  Los  Angeles; 
Loa  Angeles  Medical  Department  (graduate  in- 
struction only)  ;  (6)  the  Scripps  Institution  for 
Biokwcal  Research  at  La  JoUa;  (7)  the  Herz- 
stcin  Research  Laboratory  of  Biology  at  Pacific 
Grove,  and  (8)  the  Summer  School  of  Sur- 
veying at  SwantML 

-  In  1896  Mrs.  Phcebe  Apperson  Hearst  in- 
fanned  the  regents  that  she  proposed  to  erect 
a  building,  but  wished  first  a  worthy  general 
plan  for  the  Berloeley  campus,  and  that  she 
would  bear  the  expense  of  an  international 
competition  to  obtain  such  a  plan.  In  1896  an 
international  jury  assembled  at  Antwerp  and 
voted  upon  more  than  lOQ  plans  submitted, 
awarding  priies  to  11  competitors,  who  were 
invited    to    visit    the    university    and    to    ^re- 

Kre  revised  plans  for  a  second  competition. 
September  1899,  the  jury  met  again  in  San 
Francisco  and  gave  the  first  prize  ($10,000)  to 
M.  Emile  Biturd  of  Paris.  After  a  long  stay 
in  Berkeley  and  many  conferences  with  the  uni- 
versity authorities,  M.  fi^nard  undertook  a  re- 
vision of  his  drawings  to  fit  the  planj  to  the 
actual  necessities  of  the  site  and  the  prospective 
needs  of  the  university.  In  December  1909,  be 
submitted  a  design  wnich  the  regents  adopted 
as  the  permanent  plan.  To  Mr.  John  (Salen 
Howard  was  entrusted  the  development  of 
the  plan,  as  supervising  architect.  In  reaJiia- 
tion  of  the  Hearst  plan,  several  buildings  have 
been  completed  includii^  the  Hearst  Memorial 
Miriing   Building,    given    by    Mrs.    Hearst    for 


'S:o^r 
Hearst;  California  Hall,  for  which  an  appro- 
priation of  $250,000  was  made  by  the  California 
legislature,  and  the  president's  house.    Another 
notable  building  is  the  beautiful  Greek  theatre. 


the  Greek  colonies,  and  given  to  the  university 
by  Mr.  William  Randolph  Hearst  Among 
other  new  buildings  is  the  library,  for  which 
generous  provision  was  made  by  Mr.  Charles 
F.  Doe  of  San  Francisco,  who  bequeathed 
$700,000   for  this  purpose. 

Since  this  time  gifts  and  appropriations  have 
made  possible  the  erection  of  a  series  of  new 
buildings.  As  a  memorial  to  her  husband,  the 
late  Judge  John  H.  Boalt,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  J. 
Boalt  in  1908  made  a  gift  of  about  £100,000  to 
the  university  for  the  erection  of  a  Hall  of 
Law.  Members  of  the  bench  and  bar  of  Cali- 
fornia subscribed  an  additional  $50,000  and  on 
the  28th  of  April,  1911,  the  Boalt  Hail  of  Law, 
constructed  of  white  granite  and  completely 
equipped  with  library,  offices  and  class  rooms, 
was  formally  dedicated.  Upon  the  death 
of  Mrs.  Jane  K.  Sather  on  12  Dec.  1911, 
President  Wheeler,  as  her  trustee,  sold  to 
the  regents  of  the  university  property  valued 
at  $400,000  which  Mrs.  Sather  had  left  as 
a  mft  to  the  university.  Of  this  sum 
(200,000  was  devoted  to  the  erection  of  the 
Sather  'Tower,  a  white  granite  campanile 
302  feet  in  height,  designed  after  several  similar 
towers  in  Italy,  but  not  a  direct  replica  of  any 
one.    In  1917  the  Sather  Bells,  mMe  in  Europe 


,  Google 


S18 


at  a.  cost  of  flO.OX),  were  faung  in  the  Sather 
Tower  and  the  Sather  Esjdanade  was  con- 
structed at  its  base  at  a  cost  of  $40,000.  Benja- 
min Ide  Wheeler  Hall,  the  new  classroom 
building,  was  made  ready  for  occupancy  in 
January  1917.  It  was  built  at  a  cost  of  $720,000, 
of  white  j^ranite,  and  represents  the  Georgian 
tradition  m  architeaitre.  It  contains  an  audi- 
torium seating  1,020  people,  62  classrooms,  48 
studies  for  members  of  the  faculty  (each  study 
accommodating  two),  a  large  and  comfortable 
faculty  room,  and  accommodations  for  4,889 
students  at  one  time.  Hilgard  Hall,  the  new 
agriculture  building,  was  dedicated  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1917.  It  was  built  of  reinforced  con- 
crete at  a  cost  of  ^362,00(^  to  house  instruction 
in  wronomy^  citnculture,  forestry,  genetics, 
pomology,  soil  technology  and  viticulture.  The 
exterior  of  this  buildmg  is  notable  for  the 
higfajjv  original  treatment  of  decoration  in 
sgraffiti — Uie  us«  of  colored  cements  f  or  adom- 
menl  of  concrete  surfaces.  Work  was  started 
in  1917  on  Gilman  Hall,  which  is  being  built  at 
a  cost  of  $220,000,  to  house  the  research  labora- 
tories in  chemistry.  It  will  be  used  by  the 
faculty  and  by  graduate  students.  Reinforced 
concrete  is  the  building  material  used.  These 
three  buildings  were  designed  by  John  Galen 
Howard,  professor  of  architecture  and  super- 
vising aniitect  in  the  university.  Under  his 
direction  also  has  been  completed  the  universi^ 
library,  at  a  cost  of  about  half  a  million  dol- 
lars, making  the  total  cost  of  the  building  ^1,- 
400,000.  Special  features  of  the  new  portion 
are  a  second  reading:  room  seating  240  readers 
and  used  for  periodicals  (of  which  the  uni- 
versity receives  8^000  titles),  20  seminar 
rooms,  22  faculty  studies  and  space  for  book- 
stacks  to  hold  1,250,000  volumes,  although  at 
present  this  space  is  only  utilized  for  some 
600,000  volumes.  In  San  Francisco  the  univer- 
sity has  built  the  university  hospital  at  a  cost 
of  $700,000,  with  accommodations  for  225 
patients.  It  is  mainly  intended  as  a  laboratory 
tor  the  university's  medical  school  and  the 
Hooper  Foundation  for.  Medical  Research. 

The  university  has  542  officers  of  instruc- 
tion, 5,850  students,  a  library  of  360,000  volumes, 
an  art  i^llery,  museums  and  laboratories,  also 
the  agricultural  experiment  grounds  ana  sta- 
tions, which  are  invaluable  adjuncts  of  the 
farming,  orchard  and  vineyard  interests  of  the 
State.  In  San  Francisco  there  arc  150  officers 
of  instruction,  besides  demonstrators  and  other 
assistants,  and  775  students.  Tuition  in  the  col- 
leges at  Berkeley,  during  regular  sessions,  is 
free  to  residents  of  California;  non-residents 
pay  a  fee  of  $10  each  half  year.  In  the  pro- 
fe!;sional  colleges,  in  San  FranciscOjCxcept  that 
of  law,  tuition  fees  are  charged.    The 


sjitution  of  the  State  provides  for  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  university  with  all  its  departments. 
In  1917  there  were  S  850  students  in  all  the 
deiartments,  of  whom  about  60  per  cent,  due  to 
the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  war, 
were  women;  it  is  also  to  be  noted  that  a  com- 
paratively large  proportion  of  students  is  in 
the  general  or  academic  courses,  as  distinguished 
from  the  technical  and  professional  courses. 


and  A^ppina:  b:  31  Aug.  12  A.D.,  in  the  camp 
at  Antium,  and  brought  up  among  the  legions ; 
d.  24  Jan.  41  a.d.  He  received  from  soldiers 
the  surname  of  Caligula,  on  accoimt  of  bis 
wearing  the  caligte,  the  boots  commonly  used 
by  the  soldiers.  He  understood  so  well  how  to 
insinuate  himself  into  the  good  graces  of  Tibe- 
rius that  he  not  only  escaped  the  cruel  fate  of 
his  parents,  and  brothers,  and  sisters,  but  was 
even  loaded  with  honors.  Whether,  as  some 
writers  inform  tis,  he  removed  Tiberius  out  of 
the  way  to''  slow  poison  is  uncertain.  When 
the  latter  was  about  to  die  he  appointed,  ac< 
cording  to  Suetonius,  Caligula  and  the  son  of 
Drusus,  Tiberius  Nero,  heirs  of  the  empire. 
But  Caligula,  universally  beloved  for  the  sake 
of  his  father,  Germanicus,  was  able  without 
difficulty  to  obtain  sole  possession  of  the 
throne.  Rome  received  him  joyfully,  and  the 
distant  provinces  edioed  his  welcome.  His 
first  actions  were  just  and  noble.  He  interred, 
in  the  most  honorable  manner,  the  remains  of 
his  mother  and  of  his  brother  Nero,  set  free 
all  stale  prisoners,  recalled  the  banished  and 
forbade  all  prosecutions  for  treason.  He  con- 
ferred on  the  magistrates  free  and  independent 
power.  Although  the  will  of  Tiberius  had  been 
dedared  by  the  Senate  to  be  noil  and  vmid,  he 
fulfilled  every  article  of  it,  with  the  exception 
only  of  that  above  mentioned.  When  he  was 
chosen  ccmsul  be  took  his  unclt^  Qaudius,  as 
bis  colleague.  Thus  he  distinguished  the  first 
eight  months  of  his  reign  by  many  magnani- 
mous actions,  when  be  fell  sick.  After  his 
recovery,  by  a  most  unexpected  alteration, 
which  has  given  good  grounds  to  suspect  his 
sanity,  he  suddenly  showed  himself  the  most 
cruel  and  unnatural  of  tyrants.  The  most  ex- 
quisite tortures  served  him  for  enjoyment 
During  his  meals  he  caused  criminals,  and  even 
innocent  persons,  to  be  stretched  on  the  rack 
and  beheaded;  the  most  respectable  persons 
were  daily  executed.  In  the  madness  of  his 
arrogance  he  even  considered  himself  a  god, 
and  caused  the  honors  to  be  paid  to  him  which 
were  paid  to  Apollo,  to  Uars,  and  even  to 
Jupiter.  He  also  showed  himself  in  public 
with  the  attributes  of  Venus  and  of  other 
^ddesses.  He  built  a  temple  to  his  own  divin- 
ity. At  one  time  he  wished  that  the  whole 
Roman  people  had  but  one  head,  that  he  migbt 
be  able  to  cut  it  off  at  one  blow.  He  fre- 
quently repeated  the  words  of  an  old  poet, 
Oderinl  dutn  metuant  —  "let  tfaem  hate  so  long 
as  they  fear.*  He  squandered  the  public  tnoney 
with  almost  incredible  prodigality.    One  of  his 

Eeatest  follies  was  the  building  of  a  bridge 
tween  Balee  and  Puteoli  (PuzznoU),  in  order 
that  he  might  be  able  to  boast  of  raarcfaing 
over  the  sea  on  dry  land.  He  had  it  corvered 
with  earth,  and  houses  built  on  it,  and  then 
rode  over  it  in  triumph.  He  gave  a  banquet 
in  the  middle  of  the  bri<i^,  and  to  celebrate 
this  great  achievement  ordered  numbers  of  the 
spectators  whom  he  had  invited  to  be  thrown 
into  the  sea.  On  his  retam,  be  entered  Rome 
in  triumph,  because,  as  he  said,  he  had  con- 
quered nature  herself.  After  this,  be  made 
preparations  for  an  expedition  against  the  Ger- 
mans^ passed  with  more  than  2015,000  men  over 
the  Rhine,  but  returned  after  he  had  traveled 
a  few  miles,  and  that  without  having  seen  an 
enemy.  Such  was  his  terror,  that,  when  he 
came  to  the  river,  and  found  die  bridge  <^ 


.Google 


siructed  by  the  crowd  upon  it,  he  caiucd  him- 
self to  be  passed  over  the  heads  of  the  soldiers. 
He  then  went  to  Gaul,  which  he  plundered 
with  unexampled  rapacity.  Not  content  with 
the  considerable  booty  thus  obtained,  he  scdd 
all  the  property  of  both  his  sister^  Aarippina 
and  Uvilla,  whom  he  banished.  He  also  sold 
the  furniture  of  the  old  court,  the  clothes  of 
Marcus  Antonius,  of  Augustus,  Agrippina, 
etc  Before  be  left  Gaul,  he  declared  his  in- 
tention of  going  to  Britain.  He  collected  his 
anny  on  the  coast,  embarked  in  a  magnijicent 
galley,  but  returned  when  he  had  hardly  left 
the  land,  drew  up  his  forces,  ordered  the  signal 
for  battle  to  be  sounded,  and  commanded  the 
soldiers  to  fill  their  pockets  and  helmets  with 
shells,  while  he  cried  out,  "This  booty,  ravished 
from  die  sea,  is  fit  for  my  palace  and  the 
capitoU'  When  he  returned  to  Rome,  he  was 
desirous  of  a  triumph  on  account  of  his 
achievements,  but  contented  himself  with  an 
ovation.  Discontented  with  the  Senate,  he 
resolved  to  destroy  the  greater  part  of  the 
monbers,  and  the  most  (ustinguished  men  of 
Rome,  This  is  proved  by'  two  boolra  which 
were  f6und  after  his  death,  wherein  the  names 
of  the  proscribed  were  noted  down,  and  of 
which  one  was  entitled  Gtadmt  (Sword),  and 
the  other  Puffillus  (DagRer),  He  became  rec- 
onciled to  the  Senate  again  when  he  found  it 
worthy  of  him,  Caligula's  morals  were,  from 
his  youth  upward,  corrupt.  After  he  had  mar- 
ried and  repudiated  several  wives,  Ciesonia  re- 
tained a  permanent  hold  oa  his  affections.  A 
number  of  conspirators,  at  the  head  of  whom 
were  Ouerea  and  Cornelius  Sabtnus,  both 
tribunes  of  the  prsetorian  cohort^  murdered 
him  in  the  29th  year  of  fais  age,  and  the  fourth 
of  his  tyrannical  reign,  which  thus  lasted  from 
37  to  41  A.D.  Consult  Baring-Gould,  <The 
Tragedy  of  the  Cassars'   (London  1892). 

CALIPH  (Fr.  caiife,  Ar.  khalifa,  calif,  suc- 
cessor), is  the  name  assumed  by  the  succes- 
sors of  Mohammed  in  the  government  of  the 
fai^ful  and  in  the  high-friesthood.  (^iphate 
is  therefore  the  name  ^ven  bv  historians  to 
the  empire  of  these  prmces  -which  the  Arabs 
founded  in  Asia,  and  impelled  by  religious  en- 
thusiasm, enlar^d,  within  a  few  centuries,  to  a 
dominion  superior  in  extent  to  the  Roman  em- 

¥'Te.  The  title  is  still  borne  by  the  Sultan  of 
urkey.  Mohammed,  in  the  character  of  the 
prophet  of  C}od,  made  himself  the  spiritual  and 
temporal  ruler  of  his  people.  In  the  following 
account  the  dates  both  of  the  Hegira  and  the 
Chrisrian  year  are  often  pven.  The  difference 
in  the  mode  of  computing  the  Mohammedan 
year  has  caused  considerable  divergencies 
among  authorities  in  regard  to  the  exact  dates 
of  the  particular  events  of  Mohammedan  his- 
tory. 

After  the  death  of  the  Prophet  the  election 
of  a  successor  occasioned  considerable  excite- 
ment, Mohammed  having  left  no  son  and  nom- 
inated no  successor.  Abdallah  Ebn  Abu  Koa- 
fas,  called  Abubekr,  that  Is,  father  of  the 
virgin  (because  his  daughter  Ayesha  was  the 
only  one  of  the  wives  of  Mohammed  whom  he 
had  married  as  a  virgin),  obtained  the  victory 
over  Ali,  the  cousin  and  son-in-law  of  Mo- 
haimined,  and  became  the  first  caliph,  632  a.d. 
(year  of  the  Hegira  11).  ^ctorious  over 
enemies   at  home,  by  the  aid  of  his  general, 


Khaled,  "the  Sword  of  (^d,*  he  proceeded,  as 
the  Koran  directs,  to  spread  the  doctrines  of 
Mohammed  by  anns  amqng  the  neighboring 
nations.  With  the  watchword,  conversion  or 
tribute,  a  numerous  army,  con»sting  entirely 
of  volunteers  ins^iured  widi  zeal  for  the  holy 
war,  penetrated  into  Syria  and  Mesopotamia, 
but  before  much  could  be  don^  Abubdcr  died 
after  he  had  filled  the  place  of  the  Prophet  two 
years  and  four  months. 

Omar,  another  father-in-law  of  the  Frophe^ 
now  became  second  caliph,  and  under  him  the 
war  was  continued.  The  Moslems  having  once 
acquired  a  strong  footing  in  Syria  by  the 
treacherous  surrender  of  Bosr^  they  under- 
took, under  IChaled,  the  siege  of  Damascus,  and 
having  repulsed  two  large  armies,  sent  by  the 
Elmperor  Heraclius  to  the  relief  of  the  city, 
they  obtained  possession  of  it  by  a  capitulation 
(635  A.D.),  the  terms  of  which  were  perfidiously 
broken,  Khaled  pursuing  and  slaughtering  toe 
retreating  Christians.  By  him  and  other  gen- 
erals, though  not  without  a  brave  resistance  on 
the  part  of  the  Greeks,  the  subjugation  of 
Syria  was  completed  (638  a.d.,  of  the  Hegira 
17).  Jerusalem  having  been  compelled  to  sur- 
render (636  A.D.,  Heg.  15),  Omar  proceeded 
thither  in  person  to  fix  the  terms  of  capitula- 
tion, which  subse<]uently  served  as  a  model  in 
settling  the  relations  of  the  Moslems  to  the 
subject  Christians.  These  terms  were  carefully  . 
observed  by  the  conscientious  caliph.  The  new 
Persian  empire  of  the  Sassantdse  was  also  over- 
thrown, and  Mesopotamia  and  other  extensive 
regions  overrun.  Equally  successful  was  the 
Mohammedan  general,  Amru,  in  Egypt,  which 
was  subjected  to  the  caliphate  in  two  years 
(641).  Omar  was  the  first  who  bore  the  ap- 
pellation of  Emir  al  Moumenin  f'Prince  of 
the  Faithful*) — a  title  inherited  oy  all  suc- 
ceedii^  caliphs.  Manjr  of  these  conquests  were 
over  Christian  populations  who  readily  changed 
their  creed  ana  adapted  themselves  to  the  new 

After  the  murder  of  Omar  by  a  revengeful 
slave  (644  A.D.,  Heg.  23),  a  council,  appointed 
by  him  on  his  death-bed,  chose  Osman,  or  Otb- 
man,  son-in-law  of  the  Prophet,  passing  over 
Ali.  Under  him  the  empire  of  me  Arabs  con- 
tinued to  expand.  From  Egypt  the  tide  of  con- 
quest advanced  westward  along  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  as  far  as  Ceuta.  Cyrus  too 
(647  AX.),  and  Rhodes  (654  a.d.)  were  coi»- 
quered;  Dut  the  former  was  lost  again  two 
years  after.  An  agitation  against  Othman  now 
arose,  partly  owin^  to  the  fact  that  he  favored 
and  aggrandized  his  own  family  connections  ir 


moat  capable,  but   ._ 

many  also  the  claims  of  Ali  to  the  caliphate 
were  deemed  superior  to  those  of  Othman.  The 
dissatisfaction  thus  excited  occa^oned  a  gen- 
eral insurrection  in  the  year  656  (Heg.  34), 
which  terminated  in  Othman's  death. 

Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  the  Project  by  Fatima, 
became  the  fourth  caliph,  by  the  dioice  of  the 
people  of  Medina,  and  is  regarded  as  the  first 
legitimate  possessor  of  the  dignity  by  a  n^n]e^■ 
ous  sect  of  Mohammedans,  which  gives  him 
and  his  son,  Hassan,  almost  equal  honor  with 
the  Prophet  This  belief  prevails  among  the 
Persians,  and  others  who  belong  to  the  Shiite 
sect  as  opposed  to  the  Sunnites  or  Orthodox. 
Instead  of  being  ^ble  to  continue  the  coowesti 


Coogic 


of  his  predecessors,  AU  always  had  to  contend 
with  domestic  enemies.  Ajnong  these  was 
Ayesha,  the  widow  al  the  Prophet,  called  the 
mother  of  the  faithful ;  also  Tellab,  Zobeir,  and 
ospedally  the  powerful  Moawiyab,  governor  of 
Syria,  who  all  laid  claim  to  the  government. 
These  were  able  to  create  suspicion,  and  spread 
the  report  that  All  had  insti^ted  the  murder 
of  Othman.  In  vatn  did  he  endeavor  to  repress 
the  machinations  of  his  enemies  by  entrusting 
the  govenmient  of  the  provinces  to  his  friends. 
Nowhere  were  the  new  governors  received. 
The  discontented  collected  an  arm^  and  made 
themselves  masters  of  Bassora.  Ah  defeated  it, 
and  Tellah  and  Zobeir  fell;  but  he  could  not 
prevent  Moawiyah  and  his  friend  Amru  from 
extending  their  party  and  maintaining  them- 
selves in  Syria,  Eigypt,  and  even  in  a  part  of 
Arabia.    Three  men  of  the  sect  of  the  Khare- 

.  jites  proposed  to  restore  concord  among  the 
faithful,  by  slaying  each  one  of  the  three  heads 
of  the  parties,  AU,  Moawiyah  and  Amru;  but 
Ali  only  fell  (661  A.D.,  Heg.  40).  He  was  a 
man  of  a  cultivated  mind,  and  was  the  author 
of  a  collection  of  sentences  or  moral  maxims, 
etc.  His  son,  the  mild,  peaceful  Hassan,  had  no 
desire  to  defend  the  caliphate  against  the  in- 
defatigable Moawi}^;  a  treahr  was  concluded 
between  the  two,  by  which  Hassan  solemnly 
abdiia.ted  the  gDvemment  (661).    Some  years 

.  later  he  perished  by  poison,  said  to  have  been 
administered  by  one  of  his  wives  at  the  Insti'' 
gation  of  Moawiyah. 

Moawiy^  I  transferred  the  seat  of  the 
caliphate- from  the  city  oi  the  Prophet,  Medina, 
where  it  had  Mthetlo  always  been,  to  Damas- 
cus, in  the  province  of  which  he  had  formerly 
been  governor  (673  a.d,,  Heg.  54).  With  him 
began  the  series  of  the  caliphs  called  Ommiades 

ior  Ommayads),  which  name  this  family  bore 
rom  Moawiyah's  progenitor,  Omroiyah.  Not 
lon^  after  his  accession  he  was  obliged  to  qudl 
an  insurrection  of  the  Kharejitcs  tv  a  cam- 
pai^j  and  a  rebellion  at  Bassora  by  severe 
punishments.  He  then  seriously  meditated  the 
entire  subversion  of  the  Byzantine  empire  (q.v.)- 
Rhodes  was  attacked,  and  the  famous  colossus 
was  broken  in  meces.  His  son  Jezid  marched 
tbroui^  Asia  Minor,  mectiDs  but  little  resist- 
ance; then  crossed  the  Hellespont  and  laid 
siege  to  Constantinople,  but  was  obliged  to 
nusc  it  (669  a.d.,  Heg.  40).  Other  generals  were 
more  successful  against  the  Turks  m  KhorasaiL 
and  die  regions  extending  to  the  borders  oi 

The  next  caliph,  Jezld  (or  Yazid),  was  not 
altogether  a  worthy  successor  of  ms  father, 
the  politic  Moawiyah  (680  a.d.,  Heg.  60).  At 
first  he  was  not  acknowledged  by  the  two  hoty 
dtics,  Mecca  and  Medina,  which,  as  long  as 
the  caliphs  had  resided  in  the  latter  city,  had 
enjoyed  a  principal  voice  in  their  election,  but 
which  bad  not  been  consulted  when  Moawiyah, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  caliphs,  ap- 
pointed  his  successor  in  his  lifetime.  The  dis- 
contented espoused  the  cause,  either  of  Hous- 
sain,  the  famous  son  of  AU,  or  of  Abdallah, 
Zobeir's  son,  both  of  whom  had  laid  claim  to 
the  caliphate.  A  rebellion  of  the  inhatntants 
of  Irak,  in  favor  of  Houss^n,  led  by  Moslim, 
Houssam's  cousin,  was  suppressed  by  the  pru- 
dence and  decbion  of  Obeidallah,  governor  of 
Cufa;  and  Houssain,  who  had  accepted  the  in- 
vitation of  the  conspirators,  was  Idlled    (680 


a;d.,  Heg.  61),'  to  tlie  grfeat  grief  and  rage  of 
all  those  who  took  part  with  Ali's  family —  a 
feeling  still  cherished  by  the  Shiites.  Abdallah 
Ebn  Zobeir  was  recognized  as  caliph  in  Medina, 


invested,  stormed  and  sacked;  and  Mecca, 
which  Abdallah  took  shelter,  was  besieged,  but 
during  the  siege  Jerid  died. 

After  Jeziifs  death  (683  A.D.,  Heg.  64)  bis 
son,  Moawiyah  II,  a  weak  but  pious  youth,  be- 
came  caliph,  but  after  a  reign  of  40  days  he 
died  when  he  Vas  meditating  abdication.  By 
this  time  Abdallah  Ebn  Zobeir  had  caused  him- 
self to  be  proclaimed  as  Prince  of  the  True  Be- 
Uevers,  and  he  had  a  powerful  following.  For 
a  period  anarchy  prevailed.  Iral^  Hejax,  Ye- 
men and  Egypt  acknowledged  Abdallah  Ebn 
Zobeir  as  caUph.  In  Syria,  Dehac,  regettt  to 
Abdallah,  was  at  first  chosen  caliph ;  but  the 
people  of  Damascus  appointed  Merwan  I,  of 
the  race  of  the  Oromiades,  caliph,  who  made 
himself  master  of  all  Syria  and  Egypt.  Khora- 
san  .separated  from  the  caliphate,  and  submitted 
to  a  prince  of  its  own  choosing — the  noble 
Salem.  In  the  following  year  (684  a.d.,  Heg. 
65)  Soliman  Ebn  Sarad  excited  a  great  rebel- 
lion of  the  discontented  in  Syria  and  Arabia, 
and  pronotmced  both  caliphs  oeposed,  but  v/as 
defeated  by  the  experienced  soldier  Obeidallah. 
Merwan  (who  died  in  685)  had  been  compelled 
to  promise  on  oath  to  leave  the  caliphate  to 
Khaled,  the  son  of  Jezid,  yet  he  nominated  bis 
son  Abdalmelek  as  bis  successor.  Under  him 
(685  A.D,  H«K.  65)  Mokthar.  a  new  rebel 
against  both  caliphs,  was  subdued  by  one  of 
them,  Abdallah  (686  A.D.,  He^.  67);  but  this 
only  made  Abdallah  more  formidable  to  Abdal- 
melek, who,  in  order  to  be  able  to  direct  all 
his  forces  against  him,  concluded  a  iieace  with 
the  Gredc  emperor,  Justinian  II,  in  which, 
reversing  the  order  of  the  Koran,  he  conceded 
to  the  Clhristians  a  yearly  tribute  of  50,000 
pieces  of  gold.  He  then  marched  against  Ab- 
dallah, defeated  him  twice,  and  took  Mecca  hy 
assault.  In  this  last  conflict  Abdallah  fell 
Thus  Abdalmelek  united  under  his  dominion  all 
the  Mussulmans ;  but  the  resistance  of  governors 
and  wars  with  the  Greeks  kept  him  con- 
stantly occupied.  He  was  the  first  caliph  that 
caused  money  to  be  coined.  He  died  70S  a.d. 
(Heg.  86).  Under  Walid  I,  his  son,  the  Arabs 
conquered  in  the  east  Charasm  and  Turkes- 
Un  (707  A.D.  Heg,  88)  ;  in  the  north  Gala- 
tia  (710  A.D.)  ;  and  in  the  west  Spain  (711 
A.ft).  (See  Spain).  He  died  in  716  (Heg. 
97).  His  brother  and  successor,  Soliman,  be- 
sieged Constantinople,  hut  his  fleet  was  de- 
stroyed by  Greek  fire,  and  his  army  suffered 
severely  from  famine.  He  died  while  on  bis 
way  to  take  part  in  the  siege  in  717  (Heg.  99). 

Omar  II,  his  successor  b^  SoHman's  last 
will,  was  equally  unsuccessful  m  the  conduct  of 
the  war.  Having  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
the  Ommiades  by  his  indulgence  toward  the  sect 
of  Ali,  he  was  poisoned  by  them  (721  a.b.,  Heg. 
ICC).  Jerid  II,  his  successor  also  for  the  dis- 
position of  Soliman,  died  of  grief  for  the  loss 
of  a  female  favorite,  of  whose  deadi  he  was 
die  author  (723  a.d.,  Heg.  10*).  His  successor 
was  Hisham,  who  rdgned  till  743.  He  had  to 
suppress  several  revolts,  the  chief  being  that  of 
Zaid  <739-40).  Aboiit  this  time  the  Abbas- 
sides,  descendants  of  Abbas,  son  of  Abdalmo- 


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talet^  uncle  of  the  Prophet,  began  to  be  for- 
midable. Under  Hisham  an  end  was  pot  to  the 
progress  of  the  Saracens  in  the  west  by  the 
mergy  of  Charles  Martel,  who  annihilated  dieir 
armies  at  Tours  in  732,  and  st  Narbonne  in 
736.  Walid  II  was  murfered  after  a  reign  of 
one  year  (744  a.d.,  Heg.  124). 

After  the  still  briefer  rdgni  of  Jerid  III 
and  of  his  brother  Ibrahim,  Merwan  II  fol- 
lowed, with  the  surname  (respectable  among 
the  Arabs)  of  the  Ass  (Al  Hemar).  Ibrahhn, 
the  Abbasside  leader,  being  imprisoned  and  put 
to  death  by  thb  prince,  his  brother,  Abul  Abba*, 
took  up  the  cause  of  the  Abbassides  and  as- 
snmed  the  title  of  caliph.  In  the  resulting  war 
Medwan  was  twice  defeated,  and  fell  (750  a.ix, 
He^.  133).  With  him  teiminates  the  series  of 
caliphs  of  the  race  of  Otmniyah.  The  fimous 
Abdallah,  oncle  of  Ibrahim  and  Abul  Abbas, 
treacherously  destroyed  almost  all  the  Ommtades 

fe.  horrible  massacre  at  a  meeting  to  which 
had  been  inveigled  One  of  the  family, 
Abderndunaii,  grandson  of  Hisham,  having 
taken  refuge  in  Spain,  escaped  the  massacre  and 
founded  the  independent  caliphate  oi  Cordova. 
See  SpXin. 

Abul  Abbas,  first  of  the  Abbasside  caliphs, 
died  young  in  754  a.d.  (Heg.  136).  His 
brother,  Abu  Giafar,  called  Al  Mansur  ('the 
Victorious*),  was  obliged  to  contend  with  a 
rival  in  his  uncle,  Abdallah,  whom  he,  however, 
overcame.  He  acquired  his  surname  by  his  vic- 
tories  in  Armenia,  Cilicia  and  Cappadoda. 
Spain  was  lost  by  him,  however,  as .  well  as 
Africa.    In  the  year  764  he  foimded  tiie  city  of 


the  seat  of  the  caliphate  (768  a.d.,  H«^.  149). 
He  died  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Uecca,  leaving  im- 
mense treasures  (775  a.b.,  Heg,  1S8).  Moham- 
med Mahdi,  his  son  and  sticcessor,  a  man  of  a 
noble  character,  bad  to  contend  with  the  tur- 
bulent inhabitants  of  Kborasan  under  (he  pre- 
tended prophet,  Hakem,  and  died  785  a,d.  ;  and 
Mnsa  or  Hadi,  his  grandson,  met  with  the  lame 
opposition  from  the  Ali  party  under  Houssain. 
Hadi's  mother  was  a  strong-minded,  ambitious 
woman,  who  wished  to  mle  her  son,  and  with 
him  the  state,  and  this  led  him  to  try  to  poison 
her.  She,  however,  caused  him  to  be  smothered 
before  he  could  effect  his  purpose. 

Hadt  was  followed,  not  by  his  son,  but  by 
his  brother  Hamn  (786  a.d.),  who  was  denom- 
inated Al  Rashid  ("The  Upright")  on  account 
of  his  justice,  and  is  famous  for  promoting  the 
arts  and  sciences.  He  concluded  a  truce  (an 
actual  peace  could  never  be  made  with  Chris- 
tians) wifli  the  Greek  empress,  Iren«  (788  a.d.), 
who  consented  to  pay  him  tribute.  Yahya,  a 
member  of  the  house  of  Ali,  disputed  with  him 
the  possession  of  the  throne,  but  subsequently 
submitted,  Harun,  however,  tarnished  his  repu- 
tation by  the  murder  of  Yahya,  and  still  more 
by  the  tnnrder  of  his  sister,  and  her  favorite. 
the  Barmecide  Giafar,  and  by  the  expulsion  ana 
persecution  of  the  whole  family  of  the  Barme- 
cides, whose  services  to  the  state  and  himself 
had  been  of  very  great  value.  Harun  dinded 
the  empire  among  his  three  sons.  Al  Amin.  as 
sole  caliiJii.  was  to  reign  over  Irak,  Arabia, 
Syria^  Egypt  and  the  rest  of  Africa:  under  him 
Al  Hamun  was  to  govern  Persia,  Turkestan, 
Khorasan,  and  the  whole  East ;  and  Motassem 
was  to  rule  Asia  Minor,  Armenia  and  all  the 
coutitries  on  the  Black  Sea.  The  yoimger  broth- 


ers were  to  succeed  Amin  in  the  caltptiate. 
Thus,  in  Khorasan,  through  which  Hanm  was 
passing;  in  order  to  quell  a  rebellion  that  had 
broken  out  in  Samarcand,  be  was  arrested  by 
death,  of  which  .he  had  been  forewarned  bjf 
extraordinary  dreams  (809  A.11.,  Heg.  190). 

Al  Amin  the  faithful  (bis  proper  name  was 
Mohammed^  was  undeserving  of  this  name. 
Untrue  to  his  obligations  aB  a  mler,  and  ad- 
dicted to  al)  kinds  of  sensuality,  he  left  the  dis- 
durge  of  his  duties  to  his  vizier,  Fadbel.  The. 
viricr,  from  hatred  of  Mamun,  persuaded  die 
catiph  to  anralnt  his  son  his  successor,  and  de- 
prive Motassem  of  his  portion  of  territory.  A 
war  arose  between  the  brothers.  Mamun's  g!tn- 
eral,  Thaher,  defeated  the  anni^s  of  the  caliph, 
took  Bagdad,  and  caused  Amin  to  be  put  to 
death  (813  A.D.,  Heg.  194). 

Mamun  was  recognized  as  caliph.  Nobler 
in  his  inclinations  than  Amin,  he  cherished  the 
arts  and  sciences  but,  Hke  his  brother,  he  left 
the  government  and  armies  to  his  ministers.' 
His  measures  to  secure  the  caliphate  to  the 
Alides  in  order  to  please  Riza,  his  favorite,  ex- 
cited the  powerful  Abbassides  to  an  insurrec- 
tion. Th^  declared  Mamun  to  have  forfeited 
the  throne,  and  proclaimed  Ibrahim  caliph,  but 
submitted  again,  after  the  death  of  Riza,  wben^ 
the  caliph  had  diangcd  his  sentiments.  The 
vast  empire  of  Uie  Arabs,  embracing  number- 
less provinces  in  two  quarters  of  the  g^be^ 
could  hardly  be  held  under  his  sceptre.  There 
is  but  one  step,  and  that  an  easy  one,  under. a 
weak  sovereign,  from  a  vice-royaity  to  a  king- 
dom. The  wisdom  of  the  farmer  Abbassides 
could  only  retard  this  evil;  the  faults  of  the 
letter  precipitated  it.  Even  under  Harun  Al 
Rashid  the  Agladides  had  founded  an  inde- 
pendent empire  in  Tunis  (600  a.d.,  Heg.  181), 
as  had  likewise  die  fidrisides  in  Fer.  Thaher, 
having  been  appointed  covemor  of  Khorasan, 
made  himself  independent.  From  him  the 
Thaherides  derived  their  origin.  Mamun  sent 
Thomas,  a  Greek  exile,  with  an  army  against 
the  Greek  emperor,  Michael  II  the  Stammerer. 
Thomas  depopmlated  Asia  Minor,  and  Jaid  sie^ 
to  Constantinoiile ;  bnt  a  storm  destroyed  his 
fleet  (823  a.d.^  Heg.  207).  A  second  attack  on 
the  imperial  city  was  repelled  by  the  aid  of  the 
Bulgarians.  Thomas  was  taken  prisoner  and 
executed.  Toward  the  many  religious  sects 
into  which  the  Mossuhnans  were  then  divided 
Mamun  acted  with  toleration.  He  died  833 
A.D.  (Heg.  218).  During  his  government  (about 
830  A.D.,  Heg.  215),  the  African  Arabs  con- 
quered Sirily  and  Sardinia,  where  they  main- 
tained themselves  about  200  years,  till  the  latter 
island  was  torn  from  them  by  the  Pisans  in 
1016-17,  and  Che  former  island  by  the  Normans 
between  I06I  and  1090. 

Motassem,  at  first  named  BiUah  (by  the 
grace  of  God),  Harun's  third  soii,  built  a  new 
city.  Samara,  56  miles  from  Bagdad,  and  trans* 
f erred  thither  his  residence.  In  his  wars 
i^inst  the  Greeks  and  rebellious  Per^atts  he 
first  used  Turkish  soldiers.  From  grief  at  the 
death  of  his  private  physician,  Motassem  be- 
came insane  and  died  842  ad,  (Heg.  227). 

Vafhek  Billah,  his  son,  member  of  the  Mo- 
tazelite  sect,  exerted  himself  to  promote  the 
advancement  of  science;  but  he  was  an  ener- 
vated voluptuary,  and  died  of  nervous  weakness 
(846  A.D.,  Heg.  232).  A  contest  for  the  succes- 
aon,  between  his  brother  UotawaolMl  and  his 


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son  Uothadi,  wai  dfdded  by  the  already  power- 
ful and  arrogant  Tnridah  bodyguard  in  favor 
of  the  fonner,  the  more  unwormy  competilor. 
Under  Motawadcel  it  became  more  and  more 
customary  to  cany  on  all  wars  by  means  of 
Turldah  mercenanes.  TJuis  the  Aratn  were 
rendered  unwarlike  and  effeminate^  as  must 
necessarily  be  the  case  in  a  hot  climate  with 
those  who  do  not  live  in  constant  activity. 
Motawackel  manifested  a  blind  hatred  of  the 
Aiides,  not  spajing  even  the  memory  of  the  de~ 
ceased.  He  moreover  evinced  a  malignant 
spiiit,  and  a  proneness  to  sensuality  and  cruelty. 
His  own  son,  Uontasser,  trained  to  early  indul- 
gence in  both  these  vices,  and  often  barlrarously 
treated  by  him,  conspired  arainst  him  with  the 
Toridah  bodyguards  and  ejected  his  murder 
(861  A.i^  Heg.  247). 

The  Turks,  who  now  arrogated  the  ri^t  of 
electing  the  caliphs,  called  the  murderer  to  the 
throne  of  the  faithful,  and  compelled  his  broth- 
ers, who  were  innocent  of  the  atrocious  act,  and 
whose  revenge  tbey  feared,  to  renounce  the  suc- 
cession which  had  been  designed  for  them  by 
Uotawackel.  Montasser  died  soon  after  of  a 
fever,  caused  by  the  goadings  of  remorse  (862 
A.D.,  Heg.  248).  The  Turks  then  elected  Mos- 
tain  Billah,  a  grandson  of  the  Caliph  Uotassem. 
Two  of  the  AUdes  became  competitors  with  him 
for  the  caliphate.  One  of  them,  at  Cufa,  was 
defeated  and  put  to  death;  but  the  other 
founded  an  independent  empire  in  Tabristan. 
which  subsisted  half  a  century.  The  discord  of 
the  Turkish  soldiers  completed  the  dtsmember- 
tnent  of  the  emiHre.  One  par^  raised  to  the 
throne  Motai,  second  son  of  MotawadccI,  and 
compelled  Mostain  to  abdicate.  Motai  Bilbh 
soon  foiuid  means  to  get  rid  of  him  as  welt  as 
of  his  own  brother  Muwiad.  He  then  meditated 
the  removal  of  the  Turidsh  soldiers;  but  before 
he  found  cour^^e  to  execute  his  projects  they 
rebelled  on  account  of  their  pay  being  in  ar- 
rcar,  and  forced  him  to  resign  the  government 
He  soon  after  died  (8»  a-d  Heg.  255).  They 
conferred  the  caliphate  on  Mohadi  Billah,  son 
of  the  Caliph  Vathel^  but  deposed  this  excellent 
prince  11  months  after,  because  he  attempted  to 
improve  their  military  discipline. 

Under  Motawackel's  third  son,  the  sensual 
Uotamed  Billah,  whom  they  next  called  to  the 
caliphate,  Muaff  ek  his  brother  succeeded  by  his 
prudence  and  courage,  in  overcoming  the  dan- 
gerous preponderance  of  these  Turks.  Mo- 
tamed  transferred  the  seat  of  the  caliphate 
from  Samara  bade  to  Bagdad  in  the  year  873 

iHeg.  259),  where  it  afterward  continued.  In 
le  same  year,  owing  to  a  revolution  in  the  inde- 
pendent government  of  Khorasan,  the  dynasty 
of  the  Thaherides  gave  place  to  that  of  the  Soi- 
farides,  who  eventually  extended  their  dominion 
over  Tabristan  and  Segestan.  The  governor  of 
Egypt  and  Syria,  Achmet  Ben  Tulua,  alio  made 
himself  independent  (877  a.d.,  Heg.  263),  from 
whom  are  descended  the  Tulunides.  "the  brave 
Uuaffek  annihilated,  indeed,  the  empire  of  the 
Zinghians,  in  Cufa  and  Bassora,  10  years  after 
its  formation  (881  a.d.,  Heg.  268)  ;  but  he  was 
unable  to  save  the  caliphate  from  die  ruin  to 
which  it  was  continually  hastening, 

Motamed  died  soon  after  him  (892  A.D.,  Heg. 
279),  and  was  succeeded  by  Muaffek's  son,  Mo- 
thadad  Billah.  He  contended  unsuccessfully 
with  a  new  sect  that  had  arisen  In  Irak — 
the  Camiatfaians  (899  A.a.  Heg.  2S6)— against 


whom  his  son,  UoktafU  Billah  (902  a-d,  Heg. 
289),  was  more  fortunate.  He  was  still  more 
successful  in  a  war  against  the  Tulunides,  as  he 


2%),  Under  his  brother,  Moktadar  BilUfa^  who 
succeeded  him  at  the  age  of  13  years  (909  a.d., 
Heg.  296),  rebellions  and  bloody  quarrels  about 
the  sovereignty  disturbed  the  government  of 
the  empire.  He  was  several  times  deposed  and 
reinstated,  and  finally  murdered  (931  aj).,  He^. 
319).  During  his  reign  Abu  Mohammed  Obei- 
dallah  rose  m  Africa,  who,  pretending  to  be 
descended  from  F^Uma,  daughter  of  the 
ProiJiet  (therefore  from  Ali),  overthrew  the 
dynashr  of  the  Afladides  in  Tunis,  and  founded 
that  of  the  Fatimites  (910  a.d,  Heg.  298).  Not 
satisfied  with  reigning  independent  of  the 
califrii,  this  party,  as  descendants  of  the  Prophet 
asserted    themselves    to    be    the    only    lawful 

Shortly    afterward    the    iyaastj     of     the 
Bouides,  m  Persia,  rose  to  authority  and  power 


(925  A.D.,  H<«.  315).  Khorasan  was  still  inde- 
pendent The  only  change  was  that  the 
aamanides  had  taken  the  place  of  the  Soffar- 


ides.  In  a  part  of  Arabia  the  heretic  Car- 
tnathians  ruled:  in  Mesopotamia,  the  Hama- 
damiles.  In  Eemt,  i^ich  had  just  been 
recovered,  Akschid,  from  a  sovemor,  was 
called  to  be  a  sovereign.  Fromliim  descended 
the  Akschidites.  Kaher  Billah,  Molhadad's 
third  son,  merited  his  fate,  on  account  of  bi$ 
malice  and  cruelty.  The  Turidsh  soldiers  hav- 
ing recovered  their  power  drove  him  from  the 
throne  into  exile  (934  jLb.,  Heg.  322),  in  whidi 
he  perished  five  years  afterward.  Rhadi  Billah, 
his  brother,  bore  the  dignity  of  an  emir  al  omra 
(*captain  of  the  captains'),  with  which  the 
exercise  of  absolute  power,  in  the  name  of  the 
caliph,  was  united ;  and  thus  the  caliph  was  more 
and  more  thrown  into  the  background.  The 
first  who  was  invested  vnih  this  digrnty  was 
Kaik;  but  it  was  soon  torn  from  hmi  by  the 
Tutk  Jakan,  by  force  of  arms,  in  the  year  939 
(Heg.  327).  Jakan  extended  tiie  power  of  the 
office  to  such  a  degree  as  to  leave  the  caliph 
nothing,  but  the  name  of  bis  temporal  sway, 
and  even  assumed  the  ri^t  of  determining  the 
succession  to  the  throne.  Raik  was  indemnified 
by  receiving  Cufa,  Bassora  and  Irak  Arabi  as 


The  next  caGph,  Motaki  Billah,  Mcdctader's 
son,  made  an  e£Fort  to  regain  his  independence 
by  the  murder  of  Takun ;  but  he  was  soon  com- 
pelled by  the  Turkish  soldiers  to  appoint 
Toiun,  another  of  their  countwnen,  emir,  who 
made  this  <^ce  hereditary.  He  fonnally  de- 
vised it  to  a  certain  Schirzad,  but  it  soon  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  Persian  royal  house 
of  the  Bouides,  whose  aid  the  succeeding  caliph, 
Mostaki  Billah,  solicited  against  the  tyranny  of 
Schir9»d.  The  first  Bouide  emir,  Uoeeeddulat, 
left  it  as  an  inheritance  to  his  posterih^.  Not. 
the  caliph  but  the  emir  now  reined  in  Bagdad, 
though  over  only  a  small  terntory.  In  every 
ronote     province     diere     were     independent 

To  continue  the  catalogue  of  the  names  of 
those  who  were  henceforward  caKi^s  would 
be  superfluous,  for  these  Mussulman  popes  had 


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CALIPPU8 — CAUXTUS 


dianges  which  the  different  states  aaA  their 
dynasties  have  underKOne,  and  which  gave  lise 
to  the  dominion  of  the  Ottoman  Porte. 

During'  the  minority  of  the  Akschidite  Ali, 
die  Fatimite  More  Ledinillah,  a.t  that  time 
caliph  in  Tunis,  subjugated  E^pt  in  969  (Heg. 
358),  and  founded  Cairo,  whidi  he  made  the 
teat  of  his  caliphate.  There  were,  conse- 
quently, at  this  time  three  caliphs,— at  Bagdad^ 
Cairo  and  Cordova,^  each  of  which  dedared 
the  others  heretics.  But  the  Fatimites  as  well 
as  the  Abbassides  fell  under  the  power  of  their 
viziers,  and,  like  them,  the  Ommiades  in  Cor- 
dova were  deprived  of  all  power  by  the  di- 
vision of  Spain  into  many  small  sovereignties, 
till  [hey  were  entirely  subverted  by  the  Mora- 
belbun. 


vides,  in  998  (He^.  388),  who  were  soon,  how- 
ever, overthrown  in  turn  by  the  Seljuk  Turks 
under  Togml  Beg,  in  1030  (Heg.  421).  This 
leader  conquered  also  Charasm,  Georgia  and 
the  Perwan  Irak.    Called  (      ' 


^agdad,    _ 

the  tyranny  of  the  Bouide  emir^  ne  proceeded 
to  Bagdad,  and  became  emir  himself  in  1055 
(Heg.  448),  by  which  means  the  dominion  of 
the  Turks  was  tirmly  established  over  all  the 
Uussulmans.  To  his  nephew.  Alp  Arstan  (who 
defeated  and  took  prisoner  the  Greek  Emperor 
Romanus  Diogenes),  he  left  this  (Ugnity,  with 
so  great  power  tlut  these  Turkish  emirs  al 
omra  were  frequently  called  the  Sultans  of 
Bagdad.  Turkidi  prmces,  who  aspired  to  be 
sovereigns  in  the  ouier  provinces,  were  at  first 
satisfied  with  the  title  of  atabek  (father, 
teacher),  such  as  the  atabeks  of  Irak  and  Syria, 
of  Azerbijan,  Farsistan  (Persia)  and  Laristan. 
It  was  the  atabeks  of  Syria  and  Irak  with 
whom  (he  Crusaders  had  principally  to  con- 
tend The  first  was  called  Omadeddm  Zenghi; 
by  the  Franks,  Sanguin.  They  were  afterward 
tenned  sultans.  Tne  Caliph  of  Bagdad  was 
recognized  by  all  as  the  spiritual  sovereign  of 
all  Mussulmans :  his  temporal  authority  did  not 
extend  beyond  the  walls  of  Bagdad.  Noured- 
i£n,  Zenji's  son,  being  requested  by  the  Fati- 
mite cahph  Adhed  to  protect  Bagdad  a^nst 
his  vizier,  sent  to  Cairo,  in  siKcession,  Shirkuh 
and  Salaheddin  or  Saladin-  but  the  latter  over- 
threw the  Fatimites  (as  schismatic  anti-popes), 
and  usurped  the  airtbority  of  Sultan  of  Egypt 
in  1170  (Heg.  556)  with  which  he  united  Syna, 
after  Noureddin's  death.  This  is  the  great 
Salaheddin  (Saladin),  the  formidable  enemy  of 
the  Christians,  the  conqueror  of  Jerusalem. 
The  dynasty  which  conunenced  with  him  was 
[slled,  from  his  father,  Aypnb,  the  Ayoubit& 
They  reigned  over  Egypt  til!  expelled  by  the 
Mamelukes  in  1250,  The  Seljuk  sultans  of 
Irak  were  overthrown  in  1194  (Heg.  590)  by 
the  ChaTasmians ;  and  as  those  of  Khorasan 
were  extinct,  there  remained  of  the  Seljuk 
dominions  nothing  but  the  empire  of  Iconium 
or  Roum,  in  Asia  Minor,  from  which  the 
prwent  Turkish  empire  derrves  its  origin.  See 
OnoHAM  Empire. 

The  Charasmian  Sultans  extended  thdr  con- 
qnests  far  into  A^,  until  their  territories  were 
mvaded  by  the  Tartars  under  Genghis  Khan, 
w  1220  (Heg.  617).    They  were  finally  totaUy 


came  the  easy  prey  of  a  Mongol  horde  under 
Holagu,  in  1258  (Heg.  636),  ^  the  treachery 
of  the  vizier  Al   Kami,   and  m  slave,   Amram, 


under  the  56th  caliph  Motazem.  The  nephew 
of  die  cruelly  murdered  Motazem  fled  to  ^ypt, 
where  he  continued  to  be  called  caliph  unoer 
the  protection  of  the  Mamelukes,  .and  be- 
queathed the  Mohammedan  popedom  to  his 
posterity.  When  the  Turks  conquered  Egypt, 
in  1517,  the  last  of  these  nominal  caliphs  was 
carried  to  Constantinople  and  died,  after  re- 
turning to  Egypt  m  1538.  The  Turkish  Sultans 
subsequently  assumed  the  title  of  caliph,  and 
have  retained  it  to  the  present  day,  with  the 
claim  of  spiritual  supremacv  over  all  Mnssul- 
nuns.  though  this  claim  is  little  regarded  out- 
side nis  own  dominions,  and  strongly,  disputed 
by  the  Persians.     Consult  Muir,  Sir. William, 


and  FalP  (ib.  1891);  Syed  Ameer  Ali,  <A 
Short  History  of  the  Saracens*  (New  York 
1899) ;  Lane-Poole,  S.,  'The  Mohammedan 
Dynasties'  (London  1894)  ;  Weil,  <(^eschichie 
der  Chalifen>  (5  vols.,  Mannheim  and  Stutt- 
gart 184&.62). 

CALIPPUS.  a  Greek  astronomer,  who  was 
the  first  to  discover  the  inaccuracy  of  the 
golden  number  or  period  invented  1^  Meton, 
and  attempted  to  remedy  it  by  the  invention  of 
a  new  cycle  of  76  years,  being  only  six  hours 
less  than  the  quadruple  of  Meton's  period,  ^t 
commenced  331  B.C,  and  beinp  adopted  par- 
ticulariv  by  astronomers  in  giving  the  date  of 
their  observations,  is  frequently  mentioned  ^ 
Ptolemy.  Though  more  perfect  than  Meton> 
period,  it  was  shown  to  he  inaccupite  by  Hip- 
pocrates, who  substituted  for  it  a  cycle  of 
345  years. 

CALI8AYA  BASK,  the  yellowish  baric  of 
Cinchona  Calisaya   (q.v.). 

CALISTHEKICS,  or  CALLISTHEN- 
ICS, the  art  of  promoting  gracefulness, 
strength  and  health  by  means  of  the  lighter 
fonns  of  gymnastic  exercise.    See  Gymnastics. 

CALIVBR,  an  early  form  of  hand-gun, 
musket  or  arquebuse,  lifter  and  shorter  than 
the  original  musket,  fired  without  a  rest  and 
much  more  rapidly.  It  seems  to  have  gone 
out  of  fashion  about  1630.  Its  name  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  the  bore  was  of  uniform 
calibre,  so  that  a  common  supply  of  bullets 
might  be  used  by  an  entire  company. 

CALIXTINES.  ka-liks'tini,  or  UTRA- 
QUISTS,  a  sect  of  the  Hussites  hi  Bohemia 
(q.v.j,  who  differed  from  the  Roman  (jatholics 
principally  in  giving  the  cup  in  the  Lord's 
Supper  to  laymen,  from  which  circumstance 
they  got  their  name,  derived  -from  the  Latin 
calut,  "a  cup." 

CALIXTUS,  the  name  of  several  popes. 
1.  The  first  of  this  name,  a  Roman  bishop,  was 
the  17th  pope  (217  to  224.  or  from  218  to  223), 
when  he  suffered  martyrdom  according  to  some 
accounts.  2.  Guido,  son  of  Count  William  of 
Burgundy,  archbishop  of  ^icnne,  and  papal 
legate  in  France,  was  elected  in  1U9,  in  die 
monastery  of  Qugny,  successor  of  the  expelled 
Pope,  (telasius  II,  who  had  been  driven  from 
Italy  by  the  Emperor  Heniy  V,  and  bad  died 


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C  AUZTU8 — CALKIH8 


in  this  monastery.  In  the  tame  year  he  held 
councils  Bt  Toulouse  and  at  Rheims,  the  latter 
of  which  was  intended  to  settle  the  protracted 
dispute  respecting  the  ri^t  ot  investiture.  As 
the  Emperor  Heniy  V  would  not  confinn  an 
agreement  which  he  had  already  made  on  this 
subject,  Calixtus  repeated  anew  the  excom- 
munication which  he  had  already  pronounced 
against  him  when  legale  in  1112.  He  excom- 
municated also  the  anti-pope,  Gregory  VIII, 
and  renewed  former  decrees  reBpecting  simony, 
lay  investiture  and  the  marriage  oi  priests. 
Successful  in  his  contest  with  the  Emperor  on 
the  subject  of  investiture,  by  means  of  his 
alliance  with  the  rebels  in  Germany,  in  par- 
ticular with  the  Saxons,  he  made  his  entrance 
into  Italy  in  1120,  and  with  great  pomp  into 
Rome  itself ;  took  Gregory  VIII  prisoner  in 
1121,  and  banished  him  to  a  monaiteiy.  He 
availed  himself  of  the  troubles  of  the  Emperor 
to  force  him,  in  1122,  to  agree  to  the  Concordat 
of  Worms.  After  an  energetic  pontificate  he 
died  in  1124.  3,  Cauxtus  III,  chosen  in  1168 
in  Rome  as  anti-j>ope  to  Pascmil  III,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  &nperor  Frederick  I  in  1178, 
was  obliged  to  submit  to  Pope  Alexander  III. 
As  he  was  not  counted  among  the  le^  popes, 
a  subsequent  Pope  was  called  Cahxtus  III, 
This  was  a  Spanish  nobleman,  Alfonso  Borgia, 
counsellor  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Aragon  and  the 
Sicilies.  He  was  made  Pope  in  1455.  He  was 
at  this  time  far  advanced  in  life,  but  equalled 
in  policy  and  energy  the  most  enterprising 
mlers  of  the  Oiurch.  He  appointed  an  eccle- 
vastical  commission  to  reconsider  the  case 
against  Jeanne  d'Ar^  and  its  decision  was  that 
she  died  a  martyr  to  her  faith,  her  king  and 
her  country.  In  order  to  apj>ease  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  princes  and  nations  occasioned 
by  the  proceeding  of  tbe  councils  of  Constance 
and  Basel,  he  instigated  them  to  a  crusade 
against  the  Turks.  His  intention  was  counter- 
acted   in    Germany   by    the    discontent    of    the 


universities  of  Paris  and  Toulouse  against  the 
tithe  for  the  Turkish  war.  King  Alfonso, 
moreover,  was  indignant  at  the  refusal  of  the 
Pope  to  acknowledge  his  natural  son  Ferdinand 
as  idng  of  Naples. 

CALIXTUS  (properly  Callisen),  Georg, 
ga'org,  Gcnnan  clergyman,  the  most  able  and 
enlightened  theologian  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
in  the  17th  century:  b.  Medelbye,  Schleswig,  14 
Dec.  1586;  d.  19  March  1656.  In  1609  he  vis- 
ited the  universities  of  the  south  of  Germany; 
in  1612  those  of  Holland,  Britain  and  France, 
where  his  intercourse  with  the  different  re- 
ligious parties  and  the  greatest  scholars  of  his 
time  developed  that  independence  and  liberality 
of  opinion  lor  which  he  was  distinguished.  In 
1614  he  was  made  professor  of  theology  at 
Helmstedt,  and  he  held  this  post  till  his  death. 
His  treatises  on  the  authority  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  transnbstantiation,  celibacy,  su- 
premacy of  the  Pope,  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
belong,  even  according  to  the  judgment  of 
learned  Roman  Catholics,  to  the  most  profound 
and  acute  writings  against  Roman  CaOiolicisni. 
But  his  genius  and  tbe  depth  of  his  exigetic  and 
historical  knowledge  exposed  him  to  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  zealots  of  his  time.  His  asser- 
tion that  tile  points  of  difference  between  Cal- 


vinists  and  Lutherans  were  ot  less  im 

than  the  doctrines  in  which  they  were  agreed, 

and  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  less 


works,  drew  upon  him  the  reiH-oach  of  heresy. 
He  made  Chnstian  morality  a  distinct  brandi 
of  science,  and,  by  reviving  the  study  of  the 
Christian  fathers  and  of  the  history  of  the 
Church,  prepared  the  way  for  Spener,  Thomas- 
ius  and  Semler.  Consult  Henke,  £.  L.  W, 
'Calixt  und  seine  Zeit'  (Halle  1853-56); 
Dowding,  W.  C,  '(Jennan  Theology  during  the 
Thirty  Yeara'  War* ;  'The  Lift  and  Cor- 
respondence of  G.  Calixtus*  (London  1863). 

CALKING,  kok'fcir,  the  process  of  driving 
tarred  oakum  into  the  seams  between  the 
planks  of  ships,  in  order  to  render  the  joints 
water-tight.  A  wisp  of  the  oakum  is  arawn 
out  and  rolled  together  between  the  hands, 
and,  being  laid  over  the  seam,  is  driven  by  a 
wedge-shajjed  instrument  called  a  calking  iron. 
The  work  is  afterward  gone  over  widi  a  more 
powerful  instrument  of  the  same  kind,  which 
IS  held  by  one  man  and  strudc  with  a  beetle 
held  by  another.  When  all  the  oakum  is  forced 
in  that  is  practicable,  the  seams  are  payed  over 
with  melted  pitch,  and  where  they  are  to  be 
covered  with  copper,  a  thread  of  spun  yam  is 
laid  in  to  make  them  fhish  with  the  planks. 

CALKINS,  Franklin  WcOlea,  American 
author:  b.  Iowa  County,  Wis,,  5  June  1857. 
He  was  an  early  explorer  of  parts  of  Black 
Hills  of  South  Dakota  and  made  acquaintance 
with  many  Indian  tribes.  His  studies  of  bird 
and  animal  life  have  given  him  rank  as  a  natr 
uralist.  He  was  educated  for  the  law  and  had 
practice  in  counsel ;  also  had  experience  as  ranch- 
man and  railway  contractor.  He  began  writing 
for  The  Youth's  Companion  at  22  years  of  age 
and  has  been  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to 
that  magaiine  for  35  years;  is  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  syndicate  serials  which  have  been  run- 
ning in  various  magazine  sections  of  news- 
papers for  30  years,  and  contributes  to  many 
periodicals:  author  ot  'Tales  Of  The  West* 
(3  vols.,  1893);  'The  Cougar-Tamer'  (1899); 
•My  Host  The  Enemy>  (1901);  'Two  Wilder- 
ness Voyagers'  (1«E);  <The  Wooing  of 
Tokala'   (1907). 

CALKINS,  Gary  Nathmn.^'AmeHcan  sci- 
entist: b.  Valparaiso,  Ind.,  18  Jan.  1869.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  in  1890.  He  received  the  d^ree  of 
Ph.D.  at  (^lumbia  in  1898,  In  1900  he  became 
instructor  in  zoology  at  Columbia  University; 
adjunct  professor  of  zoology  1902 ;  professor 
of  protozoology  1909.  He  was  biologist  of  the 
New  York  State  Cancer  Laboratory  1904-08; 
president  of  the  American  Association  for  Can- 
cer Research  1913-14;  and  is  vice-president  of 
the  Society  of  Experimental  Biology  and  Medi- 
cine. He  has  published  'The  Protozoa'  (1901)  ; 
'Protozoology'  (1909) ;  'Biology'  (1914) ; 
also  numerous  scientific  papers. 

CALKINS,  lUry  WUton.  American  psy- 
cholf^st,  educator  and  author :  b.  Hartfoii^ 
Conn.,  30  March  1863.  She  studied  at  Smith 
College  and  at  Qark  and  Harvard  universities 
and  from  1891  was  instructor  and  afterward 
professor  of  philosophy  and  psychology  at 
Wellesley  College;  Her  puUislud  works  in- 
clude    'Introduction    to    PsytbcAogy*     (I90I; 


d=,  Google 


CALKINS  — CALIAO 


190S) ;  <Der  doppelte  Sundpunkt  in  her  Psr- 
chologie'  (1905) :  *Tbe  Persistent  Problems  of 
Philosophy*  (1907;  3d  cd„  1912);  'A  First 
Book  in  Psychology)  (1909;  2d  ed..  1911). 

CALKINS,  Raymond,  American  Congre- 
gational clergyman:  b.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  10  Aug. 
1869.       A  graduate  of   Harvard  University  in 
90,  after  teaching    expcdeuce    in    Belmont, 
■    ■      '■  ■       •■,  then   ' 


student  of  the  Harvard  Divinity  School  1893- 
95.  He  was  ordained  in  1896  and  after  pas- 
torates in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and  Portland. 
Maine,  from  1912  was  pastor  of  the  First 
Qiurdh  in  Cambridge,  Mass.  Prominent  in  the 
national  councils  of  the  Congregational 
Church,  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
'Hymns  of  the  Churdi>  (1912),  and  author  of 
'Substitutes  for  the  Saloon*  (1901). 

CALL,  an  American  family,  several  of 
whose  members  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
public  life  of  the  nation.  Dakiel,  lawyer:  b. 
about  1765;  d.  Richmond,  Va.,  20  May  1840. 
He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  (nuet-Jusiiee  John 
Marshall,  and  published  'Reports  of  the  Vir- 
ginia Court  of  Appeals*  (6  vols.,  1790-1818; 
2d  ed..  edited  by  Joseph  Tate  1824-33).— His 
brother,  Richard  Keith,  soldier;  b.  1757;  d. 
1792,  was  a  citiien  of  Virginia,  and  was  a 
major  in  the  Revolutionary  army.  He  was 
one  of  the  seven  who  cut  their'  way  through 
the  British  cavalry  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  6  May 
J780,  and  escaped.  He  commanded  a  rifle 
corps  in  Ihe  action  with  Colonel  Simcoe  at 
Spencer's  Ordinary  Va.,  25  June  1781,  and  at 
lamestown,  on  6  July,  served  under  General 
Laf^ette.  He  was  elected  surveyor-general 
of  Georgia  in  January  1784. — Their  nephew, 
Richard  Keith,  soldier:  b.  near  Petersburg, 
Va..  1791;  d.  Tallahassee,  Fla,,  14  SepL  18(2. 
He  was   appointed  first  lieutenant  in  the  44th 


son  in  April  1818;  captain  July  1818;  and  re- 
signed in  1822.  He  was  a  member  of  the  legis- 
btive  council  of  Florida  in  April  1822 ; 
brigadier-general  of  West  Florida  militia  in 
January  1823;  delegate  to  Congress  from  1823 
to  1825;  and  receiver  of  the  West  Florida  land- 
office  in  March  1825.  He  was  governor  of 
Florida  from  1835  to  1840,  and  led  the  army 
against  the  Seminoles  from  6  Dec.  1835  to  6 
Dec.  1836,  commanding  in  the  second  and  third 
battles  of  Wahoo  Swamp,  18  and  21  Nov.  1836. 
It  is  said  that  at  the  battle  of  Omithlacoochie 
Governor  Call  personally  saved  General  Clinch 
and  his  command  from  bein^  cut  to  pieces.  A 
controversy  with  Joel  R.  Poinsett  Secretary  of 
War  in  Van  Buren's  Cabinet,  relative  to  the 
misdirection  of  the  war,  cost  Call  hb  office. 
He  consequent^  turned  Whi^^  and  worked 
earnestly  for  Harrison's  election,  canvassing 
the  Northern  States  In  his  behalf.  President 
Harrison  reappointed  him  governor  of  Florida 
in  1841,  and  he  held  the  ofhce  till  1844,  but  was 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  governorship 
in  1845,  when  the  Territory  became  a  Slate, 
Although  he  had  sacrificed  fortune,  health  and 
popularity  to  protect  the  citizens  of  Florida 
durine  the  Seminole  War,  they  could  not  for- 
give ntm  for  lumin(^  Whig,  and  he  never  again 
held  political  office  in  Florida.  Governor  Call 
took  great  interest  in  the  development  of  his 

VOL.3  — IS 


road  in  the  United  States,  from  Tallaiiassee  to 
Saint  Marks,  and  also  located  the  town  of  Port 
Leon,  which  was  afterward  destroyed  Yn  a 
cyckme.  He  always  considered  ■  nimsetl  a 
Jackson  dentocrat,  as  opposed  to  later 
democracy.  Feeling  that  he  had  fouriit  at 
Jackson's  side  for  every  inch  of  ground  from 
Teilnessee  to  tl>e  peninsula,  he  regarded  him- 
self as  one  of  the  builders  of  the  nation,  and 
during  the  Civil  War  was  one  of  the  few  men 
in  the  South  that  looked  on  secession  as  trea- 
son. On  12  Feb.  1861.  he  wrote  a  lon^  letter  to 
John  S  Littell  of  Pennsylvwiia,  deplonng  seces-' 
sion.  but  defending  slavery.  See  also  Cau, 
Wilkinson,  nephew  of  the  preceding. 

CALL,  WiUdnson,  American  lawyer  and 

Elitician;  b.  Russellville,  Ky^  1834;  d.  19ia 
irly  in  life  he  removed  to  Florida  where  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  entered  the  Con- 
federate army  in  the  Civil  War  and  attained 
the  rank  of  adiutant-Keneral.  In  1865  he  ftras 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  but  was 
not  permitted  to  take  his  seat.  He  was  again 
elected  in  1879  and  served  thereafter  for  18 
years. 

CALLA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  Arum 
family,  containing  a  single  species,  growing  in 
bogs  in  Europe.  Asia  and  eastern  North 
America.  The  plant  commonly  cultivated 
imder  the  name  of  calla  is  Zontedeschia 
itthiopica. 

CALLAHAN,  JunM  Morton,  American 
publu:ist:  b.  Bedford.  Ind,  4  Nov.  1864.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Indiana  in 
1894  and  completed  the  work  for  the  doctorate 
at  Joluis  Hoidcins  in  1S97.  He  was  engagedin 
historical  research  (at  Washirvgton,  D.  C.) 
and  lecturer  on  American  diplomatic  nistory  at 
Johns  Hopkins  University  1898-190^  and  since 
1902  professor  of  history  and  political  science. 
West  Virginia  University.  He  has  written 
'Neutrality  of  the  American  Lakes'  (1898); 
'Cuba  and  International  Relations*  (1899); 
'American  ReUticuu  in  the  Pacific  and  the  Far 
East'  (1901):  'Diplomatic  History  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy'  (1901);  'The  Ameri- 
can Expansion  Policy'  (1908);  'Seward's 
Mexican  Policv'  (1909)  ;  'History  of  West 
Virginia*  (1914);  and  various  monographs  and 
eyclopsedia  ariicies.  Editor  of  'West  VirRlnia 
University  Studies  in  American  History' ;  His- 
torian of  Semi- Centennial  Commission  of  West 
Virginia,  1913. 

CALLAO,  kal-yi'o,  Peru,  seaport  cily, 
capital  of  Ctllao  province,  on  Callao  Bay,  seven 
miles  by  rail,  steam  and  electric,  west  of  Lima. 
The  spacious  harbor  alfords  safe  anchorage, 
making  CaMzo  the  principal  port  of  the  coun- 
try ;  defended  by  three  forts  and  sheltered 
southward  by  San  Lorenzo  Island,  nine  miles  in 
circumference,  and  rising  600  feet  above  sea 
level.  An  earthquake  and  tidal  wave  de> 
stroyed  the  early  city  in  1746  and  the  modem 
city  is  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  orig- 
inal site.  The  city  itself  is  uninteresting,  and 
the  climate  unhealthful.  Business  centres 
aronnd  the  harbor,  which  is  modern  in  every 
respect,  with  concrMe  piers,  floating  docl^  gas 
and  electric  lighting,  steam  cranes,  etc.  Over 
1,100  vessels  of  2,672.000  tonnage  enter  and 
clear  the  port  annually.     C^lko  has  lumber. 


d=,  Google 


CALLAWAY— CALLBNDBR 


iron  and  sugar  manuf  acturin^  industries ;  ex' 
ports  sugar,  minerals,  cotton,  bide^  boncj^cocc" 
wool,  etc.  to  the  vaJuc  of  over  $7,350,000  a 


Callao  dates  from  early  Spanish  times.  In 
1624  it  was  besieged  unsuccessfully  by  the 
British  pirate.  Clan,  who  died  there.  Incor- 
porated as  a  town  in  1671 ;  it  was  submerged 
with  all  its  inhabitants  during  the  earthquake 
of  1746k  and  when  the  sea  is  calm,  the  ruins 
are  still  distinguishable  under  water.  The  har- 
bor saw  the  naval  victoiy  of  the  independent 
Chileans  in  1820  over  the  Spaniards  who  sur- 
rendered Callao,  their  last  foothold  in  Peru, 
the  following  year.  Callao  suffered  volcanic 
disasters  in  1825  and  in  1868.  In  1866  it  was 
bombarded  by  a  Spanish  fleet  and  in  1880  by 
the  Chileans  who  took  possession  the  follow- 
ing year.  It  was  restored  to  Peru  by  the  treaty 
of  1883.    Pop.  32,000. 

CALLAWAY,  Morgui.  American  educa- 
tor: b.  Cuthbert,  Ga.,  3  Nov.  1862.  He  was 
educated  at  Emory  College,  Ga.,  and  at  Johns 
Hopkins  Uttiversity,  and  has  been  professor  of 
Engli^  in  the  University  of  Texas  from  1890. 
He  has  published  'The  Absolute  Participle  in 
Anglo-Saxon'  (1889)  ;  'The  Appositive  Par- 
ticiple in  Anglo-Saxon'  (1901);  'The  Infini- 
tive in  Anglo-Saxon*  (1913);  and  contribu- 
tions to  reviews. 


1850;  d.  New  York,  1  June  1904.    At  ri»c  e 

ipfm  of  the  Grand  T.  _  .. 
way  and  later_was  in  the  service  of  th^  Cana- 


14  he  entered  the  empfm  of  the  Grand  T.  Rail- 


dian  Express  Company,  and  Great  W.  Railway. 
His  rapid  progress  thereafter  may  be  summar- 
ized as  follows;  in  1875  he  became  superintend- 
ent of  the  Detroit  and  H.  Railroad;  in  1880, 
manager  of  the  Chicago  and  G.  T.;  in  1884, 
vice-president  of  the  Union  P.  and  allied  lines 
of  nearly  6,000  miles;  president  of  the  Toledo, 
Saint  L.  and  K.  C.  Railroad,  1887-95 ;  president 
of  the  I-ake  Shore  and  M.  S.,  1897-%;  presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  C  and  H.  R.  Railroad, 
1898-1901.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
ablest  railway  managers  in  the  United  States. 
From  1901  he  was  president  of  the  American 
Locomotive  Company. 

CALLCOTT,  kollcdt,  Sn  Angnstns  Wall, 
Enj^ish  painter:  b.  Kensington,  20  Feb.  1779; 
d.  there,  25  Nov.  1844.  H^  studied  portrait- 
painting  under  Hoppner,  but  soon  discovered 
that  his  genius  lay  in  another  department  of 
art,  and  was  so  successful  in  his  delineation  of 
landscape,  that  in  1807  he  was  elected  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1837  he  was 
knighted,  and  in  1843  was  appointed  keeper  of 
the  royal  collections  of  pictures.  He  suffered 
much  from  ill  health  for  many  years  before  his 
death.  Callcott  excelled  in  the  delineation  of 
coast  scenes,  and,  like  Turner,  has  been  called 
the  'Modem  Oaude.*    Examples  of  his  paint- 


<HtIton  Dictating  to  his  Daughters'  (Leeds). 
CALLCOTT,  John  Wall.  English  com- 
poser, brother  of  Augustus  Wall  (q.v.) ;  b. 
Kensington,  20  Nov.  1766;  d.  near  Bristol,  15 
May  1821.  He  at  first  intendi^d  to  become  a 
surgeon,  but  abandoned  the  intention,  and  de- 


voted himself  to  music  In  1785  he  competed 
for  the  prizes  of  the  Catch  Club,  and  gained 
three  out  of  four  gold  medals.  In  the  follow- 
ing decade  the  same  dub  awarded  him  20  med- 
als. In  1790,  when  Haydn  arrived  in  England, 
he  studied  under  him,  and  the  same  year  ob- 
tained from  Oxford  the  degree  of  musical  doc- 
tor. In  1805  he  pubhshed  his  'Musical  Gram- 
mar' ;  and  in  1806  was  preparing  to  deliver 
lectures  on  music  at  the  Royal  Institution  when 


for  three  years.  He  ranks  among  the 
most  eminent  of  EnHish  composers,  and  was 
especially  celebrated  tor  his  glee  compositions. 
His  best  works  were  published  in  two  volumes 
by  his  son-in-law,  Mr.  Horsley,  in  1824. 

CALLEJA  DEL  KEY,  kil-yalia  del  ra, 
Felix  Hariii,  Spanish  general:  b.  Medina  del 
Campo  1750;  d.  Cadiz  1820.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  Mexico  by  (fuelling  the  insurrection 
instigated  in  1810  by  Hidalgo,  who  was  on  the 
point  of  seizing  the  city  of  Mexico,  when 
Calleja  was  charged  by  the  viceroy,  Venegas,  to 
oppose  his  progress.  After  encounters,  in 
which  both  parties  strove  to  surpass  each  other 
in  a  display  of  cruelty  and  bnitality,  Calleja 
succeeded  in  defeating  Hidalgo's  army,  and  on 
2  Jan.  1812,  he  took  possession  of  the  principal 
fortress  Zitaquaro,  and  massacred  the  inhabit- 
ants. Hidalgo,  who  fell  near  Guadalajara,  was 
succeeded  by  the  priest,  Morelos,  who  defended 
Cuautla  Amilpas  against  the  attack  of  Calleja 
with  great  bravery  until  2  May  1812,  when 
famine  forced  him  to  surrender.  Calleja  again 
signalized  his  victory  by  acts  of  barbarism,  and 
rewarded  for  his  zeal.  4  March  1813,  by  the 


cans  by  his  relentless  rigor.  Tne  priest,  More- 
los, fell  into  his  hands  and  was  shot,  22  Dec 
1815.  Subseauently  he  promulgated  an  am- 
nestyj  but  as  he  was  unable  to  restore  peace  to 
the  distracted  country,  he  was  recalled.  On  hb 
return  to  Spain  he  was  created  Conde  de  Calde- 
ron,  and  in  January  1820,  while  preparing  to 
sail  from  Cadix  against  the  revolutionbts  of 
Paraguay,  his  troops  having  mutinied,  he  wras 
captured  and  remained  prisoner  in  the  fortress 
of^  the  Isia  de  Leon  until  the  insurrection  was 
quelled  by  Ferdinand  VII,  when  he  died,  soon 
after  having  recovered  his  liberty. 

CALLBNDER,  Hngh  Longbonme,  Eng- 
lish physicist:  b.  Hatberop  1863.  A  student 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  since  1902  he  is 
professor  of  physics  at  the  Imperial  College  of 
Science,  London,  having  previously  held  a 
similar  position  at  McGill  University,  Montreal 
1893-98.  and  at  University  College,  London, 
1898-19CQ.  He  is  author  of  ^Law  of  Con- 
densation of  Steam'  (1898);  and  'The  Im- 
perial College  of  Science'  (London  1904). 

CALLENDER,  James  Thomas,  American 
publicist:  b.  Scotland;  d.  1813.  He  came  to 
Philadelphia  as  a  refugee  from  England  in 
1790  having  been  exiled  for  his  pamphlet  'The 
Political  Progress  of  Great  Britain.'  He  pub- 
lished, in  America,  The  Political  Register. 
The  American  Register,  and  was  editor  of  the 
Richmond  Recorder.  He  wrote  'Sketches  of 
the  History  of  America';  'The  Prospect  Be- 


d=y  Google 


C  ALLENDBR — C  ALLIBIACHUS 


CALLBHDBR,  John,  American  historian 
and  Baptist  minister:  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  1706; 
d.  NewpoTi,  R.  1^  26  Jan.  174&  He  coUected 
many  valuable  papers  relating  to  the  Baptists 
in  Ameiics;  and  published  'A  CentcDiiia]  Dis- 
course on  the  Civil  and  Religious  Affairs  of 
the  Colony  of  Rhode  Island'  (1739),  which 
was  the  only  history  of  that  Stste  for  more 
than  a  century.  The  State  Historical  Society 
reprinted  it,  with  notes  by  Rev.  Romeo  Elton 
(1S3S>,  and  a  memoir  of  the  author. 

CALLET,  ka-la,  Antolne  Fransois,  French 
historical  painter :  b.  Paris  1741  -  d.  Paris  1823. 
He  obtained  the  grand  prize  m  1764  for  a 
painting  entitled  'Biton  and  G^obis  draEging 
the  chariot  of  their  mother  to  the  temple  ot 
Here.*  This  picture  was  purchased  1^  the 
Academy.  Among  his  noted  paintintj^  are 
'Winter  Saturnalia,'  'The  Festival  of  Bac- 
chus,' 'Summer,'  'Spring'  (all  four  in  the 
Louvre),  'Battle  of  Marengo,'  'The  First 
Consul  entering  Lyons.'  'The  XVIII  Bru- 
maire,'  'Auto-photo,'  'The  Marriage  of  Na- 
poleon and  Marie-Louise,'  'Birth  of  the  King 
of  Rome,'  'Capitulation  of  Ulm,'  Batde  of 
Austerliu.'  Callet  was  one  of  the  best  dec- 
orative painters  of  his  day,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  in  1780.  He  painted 
three  portraits  of  Lotus  XVI,  one  each  of 
Louis  XVIII  and  the  Comte  d'Artois  and 
Comte  de  Vergennes,  then  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  several  other  portraits  now  in  the 

CALLET,  Jean  Francois,  French  mathe- 
matician and  educationalist:  b.  Versailles,  25 
Oct.  1744;  d.  Paris,  14  Nov.  1798.  He  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  Paris  in  1768,  and  in  1779 
gained  the  prize  which  the  Academy  of  Arts  at 
Geneva  had  offered  for  escapements  in  watches. 
In  1788  he  was  appointed  professor  of  hydrog- 
raphy at  Vannes  and  shortly  after  obtained 
the  same  appointment  at  Dunkirk.  He  was 
afterward  professor  in  the  school  of  geographi- 
cal engineers,  Paris.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
'Tables  of  Logarithms.*  He  was  also  one  of 
the  first  to  propose  a  regular  "telegraphic*  code 
for  commercial  purposes,  using  the  word  *tele- 
graphic*  in  the  French  sense. 

CALLBY,  Walter,  American  Baptist 
clergyman:  b.  Dover.  DeL  19  Aug.  1858.  A 
graduate  of  Crozier  Theological  Seminal^  at 
Upland,  Fa.,  he  was  ordained  to  the  mimstry 
b  1880  and  after  holding  pastorates  at  Bethle- 
hem,   Pa.,    1880-82;    Ldigh    Avenue    Church, 


Boston,  1893-1902;  Upland,  \90S-C9,  m  the  lat- 
ter year  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Church, 
Jamaica  Plain,  Boston.  He  specialized  in  so- 
ciology and  penology,  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  Prospect  Union,  an  affiliation  of  Harvard 
Union  for  the  education  of  workingmen,  was 
general  secretary  ot  the  Baptist  Young  People's 
Union  of  America,  and  managing  editor  of  the 
oflicial  magazine  Service  1902-05. 

CALLICRATBS,  Greek  architect  of  the 
5th  century  b,c  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
Ictinns  and  with  him  erected  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens, 

CALLICRATIDAS,  a  Spartan,  sticceeded 
Lysander  in  the  command  of  the  LacedannontaR 
fleet  against  the  Athenians,  in  406  b.c      He  de- 


feated Conon  at  Mitylene,  captured  the  fleet  of 
Diomedon,  and  was  afterward  himself  defeated 
by  the  Athenians  at  ArgiausK,  where  he  was 
drowned. 

CALLI^RES,     ka^lyar'.      BONNBVUB, 


Louis  Hector,  Chevalier  de,  French  colonial 
administrator:  b.  France  1639; 
May  1703.    He  was  governor  c 
1684,  a    ■  ■  '     " 


administrator^  b.  France  1639;  d.  Quebec,  2 
~'.'.      ___    .       „  of  Montreal  in 

and  impressed  on  the  French  govemment. 


during^  a  special  visit  to  France,  the  necessity  o 
captiuing  New  York  so  as  to  maintain  French 
supremacy  in  Canada.  He  had  previously  led 
a  division  of  the  French  and  Indian  forces 
which  in  1687  unsuccessfully  attacked  the  Five 
Nations  in  New  York  State.  In  1699  he  became 
governor-general  of  Canada,  succeeding  Fron- 
tenac,  and  was  the  founder  of  Detroit,  Mich, 

CALLIGONUH,  a  genus  of  shrubs  be- 
longing to  the  Polygonacett.  They  are  leafless 
plants,  with  small  flowers,  branches  jointed, 
dichotomous,  and  the  fruit  a  large,  four-cor- 
nered nut  The  root  of  C.  Pallasia,  a  leafless 
shrub  found  in  the  sandy  steppes  of  Siberi^ 
furnishes  from  its  roots,  when  pounded  ana 
boiled,  a  gummy,  nutritious  substance  like 
tragacandi,  on  which  the  Calmucks  feed  in 
times  of  scarcity,  at  the  same  time  chewing  the 
add  branches  and  fruit  to  allay  their  IhirsL 

CALLIMACHUS.  Greek  architect  and 
statuary:  d.  Athens  396  B.C.  He  originated  the 
Corinthian    capital    and    designed    the    mystic 


of  Greek  Sculpture'   (London  1911). 

CALLIMACHUS,  Greek  poet  and  gram- 
marian :  b.  Cyren^  about  310  b.c  ;  d.  about  24a 
He  opened  in  Alexandria  a  school  of  grunmar, 
that  is,  of  the  belles-lettres  and  liberal  sciences, 
and  could  boast  of  several  scholars  of  dis- 
tinguished attainments,  such  as  Eratosthenes, 
Apollonius  Rhodius,  Aristophanes  of  Byzan- 
tium and  others.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  pre- 
sented iiim  with  a  place  in  the  museum,  and 
^ye  him  a  salary,  as  he  did  other  men  of  leam- 
mg.  After  the  death  of  Philadelphus,  he  stood 
in  equal  favor  with  Ptolemy  Euergetes.  Under 
these  circumstances  he  wrote  most  of  his  works, 
the  number  of  which  was,  according  to  Suidas, 
over  800.  With  the  exception  of  some  frag- 
ments, we  have  of  these  only  64  epigrams  and 
six  hymns.  Hb  works  in  prose  include  the 
'Tablets'  in  120  books  (a  critical  bibliography)  ; 
'Memorabilia' ;  'Causes'  (4  books)  ;  in  poetry, 
the  best  known  is  his  'Hecale,'  whidi 
Ovid  used  in  his  'Philemon  and  Baucis.'  In 
1893,  research  in  ^ypt  uncovered  some  50 
verses  of  this  poem,  which  are  published  in 
Gomerz.  'Neue  Bruchstucke  aus  der  Hekale 
des  Kalliraachos'  (Vienna  1893).  His  poem  on 
the  hair  of  Berenice  has  been  preserved  in  the 
Latin  adaptation  of  Catullus  ('De  coma  Bere- 
nices'^. 'Callimachus'  poems  bear  the  stamp 
of  their  age,  which  sou^t  to  supply  the  want  of 
natural  genius  by  a  great  ostentation  of  learn- 
ing. Instead  of  noble  simple  grandeur,  they  ex- 
hibit an  overcharged  s^le,  a  false  pathos  and 
3  straining  after  the  singular,  the  antiquated, 
the  learned.  His  elegies  are  mentioned  by  the 
ancients  withgreat  praise  and  served  Propertius 
as  models.  Tae  best  editions  of  the  hymns  and 
epigrams  ar^  those  of  Meineke  (Berlin  1861); 
Schneider  1870-73;  Wilomowitz  (Berlin  Iffiff). 
Consult  also  Kenyon,  'Recent  Greek  Literal 


.Google 


B9B 


CALLINGBR  —  CAI.MKTTB 


Discoveries*  (in  the  Classical  Review,  Vol. 
Vn,  pp.  429-30,  1893). 

CALLIHGER,  an  ancient  hill  fort  and 
town  in  India.    See  ICalinjar. 

CALLINUS  OF  EPHESU3,  the  eariiest 
Greek  ele^ac  poet,  flourished  probably  about 
700  blC.  Only  one  elegy  and  a  few  fragments 
are  extant ;  these  have  been  edited  by  several 
scholars  among  them  Bervk,  in  the  <Paet% 
Lyriei  Gratci'  (Leipzig  18/8).  Consult  also 
Wright  'A  Short  History  of  Greek  Literature' 
(New  York  1907). 

CALLIOPB,  kal-lfo-pe,  (1)  In  Greek 
mythology,  one  of  the  Muses  (q.v.)  She  pre- 
sided over  eloquence  and  epic  poetry.  She  is 
said  to  have  been  the  mother  of  Orpheus  by 
Apollo.  She  was  represented  with  an  epic  poem 
in  one  hand  and  a  trumpet  in  the  other,  and 
generally  crowned  with  laurel.  (2)  An  asteroid 
(No.  22).  It  was  discovered  by  Hind  on  16 
Nov.  18S2.  ^3)  A  musical  instrument^  consist- 
ing of  a  senea  of  steam  whistles,  pitched  to 
produce  the  notes  of  the  scale,  and  grouped  to- 
gether and  operated  by  a  keyboard, 

CALLIOPB  HUHUING-BIRD.  See 
Hum  Ml  NO- Bird. 

CALLISTHENEB,  Greek  historian:  b. 
Olynthus,  about  365  B.C.;  d.  328.  He  was  a 
nephew  and  pupil  of  Aristotle,  and  Was  ap- 
pointed to  attend  Alexander  the  Great  in  lus 
expedition  against  Persia.  His  republican  sen- 
timents rendered  him  unfit  for  a  courtier,  but 
his  unpardonable  crime  was  his  opposition  to 
the  assumption  of  divine  honors  by  the  con- 

3ueror.  On  a  charge  of  treason  he  was  put  to 
calh,  by  what  method  historians  are  not 
ap-eed.  Of  several  historical  works  written  by 
him  only  fragments  remain.  A  work  on  Alex- 
ander was  once  thought  to  be  his,  but  it  has 
since  been  proved  to  be  of  later  date.  Consult 
C^rist-Schmid,  'Geschichte  der  griechischen 
Litteratur>   (Vol.  II,  Munich  1911). 

CALLISTO,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  nymph 
of  Artemis,  daughter  of  Lycaon,  Kmg  of  Arca- 
dia. According  to  the  most  prevalent  story  of 
this  maiden,  Zeus  loved  her,  and  her  son  Areas 
was  hid  in  the  woods,  and  preserved,  wlulc  she 
was  changed  by  the  jealousy  of  Hera  into  a 
bear.  Zeus  placed  her,  with  her  son,  among  the 
stars,  as  the  constetlatioD  of  the  Great  Hear. 
Areas  became  the  ancestor  of  the  Arcadians. 

CALLISTRATUS,  Athenian  orator:  h. 
abctut  400  B,c.;  d.  361.  In  377  B.C  he  played 
active  part  in  the  movement  for  the  lormati 
of  a  new  Athenian  League.  His  eloquence  is 
said  to  have  fired  the  imagination  of  the  youth- 
fttl  Demosthenes,  ''or  his  Spartan  ^mpathies 
he  was  condemned  to  death  py  the  Athenians, 
and  on  his  return  from  exile  in  Macedonia  was 
actually  executed. 

C ALLOT,  Jacques,  French  etcher:  b. 
Nancy  1592  i  d.  there  1635.  He  overcame  many 
obstacles  to  ius  study  of  art,  twice  running 
away  from  his  parents.  He  went  to  Italy, 
learned  drawing  in  Rome,  soon  gave  himself  up 
entirely  to  his  love  for  engraving,  and  became 
famous  for  his  etchings.  He  studied  with 
Parigi  at  Florence  and  served  at  die  court  at 
Tuscany.  In  the  space  of  20  years  he  designed 
and  executed  about  1,600  pieces,  most  of  them, 
except  sacred  subjects,  representations  of  bat- 


tles, sie^s,  dances,  festive  processions,  etc 
The  'Miseres  et  malhcurs  de  la  guerr^'  in  IS 
pieces,  may  be  mentioned  as  a  remarkable 
series.  He  executed  works  of  this  kind  for 
Cosmo  II  of  Florence.  Louis  XIII  of  France 
and  the  IJuke  of  Lorraine.  His  ^Fair'  and  his 
'Beggars'  are  called  his  best  pieces.  Jle  was 
the  first  who  used  in  his  etdiings  the  hard  var- 
nish—  the  vtmice  grotso  dei  lignaiuoli  of  the 
Italians;  and  was  the  first  to  n^e  etching  an 
independent  art  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
piety,  magnanimity  and  regularity  of  Ufe.  Con- 
sult M6aume,  'Recherches  sur  la  vie  et  les 
ouvrages  de  J.  Callot'  (Paris  1860),  and  Green, 
r.  H.,  <A  Catalogue  and  Description  of  the 
Works  of  the  Celebrated  J.  Callot'  (London 
18CM). 

CALLUNA.    See  Heath. 

CALLUS,  an  abnormal  hard  growth,  either 
canieous  or  osseous.  The  new  growth  of  bony 
substance  between  the  extremities  of  fractured 
bones,  by  which  they  are  united,  is  an  instance 
of  the  latter.  External  friction  or  pressure  pro- 
duces the  former,  as  in  the  hands  of  laborers 
and  the  feet  of  persons  who  wear  ill-fitting 
shoes.  A  temporary  or  provisional  callus  is  a 
flange  of  callus  formed  on  the  ends  of  broken 
bones  which  move  freely  upon  one  another 
and  separate  widely;  and  acts  as  a  splint  would. 
When  the  amount  of  callus  is  excessive,  per- 
manent injury  may  result  to  nei^t>oring  struc- 
tures since  nerves  and  tendons  may  be  included 
or  a  joint  rendered  useless.  Surgical  operation 
is  sometimes  necessary  under  these  conditions. 
Sec  Coin. 


Horgne,  near  Toul,  France,  26  Feb.  1672;  d. 
Paris,  25  Oct.  1757.  He  entered  the  order  of 
Saint  Benedict  in  1688,  and  became  the  head 
of  several  abbeys  in  succession.  In  1W8  he  be- 
came teacher  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  the 
abbey  of  Moycn-Moutier ;  in  1704,  subprior  of 
a  convent  of  learned  monks  at  Miinster  in  Al- 
sace; and  in  1706  he  went  to  Paris  to  under- 
take the  publication  of  his  commentary  on  the 
Bible.  He  afterward  became  prior  at  Lay 
<171S),  abbot  of  Saint  Leopold  in  Nancy 
(1718),  abbot  of  Senones  in  Lorraine  (1728). 
He  was  an  industrious  compiler  of  voluminous 
works.  Among  them  are  "Commentary  on 
the  Old  and  New  Tegtaments>  (23  vols„  Paris 
1707-16):  'Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible>  (4  vols..  Paris  1722-28) ;  and 
'Ecclesiastical  and  Ovil  History  of  Lorraine' 
(4  vols.,  Nancy  1728;  2d  ed.,  6  vols.,  1745-47). 
For  his  Hfe  consult  Fang*  (Senones  1762); 
Digot,  A.  (Nancy  1861):  for  his  correspond- 
ence, Guiltanme,  P.  R  (Nancy  1875). 

CALHETTB,  Gaston,  French  Journalist: 
b.  Monlpellier  1858;  d.  Paris.  16  March  1914. 
As  editor  of  the  Figaro  from  1903,_and  noted 
for  his  fearlessness  in  attadcing  his  poUtical 
opponents,  regardless  of  consequences,  he  was 
shot  and  killed  hy  Mme,  (^illaux,  wife  of  Jo- 
seph Caillaux,  Mmister  of  Finance  and  former 
Premier,  whose  private  correspondence,  ob- 
tained snrreptitiously,  Calmette  had  threatened 
to  publish.  Calmette  was  a  chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  had  been  decorated  with 


the  8 

the  King  of  Spain. 


d=,  Google 


CALMOH  — CALOMU, 


CALHON,  Ul-moA,  Hare  Antoinc. 
French  political  economist:  b.  Tunnies,  Dor- 
dogne,  3  Mardi  1815;  4  Parts,  13  Oct.  1890. 
In  1^1,  he  became  undersecretary  of  State 
in  [he  Departnient  of  the  Inierior,  and  in  De- 
cember 1G&2  prefect  of  the  Department  of  the 
Seine.  He  entered  the  NatioDat  Assembly  as 
life  member  in  1675,  but  will  be  longest  remem- 
bered for  bis  writings  on  political  economy, 
which  include  'Les  impols  avant  1789'  (1865) ; 
'William  Pitt,  etude  financi^re  et  parliamen- 
taire'  (1865) ;  'Histoire  parliamentaire  des 
finances  de  la  ResUiinktion>  (1868-70)  ;  <Etude 
des  finances  de  I'Angleterre  depuia  U  reforme 
de  Robert  Peel,  jusgue  en  1869'  (1870) ;  'Hij- 
toire  parlementaire  des  finances  de  la  mon- 
arehie  deJuiUet'  (4  vols.,  1899).  H«  edited 
Thiers'  'Discours  parlcmentaires'  (IS  vdb., 
Paris  1879-83). 

CALHON  DU  PIN  E  ALMEIDA, 
Miguel,  Brazilian  statesman:  b.  Santa  Amara, 
Bahia,  22  Dec.  1796;  d.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  5  Oct 
1865.  He  entered  the  Constituent  Assembly  in 
1822,  was  senator  in  1840,  Prime  Uinister  in 
1840  and  again  in  1843  and  resided  in  Europe 
as  special  envoy  1844-47.  He  was  created  vis- 
count in  1849  and  Marquis  of  Abrantes  in  1854. 

CALMS,  Region  of,  or  Zone  of,  tracts 
in  the  eastern  Atlantic  and  eastern  Pacific 
oceans,  on  the  confines  of  the  tradewinds,  where 
calms  of  lonf;  duration  prevail.  This  region  is 
not  the  same  all  the  year  through,  but  follows 
the  course  of  the  sun,  and  lies  farther  north  or 
farther  south  according  to  the  hemisphere  in 
which  the  sun  happens  to  be.  About  the  win- 
ter solstice  its  average  northern  limit  is  in  laL 
5*  N.,  and  in  the  months  about  the  summer 
solstice  its  average  northern  limit  is  about  12° 
N.  lat.  The  southern  limit  lies  nearly  always 
to  the  north  of- the  equator,  varying  between 
lat.  1°  and  3°  N. ;  but  it  is  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  so  far  souUi  as  tat.  1°  or  2°  S.  During 
the  months  following  the  winter  solstice  its  av- 
erage breadth  is  four  degrees,  while  in  the 
months  following  the  summer  solstice  it  is 
about  six  degrees.  The  calms  prevail  espe- 
cially on  the  northern  margin  of  this  region,  but 
even  there,  there  is  an  occasional  light  breeze, 
but  not  sufficient  to  fill  the  sails.  The  climate 
of  this  region  is  extremely  unpleasant,  for  the 
atmosphere  is  moist  and  foggy,  and  the  sly 
generally  overcast  and  gloomy,  and  the  heat  is 
intense  and  unvarying.  Almost  every  day  there 
occurs  a  violent  storm  of  thunder  and  light- 
ning, accompanied  by  sudden  blasts  of  wind, 
and  by  rain  which  falls  in  regular  streams  for 
hours  together.  On  this  account  ihe  region  is 
dangerous  to  navigators.  To  increase  these 
dangers  there  is  between  lat.  4°  and  10°  N., 
and  long.  18°  and  23°  W.,  a  tract  of  considerable 
extent,  which  seamen  call  the  'rainy  sea,"  and 
which,  with  only  rare  intervals  of  calm,  is 
visited  by  almost  constant  storms  of  thunder 
and  lightning,  and  violent  falls  of  rain,  from 
which  it  is  very  difficnlt  for  a  sailing  vessel  to 
make  its  escape. 

CALHUCKS.    See  Kalmucks. 

CALOCHORTUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  lily  family,  containing  about  50  species, 
natives  of  western  North  America.  They  are 
know^  as  Mariposa  lilies,  star  tulips  and  globe 
tulips.     The   plants  have    narrow   leaves   and 


showy,  tuUp-like.  white  or  pale  or  bright  yellow 
flowers,  often  spotted  with  darker  colors. 
Many  of  the  species  are  frequent  in  cultivation. 
CALOHARDB,  ka-lA-mar'da,  or  CALO- 
MARDA,  Francisco  Tadeo  (Chvsj  of  Ai^ 
meida)  Spanish  statesman:  b.  Villel,  Aragon, 
1775;  d.  Toulouse,  France,  1842.  He  studied 
law,  entered  political  life  and  sustained  the 
national  cause  in  resistance  to  Napoleon.  In 
1814  on  the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII,  Calo- 
marde  was  made  chief  secretary  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Indian  Afiairs.  Here  he  was  convicted 
of  bdbery  and  banisbed  to  Toledo  and  after- 
ward to  Pamsloiia.  In  1815  he  held  a  similar 
post  in  the  Ministry  of  Justice,  and  was  made 
life  secretary  of  the  Americm  Order  of  Isa- 
bella the  Catholic  In  1823  he  received  the 
appointment  of  secretary  to  the  regency,  and 
subsequently  an  important  ofhce  in  the  royal 
household,  and  he  was  appointed  Minister  of 
Justice.  He  organized  the  corps  of  royalist 
volunteers,  recalled  the  Jesuits,  reopened  the 
convents  and  dosed  the  universities.  Ferdi- 
nand VII  decorated  him  with  the  order  of 
Charles  II,  and  on  the  birth  of  Isabella  be 
became  Knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece  and,  by 
order  of  the  Kin^  of  Naples,  Duke  of  Santa 
Isabel.  He  established  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
of  Charles  IV,  admitting  women  to  the  succes- 
sion. In  1832,  when  Ferdinand's  death  was 
supposed  to  have  taken  place.  Calomarde  was 
the  first  to  bend  his  knee  before  Don  Carlos. 


took  advantage,  by  extorting  from  him  his 
signature  to  Uie  act  of  31  E>ec  1832,  reintro- 
ducing the  Salic  law,  by  which  Ferdinand 
abdicated  in  favor  of  Don  Carlos  instead  of  the 
Infanta  Isabella.  When  Ferdinand  revealed 
this  fraudulent  proceeding  Calomarde  was  ban- 
ished to  Aragon,  and  later  avoided  imprison- 
ment by  escaping  to  France  in  disguise.  Here 
he  passed  the  rest  of  bis  days  in  obscurity. 

CALOMEL,  the  sub-chloride,  or  vmild* 
chloride  of  mercury,  HgQ  (or  HgiQi),  known 
to  chemists  as  'mercurous  chloride,*  to  distin- 
guish it  from  corrosive  sublimate,  HgOi,  which 
is  known  as  'mercuric  chloride.*  It  is  prepared 
by  adding  an  alkaline  chloride  to  a  solution  of 
a  mercurious  salt,  usually  the  nitrate.  The 
precipitate  is  thoroughly  washed  to  remove  the 
last  remaining  trace  of  the  unchanged  alkaline 
chloride.    In  the  use  of  calomel  as  a  medicine 

E articular  attention  should  be  given  to  its  lia- 
ility  to  generate  corrosive  sublimate  by  de- 
composition. This  effect  may  be  produced  by 
bitter  almonds  or  cherry -laurel  water,  or  anv 
other  substance  containing  hydrocyanic  acid, 
being  administered  simultaneously  with  it. 
Nitro-muriatic  acid  produces  the  same  effects, 
as  also,  to  some  degree,  the  chlorides  of  potas- 
sium, sodium  aod  ammonium.  If  there  is  any 
possible  chance  of  its  adulteration  with  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  it  may  be  tested  by  shaking 
a  sample  with  a  little  alcohol  and  dipping  a 
knife  blade  in  the  solution.  The  presence  of 
even  so  minute  a  proportion  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate as  1/500  of  1  per  cent  will  be  shown  by 
a  blackening  of  the  steel  blade.  It  is  rendered 
inefTectual  by  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths. 
Calomel  is  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  of  the 
mercurial  preparations,  thoufrii  some  medical 
inttovators  reject  it.    It  is  employed  as  a  purga- 


Google 


CAI^HNB — CALORIHBTBR 


tive,  operating  chiefly  upoa  the  liver  by  stiinn- 
Uting  its  secretory  functions.  Being  slow  in 
its  action,  and  liable  to  salivate  if  too  long 
retained,  it  is  usually  administered  with  some 
saline  cathartic.  It  is  also  pven  as  a  remedy 
for  worms  and  as  an  alterative  in  derangement 
of  the  liver.  Calomel  occurs  native  in  Spain, 
Bohemia,  Serbia,  Mexico  and  elsewhere,  in  the 
form  of  tetragonal  crystals  white  in  color  (or 
nearly  so)  with  a  hardness  of  from  1  to  2 
and  a  specific  gravity  of  6.48.  In  this  form  it 
is  known  to  nuners  as  horn-quicksilver. 

CALONNB,  ka-ldn,  Chulcs  Alexatidie 
de,  French  statesman:  b.  Douai,  20  Jan.  1734; 
d  Paris,  30  Oct  1932.  He  succeeded  Necker 
in  1783  aa  Comptroller-General  of  the  Finances. 
In  this  ofhce  he  continued  till  1787.  During 
this  period  be  maintained  the  public  credit  by  a 
punctuality  till  then  imknown  in  the  payments 
of  the  royal  treasury,  though  he  found  it 
drained  to  the  lowest  ebb.  He  labored  with 
lu wearied  assiduity  to  restore  the  equipoise 
between  the  annual  income  and  expenditure, 
and  to  provide  a  supply  for  the  emergencies  of 
the  state,  without  increasing  the  burdens  of  the 
people.  For  this  purpose  he  advised  the  King 
to  revive  the  anaent  usage  of  convening  the 
national  assemblies  of  the  'notables,*  to  whom 
he  proposed  the  bold  project  of  suppressing 
the  jiecuniary  privileges  and  exenmtions  of  die 
nobility,  clergy  and  magistral^.  This  measure 
alarmed  those  powerful  bodies,  and  Calonne 
found  it  tiecessaty  to  retire  to  England,  where 
he  wrote  two  deleases  of  himself  —  his  'Peti- 


the  Royalist  [Ktrty  with  much  zeal,  both  by  his 
pen  and  hik  journeys  to  various  countries  of 
Europe  on  their  account.  Consult  Susan<L  <La 
tactique  finandere  de  Calonne,'  with  bibliog- 
raphy (Paris  J9CG). 

CALOPHYLLUH,  a  genus  of  trees  be- 
longing to  the  family  Guttiferacea,  and  natives 
of  warm  climates.  They  have  large  ^niog 
leaves,  with  numerous  transverse  parallel     "~~ 


domba  oil,  which  is  used  for  burning  for  mak- 
ing ointment,  etc.  C.  calaba  is  a  West  Indian 
species  whose  oil  is  used  for  illmmnating 
purposes. 

CALORESCENCE,  the  phenomenon  of 
the  transmutation  of  heat  rays  into  light  ra^s; 
a  peculiar  transmutation  of  the  invisible  calorific 
rays,  observable  beyond  the  red  rays  of  the 
spectrum  of  solar  and  electric  light,  into  visible 
luminous  rays,  by  passing  them  uirough  a  solu- 
tion of  iodine  in  bisulimide  of  carbon,  which 
intercepts  the  luminous  rays  and  transmits  the 
calorific.    The  latter,  when  brought  to  a  focus, 

?roduce  a  heat  strong  enough  to  ignite  com- 
^  uslible  substances,  and  to  heat  up  metals  to 
incandescence,  the  less  refrangible  calorific 
rays  being  converted  into  rays  of  higher  re- 
franeibili^,  whereby  they  become  luminous. 
Tyndal!  first  described  it  in  the  hook  men- 
tioned below.  See  also  Pldoeescence.  Consult 
Tyndall,  T.,  'Heat  a  Mode  of  Motion>  (New 
York  1905). 

CALORIC  (Latin  color,  •heat*),  a  name 
formerly  given  to  a  hypothetical,  imponderable 


Eubstance  of  gaseous  fonn,  whose  existence 
was  postulated  in  order  to  explain  the  observed 
phenomena  of  heat  It  b  known  that  no  such 
substance  exists,  and  the  word  is  now  practi- 
cally obsolete,  except  as  an  adjective  in  such 
expressions  as  *caloric  effect,*  "caloric  engine,* 
etc,  where  it  stands  for  the  words  'thermal* 
or  'heat,*  thou^  sometimes  in  k  special  sense. 
For  k  statement  of  the  prindptes  of  the  old 
caloric  theory,  consult  Metcalfe's  'Caloric' 
(2  vols.,  Philadelphia  1839).  Sec  alw)  Heat; 
Thermodyhahics. 

CALORIC  or  CALORY,  the  unit  of 
beat  in  the  c.  g.  s.  system ;  being  the  amount  of 
heat  necessary  to  raise  die  temperature  of  a 
kilogram  of  water  one  dt^ee  Centigrade,  or 
from  4°  to  5*  C.  In  ultra~scieniiAc  researches 
die  calorie  is  determined  by  taking  1/100  part 
of  all  the  heat  required  to  raise  1  gram  of 
water  from  1°  to  100*  C  It  is  used  as  a 
standard  of  heat  by  physicists  as  the  term 
•foot-pound*  is  employed  as  the  unit  of  energy. 
It  is  also  known  as  the  *greater  calorie,*  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  "small  calorie,*  in 
which  the  unit  of  mass  is  the  gram  instead  of 
the  kilogram.  Its  mechanical  equivalent  is 
4.187  joules,  that  being  the  amount  of  ener^ 
which  disappears  when  one  calorie  of  heat  is 
developed.     See  CALoaiKEniy. 

CALORIMETER,  The  Residration.  A 
respiration  calorimeter  is  an  instrument  of 
precision  by  means  of  which  gaseous  exchange 
and  heat  production  can  be  measured.  It  com- 
prises a  chamber  in  which  the  interchange  of 
gases  and  the  production  of  heat  occurs,  the 
walls  of   which  are  air-tight  and  heat-proof. 


ber  are  measured,  while  the  heat  imparted  to 
the  air  of  the  chamber  is  also  removed  and  its 
quantity  determined.  The  apparatus  was  origi- 
nally designed  for  use  in  the  study  of  funda- 
mental problems  of  physiology  with  the  living 
organism,  particularly  with  respect  to  outri- 
tioti,  but  it  has  been  found  valuable  for  a  great 
variety  of  other  uses. 

Investigations  of  nutrition  commonly  com- 
prise what  are  known  as  complete  metabolism 
experiments.  The  subject,  for  example  a  man, 
is  given  a  prescribed  diet  during  an  exoeri- 
mental  period  which  may  continue  several  aays. 
All  his  food  and  drink  and  all  solid  and  liquid 
excreta  arc  weighed  and  samples  analyzed. 
From  a  comparison  of  the  quantities  of  ele- 
ments and  compounds  in  the  materials  taken 
into  and  given  oS  by  the  body  it  is  possible 
to  tell  whether  the  store  of  material  has  in- 
creased or  decreased  under  the  experimental 
conditions.  In  order  that  the  balatKe  may  be 
complete,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  include 
with  the  data  obtained  by  analysis  of  the  solids 
and  liquids,  the  quantities  of  oxygen  consumed, 
and  those  of  water  vapor  and  carbon  dioxide 
given  oil  by  the  lungs  and  sldn.  To  this  end 
the  subject  remains  durin)[>some  part  or  all 
of  an  experimental  period  in  a  device_  called  a 
respiration  apparatus  by  means  of  which  these 
Quantities  may  be  measured.  From  all  of  the 
data  thus  obtained  it  b  possible  to  estimate  with 
considerable  accuracy  the  actual  transformation 
within  the  body. 


d=,  Google 


CALOSIMBTBR 


aai 


output  of  energy  by  the  body,  the  quantities 
of  energy  being  measured  as  heat,  because 
other  kinds  of  energy  can  be  converted  into 
heat  and  whatever  ^e  nature  of  the  energy 
utilized  in  the  body  it  is  ultimately  converted 
into  heal,  and  ^iminated  from  the  body  as  such. 
The  actual  income  of  energy  to  the  body  is  the 
difference  between  the  potential  energy  of  the 
combustible  material  in  the  food  and  drink  and 
that  of  the  unoxidixed  residues  of  food  and 
body  material  in  the  solid  and  liquid  excreta^ 
which  are  determined  by  burning  samples  ot 
each  in  oxygen  in  a  bomb  calorimeter.  The 
actual  output  of  energy  by  the  body  is  the  heat 
resulting  from  the  expenditure  of  energy  in 
the  maintenance  of  bodily  functiAns  and  the 
performance  of  muscular  work.  To  measure 
the  amount  of  energy  given  off  from  the  body 


and  after  it  leaves  is  determined,  and  from 
these  data  the  quantities  of  gases  imparted  to 
the  air  by  the  subject  are  ascertained.  By 
another  method  scMnewhat  similar  the  air  Icav 
ing  the  chamber  is  passed  through  purifying 
devices  which  remove  all  the  carbon  dioxide 
and  water  vapor  from  it,  the  amount  of  each 
being  fotmd  from  the  gain  in  weight  of  its 
absorber.  Hie  quantities  of  ^eous  exhalation 
can  be  determined  with  considerable  accuracy 
in  such  manner,  and  with  small  animals  as 
subjects  the  consumption  of  oxygen  can  also 
be  ascertained;  but  with  larger  animals^  such 
as  man,  the  determination  of  the  quantthr  of 
oxygen   consumed   is   somewhat  more   difficult. 


1  the  chamber,  passed  through  the  purify- 


RtspiiBtioa  Calorimetw.  in  LabontotiH  of  ttie  United  Stato  Depvtnmt  at  Aoricultan,  Waihington,  D.  C 


as  heat,  the  respiration  apparatus  in  which  the 
subject  spends  the  experimental  period  is  ar- 
ranged also  as  a  calorimeter.  The  term 
'respiration  calorimeter*  is  intended  to  signify 
that  the  device  measures  simultaneously  the 
respiratory  exchange  and  the  heat  output  of 
ihe  body.  In  recent  years  a  lar^  amount  of 
work  has  been  done  with  the  respiration  calori- 
meter in  experiments  in  which  measurements 
of  the  gaseous  exchange  and  energy  produc- 
tion were  the  chief  end,  few  or  none  of  the 
other  factors  of  income  and  outgo  being  con- 
Several  methods  of  measuring  the  respira- 
tory exchange  are  employed.  One  of  the 
simplest  is  that  in  which  a  constant  current  of 
air  is  passed  into  and  out  of  the  respiration 
chamber  by  means  of  pipes  through  the  walls. 
which  are  otherwise  air-fight.  The  volume  of 
sir  passed  through  the  chamber  is  measured, 
Md  the  composition  of  the  air  before  it  enters 


ing  devices  and  returned  again  to  the  chamber, 
and  oxygen  is  supplied  to  it  to  replace  that 
used  by  the  subject.  The  gain  in  weight  of 
the  air  purifiers  shows  how  much  carbon 
dioxide  and  water  vapor  were  brought  out  of 
the  chamber,  and  the  loss  in  weight  of  the 
oxygen  container  shows  how  much  of  this  gas 
was  admitted  to  it;  from  these  data,  widi  al- 
lowance for  any  change  in  the  composition  of 
the  air  of  the  chamber,  the  actual  respiratory 
exchan^  by  the  subject  is  determined. 

Various  methods  are  also  employed  to  de- 
termine the  amount  of  heat  produced  by  the 
subject  in  the  respiration  calorimeter.  One 
meuiod  in  common  use  at  the  jiresent  time  is 
to  take  up  the  heat  as  fast  as  it  escapes  from 
the  body  by  a  current  of  cold  water  flowing 
through  a  coil  of  pipe  in  the  chamber.  From 
the  weight  of  water  flowing  through  the  coil 
and  the  difference  between  die  temperature  of 
the  water  enteiing  and  that  of  the  water  lea^"~  ~ 


Coogic 


CALORIMSTRY 


the  coil,  the  quantity  of  heat  carried  out  is  com- 

Euted.  This  constitutes  the  major  part  of  the 
eat  given  off  from  the  body  of  the  subject 
A  small  part,  however,  leaves  the  chamber  as 
latent  heat  of  water  vapor  in  the  air,  the 
amount   thus  carried  out  being  computed   by 


change  of  temperature  of  any  object  in  the 
chamber,  die  sum  of  these  two  quantities  rep- 
resents the  quantity  of  heat  produced  by  the 
subject;  The  temperature  of  the  walU  of  the 
chamber  is  controlled  so  that  no  heat  will  be 
transmitted  through  them  from  within  or 
without 

The  illustration  gives  a  general  view  of  a 
respiration  calorimeter  of  this  type  as  employed 
in  the  laboratories  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment o'f  Agriculture  in  investi^tions  with 
men  and  women.  The  respiration  chamber  of 
this  apparatus  is  6^  feet  lon^,  4  feet  wide 
and  6Vi  feet  high.  Though  it  is  rather  small, 
a  person  can  remain  within  it  very  com- 
fortably during  a  period  of  even  several  days* 
duration.  The  subject  enters  the  chamber 
.  through  the  large  opening  in  the  side  In 
which  a  pane  of  glass  is  sealed  during  an 
experiment,  thus  serving  as  a  window, 
though  there  is  a  small  electric  l^°iP  inside 
to  provide  further  light  if  needed.  There  is 
also  a  small  clectrc  fan  to  keep  the  air 
stirred,  and  a  telephone  by  which  the  sub- 
ject m^  communicate  with  those  on  the  out- 
side. On  the  walls  arc  hooks  for  clothing 
and  shelves  for  books,  food  receptacles  and 
the  like.  A  tubular  opening  in  one  wall,  called 
the  'food  aperture,*  has  a  tightly  closing  door 
on  each  end  by  means  of  which  receptacles 
for  food  and  excreta  and  other  objects  may 
be  passed  into  or  out  of  the  chamber.  The 
funuture,  which  varies  with  the  character  of 
the  experiment,  comprises  a  chair,  a  table  and 
3  cot,  which  may  all  be  folded  into  small  bulk. 
and  devices  with  which  definite  amc 
'   muscular  work  may  be  performed. 

That   this  apparatus  is   sufficiently^  

for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used  is  demo 
stratcd  by  the  fact  that  it  measures  at  least 
99  per  cent  of  the  quantities  of  oxygen  used 
and  of  water  vapor,  carbon  dioxide  and  heat 
produced  when  known  amounts  of  alcohol  arc 
burned  in  test  experiments  within  the  chamber. 

The  first  respiration  calorimeter  employed 
in  America  was  devised  and  constructed  in 
the  laboratory  of  Wesleyan  Univerrity  by  the 
late  W.  O.  Atwater,  then  director  of  the  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  professor  of  chemistry,  and 
Dr.  £.  B.  Rosa,  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Standards,  then  professor  of  physics  at 
Werieyan  University,  who  began  work  on  it 
in  1892,  The  original  device  combined  an  open 
circuit  respiration  apparatus  similar  in  prin- 
ciple to  ttut  of  Pettenkofer  of  Munich,  but 
was  altered  in  detail  in  accordance  widi  modifi- 
cations in  method  of  investigation ;  and  a 
calorimeter  that  was  quite  original,  the  principal 
features  of  which  were  suggested  fay  Professor 
Rosa.  The  completion  of  this  apparatus  and 
conducting  experiments  with  it  were  made  pari 
of  the  investigations  on  the  nutrition  of  man 
which  were  begun  by  the  United  States  De- 
partment of '^riculture  in  1894,  and  were  put 


in  charge  of  Professor  Atwater.  During  the 
12  years  in  which  it  was  in  use  at  Wedeyan 
University  the  respiration  calorimeter  was 
considerably  modified,  particularly  with  respect 
to  the  experiments  of  respiratory  exchange, 
being  changed  from  an  open  to  ji  dosed  circuit 
type  to  afford  better  means  of  determining  the 
oxygen  consumption.  In  1907  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  Washington  and  completely  recon- 
structed in  the  laboratory  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  where  it  continues  in  use  at 
the  present  time.  In  the  same  laboratory  a 
smaller  respiration  calorimeter  of  umilar  nature 
but  with  modifications  that  make  it  to  a  con- 
^derable  extent  automatic  in  operation,  has 
been  constructed  and  employed  for  use  in  the 
study  of  metabolic  activity  of  small  ma^tude. 
as,  for  example,  the  ripening  of  fruits,  the 
vnnterin^  of  bees  and  other  problems. 

Respiration  calorimeters  are  important  aids 
in  research  and  are  in  use  in  many  laboratories. 
They  have  been  found  of  great  value  for  clin- 
ical purposes  and  for  the  study  of  pathological 
and  other  medical  problems  as  well  as  general 
problems  of  health  and  hygiene.  Their  appli- 
cation to  botanical  research  opens  up  a  large 
field  which  is  very  promising  from  a  theoret- 
ical as  well  as  from  a  practical  standpoint 

ChableS  F.  Langwobthy. 
United  States  Department  of  Agricititure. 

CALORIHBTRY  Cheat  measurement'), 
the  art  of  measuring  the  quantity  of  heat  that  a 
body  absorbs  or  emits  when  it  passes  from  one 
temperature  to  another,  or  when  it  undergoes 
some  definite  change  of  state.  In  order  to  exe- 
cute such  measurements  it  is  first  necessary  to 
adopt  some  convenient  and  accurate  unit,  id 
terms  of  which  the  quantities  of  heat  that  are 
to  be  measured  can  be  expressed.  Several  such 
units  have  been  proposed,  but  none  has  yet  met 
with  universal  favor  among  physicists.  One  of 
the  simplest  that  has  been  suggested  (at  least  so 
far  as  Uie  principles  involved  are  concerned)  is 
the  quantity  of  neat  that  is  required  to  melt  a 
kilogram  or  a  pound  of  ice.  Evidently  it  wiD 
require  precisely  10  times  as  much  heat  to  melt 
10  pounds  of  ice  as  to  melt  one  pound  and 
hence,  if  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  melt 
—  I^und  of  ICC  is  taken  as  the  unit  of  heat, 


the  measurement  of  anv  given  quantity  of  h.... 
becomes  reduced  to  the  simple  operation  of 
observing  how  many  pounds  or  ice  me  proposed 


quantity  of  heat  can  melt.  The  earliest  form  of 
heat-measuring  device  (or  "calorimeter*)  baaed 
upon  this  idea  is  that  invented  by  Dr.  Joseph 
Black  about  the  year  1760.  It  consists  simply 
of  a  block  of  dear  ice,  in  which  a  cavity  is 
made,  the  cavity  being  closed  by  a  slab  of^  ice 
laid  upon  the  main  block.  To  make  the  use  of 
this  device  plain,  let  us  sup^se  that  it  is  de- 
sired to  determine  the  quantity  of  beat  that  u 
given  out  by  a  certain  fragment  of  platinum  in 
cooling  from  100°  F.  to  the  freezing-point  The 
chamber  in  the  block  of  ice  is  first  carefully 
wiped  dry,  and  the  platinum,  heated  accurately 
to  100°,  is  quickly  introducea,  and  the  covering 
lid  of  ice  is  laid  in  place.  The  platinum  gives 
up  its  heat  to  the  ice  about  il;  with  the  result 
that  a  certain  weight  of  the  ice  is  melted,  and 
a  corresponding  wci^t  of  water  collects  withiD 
the  chamber.  When  it  is  certain  that  we 
platinum  has  attained  the  temperature  of  the 
Kc,  the  slab  covering  the  excavation  in  the  nuin 


■Google 


CAIX>RIHBTRY 


block  is  lifted  oS,  and  th«  water  that  has  col- 
lected about  the  platinum  is  removed  and 
weigjied.  The  quanbty  of  beat  given  out  by 
the  platinum  is  then  known  at  once,  if  _  the 
accepted  unit  of  heat  is  the  quantity  required 
to  melt  one  pound  of  ice.  Lavoisier  and  La- 
l^ace  improved  Black's  calorimeter  in  certain 
respects,  while  retaining  its  main  featares.  Their 
instrument  consists  essentially  of  three  distinct 
concentric  chambers.  The  object  upon  which 
the  exveriment  is  to  be  performed  is  placed  iu 
the  inner  chamber,  and  the  ice  whose  melting  is 
to  serve  as  a  measure  of  the  heal  given  out  is 
lilaced,  in  the  fonn  of  broken  lumps,  in  the 
mtermediate  chamber,  surrounding  the  object 
to  be  investigated.  In  the  outer  chamber,  which 
encloses  the  other  two  as  completely  as  possible, 
broken  tee  is  also  introduced,  to  prevent  the 
conduction  of  heat  into  the  apparatus  from  the 
outside.  The  quantity  of  ice  melted  is  deter- 
mined by  observing  tie  amount  of  water  that 
is  formed  in  the  middle  chamber,  this  being 
drawn  off  by  a  conveniently  situated  tube  ana 
tap.  This  apparatus  has  been  described  as  an 
improvement  iipon  that  of  Black;  but  the  only 
way  in  which  it  can  be  said  to  be  an  improve- 
ment is  in  the  respect  thai  it  does  not  call  for 
large  blocks  of  pure  clear  ice.  la.  other  particu- 
lars it  is  somcii^at  inferior  to  the  simpler  ap- 
paratus of  Black.  The  quantity  of  water  that 
is  produced,  for  example,  cannot  be  determined 
with  the  same  degree  of  accuracy  in  Lavoisier 
and  Laplace's  instrument.  The  ice  calorimeter 
of  Bunsen  was  a  far  greater  advance.  This  in- 
geniotis  apparatus  consists  of  an  inner  chamber, 
for  the  receprion  of  the  object  to  be  studied, 
and  an  outer  enveloping  one,  which  is  entirely 
filled  with  a  mixture  of  ice  and  water,  and  from 
which  a  graduated  capillary  tube  is  led  away. 
The  whole  instrument  is  surrounded  by_  broken 
ice,  as  in  Lavoisier  and  Laplace's  form,  in  order 
to  protect  the  interior  parts  from  the  effect 
of  external  thermal  influences.  When  the 
apparatus  is  in  perfect  working  order,  the  mix- 
ture of  ice  and  water  in  the  intermediate  cham- 
ber should  be  neither  melted  nor  freezing,  but 
should  be  in  exact  equilibrium  in  this  respect 
Upon  the  introduction  of  the  object  to  be  stud- 
ied into  the  central  chamber,  the  ice  in  the  inter- 
mediate chamber  begins  to  melt,  just  as  in  the 
types  of  calorin>eter  already  considered;  but  the 
essential  peculiarity  of  Bunsen's  instrument  con- 
sists in  deducing  the  quantity  of  ice  that  is 
melted  by  obeerving  the  chan^  of  volume  of 
the  contents  of  the  intermediate  chamber,  as 
shown  by  the  motion  of  the  water  in  the  gradu- 
ated capilla^  tube  that  leads  away  from  that 
chamber;  advantage  being  taken,  for  this  pur- 
pose, of  the  known  fact  that  ice  diminishes  in 
volume  upon  melting,  so  that  when  the  exact 
diminution  in  the  volume  of  the  contents  of  the 
intermediate  chamber  is  known,  we  can  calcu- 
late with  a  considerable  degree  of  precision  the 
quantity  of  ice  that  has  been  melted.  Bunsen's 
calorimeter  is  an  admirable  instrument,  capable 
of  giving  results  of  great  accuracy  when  intelli- 
gently handled. 

Another  unit  of  beat  that  suggests  itself 
quite  naturally  is  the  quantity  of  heat  given  out 
by  a  pound  of  steam  when  it  condenses  into  a 
pouna  of  water  at  the  same  temperature.  A 
calorimeter  based  upon  this  idea  was  also  used 
by  Buosen,  but  the  steam  calorimeter  was 
brought  to  its  present  excellent  form  largely 


through  the  labors  of  Dr.  J.  Joly.    In  his  tmc 

of  the  instrument  the  object  to  be  studied  is 
suspended  from  one  arm  of  a  delicate  balance. 


steam  itself ;  and,  since  saturated  steam  cannot 
part  with  heat  in  this  way  without  condensing; 
It  follows  that  there  is  deposited  upon  the  boiw 
a  weight  of  condensed  moisture  that  corresponds 
precisely  to  the  quantity  of  heat  that  has  been 
absorbed-  The  amount  of  this  moisture  is  de- 
termined by  careful  weighing;  and  it  is  evident 
that  the  quantity  of  heat  absorbed  by  the  ex- 
perimental body  in  passing  from  its  original 
temperature  to  the  temperature  of  the  steam  is 
then  immediately  known,  if  we  take,  as  the  unit 
of  heat,  the  quantity  of  heat  that  is  given  out 
by  a  pound  of  steam  in  condensing  into  a 
pound  of  water  at  the  same  temperature.  In 
practice,  numerous  corrections  are  of  course 
necessary,  as  with  all  other  instruments  of  pre- 
cisian. It  may  be  added  that  although  the  ice 
and  the  steam  calorimeters  are  primarily  in- 
tended to  determine  the  heat  emitted  or  ab- 
sorbed by  a  body  in  passing  from  any  given  tem- 
perature to  some  one  particular  temperature 
that  is  always  the  same  (that  is,  the  freezing- 
point. in  the  one  case  and  the  boiling-point  m 
the  other),  yet  it  is  always  possible  to  deter- 
mine the  quantity  of  heat  emitted  or  absorbed 
by  the  body  between  any  two  temperatures,  by 
performing  two  experiments  in  succession,  the 
body  having  these  respective  temperatures  as  its 
initial  temperatures  in  the  respective  experi- 
ments. It  is  plain  that  the  quantity  of  neat 
emitted  or  absorbed  between  the  proposed  in- 
itial and  terminal  temperatures  can  then  be 
obtained  by  simply  subtracting  one  of  these 
results  from  the  other. 

Another  and  more  familiar  unit  of  heat  is 
the  ouantity  of  heat  required  to  warm  a  given 
weight  of  water  one  degree  on  a  given  thcr- 
momeiric  scale.     (See  Calokic).    Thus  ' 


the  (juantity  of  heal  that  is  required  in 
order  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of 
water  one  degree  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale.  This 
definition  is  good  enough  for  rough  purposes, 
because  it  conveniently  happens  tnat  there  is 
no  great  difference  between  tne  quantity  of  heat 
required  to  warm  a  pound  of  water  from  32"  to 
33  and  the  quantity  requiredVfor  example)  to 
warm  it  from  99°  to  100".  lliis,  however,  we 
can  only  regard  as  a  fortunate  accident;  and 
for  accurate  scientific  purposes  we  must  recog- 
nize that  the  equality  is  only  approximate,  and 
we  must  adopt  some  particular  temperature 
range  as  a  part  of  our  definition.  Thus  it  is 
common  to  define  the  British  heat  unit,  when 

freat  accuracy  is  desired,  as  the  quantity  of 
cat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a 
pound  of  water  from  59°  to  60° ;  although  some 
authorities,  apparently  without  sufficient  reason, 
make  the  temperature  range  from  32°  to  33°, 
and  others  have  chosen  other  positions  on  the 
temperature  scale  for  the  defining  degree.  It  is 
unfortunate  that  no  general  agreement  has  yet 
been  reached  on  this  point.  In  accurate  sci- 
entific work  the  unit  of  heat  is  usually  taken  as 


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234 


CALOTROPIS  — CALOTTISTS 


the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  warm  a  Idlo- 
ffram  of  water  from  IS*  C.  to  16°  C,  or  (which 
IS  practicaHy  the  same  thing)  from  14.5°  to 
IS.S"  C.  It  would  appear  that  several  veiy  good 
reasons  could  be  assigned  for  selecting  40  C. 
as  the  standard  temperature  to  be  used  in  de- 
fining the  heat  unit  For  example,  the  specific 
heat  of  water  has  its  minimum  value  not  far 
from  that  point;  or,  in  other  words,  any  small 
uncertainty  in  the  actual  realization  of  the  tem- 
perature contained  in  the  definition  would  have 
littleornoefiect  if  that  temperature  were  40°  C 
Again  40°  C.  is  the  temperature  at  or  near  which 
the  differences  between  the  various  thermometer 
scales  that  are  in  practical  use  reach  their 
maximum ;  and  this  means  that  at  or  near 
this  temperature  a  slight  error  in  the  standardi- 
zation of  the  thermometer  that  is  used  would 
have  the  least  effect  upon  the  verification  of  the 
heat  unit.  Moreover,  40°  C.  (104°  F.)  is  a 
temperature  that  is  likely  to  be  alwavs  greater 
than  the  general  temperature  of  the  laboratory 
in  which  work  is  being  carried  out;  and  it  is 
well  known  to  be  easier  to  realize  a  tempera- 
ture that  is  higher  than  that  of  the  surrounding 
air,  than  it  is  to  realize  one  that  is  lower.  From 
every  jraint  of  view,  therefore,  40°  C.  (or  there- 
abouts) would  appear  to  be  the  best  temperature 
to  assume  in  establishing  the  definition  of  the 
heat  unit;  a  unit  of  heat  being  then  defined  as 
the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  a  kilogram  of  water  from  (say) 
39°  C.  to  40°  C.  Yet,  cogent  as  these  reasons 
would  appear,  no  authority  has  yet  suggested 
this  particular  temperature  as  the  standard. 
In  measuring  the  quantity  of  heat   emitted 


_r  absorbs  the  heat  so  emitted,  a  great 

variety  of  forms  of  apparatus  may  be  used.  In 
some  cases  the  heated  body  may  m  plunged  into 
the  water  directly,  the  water  being  kept  well 
stirred,  and  its  temperature  taken  at  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  the  experiment.  In  other 
cases,  and  especially  when  the  body  under  ex- 
amination cannot  be  allowed  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  water,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt 
some  more  elaborate  method,  such  as  enclosing 
the  experimental  body  in  a  water-tight  envelope 
of  some  kind,  and  afterward  making  due  allow- 
ance for  the  heat  capacity  of  the  envelope.  In 
cases,  for  example,  in  which  the  heat  generated 
by  the  combustion  of  fuel  is  to  be  measured, 
the  fuel  must  be  enclosed  in  an  air-tight  cruci- 
ble, to  which  oxygen  is  admitted  by  one  tube, 
and  from  which  the  products  of  combustion  arc 
drawn  off  by  another.  The  crucible  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  mass  of  water  that  is  disposed  in 
such  a  way  as  to  intercept  and  absorb  as  much 
of  the  heat  that  is  produced  as  possible,  A 
direct  observation  of  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  calorimeter  is  made  before  and 
after  the  combustion,  and  the  change  of  tem- 
perature so  obtained  gives  a  first  approximation 
to  the  amount  of  heat  that  has  been  liberated. 
This  result  has  to  be  corrected,  however,  for 


ment,  and  for  that  of  the  gases  admitted  and 
drawn  off,  and  also  for  any  loss  of  heat  that 
may  have  occurred  through  radiation.  The  pre- 
cise details  of  the  corrections  will  vary,  how- 
ever, with  the  design  of  the  calorimeter,  and 
wth  the  mode  of  conducting  the  experiments. 


For  a  discussion  of  the  rebtioos  of  the  dif- 
ferent units  of  heat  that  have  been  mentioned 
above,  and  for  an  account  of  die  experiments 
that  have  been  made  for  determining  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  heat  capacities  of  water  at 
different  temperatures,  see  Heat.  Calorimeten 
(q.v.)  constructed  on  a  large  scale  are  nsed  to 
measure  the  amount  of  heat  given  ofi  t^  an 
animal  or  hiunan  being,  the  amount  of  food 
and  air  supplied  being  recorded.  ConuderaUe 
success  has  been  attained  in  ascertaining  the 
fuel  value  of  various  foods  by  W.  O.  Atwater 
and  by  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  of  the  Car- 
negie Institution  of  Washington.  A  very  good 
account  of  the  subject  of  calorimetrv  in  gen- 
eral will  be  found  in  Preston's  *Theory  of 
Heat*  (London  1894),  which  also  contuns  val- 
uable references  to  original  papers.  The  vari- 
ous forms  of  calorimeter  that  are  used  in  prac- 
tical engineering  are  explained  and  illustrated 
in  Carpenter's  'Text-Book  of  Experimental  En- 
gineering' and  in  almost  all  general  teoctbooks 
on  physics.  Consult  'Philosophical  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London'  (1894),  and 
Wiedemann's  'Annalen  der  Phytik  tmd  der 
Chefflie>  (Vol.  XXXVII,  p.  494,  1889).  See 
Fuel. 

CALOTROPIS,  a  genus  of  asdepiads 
forming  shrubs  or  small  trees  natives  of 
the  tropics  of  Asia  and  Africa.  There  are 
three  species,  and  Ihdr  flowers  have  a  some- 
what bell-shaped  corolla,  expanding  into  five 
divisions.  C.  gipanUa,  the  largest  of  the  genus, 
forms  a  b ranching  shrub  or  small  tree  about  15 
feet  high,  with  a  short  trunk  four  or  five  inches 
in  diameter.  Its  flowers  are  of  a  pretty  rose- 
purple  color.  Cloth  and  paper  have  been  made 
from  the  silky  down  of  the  seeds.  The  bark 
of  the  roots  of  some  soccies  funushes  the  sub- 
stance called  mudar,  wuich  is  used  in  India  as 
a  diaphoretic.  The  juice  has  been  found  vei^ 
efficacious  in  the  cure  of  elephantiasis,  in  syphi- 
lis and  anasarca.  From  the  bark  of  the  plant  is 
made  a  substance  called  mudarine.  The  bark 
of  the  young  branches  also  yields  a  valuable 
fibre.  The  leaves  warmed  and  moistened  with 
oil  are  applied  as  a  dry  fomentation  in  t^na 
of  the  stomach;  they  are  a  valuable  rubefacient 
The  root,  reduced  to  ^wder,  is  given  in  India 
to  horses.  An  intoxicating  liquor,  called  bar, 
is  made  from  the  mudar  by  the  hillmen  about 
Mahabuleshwar,  in  the  western  Ghauts. 

CALOTTISTS  (French  Calottiste.  kWy 
t!st'),  or  the  RfaiiMENT  de  la  Calotte,  a  society 
which  sprang  up  at  Paris  in  the  last  ^estrs  of 
the  rejen  of  Louis  XIV,  and  took  its  name 
from  the  word  calotte,  a  flat  cap  formerly 
worn  by  the  priests,  which  was  the  symbol  of 
the  soczety.  All  were  admitted  whose  odd  be- 
havior or  character,  foolish  opinions,  etc,,  had 
exposed  them  to  public  criticism.  Every  one 
who  made  himself  particularly  ridiculous  re- 
ceived letterspatent  authorizing  him  to  wear 
the  calotte.  They  had  a  singular  coat  of  arms, 
on  which  was  the  sceptre  of  Momus,  with  bells, 
apes,  rattles,  etc.  On  their  principal  standard 
were  the  words,  Favet  Momui,  luno  infttfit. 
On  the  death  of  Torsac,  the  colonel  of  the  Ca- 
lottists,  the  iloge  (a  spirited  satire  on  the  aca- 
demical style)  which  die  Calottists  pronounced 
on  this  occasion,  was  suppressed.  Aimon,  colo- 
nel of  the  guards,  hastened  to  Marshal  Villars 
with  dieir  complaints,  and  concluded  with  the 


GALOTYPB — CALTROP 


words,  "My  lord,  since  the  death  of  Alexander 
aod  Cssar,  the  Oilottists  have  not  had  any 
protector  besides  you,'  and  the  order  was  re- 
tiacted.  They  became,  however,  too  bald,  at- 
tacked the  ministers  and  even  the  King  him- 
self; and  the  regiment  was  in  consequence  dis- 
solved. After  the  restoration  the  epithet, 
Rigime  de  la  Caiolte,  was  applied  to  the  cleri- 
cal influence  in  politics.  The  'Mfanoires  pour 
servir  a  lliistoire  de  la  Calotte>  (Basel  1725) 
is  an  amusing  little  book.  Consult  'Journal 
Mstorique  et  anecdotique  du  r^gne  de  Louis 
XV  de  ravocat  Barbie?  (ed.  1857). 

CALOTYPB,  a  photographic  process  in- 
vented bv  Talbot,  and  patented  in  1841.  Paper 
saturated  with  nitrate  of  silver  is  dried  and 
then  immersed  in  a  solution  of  potassium  iodide 
for  a  few  minutes,  and  again  dried  and  ke^ 
in  the  dark.  When  wanted  for  use  it  is 
brushed  over  with  a  solution  of  the  gallo-nitrate 


to  develop  itself,  and  then  thoroughly  washed 
and  fixed  with  hyposulphite  of  soda;  or  a  cus- 
lomary  developer  may  be  used.  The  process  is 
no  longer  in  use  commercially,  but  is  occasion- 
ally revived  by  amateurs, 

CALOVIUS  (Latiniied  form  of  original 
German  name;  lCu>u),  Abraham,  German 
Lutheran  theologian:  b.  Mohrungeo,  Prussia, 
16  April  1612;  d.  25  Feb.  1686.  He  became 
rector  of  the  gymnasium  in  Danzig  (1643)  and 
professor  of  tbeology  in  Wittenberg  (16S0). 
He  was  the  chief  representative  of  controvert 
sial  Lutheran  orthodoxy  in  the  17th  century, 
and'waged  war  incessantly  on  Arminian,  So- 
ciiuan,  Kefonned  and  Roman  Catht^c  doc- 
trines, and  with  the  greatest  tattemess  against 
CaUxtus.  _  He  was  six  times  married,  the  last 
time  in  his  72d  year.  His  chief  wnlings  arc 
'Systema  Locorum  Theologicorum'  (12  vols., 
1665-77);  'Biblia  Illustrata*  (4  vols.),  defend- 
ing the  orthodox  views  of  inspiration  against 
Grotius. 

CALOYERS  (miWf,  «beauliful,»  «good"; 
and  jipt"  'an  old  man*),  Greek  monks  be- 
longing widi  a  few  exceptions  to  the  order  of 
Saint  Basil,  who  lead  a  very  austere  lif^  eating 
DO  meat  and  observing  the  fasts  of  the  Greek 
Church  rigidly.  They  do  not  even  eat  bread 
unless  they  have  earned  it.  During  their  seven 
weeks  of  Lent  they  pass  the  greatest  part  of 
the  nights  in  meditation  and  grief  for  their  own 
sins  and  those  of  others.  The  caloyers  of  the 
Greek  Church  occupy  a  position  of  much 
greater  importance  than  tbc  members  of  the 
religious  fraternities  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
inasmudi  as  all  the  hi^ier  Oiurch  (tignitaries 
— iHshops,  archbishops  and  patriarch  -^  are 
chosen  from  their  number.  Tl^  are,  indeed, 
the  only  individuals  in  the  Oeek  Oiurch  who  are 
inslmcted  in  theolo^,  and  even  among  them  the 
aniomit  of  theological  teaming  is  very  Kmited. 
They  are  commonly  educated  at  the  monasteries 
on  Mount  Athos,  and  on  the  ble  of  Pstmos, 
bpt  besides  these  there  are  many  monasteries 
dispersed  over  the  ardupelapio  and  the  Morea, 
and  a  few  elsewhere  belonging  to  this  class  of 
nooks.  Their  most  celebrated  monastery  in 
Asia  is  at  Mount  Sinai.  Thnr  do  not  all  agree 
u  to  their  mode  of  life.  Some  of  them  are 
cmotntcs;  that  is,  they  live  in  common.  Others 
are  anchorites,  Uving  alone,,  or  with  only  one  or 


two  comjnnions ;  and  others  again  are  recluses, 
who  live  in  grottoes  or  caverns  in  the  greatest 
retirement,  and  are  supported  by  alms  supplied 
to  them  by  the  monasteries.  There  are  also 
convents  of  female  caloyers.  The  Turiu  some- 
times call  tb«r  dervishes  by  this  name. 

CALPB,  kil'pe,  the  andent  name  of  the 
rock  of  Gibraltar  (q.v.),  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Spain,  the  northern  of  the  two  hills 
called  by  the  ancients  the  ■Pillars  of  Hercules' 
(qv).  Across  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  on  the 
African  coast,  was  Abyla,  the  southern  pillar. 

CALPBB.    See  Kalpi. 

CALPRENdDS,  kil'prf'nEd',  Oantler  de 
Costea  de  la,  French  romance  writer;  b.  Tol- 
gou,  Gascony,  1610;  d.  Paris  1663.  He  was  an 
oflicer  of  the  guards  and  ro^l  chamberlain,  and 
one  of  the  authors  who  in  the  17th  century 
brou^t  into  fashion  a  new  kind  of  voluminous 
and  long-spun  romances  of  chivalry.  He  wrote 
'Cassandra';  'Cleopatra';  and  'Faramond,' 
besides  10  tragedies,  among  which  are  *La  mort 
de  Mithridate>  (1635);  'Jeanne  d'Angleterre' 
(1636);  <Lc  Comte  d'&sex>  (16381  His 
romances  were  highly  celebrated,  and  are  the 
best  of  their  kind.  Consult  Fourgeaud-Lagreze, 
<Le  P^rigord  littiraire;  La  CalprcnMe*  (Rib- 
drac  187ft;  Uorillot,  *Le  roman  en  France' 
(Paris). 


daughter  of  L.  Calpurnius  Piso  Oesonius,  who 
was  consul  58  B.C.  Shakespeare  introduces  her 
into  his  tragedj^  'Julius  Qesar.'  The  name  is 
also  that  of  the  daughter  of  L.  Calpurnius 
Bestia,  wife  of  P.  Antistius,  who  took  her  own 
life  when  she  learned  that  her  husband  was 
slain  by  order  of  the  younger  Marius,  82  B.C 

CALPURNIUS,  Tltui,  surnamed  Sicnlna, 
t^tin  poet :  b.  about  30  a.d.  ;  d.  about  80.  Seven 
eclogues  composed  by  him  are  extant,  but  noth- 
ing whatever  is  known  with  certainty  about  his 
life,  and  even  his  name  is  doubtful.  The  poems 
attributed  to  him  are  evidently  modeled  on 
Virgil's  more  famous  eclogues.    Thw  are  exag- 

ferated  and  artificiaL  They  have  been  edited 
y  Schenkl  (Leipzig  1885),  and  Kecne  (London 
1887),  and  translated  by  Scott  (London  1890). 
Consult  Butler,  'Port- Augustan  Poctiy>  (pp. 
150-59.  Oxford  1909).    See  Nemisianus. 

CALTANI8SBTTA,  kal-t^-nS-s^ta,  Sicily, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Salso,  62  miles  southeast 
of  Palermo.  It  is  fortified,  and  has  a  citadel 
and  cathedral,  mth  paintings  of  the  later  Sicil- 
ian school,  public  gardens,  a  seminary,  a  gym- 
nasium, a  school  of  technology,  broad  streets 
and  well-built  houses.  In  the  vicinity,  at  Terra 
Pilata,  are  springs  of  petroleum  and  of  hydro- 
gen gas,  a  mud-volcano  and  important  sulphur 
mines,  producing  annually  about  5,500  tons.  In 
the  neighborhood  there  still  stands  a  Norman 
monastery  built  by  Roger  II  in  1153.  Caltanis- 
setta  owes  its  origin  to  the  Saracens,  by  whom 
it  was  called  Katat  al  Niia  (■the  lady's  castle'). 
The  province  of  the  same  name  has  an  area  of 
1,445  square  miles.    Pop.  40,297. 

C  ALT  HA,  the  genus  of  ranunculaceous 
plants  to  which  the  marsh-marigold  (C.  palus~ 
trii)  belongs.    See  Cowsup. 

CALTROP,  a  kind  of  thUtle  growing  in 
southern  Enrope.     It  is  armed  wia  pridclci. 


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CALOMBA — CALVARY 


winch,  if  trodden  on  bv  men  or  animals,  are 
capable  of  wounding-.  Hence  in  the  military  art 
the  aame  of  caltrop  is  ^ven  to  an  instTUment 
with  four  iron  points  disposed  in  a  triangular 
form,  three  of  tnem  being  turned  to  the  ground 
and  the  other  pointing  upward.  They  are  used 
to  impede  the  progress  of  cavalry. 

CALUMBA  or  COLOMBO,  the  root  of 
JateorrkUa  coivmba,  an  herbaceous  plant,  be- 
longing to  the  family  Mtnisptrmacete,  which 
grows  in  Ceylon  in  the  neighborhood  of 
QHombo,  whence  it  is  said  to  derive  its  name. 
It  is  imported  in  the  form  of  round  slices  or 
cut  pieces,  the  interior  of  which  is  of  a  green- 
isb-yellow  color,  while  its  thick  and  furrowed 
skin  is  greenish-brown;  its  odor  .is  slightly 
aromatic,  but  somewhat  nauseous ;  its  taste 
extremely  bitter.  Calumba  is  often  adminis- 
tered as  a  tonic,  and  is  considered  an  excellent 
stomachic.  It  is  regarded  as  of  great  value 
in  chronic  diarrhcea  and  dysentery;  but  it  is 
necessary  that  all  symotoms  of  inflammation 
should  have  disappeared  before  it  can  be  used. 
It  is  usually  given  as  a  decoction,  less  com- 
monly in  the  form  of  pills  or  powders.  The 
root  of  an  American  gentian,  Frastra  carO' 
linensit,  is  sometimes  substituted  for  the  true 
catumba,  and  is  hence  frequently  called  the  fabe 
calumba.  It  is  not  very  bitter,  and  is  almost 
without  smell;  it  has  no  very  marked  effects. 

CALUHBT,  Mich.,  township  in  Houghton 
County,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Mineral  Range 
Railroad,  42  miles  north  of  L'Anse  and  68  miles 
northwest  of  Marquette.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
famous  Calumet  and  Heda  copper  mine,  the 
richest  in  the  world,  producing  nearly  50,000 
tons  a  year.  It  is  the  trade  and  suppiv  centre 
of  the  Superior  mining  district,  and  has  a 
rational  bank,  several  weekly  newspapet;^  man- 
ufactories and  an  assessed  property  valuation 
of  over  $26,000,000.  A  $10,000,000  water-power 
project  on  the  Sturgeon  River,  IS  miles  to  the 
south  now  completed^  affords  cheap  freight  rates 
to  a  large  number  of  industrial  plants,  elevators, 
and  coal  docks.  Commerce  in  a  recent  year 
amounted  to  6,549,576  short  tons,  consisting  of 
coal,  grain,  iron  ore  and  merchandise,  valued 
approximately  at  $162,000,344.  Pop.  about  33.000. 

CALUMET,  the  pipe  of  jieace,  a  tobacco- 
pipe  used  by  the  Norm  American  Indians.  On 
ceremoniai  occasions,  as  when  Indian  chief»and 
warriors  meet  in  peace,  or  at  the  close  of  a 
war  with  those  of  another  nation,  in  their  talks 
and  treaties  with  the  whites,  or  even  when  a 
single  person  of  distinction  comes  among  them, 
the  calumet  is  handed  round  with  ceremonies 
peculiar  to  each  tribe,  and  each  member  of  the 
company  draws  a  few  whifEs.  To  accept  the 
calumet  is  to  agree  to  the  terms  proposed;  to 
refuse  it  is  to  reject  them.  Some  symbols  of 
amity  are  found  among  all  nations;  the  white 
0ag  or  flag  of  truce  of  the  moderns  and  the 
olivo  branch  .  of  the  ancients  are  similar  in 
character  to  the  Indian  calumet.  There  is  also, 
it  appears,  a  calumet  used  in  the  ceremonial 
declaration  of  war  and  differently  made  from 
that  of  peace  Tobacco  is  smoked  in  the  calu- 
met, and  the  leaves  of  various  other  kinds  of 
Slants.  The  bowl  of  this  pipe  is  made  of  dif- 
ercnt  kinds  of  soft  stone,  especially  of  a  kind 
of  red  soapstone,  and  the  stem  of  a  reed,  or  of 
some  tight  kind  of  wood  which  is  easily  per- 
forated.  This  stem  is  adorned  in  various  way*; 


I   matked  with  the  figures  of 


tached  to  it,  disposed  according  to  the  taste 
of  the  individual  or  of  the  tribe  to  which  he 
belongs. 

CALUMPIT,  Philippines,  a  town  of  the 
province  of  Bulaean,  situated  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  island  of  Ltuon  on  the 
Pampanga  River.  It  is  about  27  miles  north- 
west of  Manila,  with  which  it  is  connected  1^ 
rail.    Pop,  about  15,000. 

CALVADOS,  ka!'v5'dOs',  France,  a  north- 
em  marititne  department,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  English  Channel,  and  east  and 
west  and  south  by  the  departments  of  Eure, 
Mancfae  and  Ome.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile, 
supplying  wheat,  barley,  oats  and  rich  pasturage 
for  cattle,  sheep  and  horses,  which,  with  swine, 
constitute  the  principal  wealth  of  Calvados. 
Fishing  is  also  a  thriving  industry.  Calvados 
is  named  for  its  cider.  The  climate  is  healthful, 
though  chan^able.  Iron,  marble,  slate  and  coa! 
are  found.  The  area  is  2.1SI8  square  miles.  It 
is  so  called  from  Calvados,  corruption  of  'Sal- 
vador' the  name  of  a  vessel  ot  tbe  Spani^ 
Armada,  which  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  here. 
Capital,  Caen.    Pop.  356,310. 

CALVABRT,  kaI'vArt,  DioayB  (called  in 
Itahr  DiONisra  Fiaumingo),  Flemish  painter: 
b.  Antwerp  1555 ;  d.  Bologna,  Italy,  17  March 
1619,  He  went  very  ^ui%  to  Italy  aa  a  land- 
scape jpainter,  where,  in  order  to  leam  how  to 
draw  iiRures,  he  entered  the  school  of  Fontana 
and  Sabbatini,  in  Bologna,  with  the  latter  of 
whom  he  visited  Rome.  After  having  passed 
some  time  in  copying  the  paintings  of  Raphael, 
he  opened  a  scnoo)  at  Bol<tgna,  from  which 
proceeded  137  masters,  and  among  these  Al- 
tnno,  Gtrido  and  Domenicfaino.    The  Bolognese 

Xrded  him  as  one  of  the  restorers  of  their 
ol,  particularly  in  respect  to  coloring.  Cal- 
vaert  understood  perspective,  anatomy  and 
architecture;  but  the  attitudes  of  his  figures 
are  sometimes  mean  and  exaggerated.  His 
best  paintings  are  to  be  seen  at  Bologna  and 
others  are  to  be  found  in  Ei^and,  Dresden  and 

CALVARY,  the  English  name  for  the  emi- 
nence, which  was  the  scene  of  the  crucifixion  of 
Jesus  Christ,  It  lay  beyond  but  near  Jerusalem, 
and  by  some  it  is  identified  with  the  old  House 
of  Stoning,  or  place  of  public  execution,  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  Moses,  on  the  top  of  the 
remar&ble  knoll  outside  the  Damascus  gate,  on 
the  north  side  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  from  this 
cliff  that  the  criminal  used  to  be  flung  before 
being  stoned  (according  to  the  Talmud),  and 
on  it  his  body  was  afterward  crucified;  tor  the 
spot  commands  a  view  all  over  the  city,  and 
from  the  slopes  round  it  the  whole  population 
might  easily  witness  the  execution.  In  Roman 
Catholic  countries  the  name  is  applied  to  the 
representation  of  the  passion  and  crucifixion, 
by  three  crosses,  with  life-size  figures  of  Christ 
and  the  thieves  and  a  number  of  surrounding 
figures,  representing  the  mob  present  at  the 
crucifixion.  The  Calvary  at  Aix-la-Chaoclle  is 
represented  by  a  church  on  a  hill.  arounowMdi 
are  12  stones,  widi  sculpture  marking  the  events 
xriiich  occurred  on  the  joum«  of  Jesus  to 
Moimt  Calvary.  The  road  leading  to  Olivary 
is  called  *Via  Dolorasa* 


=v  Google 


CALVA— CALVIN 


S8T 


CALVtf,  Ul'vii  KnmiR,  French  opera 
uneer:  b.  Madrid,  Spain,  1864.  Her  real  name 
b  tinma  de  Roquer.  She  was  bom  of  a  Prend) 
mother  and  Spanish  ^tber,  and  was  educated 
in  3  convent  school  in  the  south  of  France. 
She  studied  under  Rosine  l.aborde  and  made 
her  debut  at  Brutseli  in  Gounod's  < Faust,' 
1882.  She  has  made '  successful  tours  of  the 
United  States  in  leading  roles,  her  first  appear- 
ance in  New  York  being  on  29  Nov.  1893 ;  and 
has  been  popular  in  opera  comique  and  grand 
opera  in  Europe.  Some  of  her  best  roles  are 
'Chevalier  Jean'  (1885);  and  Massenet's 
'Navarrise'  (1895).  After  1909  she  devoted 
herself  to  concert  tours. 

CALVKRLEY,  Charlea  Stuart,  English 
poet  and  humorist,  son  oE  the  Rev.  Henry 
Blayds:  b.  Martley,  Worcestershire,  22  Dec 
1831;  d.  London,  17  Feb.  1884.  In  1852  his 
father  dropped  the  name  of  Blayds  and  re- 
sumed that  of  Calverlejr,  formerly  borne  by  his 
family.  He  was  educated  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  during  his  college  career 
showed  great  skill  in  Latin  and  Greek  composi- 
tion, in  1856  was  second  in  the  classical  trt^s 
and  was  appointed  fellow  in  1858.  As  a  wnler 
of  humorous  Enelish  verse  he  also  made  him- 
self famous.  He  afterward  studied  for  the 
bar,  and  was  called  in  1865,  but  bis  promising 
legal  career  was  cut  short  by  a  serious  accident 
which  befell  him  on  the  ice  in  the  winter  of 
1866-67.  The  etfecis  of  this  misfortune  clouded 
the  whole  of  the  remainder  of  his  life.  As  a 
parodist  and  writer  of  liEht  verses  Calverley  is 
perhaps  unequaled,  but  his  published  volumes 
are  not  numerous.  The  earliest  of  them  ap- 
peared in  1862  under  the  title  of  'Verses  and 
Translations' ;  and  the  others  are  'Translations 
into  English  and  Latin'  (1866) ;  'Theocritus 
Translated  into'  English  Verse'  (1869);  'Fly 
Leaves'  (1872)  ;  and  'The  Idylls  of  Theocritus 
and  the  Eclogues  of  Virgil  Translated  Into 
English  Verse :  with  an  Introduction  by  R.  Y. 
Tyrell'  (London  1908).  A  'Memoir  and  Lit- 
erary Remains'  were  published  by  Sendall 
(London  1885). 

CALVORT,  George.  See  Baltiuobe 
Family. 

CALVERT,  George  Henry,  American 
writer :  b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  2  Jan.  1803 ;  d.  New- 
port, R.  1.,  24  May  1889.  He  was  a  great- 
grandson  of  Lord  Baltimore.  After  graduating 
at  Harvard  in  1823  he  studied  in  Gottingen- 
then  reluming  to  Baltimore,  became  editor  of 
the  American  and  a  contributor  to  various 
periodicals.  In  1843  he  removed  to  Newport, 
R.  L,  of  which  city  he  was  elected  mayor  in 
1853.  His  published  books  include  'Illustra- 
tions of  Phrenology'  (1832)  ;  'Poems'  (1847)  ; 
'Joan  of  Ar«'  (I860);  'Goethe,  his  Life  and 
Works'  (1872)  ;  'Brief  Essays  and  Brevities* 
(1874),  and  'Wordsworth:  a  Biographic 
.Esthetic  Sludy>  (1875):  'Three  Score  and 
Other  Poems'  (1883).  He  translated  the  cor- 
respondence of  Scluller  and  Goethe  (1845)  and 
Schiller's   'Don  Carlos'    (1836). 

CALVERT,  Leonard.  See  BALnucwE 
Famii-v. 

CALVI,  kal'Ti,  Laizaro  and  Pantaleone, 
(jcnoese  painters,  sons  of  Agostino  Calvi:  the 
former  b.  1502;  i.  1606;  Uie  latter  d.  1595. 
They    painted    in    concert    niat^    pictures    in 


Genoa,  Monaco  and  Naples.  In  particular,  die 
facade  of  the' Palazzo  Doria  (now  Spinola), 
a  TOtrited  composition  crowded  with  figures,  is 
hi^ly  extolled.  Lazzaro  was  the  more  in- 
ventive genius  of  the  two,  his  brother  generally 
working  out  the  details  of  their  joint  produc- 

CALVIN  (modified  from  the  French  form 
Cauvin  or  Ciaulvio),  John,  Swiss  refonner  o( 
the  16th  century;  b.  Noyon,  Picardy,  10  July 
1509;  d.  Geneva,  Swiwerlqnd,  27  May  1564. 
Though  boni  in  humble  condition,  his  father, 
as  procureur-fiscal  of  the  district  of  Noyon 
and  secretary  of  the  dioceEe,  was  able  by  per- 
sonal influence  to  further  the  interests  of  his 
family.  Calvin's  mother,  Jeanne  Lefianc,  was 
distii^ished  alike  by  personal  beaut)|  and  piety. 
Even  as  a  lad  C^vin  was  deficient  in  physical 
vigor,  but  ^ve  early  tokens  of  more  than 
ordinary  intellectual  powers,  a  circumstance 
that  attracted  to  him  the  regards  of  a  noble 
family  at  Noyon  who  received  him  under  their 
care  and  ^ve  to  him  the  same  opportunities 
of  schooling  as  were  enjoyed  by  their  own 
children  (1523).  ,  It  was  his  faUier's  .origuu] 
intention  to  fit  hun  for  the  priesthood  and  in 
pursuance  of  that  object  he  was  sent  to  the 
CtfUege  de  la  Marche  at  Paris;  then  to  llic 
CJallege  Montaigu  where  he  was  trained  in 
logic  by  a  learned  Spaniard  who  afterward 
directed  the  education  of  Ignatius  Loyola  while: 
a  student  at  the  same  school.  He  easily  stood 
in  the  front  rank  of  his  fellow -students  but  was 
little  ^disposed  to  affiliate  with  them,  and  from  a 
certain  unsocial  severity  of  bearmg  acquired 
among  them  the  nickname  of  the  *Accusative 
Case."  At  the  age  of  12  he  received  part  of 
the  chapel  revenue  of  Noyon  in  return  for  some 
services  there.  In  1527  his  father  secured  for 
hi|n  the  curacy  of  Saint  Martin  de  Martinville, 
from  which  he  resigned  in  1529,  in  favor  of  his 
younger  brother,  and  in  the  same  year  ex- 
changed  the  curacy  for  that  of  Pont  I'Eveqoe, 
his  father's  birth^ace. 

Then  his  father  changed  his  plans  with 
reference  to  John  and  determined  to  have  him 
prepared  for  the  profesuon  of  law,  putting 
hW  for  that  puntose  imder  instruction  at  Ot- 
liaai  (1528),  where  he  studied  with  Pierre 
d'Etoile  and  Bourges  (1530),  where  he  applied 
himself  to  his  studies  with  the  same  assiduity 
evinced  at  Paris,  and  attained  immediate  dis- 
tinction, though  at  the  expense  of  impaired 
health.  Without  confining  himself  strictly  to 
the  curriculum  of  the  school  he  devoted  himself 
at  the  same  lime  to  the  stut^  of  Greek  under 
the  German  professor,  Uelchior  Wolmar,  whose 
Protestant  views  strengthened  the  bias  toward 
the  new  faith  already  existing  in  his  pupil's 
mind,  for  his  attention  had  previously  been 
drawn  to  the  careful  study  of  the  Scriptures 
by  his  Idnunan  Olivetan,  the  first  Protestant 
translator  of  the  Bible  into  French.  When 
Calvin  was  22  his  father  died,  whereupon  the 
young  man  gave  up  his  law  studies  and  retlimed 
to  Paris,  where  he  met  Lef^re  and  FareL 
studied  theology,  issuing  soon  after  his  first 
publication,  an  annotated  edition  of  Seneca's 
'De  dementia.'  Up  to  this  point  it  is  safe 
to  presume  tiiat  his  interests  and  ambitions 
were  purely  those  of  a  humanist,  and  whatever 
thought  he  may  have  had  in  regard  to  the  need 
of  reform  in  the  matters  of  Churdi  doctrine 


d  by  Google 


ass  CAi 

and  discipline,  he  doubtless  felt  with  Erasmus 
and  Rcuchlin  that  all  the  reforms  that  might 
be  required  would  come  about  as  the  result 
of  completer  knowledge, 

It  was  not  lon^  after  this  that  he  experienced 
what  he  calls  his  'sudden  conrerNon.*  He 
writes :  'After  tay  heart  had  long  been  pre- 
pared by  the  roost  earnest  sel f -examination,  on 
a  sudden  the  full  knowledge  of  the  truth,  like 
a  bright  light,  disclosed  to  me  the  abyss  of 
errors  in  which  I  was  weltering,  the  sin  and 
shame  with  which  I  was  defiled.''  His  experi' 
ence  is  near  of  kin  to  that  of  Luther,  and  we 
arc  set  thinking  also  of  the  "great  light*  that 
shone  upon  Saul  as  he  was  nearing  I^mascus. 
Yef  with  all  the  profound  disclosure  thus  made 
to  him,  he  still  felt  no  special  call  to  the  work 
of  preaching  the  reformed  doctrine  and  sought 
only  for  the  undisturbed  retirement  that  would 
permit  him  farther  prosecution  of  his  serious 
studies. 

His  friend  Nicholas  Cop  had  been  elected  to 
the  rectorship  of  the  University  of  Paris  and 
■  at  his  request  Calvin  prepared  for  him  an 
inaugural  address  which  was  substantially  a 
defense  of  the  reformed  doctrine  (1533).  To 
the  Sorbonnists  this  was  intolerable,  and  Calvin 
was  obliged  to  escape.  He  returned  for  a 
while  to  Tiis  native  place,  reigned  the  wvfer- 
menl  he  held  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
and  for  nearly  three  years  led  a  wandering 
life.  We  find  Dim  at  S^ntonge;  at  N6rac  the 
residence  of  the  Queen  of  Navarre;  at  An- 
eouleme,  with  his  friend  Louis  Tillet;  then  in 
Paris  again.  To  escape  persecution  in  Franc^ 
he  fled  to  Basel,  where  m  1536,  at  the  age  of 
26,  he  published  his  "Institutes.*  This  remark- 
able work  was  intended  to  be  a  vindication  of 
the  Protestant  doctrine,  and  its  dedication  to 
the  reigning  king,  Frances  I,  sou^t  to  create 
royal  sympathy  for  the  cause  and  for  its 
persecuted  adherents.  It  has  been  claimed  that 
no  other  work,  written  at  so  early  an  age,  has 
produced  such  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
opinions  and  practices  both  of  contemporaries 
and  posterity.  Although  the  book  as  then 
composed  was  but  the  germ  of  what  it  was 
subsequently;  developed  into,  yet  the  line  initially 
laid  down  in  it  Calvin  never  swerved  from. 
By  his  Catholic  opponents  his  work  was  styled 
the  "Koran  of  the  heretics.' 

After  completing  this  work  he  went  for  a 
short  time  to  Italy  to  visit  Ren6e,  the  Duchess 
of  Ferrara.  Finally  he  made  a  visit  to  his 
native  town;  and  after  selling  the  paternal 
estate,  which  had  devolved  on  him  at  the  death 
of  his  eldest  brother,  set  out  with  his  brother 
and  sister  for  Strassburg.  The  direct  road 
being  dangerous,  they  went  through  Geneva. 
The  situation,  political  and  religious,  which  he 
there  confronted,  however,  vetoed  his  plans 
and  really  determined  his  entire  subsequent 
career.  That  situation  briefly  outlined  is  as 
follows :  The  Duke  of  Savov,  unable  to  secure 
the  submission  of  Geneva,  had  by  the  aid  of 


e  city  should 
Duke.  The  Gcnevese  revolted  under  the  lead 
of  Berthelier  and  BonnivarcL  but  were  defeated, 
Berthelier  was  executed  and  Bonnivard  became 
the  'Prisoner  of  Chillon"  (1530-36).  Defeat 
did  not,  however,  extinguish  the  spirit  of  re- 


volt Of  the  two  parties  into  which  the  Gene- 
vese  were  divided,  the  Confederates  (*Eid' 
genossen,'  a  word  from  which  perhaps  comes 
the  word  Huguenot)  looked  for  relief  to  the 
Swiss,  and  the  Mamelukes  favored  supporting 
the  Duke.  The  Confederates  prevailed,  the 
Duke  was  worsted  and  all  power  both  military 
and  civil  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  people. 
This  was  inl533. 

To  this  civil  overturning  succeeded  an 
ecclesiastical  revolution.  Protestant  tendencies 
had  established  themselves  in  Bern,  and  from 
there  had  extended  themselves  to  Geneva.  "Hie 
strUKgle  in  the  latter  place  was  a  severe  one, 
but  Protestantism  gained  ground  till  under  the 
leadership  of  Farel  and  with  the  assistance  of 
Bern  an  ecclesiastical  reconstruction  was 
eflected,  the  bishop  driven  out.  Protestantism 
established  and  Geneva  left  independent.  This 
meant  not  only  a  new  form  of  doctrine  and 
mode  of  worship,  but  a  reformed  system  of 
morals,  and  thereby  a  strain  put  upon  the  large 
profligate  element  of  the  population  that  soon 
worked  a  reaction  strenuously  encouraged  by 
the  Savoyards  and  the  Catholic  priests.  The 
entire  dty  was  in  this  wa^  wTouKUt  into  a  con- 
dition of  tumultuous  faction,  ano  it  was  just  in 
the  midst  of  this  warring  of  civil,  moral  and 
ecclesiastical  elements  that  Calvin  arrived  at 
Geneva  as  already  stated,  and  took  lodgings 
(or  the  night  with  the  distinct  intention  of 
going  on  to  Basel  the  next  day.  Farel,  who  was 
in  charge  of  the  Protestant  movement,  learned 
of  Calvm's  presence  in  the  dty,  through  Louis 
du  Tillet,  ^t  into  communication  with  him 
and  in  an  interview  graphically  described  by 
Calvin  in  the  preface  to  his  'Commentary  on 
the  Psalms'  (a  work  especially  rich  in  auto- 
Uographical  references),  entreated  him  to  re- 
main and  help  work  out  the  problem  of  Prot- 
estantism in  Geneva,  denounqn^  upon  him  the 
curse  of  God  if  he  refused.  Calvin  was  awe- 
stricken  by  what  seemed  to  him  the  prophetic 
deliverance  of  Farel  and  yielded  to  his  Elijah- 
like expostulation,  so  that  the  dictiun  is  well 
justified  that  'Farel  gave  Geneva  to  the  Ref- 
ormation and  Calvin  to  Geneva.* 

He  prefaced  his  work  in  Geneva  by  intro- 
ducing and  setting  in  operation  a  system  of 
stringent  regulations  relative  to  doctrine,  dis- 
cipline and  daily  conduct.  Amusements  like 
dancing  and  card-playing  were  punishable  of- 
fenses, not  because  in  hts  judgment  inherently 
wrong,  but  because  so  abused  uat  the  only  safe 
course  was  to  prohibit  them  altogether.  The 
stringency  of  this  policy  excited  a  revolt  led 
by  the  Libertines,  so  styled,  and  participated  in 
even  bv  many  of  the  same  'Eidgenosseii*  that 
bad  helped  wrest  Geneva  from  the  erasp  of  the 
Duke.  The  opposition  culminated  in  an  act 
of  Council  expelling  Calvin  and  Farel  from 
the  city  fl538)  the  latter  going  to  Neuchatcl, 
and  Calvin  to  Strassburg,  whcr^  with  a  sense 
of  relief,  he  thought  to  find  himself  free  to 
gratify  his  tastes  and  resume  his  studies.  Here 
again,  however,  as  at  Geneva,  he  was  stirred  by 
an  intimidating  call  and  applied  himself  to  the 
work  of  ministering  to  the  French  refugees 
there  gathered.  It  was  during  his  sta^  in  Strass- 
burg that  he  married  a  lady  of  admirable  char- 
acter, Idelette  de  Sure,  widow  of  Jean  Strodetn 
of  Li£ge,  with  whom  he  lived  in  relations  of 
tender  attachment  till  her  death  nine  years  later, 
their  only  dlild,  a  son,  dying  in  early  infancy. 


d=,  Google 


In  Geneva,  in  the  meantime,  matters  had 
been  going  from  bad  to  worse,  till  W  the 
nnited  voice  of  gavenunent  and  people  Calvin 
wu  called.  Crime  and  vice  had  become  ram- 
pant Catholics  were  planning  for  the  restora- 
tion  of  the  old  faith.  Cardinal  Sordelet  had 
addressed  to  the  people  a  flattering  and  cajoling 
letter  csilculated  to  win  thero  back  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  To  that  letter  Calvin  while 
still  in  Scrassburg  had  published  a  reply  both 
sagacious  and  masterly.  Bern  was  suspected 
of  having  ambitious  political  designs  on  the 
dty.  The  local  government  was  too  weak  to 
maintain  itself  amid  such  a  storm  of  conflicting 
elements  and  so  after  three  years  the  people 
turned  again  helplessly  to  the  man  they  had 
exiled.  He  fougnt  against  the  overtures  ten- 
dered him  but  was  overborne  by  their  earnest- 
ness and  unanimity  and  came  back  to  Geneva 
to  make  there  his  life-long  home  (1S41}. 

Calvin  entered  at  once  upon  his  office  of  ad- 
ministrative head  of  the  city,  considered  in  both 
its  ecclesiastical  and  civic  character.  Though 
combining  the  two  in  his  own  person  he  was 
no  Erastian,  and  Church  and  State  stood  to 
him  as  theoretically  distinct,  and  yet  contribut- 
ing, each,  to  the  interests  of  the  other,  the 
Church  infusing  its  spirit  into  the  State  and 
the  State  in  turn  furnishing  authoritative  sup- 
port to  the  Church,  Ovil  authority,  previously 
widely  distributed,  he  made  more  oligarchic  and 
Tested  it  primarily  in  what  was  known  as  the 
•Little  Council  of  Twenty-five."  The  code  de- 
vised for  the  city  bears  everywhere  the  markj 
of  Calvin's  authorship.  For  this  his  legal  train- 
ing especially  qualified  him.  Larger  ana  smaller 
matters  alike  came  under  his  purview.  Like  the 
English  Alfred  the  Genevese  legislator  braced 
his  system  of  enactments  by  a  liberal  infusion 
of  the  Mosaic  letter  and  spirit.  Ecclesiastical 
discipline  was  delented  to  the  Consistory,  com- 
posed at  first  of  18  members,  6  clerical  and  12 
lay,  with  Calvin  as  its  president.  The  ci^  was 
divided  into  districts  or  parishes  and  a  system 
of  vigilance  so  thoroughly  organized  that  every 
family  was  at  least  once  a  year  visited  by  re- 
sponsible parties  for  purposes  of  censure,  coun- 
sel or  relief. 

Although  introducing  his  administration  with 
a  measure  of  moderation,  its  animus  soon 
evinced  itself  in  a  way  that  made  evident  to 
liie  lawless  and  vicious  classes  what  it  was  they 
had  to  contend  with,  and  a  wide-reaching  op- 
position be^n  immediately  to  organize  itself. 
This  opposition  included  the  Libertines  and  the 
'Patriots,*  which  latter  class  bitterly  opposed 
the  close  aristocratic  lines  with  which  the 
previous  popular  government  had  been  re- 
placed and  regarded  with  jealousy  the  foreign- 
ers that  in  great  numbers  were  coming  to  maJre 
their  home  at  Geneva.  The  eiunity  toward  him 
and  his  administration  was  still  further 
fomented  by  the  irrational  and  merciless 
severity  shown  in  the  punidmient  of  anall  of- 
fenses, such  as  the  beheading  of  a  child  for 
strildnK  its  mother,  the  committal  of  heretics 
to  the  Qames,  the  eliciting  of  testimony  by 
torture-  His  rule  was  one  of  terror  and  he  was 
both  feared  and  hated.  Mobs  attempted  to  in- 
tinudate  him.  Dogs  in  the  street  were  named 
after  him.  To  antagonize  Calvin  was  a  crime, 
as  Castellio  found  to  his  cost,  and  to  speak  dis- 
respectfully of  predestination,  as  did  Bolsec, 


a  felony.     But  cases  like  these  two  are  quite 
eclipsed  by  the  instance  of  Servetus. 

Servetus  was  a  Spaniard,  a  scholar  of  in- 
dependent thought,  who  convinced  himself  of 
the  groundlessness  of  papal  claims,  but  without 
cordially  accepting  the  theology  of  Protestant- 
ism. In  1531  he  published  a  book  entitled  'The 
Errors  of  the  Trinity.'  Irritated  by  Calvin's 
treatment  of  him  and  his  speculations  he  re- 
torted upon  him  and  the  Reformed  doctrine 
flatly  and  acrimoniously.  Though  out  of  sym- 
pathy with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  Serve- 
tus continued  for  20  years  in  outward  con- 
formity with  its  doctrine  and  discipline  and  then 
wrote  another  volume  under  the  title  'The  Res- 
toration of  Christiaaity.'  This  was  issued  by 
him  during  his  residence  at  Vienne  and  resulted 
in  his  arrest  at  the  instance  of  the  archbishop. 
A  copy  of  the  work  came  under  Calvin's  eye, 
who  declared  that  if  Servetus  were  to  come  to 
Geneva  he  should  not  get  away  alive  if  his  au- 
thority was  sufficient  to  prevent  it.  Having  es- 
caped from  Vienne  Servetus  did  come  to 
Gnieva,  where  his  presence  soon  reached  the 
knowledge  of  Calvin,  who  ordered  his  arrest. 
Thirty-eight  heretical  propositions  were  alleged 
wainst  him,  among  omers  the  rejection  of  the 
"rrinity  ana  speculation  leaning  toward  pan- 
theism: and,  although  he  conducted  his  defense 
with  vigor  and  with  a  degree  of  acuteness,  he 
was  condemned  and,  to  the  dis^ace  of  the 
Protestant  cause,  was  burned  a  little  way  out 
from  Geneva  on  27  Oct  1553.  It  is  claimed 
in  behalf  of  Calvin  that  he  tried  to  mitigate 
the  severity  of  the  penalty.  However  that 
may  be,  he  was  set  on  pursuing  Servetus  to 
the  death,  and  it  is  on  record  that  he  wrote  as 
follows  to  Farel  two  months  before  the  execu- 
tion,— "I  hope  the  sentence  will  be  capital  but 
desire  the  atrocity  of  the  punishment  to  be  miti- 
gated." It  has  to  be  remembered  however  that 
all  of  this  was  in  keeping  with  the  barbarism  of 
the  age  and  that  so  gracious- spirited  a  man  a5 
Melancthon  gave  to  it  his  assent  After  the 
execution  of  Servetus  and  the  expulsion  of  the 
Libertines  two  years  later,  Calvin's  power  in 
Geneva  was  firmly  established  He  used  his 
influence  vigorously  for  the  defense  of  Protest- 
antism throughout  Europe.  By  the  mediation 
of  Theodore  de  Beza  he  made  his  influence 
felt  in  France  in  the  great  struggle  going  on 
there  between  the  hierarchical  party  with  the 
Guises  at  its  head  and  the  Protestants  led  by 
Cond^  and  CoUgny.  In  1561,  his  energies  be- 
gan to  fail,  and  after  much  bodily  suffering,  he 

During  the  entire  course  of  his  conflict  with 
heresy  and  the  Libertines,  Calvin  was  actively 
engaged  in  preacbing  and  lecturing.  He  had 
crowds  of  hearers  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 
Protestant  refugees  were  in  attendance  upon  nis 
lectures  and  discourses  and  went  back  earring 
with  them  the  impression  made  upon  them  tqr 
his  doctrines  and  personality.  'Thus  was  he 
able  to  stamp  himself  ineffaceably  upon  the  re- 
ligious thought  of  his  own  and  afteriimes,  and 
to  cause  Geneva  to  sustain  to  the  Latin  nations 
in  particular  a  relation  similar  to  that  subsisting 
behveen  Wittenberg  and  the  Germanic  The 
weight  and  permanence  of  the  influence  he  ex- 
erted was  due  partly  to  his  own  idiosyncrasies. 
Both  his  mode  of  thinking  and  his  policy  of 
action  were  measurably  determined  by  his  nat- 
ural temperament  and  his  [Aysical  debiUty.  He 


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CALVINISM  — CALVIHSnC  METHODISTS 


was  composed  prtacipaUy  of  will  and  brain, 
with  too  liule  of  the  tenderer  sensibilities  to 
sweeten  the  action  of  the  one  or  to  rectify  the 
aberrations  of  the  other.  Naturally  enou^then 
he  made  the  doctrine  of  God's  sovereignty  the 
keystone  of  his  system,  and  could  conceive  of 
heresy  as  being  none  other  than  the  unpardon- 
able sin.  The  same  coml»nation  of  volitional 
and  intellectual  genius  made  him  also  a  bom  or- 
ganizer, enabling  bim  to  compact  and  mature  the 
reform  tendenues  of  the  times  into  a  corporate 
whole  where  before  everything  had  been  in- 
cipient and  sporadic. 

Calvinism  is  Augustinianism  in  its  develofred 
and  Protestant  form,  the  two  theologians  coin- 
ciding in  their  views  of  predestination,  sin  and 
grace,  thou^  differing  in  the  matter  of  justifi- 
cation and  other  less  important  matters.  The 
keynote  of  Calvinism  is  not  predestination,  as 
is  sometimes  claimed,  but  divine  soverdgnn,  out 
of  which,  understood  as  Augustine  and  Calvin 
understood  it,  predestination  issues  as  a  neces- 
sary corollary.  Predestination  so  derived  car- 
ries with  it  perforce  the  notitHi  that  those  who 
are  elected  to  be  saved  are  so  elected  by  the  ar- 
Intrary  action'  of  the  divine  will;— 'He  hafli 
mercy  on  whom  he  will  have  merty,  and  whom 
he  will  he  hardeneth.'  The  motive  therefore 
leading  to  God's  exercise  of  grace  in  specific 
cases  has  its  inexplicable  grounds  in  the  mind 
of  God,  and  is  nowise  referable  to  any  condi- 
tion existent  in  the  sinner.  •Infralapsarianism^* 
^Permissive  Decree,*  etc.,  are  merely  philosophi- 
cal attempts  to  relieve  divine  arbitranness  from 
the  cha^e  of  immorality. 

Among  Calvin's  most  important  works  are 
'Christina  Religionis  Institutio'  (1536);  'De 
Necessitate  Reformands  Ecclesie*  (1544); 
'Commentaires  sur  la  concordance  ou  harmonic 
des   Evangelistes'    (1S6I);    <ln   Novum   Testa- 

• —  "^-nmentarii' ;  'In  Libros  Psalmorum 

i';  'In  Librum  Gencseos  Commen- 

The  first  edition  of  Calvin's  whole  works 

is  that  of  Amsterdam  (1671,  9  vols,  fol.),  but 
this  has  been  superseded  by  the  definitive  and 
critical  edition  b^un  by  J.  W.  Baum  E.  Cunit* 
and  E.  Reuss,  and  finished  by  Lobstein  and 
Erichson  (59  vols.,  Brunswick  and  Berlin  186.1- 
1900).  By  the  Calvin  Translation  Society,  his 
works  have  been  collected,  translated  into  Eng- 
lish and  issued  in  51  volumes  (1843-55).  Consult 
for  biography  Beia,  T.  de  (Oneya  1564, 


J),"  the  original  life  written  a  few 
moncns  after  Calvin's  death ;  Bolsec,  J.  (Lyons 
1577;  new  ed..  1875),  written  from  the  Ro    - 


Catholic  standpoint ;  Henry,  P.  (3  vols.,  Ham- 
burg I83S-44),  English  translation  abridged  and 
altered  by  Stebbing  (London  I8S1)  ;  Dyer.  T. 
H.  (London  1850);  Bungener,  F.  (Paris  1853. 
English    trans.,    Edinburgh    1863) ;    Staehelin, 

E.  (Etberfeld  1863);  Pierson,  A,  (Amsterdam 
I88S-91)  ;  Walker,  W,  (New  YotV  1906)  ;  all  of 
which  are  written  from  a  Protestant  point  of 
view.  A  very  impartial  and  valuable  book  from 
a    Roman    Catholic    is    that    Iw    Kampschulte. 

F.  W.,  'Johann  Calvin,  seine  Kirehe  und  sein 
Staat  in  G*nf»  (Leiprig  1869-99).  An  ex- 
haustive work  b  that  by  Doumergue,  E.  (Lau- 
sanne 1899-1908),  containing  many  original 
drawings,  facsimiles,  etc.,  and  is  the  work  of  a 
lifetime.  For  detailed  history  of  the  life  of 
Calvin,  cotisult  d'Auhignf  Merit  'Historyof  ttie 
Reformation  in  Europe  in  (he  Time  of  Calvin' ; 
Fisher,    G.    P.,     'The    Reformation' ;     Schaff. 


Philip,  in  'History  of  the  Christiaii  Church* 
(Vol.  VII,  pp.  2S7-8H,  New  Yorii  1892); 
article  on  "Calvin*  in  the  'Scbaff-Henog 
Ent^lopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge.*  A  veiy 
complete  bibliography  is  given  m  SciiafT  a 
'Creeds  of  Christendom.*  S«e  Ikstttution  Of 
mE  Cbustian  Riugion. 

Crailes  H.  Pakxhurst. 

CALVINISM.  The  system  of  religious 
thous^t  taught  by  John  Calvin,  which  main- 
tains that  God  is  Uie  sovereign  ruler  of  the 
world  and  every  good  thought  comes  directly 
from  him.  The  conception  of  the  sovcre^nty 
of  God  did  not  originate  with  Calvin;  it  is  as 
old  as  the  Hebrew  writings;  but  he  emphasized 
it  in  such  a  way  that  it  impressed  itself 
upon  the  religious  thought  of  tus  day  and  has 
continued  to  be  the  conception  of  (jod  held  by 
all  Christian  denominations  and  I>y  many  of 
whom  it  is  made  such  a  cardinal  belief  that 
the  possibility  of  doubting  it  is  not  even 
brought  into  question.  The  donunant  features 
of  Qdvinism  impressed  themselves  upon  bis 
followers  so  thorou^^  that  they  became  a 
moving  power  in  the  hves  of  vast  masses  of 
people.  Calvin  followed  the  belief  in  predesti- 
nation to  its  logical  conclusion  and  he  pro- 
claimed that  some  were  bom  to  life  and  some 
to  damnation ;  he  taught  that  regeneration 
could  be  obtained  only  through  the  spirit  of 
God  acting  upon  the  buman  heart;  that  God 
will  keep  to  the  path  of  righteousness  only 
those  to  whom  £e  has  given  regenerating 
^race,  and  that  he  who  is  elected  will  continue 
in  the  way  of  righteousness.  Calvinism  em- 
phasizes the  unchangeable  nature  of  (jod,  his 
never-dying  love  and  bis  justice;  for  the  mani- 
festation of  these,  his  great  and  glorious  at- 
tributes, he  created  the  world  and  all  that  is 
thereon.  He  foreordains  eveiything  that  comes 
to  pass ;  and  the  world  moves  forward  accord- 
ing to  his  plans.  Clalvimsm  lays  stress  upon 
election,  redemption,  bondage  of  will,  grace  and 
the  pereseverance  of  the  saints.  According  to 
Calvinism  the  fall  of  man  was  predestined,  and 
all  descendants  of  Adam  have  ineherited  his  sin 
and  the  accompanying  punishment. 

All  Calvin's  religious  beliefs  are  lo«cally 
stated  and  developed  in  his  'Institutio  Chris- 
tianx  Religionis' ;  but.  with  all  his  care,  he  left 
certain  questions  unanswered;  and  these  have 
divided  his  followers  into  two  camps  or  schools, 
the  'Supralapsarian*  and  the  'Infralapsarian,* 
who  differ  prindpally  on  the  order  of  the 
divine  decrees.  The  former  looks  to  the  final 
result,  as  the  first  thing  contemplated  in  these 
decrees;  while  the  latter  tries  to  soften  the 
pronounced  theory  of  predestination  by  hav- 
ing God  permit  man  to  fall.  This  softened 
form  of  predestination  is  the  one  generally  ac- 
cepted by  Calvinists.  {See  Calvik,  John).  Con- 
sult Bright;  'Select  Anti-Pelagian  Treatises  of 
St.  Augustine'  (London  1880)  ;  Calvin.  'The  In- 
stitutes of  the  Christian  Religion'  (Philadel- 
phia) ;  Hodge,  A,  A.,  'Commentary  on  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith'  /Philadel- 
phia  1869) ;  Kuyper,  A .  'Calvinism.  The  Stone 
Lectures*   (New  York  1898). 

CALVINISTIC  METHODISTS,  a  sec- 
tion of  the  Methodists  in  Great  Britain,  dis- 
tinguished by  their  Calvinistic  sentiments  from 
the  ordinary  West^ns,  who  are  Arminian. 
Wesley  and  .WhiteSeU,  the  colleagues  in  the 


Digit  zed 


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CALVO  — CALVMKNE 


Calvinistic  Whitcfield  may  be  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  Calvioistic  Ucthodism.  Other 
names,  and  especialhr  that  of  Howell  Harriet, 
of  Trevecca,  should  be  mentioned  in  connectioii 
with  it  In  iis  distincttve  form  it  dates  from 
1725,  but  did  not  completely  sever  its  connec- 
tion with  the  Church  of  England  till  1810.  In 
government  it  b  now  Presbyterian.  Its  great 
seat  is  Wales  and  it  Is  claimed  as  the  wily  de- 
uominatioD  in  Wales  of  purdy  Welsh  origin, 
The  Calvinistic  Mediodists  exist  in  three  di- 
visions: the  Whitefield  Connection,  1741; 
Countess  of  Huntingdon's  Connection  (Hunt- 
ingdonians)   1748;  Welsh  Methodists,  17S0. 

CALVO,  Idil'vfi,  Cariei,  Argentine  jurist 
and  author;  b,  Buenos  Aires,  26  Feb.  1824:  d 
Paris  1906.  On  25  June  1860  ha  was  accredited 
to  the  courts  of  Paris  and  London  as  minister 
plenipotcniary,  and  resigned  after  having  ful- 
filled his  special  mission.  In  1885  he  became 
Argentine  Minister  at  Berlin.     In  1869  he  was 


Legion  of  Honor,  He  wrote  numerous  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  'Complete 
Collection  of  Treaties,  Conventions,  and  Other 
Diplomatic  Acts  of  Alt  the  La  tin- American 
States'  (IS  vols..  1862-69)  ;  'Historical  Annals 
of  the  Revolution  in  Latin  America'  (5  vol*., 
1864,  and  late  dates) ;  'iDlemational  Law  in 
Theory  and  Practice'  (2  vols.,  1870-72;  Sth  ed, 
in  6  vols.,  Paris  1896),  a  work  considered  by 
jurists  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  on  its 
subject;    'Study  on   Elmigration  and  Coloniza- 


ual  of  Public  and  Private  International  Law' 
(3d  ed.,  1892).  The  «C«Ivo  Doctrine,*  ad- 
vanced by  him,  provided  that  the  collection  of 
pecuniary  claims  made  by  citizens  of  any 
country  against  the  government  of  another 
country  should  never  be  made  by  force.  Prac- 
tical application  of  that  doctrine  to  crises  that 
arose  subseqtiently  was  urged  by  the  Argen- 
tine Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  Dr.  Luis 
Maria  Drago  (q.v,),  whose  name  has  therefore 
been  associateo  with  South  and  Central  Amerr 
ican  protests  against  the  employment  of  for- 
eign naval  or  military  forces  to  coerce  debtor 


CALVUS,  Gaiiu  Lidniai  Macer,  Roman 
orator  and  poet,  a  son  of  the  annahst  and  ora- 
tor of  the  same  name :  b.  82  b.c  ;  d.  about  47. 
He  left  21  orations,  but  few  fragments  survive. 
One  of  these,  against  Vatinius,  whose  counsel 
Cicero  was,  proouced  so  power/u)  an  eSect  that 
Ote  accused  interrupted  the  orator  'and  ex- 
claimed, 'Judges,  am  I  lo  be  condemned  because 
my  accuser  is  eloquent?"  His  poems  were 
ranked  with  those  of  Catullus.  He  is  often 
praised  by  Cicero  (Brutus,  280-85 ;  Ep.  ad, 
Fam.,  IS,  21).  The  fragments  of  Calvus's  writ- 
ings have,  been  collected  by  Pkssis  (Paris 
1896). 

CALX,  properly  lime  or  calk  (hence  "cal- 
careous carUi») ;  hut  the  term  is  more  gener- 
ally applied  to  the  residuum  of  a  metal  of 
mineral  which  has  been  subjected  to  violent 
heat,  burning  or  calcination,  solution  by  acids 


CALYCANTHUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  family  Calyctmikacea.  Four  species  of 
American  fragrant  shrubs,  often  grown  for 
ornament.  C.  fioridiu  and  C,  frrlilii  are  found 
in  the  Alleghany  Mountains  from  Paiusylvania 
southward;  C.  occidentaiit,  in  California.  They 
are  popularly  known  as  sweet-scented  shrub 
and  Carolina  or  American  alls^ce.  The  leavei 
are  green  and  rather  large,  and  the  flowers 
mualV  some  shade  of  chocolate  or  purple ;  both 
are  sweet-scented.  In  the  northern  United 
States  the  species  are  scarcely  hardy  thou^ 
some  thrive  in  the  vicinity^  of  New  York  dty 
upon  well-drained,  rather  rich  soil  in  somewhat 
shdtered  situations. 

CALYDON,  an  ancient  dty  of  .£t<dtB, 
celebrated  in  the  stories  of  King  CEneus,  the 
Calydonian  boar  and  Dejanira  and  Hercules. 
The  Romans,  according  to  their  measurement, 

{laced  it  at  seven  and  one-half  miles  from  the 
oniao.  Sea  on  the  river  Evenus.  The  heroes, 
Meleager,  Tydeus  lived  there.  In  the  reign  of 
Ai^ustiu  31  B.C.  the  bhalntants  were  moved  to 
the  d^  of  Nicopolis  whidi  was  founded  to 
commemorate  the  victory  of  Actinm.  Recent 
explorations  point  lo  the  site  of  ibe  city  at 
Kastro  of  Kurtaga  on  the  Evenus. 

CALYDON,  Por«it  of,  a  large  forest 
mentioned  in  the  Arthurian  legends;  it  is  lup- 
posed  to  have  been  in  the  northern  part  of 
England,  Or  it  may  have  been  the  wootfed  por- 
tion of  Uie  midland  counties,  which  include  also 
the  "Sherwood*  of  Robin  Hood. 

CALYDONIAN  BOAR,  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, a  boar  sent  to  lay  waste  the  fields  of 
C&eus,  King  of  Calydon,  the  ancient  capital 
of  ..^toha,  when  he  omitted  a  sacrifice  to 
Artemis.  The  goddess  sent  the  boar  when 
CEneus  was  absent  on  the  Argonautic  expedl- 
tioo.  No  one  dared  to  face  the  monster,  until 
Meleager,  the  son  of  (Enens,  with  a  band  of 
heroes,  pursued  and  slew  him.  The  Curetes 
laid  claim  to  the  head  and  hide,  but  were  driven 
off  by  Meleager.  Later  accounts  make  Mel- 
eager  summon  to  the  hunt  heroes  from  all 
Sarts  of  Greece,  amoirg  them  the  matden  Ala- 
inta,  who  gave  the  monster  the  first  wound. 
This  hunt  is  often  found  in  Greek  art  The 
best  known  is  in  the  pediment  of  the  Temple  of 
Athena  Alea  at  Tegea  by  the  great  sculptor, 
Scopaa,  some  fraginents  of  which  are  now  ill 
Athens.  Consult  Gardner,  E.  A.,  <A  Handbook 
of  Greek  Sculpture'  (pp.  37S-81,  London  1911). 

CALYMBNE,  kal-i'me-ne.  a  genus  belong- 
ing to  the  fossil  order  of  the  trilobites,  charac- 
teristic of  the  lower  and  middle  Ordovician 
formations  of  the  Lower  Silurian  strata  of 
Europe.  In  this  genus  the  head  is  almost  semi- 
circular and  deeply  divided  by  longitudinal 
furrows.  The  eyes  are  situated  on  the  lateral 
lobes.  The  rings  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen 
are,  difficult  to  oistinguish  from  each  other.  The 
thoracic  segments  are  from  10  to  14  in  number. 
The  abdominal  rings  are  distinct  and  never  at- 
tached to  each  other.  The  genus  includes  about 
20  species,  of  which  the  Calytnfnf  Btumenbackii 
may  be  taken  as  the  type.  The  members  of  this 
geniis  have  the  power  of  rolltag  themselves  up 
nke  a  ball. 


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MS 


CALYPSO  —  CAHAGUBY 


CALYPSO,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  daugh- 
ter of  Atlas  (some  say  of  Nereus  and  Doris, 
or  of  Oceanus  and  Thetis),  She  inhabited  the 
woody  island  Ogygia  situated  deep  in  the  ocean, 
and  hved  remote  froin  all  intercourse  with  gods 
and  men.  She  rescued  the  shipwrecked 
Odysseus  and  kept  him  with  her  seven  years; 
but  though  she  promised  him  immortality,  she 
was  unable  to  stifle  his  desire  to  return  to 
Ithaca.  At  the  command  of  Zeus,  brought  by 
Hermes,  she  allowed  him  to  depart  on  a  raft  of 
his  own  making.  Grief  for  his  departure 
brought  about  her  death. 

CALYPTRA,  the  hood  of  the  theca  or 
capsule  of  mosses.  The  same  name  is  given  to 
any  hoodlike  body  connected  with  the  organs 
of   fructification  m  flowering  plants. 

CALYPTR^A,  a  genus  of  gasteropod  mol- 
lusks  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Calyptrai- 
da,  resembling  limpets  in  certain  characteris- 
tics, but  differing  from  them  in  stnjclure.  This 
^enus  consists  of  small  marine  shellfish,  conical 
in  form,  but  sometimes  very  flat;  they  are 
fragile;  and  are  distinguished  by  a  conical  shell 
or  testaceous  process  attached  to  the  bottom  -of 
the  cavity  of  the  shell.  The  branchiae  of  this 
mollusk  are  composed  of  long  and  thin  hairlike 
filaments.    It  is  sometimes  foimd  as  a  fossil. 

CALYPTKBIDJG,  a  family  of  limpets, 
including  those  called  slipper  limpets  or  cup- 
"  e  LiMi  - 


covering 


limpets,    See  Liiipot. 

CALYX,  in  botany,  the  extent  uj*ti 
of  a  flower;  that  is,  the  outermost  floral  _ 
velope  consisting  of  a  circle  or  whorl  of  leaves 
external  to  the  corolla,  which  it  encloses  and 
supports.  The  parts  or  leaves  which  belong  to 
it  are  called  sepals ;  ihey  may  be  united  by 
their  margins,  or  distinct,  and  are  usually  of  a 
green  color  and  of  less  delicate  texture  than  the 
corolla.  In  many  flowers,  however  (especially 
monocotyledons),  there  is  little  or  no  dinerence 
in  character  between  calyx  and  corolla.  In 
some  groups  of  plants  the  calyx  is  wanting. 

CAM,  kaA,  Augtutas  Nicolas,  French 
sculptor:  b.  Paris  1^2.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Rude;  his  first  works  represent  small  animals, 
but  he  later  chose  the  large  beasts  and  birds  of 
prey  for  his  subjects,  Amon^  his  best-known 
works  are  'Linnets  Defending  Their  Nest 
Against  Rats' ;  'Tiger  in  (inflict  with  a 
Crocodile' ;  and  'Elagle  and  Vulture  WrangUng 
over  the  Carcass  of  a  Bcar.>  _ 

CAM,  kan,  or  CA5,  kan,  Diogo,  Por- 
tuguese explorer  of  the  15th  century,  who  fol- 
lowed up  the  course  of  Prince  Henry  of  Portu- 
gal, sailed  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and 
in  1484  discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo, 
near  whose  hank  an  inscribed  stone  erected  by 
him  as  a  memorial  was  found  in  1887.  He  then 
continued  on  to  Cape  Cross,  where  he  also  left 
a  pillar  dated  1485.  This  monument  is  now  at 
Kiel,  and  three  others  which  he  erected  are  in 
of  the  Lisbon  Geographical  So- 


1484),     He  established  Christianity 
the  Kongo  states. 

CAM,  kam,  an  English  river  formed  by  the 
jtmction  of  two  streams,  one  of  which  (the 
Granta)  rises  in  Essex  and  flows  northwest, 
while  the  other  (the  Rhee)  rises  in  the  north  of 
Hertfordshire,  and  flows  northeast    The  united 


stream  flows  slugsishly  northward  through 
Cambridgeshire,  and  falls  into  the  Ouse  some 
four  miles  south  of  Ely  after  a  course  of  about 
40  miles.  The  university  town  of  Cambridge  is 
situated  on  its  hanki  a  few  miles  below  the  con- 
fluence of  the  bead-streams.  It  is  navigable  to 
Cambri<^  and  is  famous  in  connection  with 
the  boating  races  of  the  students  of  Cambridge 
University. 

CAM,  in  machinery,  a  simple  contrivance 
for  converting  a  uniform  rotary  motion  into 
a  varied  rectilmear  motion,  usually  a  projecting 
part  of  a  wheel  or  other  revolving  piece  so 
placed  as  to  give  an  alternating  or  varying  mo- 
tion to  another  pece  that  comes  in  contact  with 
it  and  is  free  to  move  only  in  a  certain  direc- 

CAH  AND  ISIS,  a  familiar  couplet  by 
which  the  sister  universities  of  Cambridge  and 
Oxford  are  often  mentioned.  The  allusion  is 
to  the  rivers  on  which  they  are  situated. 

"  VLej  -jva,  my  Gun  uid  Imi,  [RVftch  it  long: 
The  naht  divint  o(  loocs  to  spvcra  wroot. 

Pcva.  "Tha  Dimdad." 

"Tb*  droopuw  Mum.  (Sir  iDdoMnr.) 
Brouaiit  to  Miathcr  CuUlie. 
m.--.  ._r .  , M  nutriina  bned* 

"  Cutlc  of  Indolence.' 
CAMAGUBY,  Cuba,  (formerly  Puerto 
Principe),  (1)  town,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Puerto  Principe,  170  miles  northwest  of  the 
dty  of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  It  was  originally 
founded  m  151S  at  Nuevitas,  the  site  of  an  dd 
Indian  village,  on  the  northern  coast,  but  was 
moved  to  its  present  site  in  1516l  For  a  time 
after  1800  it  was  the  seat  of  government  for 
the  Spanish  West  Indies,  and  imtil  the  end  of 
Spanish  rule  was  an  important  military  post 
It  is  the  largest  inland  city  of  the  island,  and  is 
connected  with  its  port,  Nuevitas,  by  railroad. 
It  is  the  centre  of  a  cattle-raising  district,  and 
exports  cattle,  hides,  etc;  su^r  also  is  culti- 
vated somewhat  in  the  vicinity  and  exported. 
The  town  is  very  medixval  in  appearance,  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  the  houses  old ;  during 
the  American  occupation  artesian  wells  were 
bored  to  obtain  a  pure  water  suiqtly,  the  streets 
were  repaired,  a  good  drainaae  system  intro- 
duced and  buildings  for  schools  remodeled. 

(2)  Province,  east  of  the  centre  of  the 
island,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Oricnte  and  on 
the  west  by  Santa  Clara;  area,  11,000  square 
miles.  The  north  of  the  province  is  mountain- 
ous, the  most  of  the  surface  being  high  table- 
land affording  excellent  pasturage,  Ttie  chief 
industry  is  cattle  raising,  which,  though  it  de- 
teriorated during  the  war,  is  being  rapidly  re- 
vived, and  the  number  of  cattle  largely  in- 
creased ;  the  finest  horses  on  the  island  are  also 
raised  here.  The  province  is  also  well  wooded, 
and  lumbering  is  an  important  industry;  the 
minerals  include  iron,  copper  and  asphalt,  all  of 
which  are  mined  to  some  extent,  asphalt  being 
of  the  most  commercial  importance.  General 
agriculture  is  carried  on  mostly  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  town  of  Puerto  Principe,  and  its  port, 
Nuevitas;  sugar  is  the  most  important  agri- 
cultural product.  The  province  was  a  centre 
of  the  insurrectionary  movement,  and  Cubitas 
in  die  northern  part  was  the  seat  of  the  insur- 
gent government  in  1896-98,  Camagucy  is  the 
second  province  of  Cuba  in  six  hut  is  least 
densely  populated. 


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C  AHAIBU  —  CAMASILL  A 


CAHAIEU,  ick'mk'y^.  or  CAHAYBU,  a 
painting  wherein  there  is  only  one  color,  and 
where  ihe  lights  and  shades  are  of  R^'d, 
wrought  on  a  golden  or  a/ure  ground.  When 
the  ground  is  yellow  the  French  call  it  eirage; 
when  gfay,  grisaille.  This  kind  of  work  is 
chiefly  used  to  represent  bas-reliefs.  The 
Greeks  called  nieces  of  this  sort  fm-axpi/iaTa. 
The  word  is  abo  applied  to  a  painting  in  two 
Or  three  different  colors,  which,  however,  da  not 
represent  the  natural  colors  of  the  objecti  <te~ 

CAMAJUANI,  ka-m?-hwa'n6,  Cuba,  an  in- 
land city  in  the  province  of  Santa  Oara,  about 
20  miles  from  the  north  coast  of  the  island.  It 
has  rail  connection  with  the  capital  and  other 
northern  cities.    Pop.  about  5,000. 

CAUALDOLITBS,  CAMALDULIANS, 
or  CAHALDUNIANS.  a  rdigious  order  es- 
tablished in  1012  by  Saint  Romuald,  a  Beoe- 
dictine  of  Ravenna  and  a  member  of  the  family 
of  the  dukes  of  Raveima,  in  the  valley,  of 
Camaldoli,  near  Arcuo,  in  the  Apennines,  and 
confirmed  afterward  l^  Pope  Alexander  II. 
They  were  originally  hermits  living  in  separate 
cells,  but  as  their  wealth  increased  the  greater 
part  of  them  associated  in  convents.  They  ex- 
isted  in  Italy,  France,  Germany  and  Poland. 
In  the  18th  century  there  were  five  independent 
fraternities  of  them,  which  are  here  mentioned 
in  the  order  of  their  foundation:  (1)  at 
Camaldoli ;  (2)  at  Murano  in  the  Venetian  ter- 
ritory;   (3)  on  Monte  Corona,  near  Perugia; 


e  de  la  Consolation.  They  all  had  in  com- 
mon white  garments,  and  the  austere  rules  of 
the  Benedictines.  The  hermits  wore  beards, 
and  had  stilt  more  severe  rules  than  the  monks 
in  regard  to  fasting,  silence  and  penanc«s. 
Their  life  was  devoted  to  contemplation  rather 
than  to  active  work.  A  small  branch  of  the 
order,  consisting  of  nius,  was  founded  in  1086| 
which  has  now  five  convents  in  Italy.  There 
is  in  the  vicinity  of  Naples  a  mountain  which 
takes  its  name  from  a  convent  of  the  CamaldoU 
situated  on  its  top,  from  which  the  traveler  en- 
joys a  prospect  of  remarkable  grandeur  and 
beauty.  The  order  has  greatly  declined,  but 
still  has  several  monasteries  in  Italy,  one  in 
Poland  and  one  in  Braxil.  Its  greatest  mem- 
bers have  been  Gratian,  the  canonical  jurist  of 
the  12th  cetitury,  and  Pope  Gregory  XVI  <  1831- 
46). 

CAMALIO,  ka-m^-Ug*,  Phihppines,  a  town 
in  the  southeast  part  of  uie  island  of  Lucon, 
situated  within  six  miles  west-northwest  of  the 
city  of  Albay  in  a  plain  near  the  source  of  the 
fuaya  River.  Hemp-growing  is  the  leading 
industry.     Pop.   143& 

cXmAKA  Y  LIBERMOORE,  ka'tna-ra  S 
IVer-mdra,  Huiltel  de  la,  Spanish  naval 
officer :  b.  in  Malaga  in  IS36.  He  was  educated 
at  the  naval  acaoemy  in  San  Fernando,  and 
served  in  the  Mexican  campaign  as  staff  olTicer 
of  the  French  general,  Francois  Jurifn  dc  la 
Gravi^re,  and  later  acted  as  sailing  master  and 
lieutenant  of  the  Villa  de  Madrid  and  the 
Veneedora.  He  was  active  in  the  campaign 
against  Peru  and  Chile,  and  in  the  stmegle 
with  Cuba  (1868-78};  and  ccMnmauded  a 
Mjttadron  in  the  Pfailippinea  as  captain.    Later 


he  became  chief  of  the  naval  commission  to  tiie 
United  States  and  London,  and  rear-admiral. 
He  commanded  the  squadron  dispatched  to  the 
Philippines  during  the  progress  of  the  Spanish- 
Amencan  War.  On  16  and  17  June  the  Cadiz 
reserve  squadron  under  Admiral  Cimara  left 
port  and  sailed  eastward  through  the  Mediter- 
raneaiL  His  fleet  included  troopships  convoyed 
by  the  Ptlayo  and  the  best  of  the  men-of-war, 
except  those  with  Cervera  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  United  States  consul  at  Port  Said  pro- 
tested against  permitting  the  Spanish  fleet  to 
refill  its  bunkers  with  coal  there;  neverAeless 
C&mara  received  orders  to  proceed  through  the 
Suez  Canal.  At  this  jimcture  an  official  bulletin 
of  the  Navy  Department  at  Washington  an- 
nounced that  Commodore  Watson  would  "take 
under  his  command  an  armored  squadron  with 
cruisers  and  proceed  at  once  to  the  Spanish 
coast."  That  was  on  27  June.  As  though  to 
emphasize  the  threat  came  Cervera's  defeat  on 
3  July.  On  6  July  Cimara's  squadron  was  re- 
callea  to  protect  the  Spanish  coast;  and  so  Wat- 
son's fleet,  which  baa  scarcely  begun  to  exis^ 
had  yet  completely  ■  fulfilled  its  destiny.  Later 
•- chief  of  the  training  ships  for  cadets 


tired  i 


the  s: 


year. 

CAHASASAURUS,  kim-a-ra-sor'us,  a 
genus  of  amphibious  dinosaurs  (see  Dino- 
SA.UBIA),  resembling  the  brontosaurus  but 
of  more  massive  proportions,  with  heavier 
fore  limbs  and  shorter  tail.  An  incomplete 
skeleton  found  in  the  Jurassic  strata  near  Caiion 
Citv,  Colo,  was  the  first  of  these  gigantic  ani- 
mals discovered  in  America.  It  was  deposited 
in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
New  York,  The  length  of  this  animal  was  esti- 
mated by  Professor  Cope  at  75  feet ;  its  name 
was  suggested  by  the  hollow-chambeied  verte- 
btx  ai  the  back  and  neck.  The  atlantosaurus, 
of  which  the  femur  is  over  six  feet  long  and 
two  feet  across  at  the  head,  was  probably  the 
same  animal. 

CAMARGUB,  La,  k»-marg',  France,  an 
island  in  the  department  of  Bouches-du- Rhone, 
southeast  France,  formed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  by  its  Iwo  principal  branches.  It  has  an 
area  of  about  300  square  miles.  It  is  protected 
from  the  inundations  of  the  river  by  dykes,  and 
is  mostly  an  unhealthy  tract  of  pools  and 
marshes,  only  a  small  portion  of  it  being  culti- 
vated.   Horses  and  cattle  are   raised  on  the 

CAMARILLA,  ki-ma-riTya.  a  word  first 
used  in  Spain,  but  now  in  other  countries  also, 
to  express  the  influence  of  certain  persons  in 
obstructing  the  operation  of  the  official  org3.ns 
of  government.  When  Ferdinand  VII,  in  1814, 
returned  to  Spain,  he  was  surrounded  by  flat- 
terers, who  prevailed  upon  hiro  to  violate  his 
promise  of  giving  the  people  a  constitution. 
They  were  called  camarilla  either  from  the 
room  where  they  remained  in  waiting,  or  in 
allusion  to  the  Council  of  Castille  (Cimara  dc 
Costilla).  Until  the  revolution  of  tS20  (he 
camarilla  consisted  mostly  of  men  without 
talent  and  passionately  opposed  to  everything 
new;  but  when  the  King  recovered  his  power  in 
1823  they  became  more  influential  and  have 
since  tepeatedly  interfered  with  the  n '  ' 


Digitized 


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CAKARIN  A  —  CAHBAT 


CAHARINA,  ka-ma-ri'fia,  Sicily,  an  an- 
cient town  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  island, 
founded  by  a  colony  from  Syracuse  in  S99  b,C 
Its  first  overthrow,  which  occurred  553  B.C,  was 
the  result  of  a  revolt  from  the  parent  dty. 
On  its  reduction  it  was  razed  to  the  ^ound, 
but  was  afterward  rebuilt.  It  was  in  an  ex- 
posed position  in  the  Carthaginian  and  Roman 
wars,  and  was  several  times  taken,  retaken  and 
destroyed.  Its  ruins  to-day  are  about  five  miles 
in  drcumfcrence. 

CAHARINES,  North  and  South,  PhU- 
ippines,  two  provinces  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  island  of  Luzon.  Area,  3,279  square 
miles.  The  name  is  also  applied  more  vaguely 
to  the  whole  of  the  southeastern  peninsula  of 
the  island.  The  formation  of  the  peninsula  is 
volcanic;  the  Caravallos  range  of  mountains 
extends  its  whole  Length,  from  north  to  soutl^ 
and  seven  of  its  peaks  are  active  volcanoes. 
One  of  them,  which  is  continually  emitting 
smoke  and  flame,  is  well  known  to  mariners 
coming  from  the  east,  and  forms  a  kind  of 
natural  hghthouse.  The  most  important  prod' 
uct  is  rice.  The  soil  of  the  two  jtrovinces 
possesses  the  same  remarkable  fertibty  which 
accompanies  all  the  volcanic  formations 
throughout  the  archipelago.  Tobacco,  sugar, 
coffee,  cocoa  and  indigo  are  largely  produced 
for  exportation;  but  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Camarines  is  the  culture 
of  the  pineapple,  and  the  manufacture  of  pina 
cloth  (q.v.).  The  women  of  the  Camannes 
are  esteemed  the  most  artistic  embroiderers  in 
Luzon  of  the  delicate  pina  and  also  display 
singular  skill  in  the  working  of  gold  and  silver 
filigree.  All  the  artificers  in  precious  metals 
are  women;  and  some  articles  of  jewelry, 
Mpecially'  their  neck  chains,  are  ver^  beautiful. 
The  agriculture  of  the  Camarines  indicates  in 
some  respects  a  degree  of  progress  beyond  that 
of  the  other  provinces  of  the  island.  The  ox, 
and  occasionally  the  hors^  are  used  in  plowing, 
instead  of  the  slow,  unwieldy  buffalo,  so  gen- 
erally preferred  by  the  native  East  Indian 
farmer.  Th^  Camarinians  have  alao  discarded 
the  primitive  plow,  fQnnf:d  from  a  single  piece 
of  crooked  timber,  with  a  point  hardened  by 
fire:  and  have  substituted  in  its  place  a  more 
moaem  s^le  of  implement.  The  provinces 
have  well-constructed  roads;  the  rivers  abound 
in  fish  and  are  crossed  by  substantial  stone 
bKdges.  The  Naga  River,  whidi  drains  the 
lakes  Bato,  Baao,  Buhi  and  Iryga,  and  empties 
into  the  Bay  of  San  Miguel,  is  navigable  about 
40  miles  for  vessels  drawing  not  more  than  13 
feet  of  water.  The  industrial  development  of 
these  provinces  has  been  accompanied  by  a 
notable  increase  in  population ;  and  this  is 
composed,  with  but  small  exception,  of  the 
brown  race  of  the  Philippines,  which  has 
yielded  so  readily  to  the  influences  of  Christian 
civilization.    The  Camarines  have  not  had  their 

Erogress  retarded  like  other  provinces  of 
uzon,  by  the.  troublesome  presence  of  the  wild 
negrito  race. 

CAHAS8,  a  ^e^vi  (Cantos^)  of  plants  of 
the  lily  family,  including  six  species,  natives 
of  western  North  America.  They  have  narrow 
leaves  and  many- flowered  racemes  of  blue, 
purple  or  white  flowers.  Some  of  the  species 
are  in  cultivation.    The  bulbs  of  the 


]  eicttlenia). 

CAMBAC^R^,  kaA-b4-si-r6s,  Jean  Jac- 
qiMB  Rteis  de,  Dttke  of  Panno,  French  states- 
man: b.  MontpeJUer,  18  OcL  1753;  d.  Paris,  8 
Uarch  1824.  His  zeal  and  talents  soon  ob- 
tained faim  distinction,  and  the  office  of  a 
counsellor  at  the  cour  det  comptes  at  Mont- 
pellier.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  he 
recdved  several  public  offices,  became  in  Sep- 
tember 1792  a  member  of  the  Convention,  and 
labored  in  the  committees,  particularly  in  the 
committee  of  legislation.  On  12  Dec.  1792  he 
was  commissioned  to  inquire  of  Louis  XVI 
whom  he  desired  for  his  counsd,  and  it  was  on 
his  motion  that  the  counsel  was  allowed  to 
communicate  free>y  with  the  King.  In  January 
17Q3  he  declared  Louis  guilty,  but  disputed  the 
Hj^t  of  the  Convention  to  itid^e  him,  and  voted 
for  his  provisional  arrest,  and  in  case  of  a  hoS' 
lile  invasion,  death.  On  24  January  he  was 
chosen  secretary  of  the  Convention.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  he  re- 
ported, in  the  session  of  26  March,  die  treason 
of  Dumouricz.  In  August  and  October  1793 
he  presented  his  first  plan  for  a  civil  code,  in 
which  his  democraticaf  notions  were  dtsplaved. 
Subsequently,  as  a  member  of  the  Council  of 
the  Five  Hundred,  hcpresented  the  Projet  de 
Code  CwH,  1796,  which  became  the  foundation 
of  the  Code  Napol^n.  On  20  May  1797  he  left 
his  seat  in  the  coundl.  A  year  afterward  he 
appeared  among  the  electors  of  Paris;  and 
after  the  revolution  of  the  30th  Prairial,  VII 
(19  June  1799),  was  made  Minister  of  Justice. 
On  the  18th  Brumaire  he  was  cliosen  second 
consul,  and  in  that  oCRce  made  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  the  chief  object  of  his  attention. 
After  Napoleon  had  ascended  the  throne, 
Cambaciria  was  appointed  arch-chancellor  of 
the  empire,  and  after  obtaining  many  high  dis- 
tinctions, became  in  1S08  Duke  of  Parma.  Dur- 
ing the  campaign  against  the  allied  powers  in 
1813.  Cambac^r^s  was  made  president  of  the 
council  of  regency.  At  the  approach  of  the 
allies  in  1814  he  followed  the  government  to 
Blois,  and  from  that  place  sent  his  consent  to 
the  abdication  of  the  Emperor.  When  Na- 
pbleon  returned  in  1815  Cambacfres  was  again 
made  arch-chancellor  and  Minister  of  Justice, 
and  subseouently  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Peers.  After  the  second  Call  of  Napoleon  he 
was  banished,  as  a  regidde,  but  in  1818  was 
pemiitted  to  return. 

CAMBALUC,  kSffl-ba-look'  the  name  by 
which  the  dty  we  now  call  Peking  became 
known  to  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
was  the  form  given  by  Marco  Polo  (q.v.)  to 
the  Tartar  word,  KkambaU. 

CAHBAY,  kiffl-bi',  British  India,  a  seaport 
of  Hindustan,  Bombay  presidency,  the  chief 
(own  of  a  native  state  of  the  same  name,  at 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  76  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Sural.  It  was  once  a  place  of  im-  . 
portanee,  but  owing  to  the  silting-up  of  the 
gulf,  and  the  bore  or  rushing  tides,  haj  greatly 
dedined.  The  tides  run  in  at  from  6  to  7  knots 
an  hour,  rising  as  high  as  33  feet,  and  are  verr    , 


:,  Google 


CABt^nr — OUtfBODIA 


MS 


many  religious  structures  of  the  Tains.  The 
natives  are  expert  jewelers  and  goldsmiths,  and 
agale,  camelian  vid  onyxomanients  are  ex- 
ported. The  irade  is  chiefly  in  cotton,  ivory 
and  grain ;  the  latter  product  beinK  shipped  to 
Bombay-  Pop.  31,870.  The  state  has  an  area 
of  350  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  75,225. 
CAHBERT,  kM-b&r,  Robert,  French  musi- 
dan ;  b-  Paris,  about  1628 ;  d.  London  1677.  He 
founded  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  now  the 
Paris  Gnmd  Opera.  He  was  the  first  French 
opera  composer,  his  works  includinft  'La  Paa- 
loraJe'  (1659),  the  first  French  musical  comedy; 
'Arianeet  Bacchus'  (1661);  'Pomonc'  (1671); 
and  'Adonis.'  For  22  yean  be  was  associ&ted 
with  the  Abbi  Ferrin  in  the  conduct  of  French 


and  parliamentary  borotiRh   __  ,  _ _ 

soulh  of  the  Thames,  in  Surrey,  between  Lam- 
beth and  Depttord.  Area,  4,480  acres.  The 
borou^  has  maugurated  a  great  workinMlass 
housing  scheme.  Its  three  divisions.  North 
Cambenvell,  Peckham  and  Dulwich,  each  re- 
;  niEmber  to  Parliament.     Pop.   (1911) 


(1841)  ;  Blanch,  <Ye  Parish  of  Camberwell:  Its 
History   and   Antiquities'    (1875). 

CAMBERWELL  BEAUTY,  the  common 
English  name  of  the  Voneua  or  Ewanessa 
anhopa,  a  large  and  beautiful  butterfly  found 
in  Great  Britain,  but  much  more  common  on 
the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  North  America, 
where  it  is  called  Mourning  Qoak.  It 
measures  three  inches  or  more  between  the  ex- 
tremities of  its  extended  wings,  which  are  of 
a  dark-brown  color,  with  a  broad  light-yellow 
border,  and  a  row  of  blue  spots  near  the  edge,. 

CAHBIASO,  ktim-be^'s«,  Luc«  (called 
LccBETTO  DA  Geitova),  Italian  painter  and 
sculptor :  b.  Moneglia,  near  Genoa  1527 ;  d. 
Madrid  1585.  His  best  works  are  the  'Martyr- 
dom of  Saint  George';  'Saint  Benedict*  and 
'Saint  John  the  Baptist,'  at  Roccrettini  and 
the  'Rape  of  the  Sabines,*  in  the  Palazzo 
Imperial^  at  Terralba,  near  Genoa.  Late  in 
Kfe,  at  the  invitation  of  Philip  II,  he  visited 
Madrid,  and  executed  an  immense  composition, 
representing  the  'Assemblage  of  the  Blessed,' 
on  the  ceiling  of  the  Esconal.  For  his  ability 
as  a  sculptor,  with  examples  of  his  skill  in  that 
art,  see  the  fifth  volume  of  Tbiime-Becker,  p. 
430. 

CAMBIER,  kan'be^',  Emeri  Henri  C^Ies- 
tin,  Belgian  Catholic  missionary :  b.  Flobecq, 
Belfiium,  2  Ian.  IS65.  He  was  educated  at  the 
College  of  Enghien  and  at  the  seminaries  of 
Bonne  Espirance  and  Sehent-lei-Bruxelles.  In 
1888  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  and  as 
a  member  of  the  congregation  of  the  Immacu- 
late Heart  of  Mary  was  sent  to  the  Kongo 
mission  field,  where  he  founded  the  missions  of 
New  Antwerp  1890,  Tuluaburg  1891,  Merode- 
Salvator  I8W,  Saint  Tnido  1895,  Hempiinne- 
•  Saint  Benedict  1897  and  Saint  lamcs-Tielen 
1896.  In  1901  he  organized  Kassai  into  a  mis- 
»on  district  and  in  1894  became  the  first  prefect 
apostolic    ol    Upper    Kassai,    Belgisn    Kongo.: 


He  made  several  joume^to  Belgium  in  the 
interests  of  bis  mission  and  studied  tropical 
diseases  in  order  the  better  to  combat  sickness 
in  his  prefecture.  He  brought  to  Africi  a 
complete  equipment  for  a  hospital  for  the  treat- 
ment of  the  sleeping  sickness.  He  served  as 
member  of  the  Commission  for  the  Protection 
of  the  Natives  of  the  Kongo  and  was  made 
Qfiicer  of  the  Royal  Order  of  the  Lion.  He 
wrote  the  first  grammar  of  the  Bangab  tongue 
(1890).  ^  "6 

CAMBIER,  Emest,  Belgian  explorer:  b. 
Ath  1844:  d.  1909.  He  entered  the  army,  serv- 
ing as  aajutant  on  the  general's  staff,  and  in 
1877  went  as  geographer  on  the  first  expedi- 
tion of  the  International  African  Association, 
under  the  leadership  of  Crespel.  The  latter 
£eA  in  Zanzibar  in  1878,  and  Cambier  became 
leader.  Accompanied  by  Waulers  and  Du- 
trieux,  he  started  for  the  interior  from  Baga- 
moyo,  and  after  a  difficult  journey  reached 
Unyamweri;  after  the  death  of  Waulers  and 
Dutrieux's  return  to  Europe,  he  went  on  to 
Kdrema  on  Lake  Tan^nyika.  Here,  in  Sep- 
tember 1879,  he  established  the  first  post  and 
scientific  station  of  the  Association,  and  re- 
mained there  till  1882.  He  published  'Rapports 
sur  les  marches  de  la  premiire  Expidition  de 
I'Association  intemationale.' 

CAMBIUM,  in  botany,  the  layer  of  delicate 
thin-walled  cells  separating  the  wood  from  the 
bast  in  a  great  many  si  ' 


side  of  the  wood,  of  new  wood-layers  formed 
from  the  cambium,  and,  on  the  inside  of  the 
bast,  of  new  layers  of  bast  formed  from  the 
outer  cells  of  the  cambium  layer.  To  this  cir- 
cumstance—that it  produces  different  kinds  of 
cells  —  it  owes  its  name  (connected  with  the 
Latin  cambire,  to  exchange).  In  conifers  and 
dicotyledonous  woodj;  perennials  the  primary 
bundles  are  arranged  in  a  circle,  and  their  cam- 
bium layers  are  thus  made  to  form  a  more  or 
less  continuous  ring  of  cambium  in  the  stem. 
By  the  deposition  of  new  layers  of  wood  and 
bast  re^larly  taking  place,  especially  in  spring, 
at  the  inner  and  outer  surfaces  of  this  cambium- 
ring,  the  stem  is  caused  to  increase  in  thick- 

CAMBLES,  a  gluttonous  king  of  Lydia, 
who 'is  said  to  have  eaten  his  own  wife,  and 
afterward  lulled  himself  for  the  act. 


but  practically  a  French  dependency,  sitiiatea 
on  the  lower  course  of  the  Mekong,  220  miles 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  and  ISO  miles 
broad,  comprising  an  area  of  45,000  square 
miles.  The  coast,  156  miles  long,  indented 
about  the  middle  by  the  Bay  of  Kompon^Som, 
offers  but  one  port,  Kampot.  Among  the 
immerous  islands  along  the  coast  are  Kong, 
Rong  and  Hon-Nan-Trung,  most  of  them  in- 
habited. The  principal  river,  the  Mekong  (in 
Cambodian,  Tonl^Tom,  "Great  River»),  flows 
throu^^  Cambodia  from  north  to  south  as  fai 
as  Chen-Tel-Pho,  and  thence  son&west  till,  at 
tbc  town  of  Pnom-Penh,  it  divides  into  two 
arms,  the  Han-Gianf^or  BassaC,  and  the  Tien- 
Giang,  or  Anterior  River,  both  flowing  south. 
Above  Pnom-Penh  is  a  north-norlfhwest  outlet- 


d=,  Google 


CAMBODIA — C  AHBORHB 


for  the  surcham  of  the  Tonli-Tom,  the  TonU- 
Sap  ('Sweet  Water  River*),  expanding  into 
the  Great  Lake,  100  miles  by  25  miles  in  area, 
with  a  maximum  depth  of  65  feet.    The  greater 

Eart  of  the  country  is  low,  well  watered  and 
eavily  timbered.  The  climate  presents  a  dry 
and  wet  season  (June  to  November)  and  is 
fairly  healthv.  The  soil  is  amacin^^  fertile, 
producing  Ur^  quantities  of  rice,  besides  silk, 
peroer,  maize,  sugarcane,  cotton,  betel,  tobaccrv 
indigO,  coffee,  etc.  Timber  is  abundant  Gold 
and  precious  stone*  arc  found,  besides  iron,  tin, 
limestone  and  salt  The  breeding  of  cattle  is 
a  flourishing  native  industry.  Among  wild 
animals  are  the  elephant,  wild  buffalo,  deer  and 
t^r.  The  Cambodians  were  formerly  a  highly 
cultured  and  civilired  race.  Various  architec- 
tural remains,  witnessing  to  former  greatness, 
are  found  throughout  the  country.  The  present 
population  is  very  mixed,  being  composed  of 
Annamites,  Malays  and  Chinese,  with  a  season- 
ing of  aboriginal  racial  elements.  The  religion 
is  Buddhism.  Polygamy  is  practised,  the  num- 
ber of  wives  being  restricted  to  three.  In  early 
times  Cambodia  was  a  powerful  state  to  which 
even  the  Idn^  of  Siam  paid  tribute,  but  it 
gradually  fell  into  decay,  until  about  the  dose 
of  the  fSth  centun-  the  Siamese  annexed  part 
of  Cambodia  to  tncir  own  land,  and  reduced 
the  rest  of  die  country  to  a  state  of  dependency. 
France,  on  11  Aug.  1863(  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  king  of  Cambodia,  Nerodom,  placing 
Cambodia  under  a  French  protectorate.  This 
treaty  was  superseded  by  that  of  17  June  1881 
under  which  the  kinj;  of  Cambodia  accepted 
all  the  reforms,  administrative,  judiciary,  finan- 
cial and  commercial,  which  the  government 
of  France  might  institute.  The  present  King 
Sisowath  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1907.  The 
chief  imports  are  salt,  sugar,  wine  and  various 
manufactured  goods,  such  as  textiles  and  arms ; 
tfie  exports  include  salt-hsh,  spices,  cotton, 
tobacco  and  rice.  The  external  trade  is  mostly 
passed  through  Saigon  in  Cochin-China.  The 
capital  is  Pnom-Penh  (pop.  54,621).  Pop. 
1,634,252,  of  which  about  1,100  are  Europeans, 
exclusive  of  military. 

CAMBODIA,  or  MEKONG,  a  large  river 
of  southeastern  Asia,  which  rises  in  Tibet, 
passes  through  Yunnan,  a  province  of  China, 
Laos,  Anam,  Cambodia  and  French  Cochin- 
China,  and  falls  into  the  Chinese  Sea  by  several 
mouths,  after  a  course  of  about  2,600  miles. 
Its  navigation  is  much  interrupted  by  sand- 
banks, rapids,  etc,  at  various  points  of  its  mid- 
dle and  upper  course.  The  Tonli-Sap  (a  lake 
covering  an  area  of  100  square  miles  in  the  dry 
season  and  770  square  miles  in  the  rainy 
season),  on  the  frontiers  of  Cambodia  and 
Siam,  IS  connected  with  the  Mekong. 

CAMBON,  kad  bon,  Jnlea  Hvtln,  French 
diplomatist:  b.  Paris,  S  April  1845.  He  studied 
for  the  law  and  fought  in  the  Franco- Prussian 
War,  reaching  the  grade  of  captain.  Entering 
the  civil  service,  he  became  prefect  of  Con- 
stantine  in  1879,  prefect  of  the  Department  du 
Nord  in  1882,  prefect  of  the  Rhone  in  1387, 
governor-general  of  Algeria  in  1891  and  Am- 
bassador to  the  Unite<f  States  1897-1902.  In 
that  capacity  he  represented  Spain  in  drawing 


aud  from  1907-13  was  Ambatsador  at  Berlin, 


where  he  made  strenuous  tnd  soccessful  cSorts 
to  find  a  peaceful  solution  of  the  Ajradir  crisis 
of  1913.  He  it  a  broker  of  Pierre  Paul  Cam- 
bon  (q.v.). 

CAMBOH,  Pierre  Jowph.  French  states- 
man: b.  Montpeilier,  17  June  17S4;  d.  near 
Brussels,  15  Feb.  1820.  Engaged  in  commercial 
pursuits,  he  became  interested  in  the  Revo- 
lution, and  on  hearing  of  the  Sight  of  Louii 
XVI  he  caused  the  republican  government  to  be 
proclaimed  in  his  native  town.  He  was  sent  to 
the  legislative  assemUy,  and  while  supporting 
the  cause  of  democracy,  gave  particular  atten- 
tion to  financial  matters..  Most  of  the  great 
measures  which  enabled  the  government  to  get 
through  the  revolutionary  period  were  sag- 
ajested  or  controlled  by  lum;  and  to  him  the 
noiior  is  due  of  having  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  modem  financial  system  of  France.  Ht 
promoted  the  confiscation  of  the  estates  of  the 
imigrls  in  1792,  and  made,  after  10  Augnst,  a 
report  in  which  he  argued  that  Louis  XVI, 
having  held  a  secret  correspondence  with  the 
enemies  of  France,  was  guilty^  of  high  treason. 
He  presided  over  the  last  sittings  oi  the  legis- 
lative assembly,  and  afterward  took  his  seat  as 
a  member  of  the  Convention.  Here  he  opposed 
with  equal  energy  the  partisans  of  monarchy 
and  of  terrorism.  When  Louis  XVI  was  ar- 
raigned before  the  Convention,  he  voted  for  his 
immediate  death,  and  against  the  appeal  to  the 
people.  He  opposed  the  creation  of  the  revoln- 
tionary  tribunal,  and  insisted  u^n  trial  by  jury. 
At  the  opening  of  the  Convention,  he  had  been 
appointed  member  of  the  Committee  on  Fi- 
nances; 7  April  1793  he  entered  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety.  On  2  June,  when  the  Giron- 
dists were  threatened  b^  the  infuriated  mob 
calling  for  their  proscnption,  he  boldly  took 
his  place  among  them,  hoping  to  be  able  to  save 
them  from  violence  and  arrest.  The  next  year 
he  made  another  report  on  the  administration 
of  finances,  which  is  considered  a  masterpiece 
of  financial  ability,  and  gives  a  full  sketdi  of 
the  plan  which  was  afterward  adopted  for  the 
regular  registration  of  public  debt.  In  the 
conflict  which  brought  on  the  revolution  of  the 
9th  Thennidor,  Cambon  took  part  against 
Robespierre  and  his  adherents ;  but  though  he 
had  been  instrumental  in  their  defeat,  he  was 
charged  with  having  been  their  accomplice,  and 
a  warrant  was  issued  against  him.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  eluding  arrest  and,  when  amnesty 
was  proclaimed  by  the  Convention,  he  retired 
to  an  estate  in  the  vicinity  of  Montpeilier.  In 
1815  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  E>eputies.  On  the  second  return  of  the 
Bourbons,  he  was  exiled  as  a  regicide. 

CAMBON,  Pierre  Pinl,  French  diploma- 
tist: b.  Paris,  20  Jan.  1S43.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  in  IS63,  and,  after 
serving  as  secretary  to  Jules  Ferry,  became 
secretary  of  prefecture  for  the  Alpes-Mari- 
times,  prefect  successively  of  the  departments 
of  the  Aube,  Daubs  and  Nord  and  French 
resident-general  in  Tunis.  He  was  appiunted 
Ambassador  to  Spain  in  1886,  was  transferred 
to  Constantinople  in  1890  and  to  London  in 
1898.  To  him  is  due  in  large  measure  the  seal- 
ing of  the  An j^o- French  entente.  ' 

CAMBORNE,  England,  market  town  of 
Cornwall,  II  miles  norOiwest  of  Falmouth,  sit- 
uated on  the  sU^e  of  a  gently  rising  hill.  Tbere 


,  Google 


CAUBRAI  —  CAMBRIAN 


S47 


U  a  granite  chnrch  in  the  PerpendicuUr  ityle, 
restOTcd  in  1662.  It  also  contains  a  tnarket-balL 
a  mining  school,  a  worldngtnan's  institute,  ana 
a  mnseum  of  mineralogy.  Near  it  are  exten- 
tive  lead,  tin  and  copper  mine*,  and  mining 
machinery  is  manufactured.     Pop.  15,829. 

CAHBRAI,  kaA-bri,  or  CAHBRAY, 
France  (Flemish  Kambsyk),  fortified  city  on 
the  Scheldt,  in  the  department  Nord,  37  miles 
south- southeast  of  Lille  by  rail.  From  this 
place  the  linen  cloth  known  b^  the  name  of 
cambric  got  its  name.  Cambrai  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop.  The  Revolution  stripped  it  of 
all  its  principal  ornaments.  The  beautiful 
cathedral  and  the  tomb  of  its  archbishop,  the 
celebrated  FSnelon,  were  raied  to  the  ground. 
There  is  a  new  monument  to  the  memory  of 
F^elon  in  the  present  cathedral,  3  modern 
building  of  indifferent,  architecture.  There  is 
a  large  and  handsome  modem  Hotel  de  Ville 
and  an  ancient  belfry  tower.  Cambrai  is  the 
seat     of     a     diocesan     seminary,     communal 


lace  thread,  leather  goods,  sugar,  soap, 
beer,  etc,  are  manufactured;  and  there  is 
a  trade  in  grain,  oil-seed,  hemp,  etc  Cambrai  is 
the  Camaracum  of  the. Romans.  In  1508  the 
league  against  Venice  was  concluded  at  Cam- 
brai between  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  Louis 
Xn,  the  Pope  and  Ferdinand  of  Aragon;  in 
1529  the  peace  with  Charles  V.  Louis  XIV 
took  Cambria  from  the  Spaniards  in  1677,  and 
it  was  finally  confirmed  to  France  by  the 
Treaty  of  Nijmegen  in  167a    Pop.  21,791. 

CAMBRIA,  the  Latin  name  of  Wales  (the 
Roman  Britannia  Sectmda),  derived  from 
Cymri,  the  name  of  the  brandi  of  the  Celts  to 
which  the  Welsh  belong,  by  which  they  have 
always  called  themselves.' 

CAMBRIAN  from  *Cambria,>  ia  ancient 
name  for  Wales)  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
earliest  time  period  of  the  Paieoxoic  Era,  and 
to  the  system  of   rocks  laid  down  during  that 


183^  in  Cambrian  time  animal  life  _. 
earth  was  already  highly  diflercnliated  All 
the  great  groups,  of  the  animal  kingdom  except 
the  vertebrates  were  present  Ihen  and  definitely 
characterized  The  principal  types  so  far  as 
the  fossil  evidence  goes,  were  Bracniopods  and 
Trilobites,  but  many  others  existed,  such  as 
mollusks,  marine  worms,  siliceous  sponges, 
graptolites  and  jellyfi^,  and  t^  the  end  of  the 
period  starfish  and  cricoids.    It  is  probable  that 


I  up 

ness  of  temperature  may  have  been  due  to  a 
mucb  larger  part  of  the  earth's  surface  being 
covered  I^  water  than  in  later  time,  or  to  a  dif- 
ference in  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere, 
more  carbon  dioxide  being  present.  At  the 
beginning  of  Cambrian  time  the  North  Ameri- 


Alabama,  separating  an  island  known  as 
Old  Apftaladoa.  whidi  extended  east  beyond 
the  present  coast  Onttsl  United  States  was 
Urgcly  land    On  the  west,  a  second  sound  ex- 


tended from  the  Arctic  south  into  Nevada  and 
California,  separating  another  land  mass  on  the 
west,  which  also  probably  reached  beyond  the 

During  Cambrian  time  the  continental  land 
mass  slowly  sank,  and  by  the  end  of  the  Cam- 
brian a  J^at  interior  sea  covered  the  whole 
Mississippi  Valley  and  large  areas  both  east 
and  west  Changes  in  land  and  sea  were  also 
going  on  in  other  continents,  large  parts  of 
which  were  under  water  during  later  Cambrian 
time.  The  period  was  without  notable  folding 
but  was  marked  by  great  volcanic  activity  m 
Wales  and  Scotland,^  In  China,  Norway  and 
possibly  at  other  points,  rocks  of  very  early 
Cambrian,  or  else  of  very  late  Algonkian  Age, 
bear  evidence  of  glacial  origin. 

The  Cambrian  system  is  fair^  well  defined 
at  its  basc^  since  the  rocks  are  deposited  upon 
the  upturned,  eroded  edges  of  Algonkian  and 
older  strata^  indicating  a  great  time  break.  The 
top  of  the  Cambrian  grades  into  the  Ordovician, 
so  that  geologists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  line 
of  demarcation.  In  North  America  the  rocks 
of  the  Cambrian  system  are  divided  into  three 
series,  as  follows:  (1)  The  Lower  Cambrian,  or 
Georgian,  (2)  the  Middle  Cambrian  or  Acadian, 


sank,  the  areas  of  Cambrian  deposition  became 
larger,  and  Middle  and  Upper  Cambrian  sedi- 
ments were  laid  down  over  much  of  central 
United  States  from  the  Appalachians  to  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  south  as  far  as  northern  Ark- 
ansas. They  have  since  been  eroded  from  parts 
of  this  area,  and  in  still  other  parts  lie  hidden 
below  more  recent  deposits.  Cambrian  rocks 
outcr6p  in  large  areas  in  the  Appalachian 
Mountains,  the  Adirondacks,  central  Wisconsin,  . 
the  O'zarks  and  in  many  isolated  patches  in 
the  Rod^  Mountains,  as  well  as  at  numerous 
other  points.  The  rocks  indicate  generally  a 
period  of  tranqml  change,  the  ocean  slowly  ad- 
vancing over  the  sinking  continent  and  islands, 
just  as  one  may  see  it  to-day  alons  great 
stretches  of  coast.  The  rocks  are  chiefly  shal- 
low water  formations,  including  conglomerates, 
sandstones  and  shales,  though  limestones  are 
by  no  means  unknown.  In  a  few  places  as  at 
South  Mountain,  Pa.,  there  are  rocks  represent- 
ing lava  and  volcanic  ash  inter  stratified  with 


detri; 


yo"- 


jie  (Cambrian  sediments  va^  from  3,0I._  _. 
12,000  feet  in  thickness.  Over  central  United 
States  they  are  much  thinner,  but  in  British 
Columbia  thev  are  reported  to  reach  the 
enormous  thicxness  of  40,000  feet 

In  Europe  the  (Cambrian  rocks  are  generally 
developed  more  fully  than  in  North  America; 
thus  the  conglomerates,  sandstone v  shale^ 
slates  and  quartiites  of  the  Welsh  Cambrian 
are  fully  20,000  feet  thick  and  contain  much 
volcanic  material.  They  are  rocks  indicating 
shallow-water  conditions,  and  show  three  <Uvi- 
sions.  They  extend  from  Wales,  along  Sweden, 
Norway  and  Lapland  into  Russia,  having  in 
Sweden  a  thickness  of  2,000  feet.  To  the  east 
the  Cambrian  formations  thin  out,  and  in  central 
Russia  die  out  altogether,  the  Ordovician  rest- 
ing directly  on  the  Archaan.  There  are  con- 
uderable  areas  of  Cambrian  in  (jerman^, 
Bohemia,  France,  Portugal  and  Spain;  also  m 


d=,  Google 


84S 


CAMBRIC  ^CAimUDOE 


northeast  China,  in  tfae  Salt  Range  in  India,  in 
Australia  and  in  Argentina. 

Blbliosraphy^  RQ».)rt  of  the  British  As- 
sociation, Seagwick  1S35;  Chamberlin  and  Salis- 
bury, 'Geology'  (Vol.  11,  New  York  1907); 
Cleland,  H.  R,  'Geology  Physical  and  Histori- 
cal' (New  York  1916) ;  Dana's  'Manual  of 
Geology'  (New  York  I89S)  ;  Freeh.  <Die  geo- 
graphische  Verbreitung  und  Entwidcelung  des 
Cambrium'  in  Compte  Rendu  du  Congris 
Giologique  Intematioitale,  1897  (Saint  Peters- 
burg 1897);  Geikie'a  'Text-Book  of  Geology' 
(London  1903)  ;  Bulletin  81  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  (Washington  1891). 
Charles  Laukevcz  Dake, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Geology  and  Mineralogy, 
University  of  Missouri  School  of  Mines. 

CAMBRIC,  a  fine,  thin  kind  of  linen  cloth 
manufactured  originally,  it  is  said,  at  Cambrai 
(q.v.)  in  French  Flanders,  whence  the  name. 
Cambric  is  manufactured  in  the  north  of  Ire- 
land, in  England,  Switierlaod  and  France,  and 
is  DOW  chiefly  used  for  handkerchiefs.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  a  cotton  fabric  which  is 
in  reality  a  kind  of  muslin. 

CAMBRIDGE,  Ada,  the  psendonym  of 
Mrs.  Qeorge  Frederick  CroBS,  Australian  nov- 
elist :  b.  Saint  Germains,  Norfolk,  England,  21 
Nov.  1844.  She  was  married  in  1870  to  Rev. 
G.  F.  Cross  and  went  with  him  to  Australia, 
since  residing  in  bush  country  districts. 
She  is  the  author  of  'My  Guardian'  (1877); 
'In  Two  Years'  Time'  (1879);  'A  Mere 
Oiance'  (1882);  'A  Marked  Man'  (1891); 
'The  Three  Miss  Kings'  (1891);  'Not  All  in 
Vain'  (1892);  <A  Little  Minx'  (1893):  <A 
Marriage  Ceremony'  (1894);  'Fidelis'  (1895); 
'A  Humble  Enterprise'  (1896)  ;  'At  Midnight' 
(1897) ;  <MaterfamiUas>  (IffiC) ;  'Path  and 
Goal'  (1900);  'The  Devastators'  (1901); 
'Thirty  Years  in  Australia'  (1903);  'Sisters' 
(1904);  'A  Platonic  Friendship'  (I90S) ;  'A 
Happy  Marriage'  (1906)  ;  'The  Eternal  Fem- 
inine' (1907);  'The  Retrospect'  (1912);  'The 
Hand  in  the  Dark'  (1913). 

CAMBRIDGE,  Adolphiu  Prcdwlcfc  (1st 
Duke  op)  :  b.  London,  24  Feb.  1774:  4  8  July 
1850.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  George  III 
and  the  uncle  of  (Jueen  Victoria.  He  entered 
the  British  army  as  ensign  when  16  years  of 
age,  and  completed  his  education  at  the  Cjennan 
University  of  Gottingen.  He  leaned  at  first  to 
Uie  side  of  the  opposition  on  the  question  of 
the  French  war,  but  afterward  sided  with  the 
mvernment.  He  served  in  the  Hanoverian  and 
British  armies  in  several  campaigns  on  the 
Continent.  In  1816  he  was  sent  to  Hanover  as 
viceroy,  and  administered  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom  with  wisdom  and  discretion.  In  1837, 
on  the  separation  of  Hanover  from  the  British 
Crown,  he  returned  to  Eneland  again.  From 
that  period  until  his  death  he  was  best  known 
to  the  public  as  the  president  of  charitable 
societies. 

CAMBRIDGE,    Gcorc*    WilUun    Fred- 


1819;  d.  17  March  1904.  His  rise  in  the  army 
was  phenomenally  rapid,  and  was  due  to  his 
clos*  relationship  to  the  Crown.  When  a  lad 
af  19  he  became  a  colonel,  and  at  26  was  a 


major-general  In  1850  he  succeeded  Us  fa^r 
as  Duke  of  Cambridge,  in  18S4  was  advanced 
to  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1856  to  that  of 
general.  He  commanded  the  two  brigades  of 
Footguards  and  Highlanders  which  formed  the 
first  division  of  the  army  sent  to  the  Crimea. 
He  led  these  troops  into  action  at  the  battle  of 
Alma,  and  at  Inkcrman  had  a  horse  shot  under 
him.  He  was  constitutionally  not  well  adapted 
for  hizh  command  in  the  field,  lacking  the  im- 
perturbability of  the  bom  soldier.  After  his 
experiences  at  Inkcrman  his  physician  directed 
him  to  withdraw  for  a  time  from  camp  life. 
He  retired  first  to  Pera,  and  soon  after  to  Eng- 
land. On  the  resignatiou  of  Viscount  Hardinge 
in  185^  be  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  British  army.  As  commander-in-chief 
be  opposed  most  of  the  reforms  introduced  into 
the  army,  including  short  service  and  the  aboh- 
tion  of  purchase;  but  'he  loyally  carried  out 
changes  which  he  did  not  approve.  He  retired 
in  1895.  Consult  Shcppartt  'Private  Life  of 
H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  Cambridge'  (London 
1906) ;  Venier,  'Military  Ufe  of  the  Duke  of 
Cambridge'  (2  vols.,  London  1905). 

CAMBRIDGE,  England,  an  Inland  county 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  county  of  Lincoln: 
on  the  west  by  Northampton,  Huntingdon  ana 
Bedford;  an  the  south  by  Hertfordshire  and 
Essex;  and  on  the  east  by  Suffolk  and  Norfolk. 
A  great  part  of  the  northern  half  of  the  county 
belongs  to  the  fen  district  and  is  very  flat; 
farther  south  it  is  undulating,  and  in  the  south- 


the  Nene  in  the  north.  An  important  portion  of 
the  county,  including  the  Isle  of  Ely.  belongs 
to  the  great  artificially  drained  tract  known  as 
the  Bedford  Level  (q.v.).  About  nine-tenths  of 
the  total  acreage  of  the  county  b  now  pro- 
ductive, and  a  greater  proportion  of  land  is 
under  corii  crops  than  in  any^  other  county  in 
the  kingdom.  Potatoes,  turnips  and  mangold 
are  the  chief  green  crops.  The  southern  portion 
of  the  county  abounds  in  dairy  farms,  celebrated 
for  the  pTTKluction  of  excellent  butter  and 
cheese.  The  pari  of  the  county  extending  from 
(jogmagog  Hills  to  Newmarket  is  chiefly  ap- 
propriated to  sheep-walks.  The  chief  mineial 
productions  are  the  phoaphatic  nodules  known 


poses  the  county  is  divided  into  four  divisions  — 
Wisbech,  Chesterton  and  Newmarket,  and  the 
parliamentary  borough  of  Cambridge,  each  re- 
turning one  member  to  Parliament.  Adminis- 
tratively the  ancient  county  embraces  the  two 
counties  of  Cambridge  and  the  Isle  of  Ely. 
There  are  two  municipal  boroughs,  Cambridge 
and  Wisbech.  The  educational  institutions  in- 
clude a  day  training  college  for  schoolmasters, 
and  the  new  Homerton  undenominational  train- 
ing college  for  women  at  Cambridge,  and  a 
theological  college  founded  in  1876  at  Ely;  there 
are  also  more  than  225  elementaty  schools  in 
the  county.  Area,  553^41  acres.  Pop.  198,074. 
See  also  Cambhidce.  UNrvEssmr  of. 

CAMBRIDGE,  England,  capital  of  the 
county  of  Cambridge,  is  situated  on  the  Cam, 
about  56  miles  north  by  east  by  rail  from  Lon- 
don. It  is  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough, the  seat  of  a  celebrated  univeruty  (see 


d=,  Google 


Caubudge,  Umivebsitv  or),  and  has  a  large 
agricultural  market. 

Geology. —  The  geological  formation  oi 
Cambridge  and  the  surrounding  district  con- 
sists chiefly  of  clay.  The  following  strata  are 
to  be  founds-  Chalk,  Marl  Cambndge  Green- 
sand,  Gault,  Kimcridge  Clay,  Oxford  Clay, 
Ampthill  CUy,  Cherryhinton  Chalk  and  some 
receat  alluvium  which  borders  the  rivers  and 
tributaries,  consisting  of  peat,  sandy  loam,  etc. 
The  town  is  made  up  of  three  main  thoroui^ 
fares,  two  running  north  and  soutli  and  the 
other  east  and  west 


mgs,  law  courts  and  public  free  library.  There 
ii  also  a  spacious  com  exchange,  attended 
weeklv  by  buvers  from  all  parts  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  a  cattle  market.  Addenbrooke's 
Hospital  is  a  noted  institutioc^  connected  as  it 
is  with  the  Cambridge  University  Medical 
School,  Cambridge  was  one  of  the  first  towns  to 
establish  a  public  free  library,  which  now  com- 
prises a  central  library  and  Uiree  branches  with 
a  collection  of  upwards  of  50,000  volumes. 

Churches.— Cambridee  is  fortunate  in  the 
number  of  its  ancient  churches,  two  of  which 
are  worthy  of  mention.  The  uiurcb  of  Saint 
Benedict's  is  the  oldest,  being  of  pre-Conquest 
date.  It  possesses  a  tower  in  the  Saxon  style 
of  architecture.  That  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
or  'Round  Church"  is  one  of  four  round 
diurches  in  England,  and  was  probably  in  exist' 


University  church),  built  in  the  perpendicular 
style.  Other  churches  of  interest  are  the  Abbey 
(early  English,  13th  century).  Saint  Edward 
(rebuilt  in  the  Hth  century  with  the  exception 
of  the  tower  which  is  a  work  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury). Saint  Uicbael  (13th  century).  Trinity 
(about  1274),  Saint  Mary  the  Less  (1340), 
Saint  Botolph  (Uth  century)  and  Saint  Peter, 
which  has  examples  of  12th  century  architec- 
ture- The  history  of  nonconformity  in  Cam- 
bridge dates  from  the  year  1457,  and  it  is  now 
well  represented  by  its  churches.  The  Roman 
Catholics  hare  a  fine  church  built  in  the  eoi^ 
decorated  style.  It  was  commenced  b  1887, 
throu^  a  donation  from  Yolande  Marie  Louise 
Lyne~St«phens.    Of  theologians  Cambridge  ' 


nary  to  the  erection  of  a  new  collq^.  Homer- 
ton  0>llege  has  about  ISO  female  students  in 
trainiuK  for  educational  duties. 

Rauroads.-— The  railway  companies  which 
have  coouections  at  Cambridge  are  the  Gtext 
Eastern,  the  Great  Northern,  the  Midland  and 
the  London  North  Western. 

Recreation  Gronnda. —  Cambridge  is  for- 
tunate in  its  number  of  common  lands  and 
recreation  grounds,  numbering  in  all  and  having 
a  total  area  of  300  acres.  Of  the  recreation 
sroiutds  Paricer's  Piece  fs  a  noted  cricket  and 
football  ground,  where  all  the  University 
matches  were  played,  until  they  purchased  iheir 
own  grounds. 

Government.— '  The  corpora^on  of  Cam- 
bridge, under  the  •Municipal  Reform  Act,» 
consists  of  a  mayor,  10  aldermen  and  30  coun- 
cillors. The  University  also  returns  its  quota 
of  two  aldermen  and  six  councillors.  The 
town  returns  one  member  to  Parliament. 

History. —  There  is  every  proof  that  in  its 
early  days  Cambridge  was  an  important  trading 
centre.  Its  situation  on  the  (^am  made  it 
easily  accessible  from  the  surrounding  district 
for  miles  around,  and  provender,  fuel  and  mer- 
chandise were  conveyed  by  water  to  all  parts  of 
East  Anglia.  It  was  the  seat  of  Stourbridge 
Fair,  one  of  the  largest  fair*  in  Europe.  That 
the  Romans  occupied  the  town  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  numerous  Roman  remains  have 
been  found  at  various  periods.  Miles  of  ancient 
earthworks,  said  to  be  of  British  origin,  sur- 
round Cambridge,  and  in  the  town  itself  there 
is  a  large  mound  called  "Castle  Hill,'  probably 
of  Saxon  origin  and  raised  as  a  defense  against 
the  incursions  of  the  Danes.  In  the  years  870 
and  1010  the  town  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes. 
William  the  Conqueror  built  a  castle  here  in 
1068.  The  year  1110  is  alleged  to  be  the  date 
of  the  origin  of  the  university,  at  which  time, 
we  read  that  learned  monks  visited  Cambridge 
to  teach  philosophy  and  other  sciences,  Richard 
II  held  a  Pai^ament  at  Cambridge  in  1388. 
The  town  was  frequently  visited  by  the  plague 
("Black  Death"),  and  in  1630  the  mortality  was 
terrible.     At  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  Oliver 


-  evangelical  school  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  at  the  same  period  Robert  Hall,  the  great 
Baptist  preadter,  attracted  large  coc^egations. 


of  the  19th  century,  drawing  a  large  coMrega- 
tion  froo)  both  town  and  University.  Inomas 
Hobson  was  famous  as  a  carrier.    He  ' 


have  been  the  first  to  let  out  horses  for  hire, 
and  the  on^nator  of  the  proverb  "Hobson's 
Choke.* 

Edocstion.— Cambridge  has  20  public  ele- 
mentary schools,  including  higher  grade  schools, 
among  -which  we  mav  note  the  Perse  gram- 
mar schools^  founded  by  Dr.  Stephen  Perse 
in  1615.  The  Wesleyans  are  represented  in 
education  by  tlie  Leys  school,  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics by  Saint  Edmund's  House,  the  Presby- 
terians by  Westminster  College,  and  more  re- 
cently the  Congregationalists  have  removed 
from  Cheshunl,  Herts,  to  Cambridge,  prelimi' 


March  1904  to  open  the  n 

The  second  meeting  of  the 
was  held  at  Cambridge  in 


sity,  Cambridge  would  lose  much  of  its  import- 
ance. The  colleges  with  their  various  styles  of 
architecture,  surrounded  by  gardens  and  Col- 
lege walks,*  are  a  constant  source  of  delight. 
The  river  Cam  wind;  its  course  through  the 
college  grounds  for  a  distance  of  about  three* 
quarters  of  a  mile.  Nine  bridges  connect  the 
colleges  and  grounds  where  nature  and  art  com- 
bine. Below  the  town,  the  river  is  the  scene  of 
the  well-known  college  boat  races  which  oc- 
casion the  visit  of  thousands  of  people. 


d=,  Google 


Area  «nd  Popolatioa.— The  town  covers 
aa  area  of  3^8  acres.  Much  bouse  property 
has  been  destroyed  to  make  room  for  the  con- 
tinuous additions  to  colleges  and  university 
buildings,  with  the  result  that  residents  have 
migrated  to  adjacent  districts.     Pop.  40,027. 

Bibliograph v.— Atkinson  and  Clark,  *His- 
tory  of  Cambritlge>  (1897)  ;  Carter,  'History  of 
Cambridgeshire'  (1819) ;  Gark.  'Historical 
and  Descriptive  Notej  on  Cambridge' ;  Cony- 
beare,  'History  of  Cambridgeshire'  (1897); 
Cooper,  'Annals  of  Cambridge,  693-1853'  (S 
vols.) ;  'Memorials  of  Cambridge'  (3  vols., 
1866) ;  Stubbs,  'Cambridge  and  its  Story' 
(1903). 

CAMBRIDGE,  III.,  the  counly-seat  of 
Heniy  County,  a  village  on  the  Rock  Island  and 
Peoria  Railroad,  about  28  miles  southeast  of 
Rock  Island.  Surrounded  by  a  productive  agri- 
cultural district,  it  has  a  thriving  domestic  and 
export  trade  in  farm  produce,  grain  and  cattle 
etc.    Pop.  1,277. 

CAMBRIDGE,  Mass.,  dty  and  one  of  the 
county-seats  of  Middlesex  County,  situated  on 
the  Charles  River  and  the  Filchburg  division 
of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad,  also  con- 
necting with  the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad; 
opposite  and  joined  to  Boston  by  nme  bridges. 
It  was  founded  in  1630-31,  under  the  name  of 
■Newe-Towne,"  or  'Nevrtown,*  and  did  not 
receive  its  present  name  until  several  ya.n 
later.  In  1636  the  General  Coart  appropriated 
$2,000  to  locate  a  school  in  Old  Cambridge, 
which  later  became  Harvard  Colle^  now 
Harvard  University.  In  1631  CZambnd^e  was 
35  miles  long  and  only  one  mile  wide,  mclud- 
ing  the  townships  now  incorporated  as  Billerica, 
Bedford,  Lexington,  Arlington,  Brixton  and 
Newton,  all  4ese  having  been  gradually 
separated  from  it.  The  dty  was  formerly 
divided  into  villages  called  Old  Cambridge, 
Cambridgeport,  East  Cambridge  and  North 
Cambridge,  names  which  are  still  used  to  desig- 
nate certam  districts.  It  has  grown  into  a 
populous  centre,  manufacturing  g&ss,  fumitur^ 
organs,  steam-engines,  etc.,  the  total  value  of 
which  amounts  annually  to  over  $45,000,000. 
Nearly  1,2(X)  retail  establishments  supply  the 
wants  of  Cambridge,  paying  £2,250,(XX)  a  year  in 
wages,  and  having  sales  of  over  $15,000,000. 
The  first  printing  office  in  the  United  States  was 
located  in  Camoridge,  and  the  'Bay  Psalm- 
Book,'  published  by  Stephen  Day  and  printed 
in  1640,  was  the  first  book  from  this  press, 
^mbridge  has  now  extensive  printing  estab- 
lishments, including  the  Riverside  Press,  the 
Athenaeum  Press  and  the  University  Press. 
For  historical  and  literary  associations,  Cam- 
bridge is  one  of  the  most  famous  cities  in  the 
United  States.  The  venerable  Washington  elm, 
•mder  which  Washington  took  command  of  the 


.'  built  by  Col,  John  Vassall  in  1759, 
Washington's  headquarters  in  1775-76,  and 
afterward  became  the  home  of  the  poet  Henry 
W.  Longfellow  until  his  death.  On  Elm  ave- 
nue is  'Elmwood,"  the  birthplace  and  home  of 
James  Russell  Lowell,  who  lived  here  1819-91. 
A  part  of  the  place,  bought  by  public  subscrip- 
tion, is  preserved  as  a  public  park.  Tbis  city 
was  also  the  home  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 
William    Henry    Channmg,    Mai^ret    Fuller 


Ossoli,  Cot.  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson, 
Louis  Agassiz,  John  Fiske  and  Charles  Eliot 
Norton.  The  fine  dty  hall  and  land  for  a  park 
was  the  gift  of  a  former  citiicn,  Frederick  H. 
Rmdge,  who  also  presented  the  city  with  a  pub- 
lic lib^a^>^  an  institution  now  called  the  Rindge 
Manual  Training  School,  and  other  benefac- 
tions which  amounted  to  more  than  $1,000,000. 
The  beautiful  Mount  Auburn  cemetery  is  partly 
in  Cambridge  and  partly  in  Watertown.  Amon^ 
important  buildincs  are  those  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity; Radcliffe  College;  Cambridge  Hospi- 
tal; Manual  Training  School;  the  Latin  and 
Higii  Schools:  Public  Library;  and  Middlesex 
County  Courthouse.  Much  has  been  accom- 
plished toward  developing  a  system  of  parks 
which  includes  nearly  the  entire  river  front,  and 
extends  around  the  manufacturing  district.  In 
two  recent  years  the  total  building  operations 
in  new  factories,  fine  aparlment-liouses  and 
private  residences  amounted  to  $5,000,000,  The 
total  value  of  taxable  property  is  |130,000,000. 
The  dty  buildings,  land  ana  equipment  are 
valued  at  $4,000,000;  its  parks  at  $4,3O0,00a  and 
it  owns  its  waterworks  which  cost  $6,500,000. 
The  administration  consists  of  a  mayor  and 
city  council.  Pop.  114.000,  Consult  Bacon, 
'Cambridge  and  Vidnity'  (Newark  1892) ; 
Paige,  'History  of  Cambridge*  fBoston  1877); 
Eliot,  'History  of  Cambridge*  (Cambridge 
1913).     See  Harvard  UnrvERSiry. 

CAMBRIDGE,  Md,  a  dty  and  county-seat 
of  Dorchester  County,  53  miles  southeast  of 
Baltimore  on  the  Choptank  River  near  Chesa- 
peake Bay  and  on  the  Seaford  and  Cambridge 
Railroad.  Cambridge  was  settled  in  1634  and 
irporated  as  a  city  in  1900.     It  is  gov- 


four  aldermen.  Cam  Bridge  has  important 
manufactures  of  underwear  and  lumber  and  as 
the  centre  of  a  fertile  agricultural  district  has 
an  active  trade  in  farm  produce  and  live  stock. 
Fruit,  vegetable  and  oyster  canning  industries 
are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  Pop. 
6,407. 

CAMBRIDGE,  N.  Y.,  village  of  Wash- 
ington County,  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
Railroad,  28  miles  northeast  of  Albany.  The 
Cambridge  Valley  Agricultural  and  Stockbreed- 
ers' Association  is  located  here  and  seed,  steel 
plow,  chaplet  and  knitting  industries  are  carried 
on.  The  village  was  incorporated  in  1866.  Pop-  ■ 
1.727. 

CAHBRIDQB,  Ohio,  dty  and  county^seat 
of  (juernsey  County,  on  the  Baltimore  antf  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania  railroads,  55  miles  north  of 
Marietta.  It  is  situated  on  a  hill  800  feet  above 
sea-level,  in  a  coal  and  irim  region  which  has 
also  deposits  of  pottery  clay.  The  industries 
are  chidly  mining  and  manufactures  connected 
with  these  resources.  The  United  States  cen- 
sus of  manufactures  for  1914  reported  39  in- 
dustrial establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 1.6S6  persons,  of  whom  1.435  were  wage 
earners,  receiving,  annually.  $1,112,000  in  w^es. 
The  capital  invested  aggregated  $2,969,000  and 
the  year's  output  was  valued  at  $3,924,000:  of 
this,  $416,000  was  the  value  added  by  manu- 
facture. Natural  gas  is  used  for  heating.  The 
dty  owns  and  operates  its  waterworks.  The 
city  has  five  banks,  courthouse,  children's  home 
and  Carnegie  Library.    It  was  settled  in  1804, 


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wu  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1887  and  received 
a  new  charter  oE  administration  in  1893.  A 
mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and  a  council 
govero  the  city.    Pop.  13,000. 

CAMBRIDGE,  Univeru^  of.  Situated  at 
Cambridge,  England.  Its  origin  is  very  obscare, 
and  of  its  early  history,  before  the  12ui  century, 
tljere  are  only  very  scanty  records.  It  is  dear 
that  a  university  existed  long  before  the 
foundation  of  the  oldest  college,  and  that  it  was 
powerful  enouf^  to  claim  and  to  obtain  Crom 
the  town  very  important  privileges,  such  as  im- 
munity from  taxation,  the  right  to  test  wei^ts 
and  measures  and  to  prescribe  what  amuse- 
ments should  be  allowed  or  forbidden.  From 
the  bitter  feeling  aroused  by  the  possession  ol 
these  and  other  privileges  frequent  serious  out- 
breaks of  hostilities  arose  between  the  town 
and  the  university,  resuliins  in  the  wanton 
destruction  of  valuable  records,  which  has  left 
little  or  no  material  for  a  connected  history. 
It  is  probable  that  the  university  owed  its 
origin  to  the  schools  in  connection  with  the 
priory  of  Saint  Frideswyde  and  the  conventual 
churt^  at  Ely.  The  earliest  reco^tion  of 
Cambridge  as  a  university  is  contained  in  a 
writ  of  the  second  year  of  Henry  III,  1217, 
ordering  all  clerks  who  had  been  excommuni- 
cated for  their  adherence  to  Louis,  son  of  the 
king  of  France,  to  de[art  the  realm.  The 
number  of  students  was  increased  in  the  same 
rugn  by  a  migration  of  students  from  Paris  in 
1229,  and  fur^er  by  a  like  migration  from  Ox- 
ford in  1240.  In  the  early  part  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury students  lived  where  they  pleased,  but  in 
time  they  inaugurated  a  system  of  hostels  or 
lodging-nouses,  in  which  a  number  had  to  live 
under  the  supervision  of  a  superior;  and  out  of 
this  system  of  hostels  sprang  the  collegiate  sys- 
tem. The  oldest  of  the  colleges,  Peterhouse, 
was  founded  in  1284  by  Hugh  de  Balsham, 
bishop  of  Ely;  it  was  followed  by  Qare. Col- 
lege, founded  m  1326  by  Lady  Elizabeth,  grand- 
daughter of  Edward  I ;  Pembroke  Hall,  in  1347, 
by  Marie  de  St  Paul;  GonviUe  Hall,  after- 
ward Gonville  and  Cains  College,  in  1348  by 
Edmund  Gonville;  Trinity  Hall,  in  1350,  by 
William  Bateman,  bishop  of  Norwich;  Corpus 
Chrisu  College,  in  1352,  by  the  joint  elTorts  of 
two  Cambrit^  communities,  the  Guild  of  Cor- 
pus Christ!  and  the  Guild  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin ;  King's  College,  in  1441,  by  King  Henry 
VI :  Queen's  College,  in  1442  by  Margaret  of 
Anjou,  though  it  was  not  tiH  1475  that  it  re- 
ceived its  code  of  statutes  from  Elizabeth 
Woodville,  the  consort  of  Edward  IV;  Saint 
Catherine's  Hall,  in  1452,  by  Robert  Wodelarke, 
provost  of  King's  College;  Jesus  Collie,  in 
1496,  by  John  Alcock.  bishop  of  Ely;  Christ's 


1S84,  by  Sir  Walter  Mildma;',  a  college  dear 
to  all  Americans  as  that  in  which  John  Harvard, 
founder  of  Harvard  College,  was  educated ; 
Sidney  Sussex  College,  in  1596,  by  the  Lady 
Frances  Sidney,  Countess  of  Sussex;  Downing 
College,    in    1800,    by    Sir    George    Downing; 


IDGB  »1 

Selwyn  College  Public  Hostel,  founded  in  18S2 
in  memory  of  George  Augustus  Selwyn,  late 
bishop  of  Lichfield,  formerly  bishop  of  New 
Zealand.  Each  of  these  colleges  is  a  separate 
corporation  governed  by  its  own  statutes  and 
practically  mdependent  of  the  university, 
though  the  connection  between  the  two  is  nec- 
essarily very  dose,  as  every  member  of  the 
university  is  a  member  of  some  one  of  the  col- 
leges, as  a  non-coil cgiate  student  The  head  of 
a  college  is  styled  the  master,  except  in  the  case 
of  King's  College,  where  he  is  stvled  the  pro- 
vost, and  of  pueen's  College,  which  is  ruled 
by  the  president.  Other  college  officers 
are  the  tutor,  who  stands  m  loeo  parentis  to 
the  undergraduates,  and  the  dean,  who  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  services  in  the  college  chapel, 
and  for  college  disdpline. 

A  code  of  statutes  was  given  to  the  univer- 
sity by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  this  code  remained 
in  force  till  1858,  when  a  new  code  was  framed 
by  a  royal  commission;  this  latter  code  was 
again  revised  in    1882,   when  they  took  their 

S resent  form.  In  1874  all  religious  tests  were 
nally  abolished  except  for  degrees  in  divinity; 
and  in  1894  the  university  surrendered  the  last 
of  its  privileges  over  the  town,  which  it  had  re- 
tained since  the  13th  century,  and  then  only  put 
an  end  to  the  bitter  feeling  which  had  existed 
for  centuries  between  the  town  and  the  univer- 
sity, and  which  had  led  to  frequent  outbre^cs 
of  hostihties  between  the  two  bodies. 

The  university  was  incorporated  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  by  the  name  of  "The  Chancellor, 
Masters  and  Scholars  of  the  UniverstW  of 
Cambridge.'  The  executive  authority  of  the 
university  rests  in  theory  with  the  chancellor, 
who  is  elected  for  life;  but  as  he  is  non- 
resident, it  is  practically  in  die  hands  of  the 
vice-chancellor,  who  is  elected  annually  from 
among  the  heads  of  colleges.  The  ultimate 
dedsion  of  all  questions  touching  academic 
policy  rests  with  the  senate,  a  body  composed 
of  alt  those  members  of  the  university  who 
have  proceeded  to  the  M.A.  or  some  higher 
degree,  and  whose  names  are  on  the  register 
of  members  of  the  senate.  All  legislative  pro- 
posals so  far  as  they  are  consistent  with  the 
statutes,  which  can  only  be  altered  hv  act  of 
Parliament,  are  framed  by  the  vice-chancellor 
in  conjunction  with  the  council  of  the  senate,  a 
body  elected  by  the  resident  members  of  the 
senate  and  consisting  of  the  chancellor,  the 
vice-chancdior,  four  heads  of  colleges,  four 
professors  and  eight  other  members  of  the 
senate.  These  proposals,  having  recdved  the 
sanction  of  the  coundl,  are  offered  to  the  senate 
in  the  form  of  graces  or  resolutions,  and  must 
pass  the  senate  before  they  can  take  effect 
Of  the  other  officers  of  the  university  the  most 
important  are  the  two  proctors,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  attend  to  the  discipline  of  all  persons  in 
statu  fupillari  and  to  read  the  graces  in  the 
senate  house:  the  registrar,  who  keeps  the 
archives  of  the  university;  the  _pnblic  orator, 
who  is  the  voice  of  the  university  on  all  im- 
portant occasions,  who  writes  letters  in  the 
name  of  the  university  and  who  presents  alt 
honorary  degrees  in  a  Latin  speech;  the  li- 
brarian, who  has  charge  of  the  university  li- 
brary. A  general  board  of  studies  supervises 
the  system  of  teaching  as  a  whole,  and  each 
department  of  study  is  controlled  by  a  professor 
and  a  syndicate  or  board.    The  teaching  of  the 


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CAMBRIIXa 


undergraduates  is  undertaken  partly  by  the 
university  and  partly  by  the  colleges.  It  takes 
mainly  the  form  of  lectures,  deliveied  either  by 
the  university  professors  or  readers,  and  open 
to  all  members  of  the  university;  or  by  college 
lectures  to  members  of  particular  colleges  or 
groups  of  colleges. 

The  academical  year  is  divided  into  three 
terms :  the  Michaelmas  term,  lasting  from  1 
October  to  19  December;  the  Lent  Term 
from  8  January  to  within  %  few  days 
of  Easter;  the  Easter  term  from  three 
weeks  after  Easter  to  24  June.  The  under- 
graduates reside  either  in  rooms  belonging 
to  the  teveral  colleges  or  in  rooms  in  the 
town  licensed  for  the  purpose.  They  dine  to- 
gether  in  the  college  halt,  but  all  other  meals 
are  taken  in  their  own  rooms.  Academical. 
dress,  a  gown  and  square  college  cap,  must  be 
worn  in  the  college  hall  and  chapel.  Before 
proceeding  to  any  examination  for  a  degree 
they  must  have  resided  for  the  greater  part  of 
each  of  nine  ternis;  and  must  have  passed  the 
previous  examination,  commonly  called  the 
■Little  Go,*  a  somewhat  elementary  examina- 
tion in  cbssics,  mathematics  and  divinity.  Ex- 
emption from  this  examination  can  be  obtained 
by  passing  various  non -university  examinations. 
The  student  can  then,  if  he  wishes  to  proceed  to 
an  'Honors*  degree,  devote  the  rest  of  his 
time  to  his  special  subject,  and  having  kept  his 
terms,  is  qualified  to  become  a  candidate  for 
honor  in  a  tripos,  as  honor  exuninationa  are 
caljad.  If  he  wi^es  merely  to  obtain  a  pass 
degree  he  must  first  pass  the  general  examina- 
tion of  somewhat  similar  nature  to  the  pre- 
vious, but  more  advanced,  and  can  then  proceed 
to  one  of  the  special  examinations^  at  they  are 
called.  These  examinations  are  in  the  same 
subjects  as  the  tripos  examinations,  but  the 
questions  set  are  of  a  much  less  advanced 
nature.  A  student  who  passes  a  tripos  is  called 
an  honor  man;  one  who  passes  in  a  special  ex- 
atnination  is  called  a  pass  man  (commonly 
•Pollman,*  from  ol  iroiUoi).  The  names  of 
successful  candidates  are  arranged  in  three 
classes,  called  in  the  case  of  the  mathematical 
tripos,  wranglers,  senior  optimes  and  junior 
optimes ;  in  the  case  of  the  examinations  merely 
^rst,  second  and  third  class.  To  the  rule  that 
every  student  before  proceeding  to  a  degree 
must  have  "kept*  residence  at  least  nine  terms, 
there  are  some  important  exceptions.  Grad- 
uates of  other  universities,  Briti^  and  foreign, 
who  can  produce  evidence  of  special  qualifica- 
tiona,  can  qualify  for  the  fi.A.  degree  by  pasa- 
tng  a  tripos  examination,  or  by  submitting  for 
approval  a  dissertation  on  some  subject  con- 
nected with  the  special  branch  of  study. 
Students,  from  various  educational  institutions 
for  adults  both  at  home  and  in  the  colonies, 
which  are  said  to  be  "af&liated"  to  the  Uni- 
versity, are  allowed  practically  the  same  privi- 
leges. Further,  diplomas  in  public  health, 
psychological  medicine,  anthropi^ogy,  tropical 
medicine,  agriculture,  geography,  mining  en- 
gineering and  forestry  are  granted,  after  ex- 
ami[iation,  to  persons  who  are  not  members  of 
the  university.  Having  obtained  the  B.A,  de- 
gree the  student  can  then,  after  the  lapse  of 
three  years,  proceed  to  the  U.A.  degree,  and 
thereliy,  for  the  tirst  time,  he  obtains  a  voice 
in  the  government  of  the  university.  He  can 
exercise  a  vote  in  the  senate,  and  can  "non- 


placet*  or  oppose  the  eraces  offered  to  the 
senate  by  the  cotmcil.  Of  the  degrees  above 
that  of  B.A.,  the  U.A.  is  the  only  one  that  is 
conferred  without  further  examination  or  ex* 
ercise.  The  degree  of  doctor  in  the  various 
faculties  can  only  be  obtained  by  examination 
or  by  a  dissertation.  Degrees  other  than  these 
already  mentioned  which  are  conferred  b^  the 
university  are  the  degrees  of  doctor  in  divinity, 
law,  medicine,  music,  letters  and  science ;  roaster 
in  law  and  surgery,  bachelor  of  divinity,  law, 
music,  medicine  and  surgery.  The  university 
has  power  to  confer  honorary  de^ees,  without 
residence  or  examination,  on  distinguished  per- 
sons, noblemen,  bishops,  deans  and  heads  of 
colleges.  Before  1850  the  only  avenue  to  an 
honor's  degree  was  by  way  of  the  mathematical 
tripos,  or  by  the  mathematical  and  classical 
tripos  combined.  The  last  half  century  has 
witnessed  a  remarkable  development.  New 
triposes  have  been  established  in  moral  sciences, 
theology,  natural  sciences,  law,  history,  eco- 
nomics, mediaeval  and  modem  languages, 
oriental  languages  and  mechanical  sciences; 
while  new  professorships  have  been  founded  in 
archjEology,  fine  arts,  Latin,  Anglo-Saxon,  ex- 
perimental physics,  mechanism  and  appKed 
science,  surgery,  agriculture,  biological  chem- 
istry, biology,  divinity,  ecclesiastical  history, 
English  literature,  genetics,  German,  mental 
philosophy  and  logic,  Sanscrit  and  Chinese. 
This  last  was  founded  by  Sir  Thomas  Wade, 
who  was  tiie  first  professor  and  who  be- 
queathed to  the  university  the  first  Chinese 
'■'• side  China.    Provision  is  also  rr''- 


for   the   teaching  of   Hindustani,   Tamil,    Bur- 
mese, Persian,  Russian,  etc. 

Of  the  university  buildings  the  most  import- 
ant is  the  University  Library,  containing  over 
80(^000  volumes,  over  10,000  manuscripts,  in- 
cluding the  famous  Codex  Beue,  and  100,000 
maps.  The  Acton  Library  of  59O0O  volumes 
was  presented  by  Viscount  Mori ey  in  1902.  This 
library  is  entitled  by  the  Copyright  Act  to  a 
copy  of  every  book  published  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  a  large  sum  is  expended  every 
year  in  the  purchase  of  foreign  books  and 
periodicals.  The  Fitzwilliam  Museum  contains 
a  valuable  collection  of  paintings,  ancient  mar- 
bles and  coins.  The  Observatory  stands  about 
a    mite    from    Cambridge,    and    is    splendidly 

Suippcd  with  instruments  large  and  small.  The 
useums  and  Laboratories  of  Science  cover  % 
large  space  of  ^ound  in  the  centre  of  the 
university  and  mdude  laboratories,  lecture- 
rooms,  and  workshops  for  all  departments  of 
science  and  medicine.  These  rouseums  have 
been  erected  at  great  cost  during  Ae  last  few 

a.rs,  and  were  formally  opened  by  King 
ward  in  1905.  The  Engineering  Laboratory, 
probably  one  of  the  best  equipped  of  its  kind 
m  existence,  provides  adequate  instruction  for 
the  profession  of  engineer.  The  Cavendish 
Laboratory  of  Experimental  Physics  was  the 
gift  of  the  seventh  Duke  of  Devonshire,  late 
chancellor  of  the  university.  The  Sedgwick 
Museum  of  Geology  was  built  as  a  memonal  to 
the  late  Adam  Sedgwick,  professor  of  geology. 
Other  museums  are  those  of  classical  arche- 
ology, botany,  mineralogy,  etc  The  botanic 
garden  occupies  over  20  acres,  and  contains  an 
extensive  range  of  plant  houses,  a  large  ar- 
boretum, etc. 

Two  colleges,  Girton  uid  Newnham,   have 


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CAMBRIDGE  MANUSCRIPT—  CAMBRIDGE  PLATOJIISTS 


been  established  just  outside  Cambridge  for 
the  edncation  of  women.  The  students  at  these 
colleges  are  admitted  to  university  and  college 
lectures  and  to  tlie  various  examinations  for 
honors.  The  names  of  those  who  pass  are 
placed  m  the  pubhshed  lists,  and  certificates  are 
granted  to  them.  Many  of  fhera  have  obtained 
the  highest  honors,  but  the  university  confers 
no  degrees  upon  litem. 

Two  movements  of  the  last  half  century 
have  served  to  bring  the  universi^  'into  closer 
connection  with  education  generally  throughout 
.  the  country.*  By  the  local  examinations,  estab- 
lished in  1858,  the  standard  of  instniction  in 
so-called  middle  schools  has  been  raised  to  and 
maintained  at  a  high  degree  of  excellence; 
and  the  movement  has  spread  beyond  all  ex- 
pectations. The  other  movement,  known  as  the 
University  Extension  Movement,  which  orig- 
inated in  a  course  of  lectures  delivered  in  one 
or  two  of  the  large  towns  in  the  north  of 
England  iti  186^  has  had  an  equally  remark- 
able success,  "rtie  scheme  is  'an  attempt  to 
solve  the  problem  of  how  much  of  what  the 
universities  do  for  their  non-students  can  be 
done  by  university  lectures  for  persons  unable 
to  go  to  a  university."  The  method  of  teaching 
'has  four  characteristic  features — the  lecture^ 
the  class,  the  weekly  paper  work,  and  the 
examination.*  The  members  of  the  university 
whose  names  were  on  the  board  in  1915  num- 
bered 14,417,  of  whom  10,968  were  members 
of  the  senate  or  otlier  graduates,  and  3,449 
undergraduates.  A  tabulated  statement  issued 
at  the  end  of  1915  showed  that  10,250  were 
serving  in  war  duties.  In  that  year  the  en- 
Tolmenta  of  midergradaates  numbered  1,097, 
having  sbrimk  to  one-third  of  the  usual  num- 
ber owing  to  war  conditions.  The  ordinary 
income  of  the  universihr  for  1916  was  i37,184, 
that  of  the  colleges  £237,405.  The  war  has  also 
affected  adversely  the  finances  of  the  university, 
which  is  faced  with  %  probable  deficit  at  the 
end  of  1916  of  £13,500. 

Bibliograirfiy. —  Cooler,  'Annals  of  Cam- 
bridge' ;  Mullinger,  'History  of  the  University 
of  Catnbrid^';  'Statutes  and  Ordinances  of 
the  University';  'Student's  Handbook  to  the 
Universi^  and  Colleges  of  Cambridge'  ;  'Cam- 
bridge University  Oilendar' ;  'Quarterly  Re- 
view*   (AprU  19()6). 

CAMBRIDGE  MANUSCRIPT,  the  CO- 
DEX CANTABRIGIBN8IS  or  BKZM,  the 
most  famous  of  the  uncial  MSS.  in  the  Univer- 
sity Library,  Cambridge,  England,  consisting 
of  a  copy  of  the  fou.-  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles.  It  was  presented  in  1581  to  the 
Universi^  of  Cambridge  by  Theodore  Beza 
(q.v. ) .  The  Codex  Berae  and  the  Codex 
Laudianus  at  Oxford  differ  widely  in  text  from 
aJI  texts  of  other  c^mUccs,  Scrivener,  the  edi- 
tor, and  other  critics  look  upon  these  diver- 
gences a.s  interpolations  of  which  the  Codex 
Bezze  Is  said  to  contain  no  less  than  600. 
Scrivener,  nevertheless,  believes  that  the  Codex 
Bezge  is  derived  from  an  original  of  not  later 
than  the  3d  century.  Bomcmann  on  the  other 
hand  contends  that  the  Codex  Beza;  contains  the 
original  text  and  that  other  versions  are  muti- 
lated. Scrivener's  criticism  Is  interesting: 
*WbiIe  the  general  course  of  the  history  and 
the  siiirit  of  the  work  remain  the  same  as  in 
oor  commonly  received  text,  we  perpetually  en- 


counter long  passages  in  Codex  Bezse  which 
resemble  that  text  only  as  a  loose  and  explana- 
toty  paraphrase '  recalls  the  original  form  from 
which  it  sprung.  Save  that  there  is  no  differ- 
ence in  the  langua^  in  this  instance,  it  is 
hardly  an  exaggeration  of  the  facts  to  assert 
that  Codex  D  (that  is  Codex  Bezae)  repro- 
duces the  lexlus  receptus  of  the  Acts  much  in 
the  same  way  that  one  of  the  best  Chaldee  Tar- 
gums  does  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old'  Testament, 
so  wide  are  the  variations  in  the  diction,  so 
constant  and  inveterate  the  practice  of  expand- 
ing the  narrative  by  means  of  interpolations,* 
See  Bible. 

CAMBRIDGE  PLATFORM,  a  system  of 
church  order  and  polity  agreed  on  b^  a  s^nod 
of  New  England  churches,  held  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  in  IMS.  It  was  a  resolution  rather  than 
a  decree,  the  platform  itself  denying  the  synod's 
authority  to  pronounce  the  latter.  Its  chief 
positions  were :  The  one  true  and  immutable 
form  of  church  government  has  been  prescribed 
in  God's  word.  Christ  is  the  supreme  head  of 
his  Church,  which,  since  his  advent,  consists  of 
distinct,  equal  ana  self-governing  bodies  under 
him,  not  too  large  to  meet  conveniently  in  one 
place  nor  too  small  to  carry  on  church  work 


racies  as  to  each  other ;  but  obligated  to 
mutual  communion  of  care,  counsel,  monition, 
worship,  succor  and  transfer  of  members. 
Synods  are  useful,  but  not  permanent  nor  with 
authorityfor  censure  or  discipline;  but  when 
their  decisions  accord  with  God's  word  they 
should  be  submitted  to.  Christ  has  deputed  ex- 
traordinary but  temporary  power  to  his  apostles, 
ordinary  and  permanent  power  to  the  churches. 
Officers  are  advantageous,  but  not  indispen- 
sable, and  each  church  may  appoint  and  remove 
its  own,  but  should  consult  its  neighbor 
churches  when  feasible.  These  officers  consist 
of  bishops,  pastors  or  elders  (synonymous  in 
function),  and  deacons  who  can  act  officially 
only  in  temporal  matters.  Ordination  is  the 
solemn  installation  of  a  church  head  into  his 
place,  following  his  election. 

CAMBRIDGE  PLAT0NI5TS,  the  name 
given  to  a  school  of  theological  and  philosophi- 
cal thinkers  of  the  EJiglish  Church  who  were 
connected  with  Cambridge  University,  and  who 
exercised  an  important  influence  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  17th  century.  The  most  im- 
portant members  of  this  school  were  Benjamin 
Whichcote,  John  Smith,  Ralph  Cudworth, 
Henry  More,  Nathaniel  Culverwel,  JohnWortb- 


younger  than  the  Cambridge  thinkers,  though 
represent! ngthe  same  genend  intellectual  tend- 
ency. Sir  Thomas  Browne,  author  of  'Religio 
Medici*  and  'Christian  Morals,'  is  also  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Platonic  type  of  thought,  but 
his  work  as  an  author  belongs  to  a  somewhat 
earlier  period 

In  theology,  the  influence  of  these  men  was 
in  favor  of  toleration  and  liberality  of  view. 
They  maintain  that  dogmatic  uniformity  is  un- 
attainable, and  that  the  welfare  of  both  church 
and  state  demands  toleration  and  latitude  of  re- 
ligious opinion.  Hence  they  were  frequently 
termed    latitudinarians    (q.v,  "^ '  '"' ' " 

was  the  result  of  a  faith  in 


:,  Google 


SS4 


CAMBRIDOBSHIRB — CAHB  YSE8 


viction  that  free  inquiry  and  discussion  could 
not  be  prejudicial  to  theological  truth,  and  that 
rigid  uniformity  of  doctrine  is  neither  possible 
nor  desirable.  At  the  same  time  they  dittin- 
Kuish  between  dogma  and  true  religioa.  The 
Former  is  «xtertial  and  necessarily  change!  from 
time  to  time.  Religion  is  the  spiritual  life 
springing  up  in  the  soul,  the  union  with  the 
divine,  which  manifests  itself  through  the  moral 
life.  The  spiritual  life  is  no  mere  subjective 
izacy,  but  is  the  true  reality,  more  real  and 
abiding  than  the  world  of  sense  and  i 


ideal  essences  of  things  and  the  highest  tnith 
and  reality  that  these  possess,  both  in  the  intel- 
leclual  and  moral  sphere,  as  opposed  to  what 
is  material  and  sensuous.  Cudworth,  who  was 
the  most  learned  and,  in  many  respects,  the 
most  important  representative  of  the  school, 
names  his  two  chief  works  'The  True  Intel- 
lectual System  of  the  Universe,*  and  'The 
Eternal  and  Immutable  Principles  of  Morality.' 
From  these  titles  the  general  standpoint  of  Uie 
whole  movement  appears.  Cudworth  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  writings  of  Descartes  and 
corresponded  with  him  on  philosophical  sub- 
jects, but  the  real  inspiration  of  the  school  came 
from  Plato  and  Neo-Platonists  lilce  Plotinus, 
Proclus,  Hierocles.  all  of  whom  are  abundantly 

Juoted  in  uncritical  fashion.  Negatively,  too. 
leir  thought  and  activity '  were  influenced 
greatly  by  Hobbes  (q.v.),  who  stands  for 
materialism  and  for  relativity  and  a  naturalistic 
system  of  ethics.  Indeed  the  work  of  Cudworth 
and  Henry  More,  the  two  most  prominent 
writers  of  the  school,  may  he  said  to  be  explicit 
attempts  to  refute  Hobbes.  Cudworth's  work 
is  the  more  ponderous  and  learned,  abounding 
in  quotations  drawn  from  many  sources.  In 
More  we  find  a  more  mystical  tendency,  with 
perhaps  deeper  speculative  insight. 

Biblioenphjr.— Tulloch,  J.,  'Rational  Theol- 
ogy and  Christian  Philosophy  in  England  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century>  JVol.  II,  2d,cd.,  1874): 
Hallam  H^  'Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe';  Sidgwick,  H.,  'An  Outline  History 
of  EOiics';  Erdmann,  'History  of  Philosophy.' 
In  addition,  many  of  the  writings  of  representa- 
tives of  die  school  are  accessible  in  Eln^ish 

Jambs  E.  C>£iGiiTOK, 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  Cornell  Univeriity. 

CAMBfilDOSSHIRB,  England,  an  inUnd 
eastern  county  of  England ;  greatest  length, 
about  48  miles;  breadth,  33  miles;  area,  858 
square  miles.  Arable  land,  meadow  and  pas- 
ture constitute  about  three-fourths  of  the 
county,  the  rest  being  fens.  The  surface  is 
marshy,  flat  and  thinly  wooded,  except  in  the 
southern  portion,  which  is  somewhat  elevated 
and  on  uie  chalk  formation.  The  northern 
section  forms  part  of  the  Bedford  Level.  The 
ttrindpal  watercourses  are  the  Lark  River,  the 
Nene,  which  borders  the  county  on  the  north, 
and  the  Ouse,  which  crosses  the  middle  of  the 
coun^  from  west  to  east,  with  its  tributary, 
the  Cam.  All  of  these  are  navigable  for  some 
distance.  For  parliamentary  purposes  the 
county  is  divided  into  three  divisions  (northern 
or  Wisbech,  western  or  Chesterton,  and  eastern 
or  Newmarket)  and  embraces  also  the  par- 
liamentary   borou^    of    Cambridge,    each    of 


which  retunu  one  member.  Cambridge  Uoi- 
vetsity  also  returns  two  members.  In  the 
higher  sections  beans  and  wheat  are  produced; 
the  black,  spongy  soil  of  the  fens,  when  drained 
and  burned,  in  dry  years,  produces  large  crops 
of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  cole-se^ 
hemp,  hay  and  flax;  fine  butter  and  cream- 
cheese  are  produced  on  the  meadows  of  the 
Cam ;  and  uie  Isle  of  Ely,  a  part  of  the  fen- 
tract  and  within  the  Bedford  Level,  is  noted 
for  its  garden  vegetables.  Cattle  and  sheep  are 
reared  on  the  thin  chalky  soils,  and  horses, 
cattle,  sheep  and  pigeons  on  the  fens.  The 
manufactures  are  mostly  confined  to  articles 
used  in  the  agricultural  industry;  apart  frtxn 
that,  brewing  and  malting  are  uie  chief  in- 
dustries, ana  there  are  paper  and  parchment 
mills,  and  coarse  earthenware  and  needles  are 
manufactured.  Cambridgeshire  was  aodently 
the  seat  of  a  powerful  tnbe^  the  IcenL  There 
are  interesting  Roman  remains,  and  the  county 
is  specially  nch  in  ecclesiastical  buildings  re- 
plete with  architectural,  historic  interest  Pop. 
198,074. 


Sebastian,  near  Nantes,  26  Dec  1770 ;  d.  5  March 
1842.  He  served  on  the  national  guard  in  the 
Vendue  in  1792 ;  distinguished  himself  by  the 
capture  of  a  Russian  battery  at  Ziirich  in  1799; 
and  took  part  in  the  campaigns  in  1806-13.  He 
went  to  Elba  with  Napoleon,  and  returned  with 
him  in  1815.  Napoleon  made  him  general  and 
gave  him  the  rank  of  count  At  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  he  commanded  a  division  of  the  Old 
Guard,  and  is  credited  with  having  made  the 
famous  reply  to  the  demand  for  surrender,  La 
garde  meitrt  el  He  le  rend  fas  <*Tlie  guard 
dies,  but  never  surrenders*).  It  is  now  certain, 
however,  that  be  did  not  sajr  this,  but  gave  hiin- 
self  up  as  a  prisoner  to  General  Halkett,  and 
was  taken  to  En^and,  At  the  time  of  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  on  the  list 
of  proscriptions,  but  was  exonerated  by  two 
court-martials,  and  in  1820  appointed  comraan- 
dsmt  of  Ulle  by  Louis  XVIIL 

CAHBUSCAN,  a  prince  of  Cambaluc  (Pe- 
king), whose  name  is  a  corruption  of  Genghis 
Khan,  while  the  description  applies  apparently 
to  his  grandson,  Kublai  Khan.  This  was  Mil- 
ton's form  of  the  Cambynskan  of  Chaucer's 
fragment  of  «  metrical  romance  'The  Squieres 
Tale.'  Spenser  continues  and  finishes  the  tale 
in  his  'Faerie  Queene'  (IV,  ii  and  iii)  ;  and 
John  Lane,  a  friend  of  Milton's  father,  also 
wrote  a  continuation.  Some  of  the  romantic 
elements  in  it  are  widespread  in  Oriental  story, 
occurring  in  the  'Arabian  Nights,'  the  <Pan- 
chatantra*  and  elsewhere. 

CAHBYSES,  kSm-brsfi,  I,  Persian  king. 
His  historical  character  is  involved  in  great 
doubt,  but  he  is  commonly  identified  as  the 
son  and  successor  of  Teispes,  and  father  of 
Cyrus  the  Great  (q.v.). 

CAHBYSES  II,  king  of  the  Uedes  and 
Persians:  d.  522  B.c  He  was  the  son  of  Cyrus 
the  Great,  and  grandson  of  Cambyses  I,  and 
became,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  kiiiR  of 
the  Medes  and  Persians,  S29  B.C.  In  the  fifth 
year  of  his  reign  he  invaded  Egypt,  killed  King 
Psammetichus  III  at  Pelusinm,  pluadered 
Memphis,  and  conquered  the  whole  kingdom 


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within  six  months.  He  now  wished  to  send  a 
fleet  against  Carthage,  lo  conquer  £thioi»a,  and 
to  obtain  possession  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Ammon.  The  first  of  these  expeditions,  how- 
ever, did  not  lake  place,  because  the  fleet,  which 
was  manned  with  Fhoenicians,  refused  obedience 
to  him  in  a  war  against  their  kindred.  The 
army  which  ^^s  sent  against  the  Ammonites 
perished  in  the  desert ;  and  the  troops,  at 
whose  head  he  himself  had  set  out  against  the 
Ethiopians,  were  compelled  by  hunger  to  re- 
treat From  this  time  he  gave  himself  up  to 
the  greatest  cruelties.  On  his  entrance  into 
Uempliis,  seeing  the  Egyptians  engaged  in  the 
celebration  of  a  feast  in  honor  of  their  eod 
Apis,  whom  they  had  found,  he  believed  that 
tbey  were  rejoidnK  at  his  misfortunes.  He 
caused  the  holy  bull  to  be  brought  before  him, 
slew  him  with  his  own  sword  and  caused  the 
priest  to  be  scourged  with  rods.  To  drown  his 
remorse  he  indulged  in  wine.  No  relation  was 
held  sacred  by  him  when  intoxicated.  He 
caused  bis  brouier  Smerdis,  a  dream  concern- 
ing whom  had  disturbed  him,  to  be  murdered. 
His  sister  and  wife  Atossa,  who  lamented  the 
death  of  Smerdis,  he  killed  with  a  blow  of  his 
foot.  These  and  other  acts,  almost  indicating 
iusani^,  had  irritated  his  subjects.  A  mapian 
avaiteci  himself  of  his  discontent,  and  obtauned 
possession  of  the  throne  under  the  name  of 
Smerdis,  whose  death  had  been  concealed. 
Cambyses  had  resolved  to  go  to  Susa,  in  order 
to  punish  him,  when,  according  to  the  account 
of  Herodotus,  as  he  was  mounting  his  horse, 
he  received  a  wound  in  the  hip  from  his  sword, 
in  consequence  of  which  be  soon  died,  at  Ecba- 
tana,  Syria,  leaving  no  children.  Somewhat 
different  accounts  are  g^ven  by  Ctesias  and 
others.  See  Ctbus ;  Oaritjs;  MEDIA;  PaiSIA. 
Consult  Liocke,  'Kambysesin  der  Sage,  Littera- 
tur  und  Kunst  dcs  Mittelahers'  (in  Ebcr"} 
'Festschrift,'  Leipzig  1897). 

CAMDEN,  Charles  Pratt  (Ist  Earl  of), 
English  statesman :  b.  1713:  4  London  18  April 
1794.  After  studying  at  Eton  and  King's  Col- 
ic^, Cambridge,  he  entered  as  a  student  at 
Lincoln's  Inn,  and  in  due  time  was  called  to  the 
bar.  In  1754  he  was  chosen  member  of  Par- 
liament for  the  borougfc  of  Downton.  After  ac- 
quiring great  reputation  as  an  advocate,  he  was, 
in  1757,  appointed  attorney- general,  having  the 
same  year  been  elected  recorder  of  the  city  of 
Bath.  While  he  held  the  office  of  chief  justice 
of  the  common  pleas  Wilkes  was  arrested  on  a 
general  warrant  as  the  author  of  the  'North 
Briton.*  He  was  committed  to  the  Tower  as  a 
state  prisoner;  and  being  brought,  in  obedience 
to  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  before  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas,  Chief  Justice  Pratt  discha^ed 
him  from  his  confinement  on  6  May  1763.  The 
behavior  of  the  jud^e  on  this  occasion,  and  in 
the  consequent  judicial  proceedings  between  the 
printers  of  the  'North  Briton'  and  the  messen- 
gers of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  other 
agents  of  the  ministry  was  so  acceptable  to  the 
metropolis  that  the  aty  of  London  presented 
him  with  the  freedom  of  the  corporation,  in  a 

fold  box.  and  requested  to  have  his  picture.  In 
uly  1765  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  by  the 
title  of  Baron  Camden;  and  about  a  year  after 
made  lord  chancellor.  In  this  capacity  he  pre- 
sided at  tbe  decision  of  a  suit  aninst  the  me»- 
scngcTs    who   arrested   &Ir.   WiUEes,   when  he 


made  a  speech,  in  which  he  stated  that  *it  was 
the  unanimous  opinion  of  tbe  court,  that  gen- 
eral warrants,  except  in  cases  of  high  treason, 
were  illegal,  oppressive  and  unwarrantable." 
On  his  opposing  the  taxation  of  the  American 
colonies,  ne  was  deprived  of  the  seals  in  1770. 
He  came  into  office  again  as  president  of  the 
council,  under  the  administration  of  the  Marquis 
of  Rockingham,  in  March  1782;  on  whose  death, 
he  resigned  the  following  year.  He  soon  after, 
however,  resumed  his  place  under  Mr.  Pitt, 
and  in  1786  was  made  Earl  Camden  and  Vis- 
count Bayham.  His  popularity  was  very  great 
in  the  American  colonies,  as  is  shown  by  the 
many  counties,  towns  and  villages  named  in 
his  honor. 

CAHDBN,  WUUam.  English  aDtiqua7  and 
historian:  b. L(mdoiL2May  1551 ;  d.Cmsemurst, 
Kent,  9  Nov.  1623.  He  was  educated  at  Christ's 
HosiNtal  and  Saint  Paul's  and  Oxford.  In  1575 
he  was  appointed  second  master  of  West- 
minster School,  and  at  this  time  began  to  make 
collections  for  his  greatest  work  the  'Britannia,' 
written  in  Latin  and  giving  an  account  of  the 
British  Isles  from  the  earliest  ages.  It  was 
published  first  in  1586,  and  gained  a  hi^  repu- 
tation at  once.  It  was  revised  and  enlarged  by 
the  constant  work  and  study  of  Camden,  and 
by  1607  had  ^ssed  through  six  editions.  In  the 
same  year  it  was  translated  into  Elnglish  by 
Philemon  Holland;  by  Edmund  Gibson  in  t7& 
(2  vols.)  ;  by  Gough  and  Nicols  (2d  ed,  1806). 
Hume,  in  his  'History  of  England'  ranks  (Zam- 
den's  works  among  the  best  historical  produc- 
tions composed  by  any  Engishman. 

In  1593,  Camden  became  head  master  of 
Westminster,  for  which  school  he  drew  up  a 
Greek  grammar  (1597).  The  same  year  he 
obtained  the  olFice  of  Clarencieux  King-at- Arms. 
In  1622  he  founded  a  professorship  of  history 
at  Oxford  which  he  endowed  with  the  valuable 
manor  of  Bexl^  in  Kent.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  His  hcuse  at  Chiselhurst 
was  the  residence  of  Napoleon  III  (1871-73). 
His  other  works  consist  of  'Annates  Rerum 
AnKticarum  et  Hi  be  mica  rum  regnante  EUza- 
bctha,  ad  annum  salutis'  (1559,  latest  ed,  1717), 


'  of  the  Monuments  and  Inscriptions  in  West- 
minster Abbey*  (1600)  ;  'Narrative  of  the  Con- 
spiracy called  the  (gunpowder  Plot'  (1607) 
written  in  Latin  at  the  King's  command. 

CAUDEN,  Ala.,  town  and  county-seat  of 
Wilcox  County,  on  the  Louisville  and  Nash- 
vitle  Railroad,  60  miles  southwest  of  Mont- 
gomery. The  centre  of  the  fertile  'Black  Belt 
of  Alabama,*  it  has  cotton,  cottonseed  oil,  stock 
raising  and  lumber  interests.    Pop.  648.- 

CAMDEN,  Ark.,  < 
Ouachita  County,  115  n 
Sock,  on  the  Rock  Island,  the  Southern,  the 
Saint  Louis  and  Iron  Mountain  and  other  rail- 
roads and  on  the  Ouachita  River,  The  city  has 
a  library  and  courthouse,  machine  shop,  cotton- 
seed-oil mills  hmiber  mills,  sashes  and  door 
factories,  spokes,  wagon  works  and  a  cotton 
compress.  There  is  a  lai^  river  trade  in  cot- 
ton, tnmber,  poultry  and  Iiye  stock.    Pop.  3,995. 

CAMDEN,  Me.,  town  and  summer  resort 
37  miles  southeast  of  Augusta,  .served  tq'  tbe 
Eastern  Steamahip  Conpw^'B  vessels.    BeMdes 


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counly-seat  of  Camden  County,  on  the  Dela- 
ware River,  opposite  Philadeli)hia,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  several  ferries.  The  city  is 
situated  on  a  level  plain  and  the  streets  cross 
one  another  at  right  angles.  It  is  noted  for  its 
immense  market  gardens  and  important  manu- 
factures and  is  the  site  of  several  large  ship- 
building concerns.  Area,  five  square  ini]cs. 
According  to  the  latest  Federal  census  Camden 
bad  817  manufacturing  establishments,  employ- 
ing $30,000,000  capital  and  20,000  persons;  pay- 
ing $10,000,000  wages.  The  most  important  in- 
dustries are  foundry  and  machine- shop- products. 
ship- building,  worsted  goods,  oil  cloth,  boots  and 
shoes,  masonry,  textile  fabrics,  talldng  machines, 
soups,  pens,  iron  mills,  etc.  The  United  States 
census  of  manufactures  for  1914  recorded  343 
industrial  establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 25.727  persons,  of  whom  22,490  are 
wage  earners,  receiving  annually  $12,967,000  in 
wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated  $101,- 
433,000,  and  the  year's  production  was  valued  at 
$71,405,000:  of  this,  $35,436,000  was  the  value 
added  by  manufacture.  There  arc  nine  banks 
with  a  combined  capital  of  $3,000,000.  The 
assessed  value  in  1915  eiiceeded  $80,000,000,  and 
the  tax  rate  was  $2  per  $10a  In  1917  there 
were  in  the  city  more  than  200  miles  of  paved 
streets,  60  miles  of  sewers,  115  miles  of  water 
mains ;  and  gas  and  electric  street  lighting  and 
waterworks  plants,  the  Utter  owned  by  the  dty. 
The  notable  buildings  are  the  dty  hall,  county 
buildings,  hospitals  and  churches.  At  the  dose 
of  the  school  year  1915  there  were  38  public 
school  buildings,  20,000  pupils,  510  teachers,  a 
public  and  private  high  school.  The  citv  waa 
settled  in  1681  by  William  Cooper  and  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city  under  an  act  passed  14  Feb. 
1S28.    Pop.  102,465. 

CAHDBN,  S.  C,  town  and  winter  resort 
county-seat  of  Kershavu  Countj-,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Wateree  River,  and  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  Southern  and  the  Sea- 
board Air  Line  systems,  32  miles  northeast  of 
Columbia.  In. a  fertile,  productive  region,  it 
has  manufactures  of  cotton  cloths,  yams  and 
oil,  bricks  and  lumber  articles,  and  trades  in 
naval  stores,  cotton  and  rice,  Quakers  from 
Ireland  settled  here  in  1750  and  received  a  town 
charter  in  1791.  Here  16  Aug.  1780,  Baron 
De  Kalb  was  mortally  woonded  during  the 
victory  of  the  British  under  Lord  Comwallis 
over  the  Americans  under  General  Gates;  aitd 
here  25  April  1781  the  British  under  General 
Rawdon  drove  back  the  Americans  under  Gen- 
eral Greene  at  the  battle  of  Hobkirk's  Hill.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  General  Sherman's  troops 
25  Feb.  1865  sacked  and  almost  totally  destroyed 
the  town.    Pop.  3,569, 

CAMDBN,  Battle  of,  a  battle  foueht  near 
Camden,  S.  C,  16  Aug.  1780,  between  the  Amer- 
ican troops  under  Gates  and  the  British  under 
Lord  Rawdon.  Shortlv  after  the  British  cap- 
tured Charleston  in  May,  all  South  Carolina 
was  in  their  hands  except  for  the  guerrilla 
warfare  of  Marion,  Sumter  and  others.  Wash- 
ington had  already  sent  De  Kalb  (qv.)  with 
1,400  Maryland  and  Delaware  regulars,  among 
the  best  troops  in  the  army,  to  save  it,  but  the 
new  disaster  called  for  fresh  efforts  and  a  first- 


rate  new  commander  of  the  Southern  Depart- 
ment to  succeed  Lincoln.  Washington  wished  to 
send  Greene;  but  a  popular  clamor  for  Gates, 
mistakenly  credited  with  the  victory  over  Bur- 
goyne,  led  Congress  to  give  him  the  post.  He 
took  command  at  Hillsborough  N,  C.,  where 
De  Kalb  was  vainW  waiting  for  General  Caswell 
and  the  North  Carolina  militia  to  come  up 
from  South  Carolina.  Gates,  therefore,  deter- 
mined to  march  south  and  join  Caswell,  and 
thus  rdn forced,  seize  Camden  and  the  Wateree, 
near  which  was  their  camp  ^  the  strategic  cen- 
tre of  the  State,  and  the  converging  point  of 
the  chief  northern  roads.  It  was  held  by  Lord 
Rawdon  with  a  comparatively  small  force.  A 
fortnight's  starving  march  of  ISO  miles,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  picked  up  a  comjiany  of 
Virginia  regulars  and  the  Notth  Carolina  men, 
brought  him  in  front  of  Rawdon,  strongly 
posted  across  the  road  15  miles  northeast  of 
Camden.  He  might  wther  attack  with  superior 
forces  or  hold  Rawdon  with  a  part  whde  he 
sent  the  rest  around  his  flank  to  seize  Camden 
in  the  rear;  but  he  did  ndther,  and,  after  wait- 
ing two  days  without  apparent  object,  moved 
west  to  Clermont,  or  Rugely's  Mill,  a  strong 
position,  13  miles  north  of  Camden.  Here  be 
was  joined  by  700  Virginia  militia,  but  sent 
off  400  of  his  splendid  Maryland  regulars  to 
help  Sumter  cut  the  British  communications 
far  to  the  southeast,  and  Comwallis  joined 
Rawdon,  giving  the  British  2,000  trained  men. 
Gates  had  no  intelligence  department,  and  sup- 
posed he  still  had  only  Rawdon's  small  force 
before  him ;  and  about  10  P.M.  of  15  August 
started  down  the  road  to  surprise  Rawdon, 
Comwallis  at  the  same  hour  starting  north  to 
'  surprise  him.  The  vanguards  met  about  3  a.m. 
a  teyi  miles  above  Camden,  and  the  Americans 
were  routed;  but  some  British  {irisoners  in- 
formed Gates  that  Comwallis  was  m  front  with 
3,000  men.  Gates  had  3,052,  most  of  his  nomi- 
nal force  bdng  on  paper  or  helpless  with  dys- 
entery; and  over  half  of  them  were  militia  who 
had  never  been  under  fire  and  did  not  even 
understand  using  a  bayonet.  De  Kalb,  the  brave 
but  judicious  otTicer,  wished  to  fall  back  on 
Rugcly's  Milt ;  but  the  other  ofikers  thought 
it  too  late  to  retreat,  and  Gates  deplo^d  his 
men,  with  as  bad  judgment  as  the  decision  to 
fight  at  all.  The  road  ran  through  a  level  field 
flanked  by  swamps,  so  that  everyUiinK  depended 
on  the  firmness  of  the  front  ranlc ;  but  he 
massed  all  the  regulars  on  one  wing  and  all 
the  militia  on  the  other.  De  Kalb  held  the  right 
opposite  Rawdon,  with  the  Delaware  remment 
and  the  2d  Maryland  brigade  in  front,  the  1st 
Maryland  in  reserve;  the  left  wing  had  the 
Virginia  militia  in  front  and  the  North  Caro- 
lina troops  in  the  rear,  opposed  to  Col.  James 
Webster,  with  Tarleton's  cavalry  in  reserve. 
Gates'  tactics  were  as  ill-judged  as  his  arrange- 
ment ;  be  ordered  the  first  charge  made  by  the 
Virginia  men,  who  did  not  even  know  how  to 
march  in  order.  They  became  tangled  and 
while  trying  to  reform,  Webster's  onrush  broke 
them  in  wild  panic;  they  threw  down  thoit 
loaded  guns  with  bayonets  set,  without  firing  a 
shot,  and  ran  to  the  rear.  One  regiment  of 
North  Carolina  men  fired  several  volleys,  but 
all  the  rest  fled  like  their  nrighbors,  and  the 
one  exception  soon  shared  tbdr  flight.  Mean- 
time, the  2d  Matjiand  twice  drove  back  Raw- 
don, then  broke  bis  ranks  with  a  bayonet  charge, 


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Z  DiiniKdan  1  Two-Bumped  Cund 


Digitized  =,  Google 


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c  Aian»  sociBTT-^  cambl 


and  held  ttx  fieM.  But  Webstar  ^d' TatMon, 
foUowmff  the  routed  mab,  hod  flanked  die  lat 
Ifaryland  and  after  an  obninate  firilt  crowded 
it  off  the  field;  and.  taking  the  2d  Matyland  in 
liie  rear,  compelled  it,  too,  to  cctire,  a£ler  a 
fierce  reslsiance.  De  Kalb  {ought  to  the  hM, 
and  wu  captured,  mortally  weuiided,  with 
11  wounds.  The  stubborn  nght  of  the  reg4i- 
iars  ii  shown  by  the  fadt  tW  the  Delawaie 
troops  were  nearly  aimihilated.'aiid  the^Mary- 
land  regiinents  lost  nearty  holi  tbeic  luinber. 
There  were  about  1,000  killed  and  mimdcd, 
and  as  many  prisoners  taken,  -irith  sevsn  ca^ 
non  and  2,000  muskets.  TIk  fititifih  lost  324. 
For  die  time  the  American  csmsc  m  the  :Soat|i 
was  at  an  end.  Gates  escaped  to  MllaboFaaah, 
but  was  shortly  supplanted  by  Greene,  vnUt 
wrouKhi  a  wonderful  iransfonnation  ia  a  few 

CAHDBN  SOCIETY.  An  EngUsh  asso- 
datioB  established  in  1838  at  London,  for  the 
purpose  of  publishing  historical  and  anti- 
quarian inionnation,  name^  in  honor  of  Wil- 
liam Camden.  Its  publicaUon  began  in  1847, 
the  first  series  including  10  volumes.  The  sec- 
ond series  up  to  1900  included  63  volumes.  In 
1901  a  new  scries  was  begun.  Up  to  1913,  '23 
Tolumes  have  been  published 

CAMDEN  TOWN,  England,  a  district  of 
London  to  the  Metropolitan  borough  of  Saint 
Fancras  and  county  of  Middlesex.  It  takes 
its  name  from  the  Eart  of  Camden  who  ac- 
quired property  here  bv  marriage.  The  houses, 
which  are  in  general  of  recent  erection,  are 
regular  and  substantial  buildings.  The  dis- 
trict lies  northeast  of  Regent's  Park  and  north 
of  the  Euston  station  of  the  Lorldoh  and  North 
Western  Railroad., 

CAHBL,  ■  large  tuminattt  af  the  genus 
Cametus,  family  CameUia  (q.v.),  two  apecies 
of  which  have  been  donesticatcd  since  prehis- 
toric times,  and  used  as  riding-animals  and 
beasts  of  bnrden  in  the  desert  regions  of  die 
Old  World  Ahkouf^  much  search  has  b««i 
made,  no  wild  medes  of  camel  can  be  found 
except  one  small  two-hiunped  vari^,  discor- 
ered  by  Prejevalski,  which  inhabits  central 
Asia,  northward  to  Siberia,  but  it  is  not  certain 
wbetfaer  it  repreBCnts  an  original  wild  species, 
or  is  a  degenerate  race  long  ago  escaped  from 
domesticadon. 

The  Arabian-  camel  (Camelus  dromedarius) 
has  one  hump  on  the  shoulders;  the  Baclrian 
camel  (C  battrianui)  two.  These  are  com- 
posed of  touscle,  flesh  and  fat,  which  in  times 
of  famine  is  reabsorbed  to  a  large  extent. 
After  it  has  been  exhausted,  a  rest  of  three  or 
foor  months,  with  abundance  of  food,  Is  neces- 
»ty  to  restore  it,  The  former  is  the  more 
common  spedes,  and  ia  used  tram  Mongolia  and 
northwest  India  tbrougbotU  aouth-ceotral  Asia, 
Asia  Minor,  Arabia  and  northeraand  eastern 
Africa,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  Spaui  and  else- 
where. At  the  time  of  the  rurfi  of  gold-fseekets 
to  California  about  l&SO.  efforts  were  made  to 
naturalize  camel»  in  tbc  arid  resaons  of  the 
southwestern  United  Sutes,  as  a  means  of  cv 
[yiTig  supplies  to  the  army  posts  there,  but  they 
proved  UDsucceseful,  mainly  bv  veasoa  of  thitlr 
intractable  aad  vicious  di^osftkin. 

The  origiaal  home  of  tfte  singl»-httnped 
<:anel  is  uncvriain,  but  as  it  isnbeitter  aA^tted 

vot*S  — 17 


iiwht 
desart.     Its  peculiar   adaptability    __ 

indy  [icgions  is  noticeable  in  many  ways. 
The  call<Mis  cushions  (pads)  on  its  feel  are  re- 
peated upon  the  chest  and  the  joints  of  the  le^, 
on  which  it  rests  when  rising  kneeling  or  lymg 
down,  and'  protect  these  parts  from  abrasion 
by  the  sharp  sand.  Its  wedge-shaped  cutting- 
teeth  are  well  fitted  for  cropping  the  short, 
Isfatubby  plants  of  the  desert  Its  long  eye- 
-iBsbes  jirotecl  it  from  the  glaring  sun  and  from 
the  dnfting  sand;  and  the  abilitv  to  close  the 
«Uiqile  nostrils  at  will  prevents  the  entraiKe  of 
dud  The  most  remarkable  provision  for  life 
in  arid  regions,  how ev«r,  is  found  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  stomach,  the  interior  of  which  has 
no  vilK  on  its  surface.  Both  the  compartments 
of  die  paunch  contain  a  number  of  pouches  or 
cells  in  their  walls,  each  of  which  may  be  closed 
and  separated  from  the  remainder  of  the 
paunch.  These  are  filled  and  closed  whm  the 
camel  drinks,  and  by  these  means  it  can  store 
more  water  than  is  requisite  for  its  immedi- 
ate use,  and  so  save  up  a  store  which  may 
gradually  be  drawn  upon  during  long  journeys 
over  waterless  districts.  The  camel's  senses 
of  sight  and  smell  are  very  acute,  and  it  is  ca- 

fible  of  discerning  water  at  a  great  distance, 
y  reason  of  these  qualities  it  has  been  a  most 
important  factor  in  the  colonizing  of  the  coun- 
tries that  lie  south  and  east  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, Black  and  Caspian  seas,  and  such  oases 
or  fertile  areas  as  are  separated  by .  desert 
waters;  in  fact  students  of  civilization  believe 
that  these  regions  could  hardt^  have  begome 
the  abode  of  a  settled  civilization  had  it  not 
been  for  this  useful  viimaL 

The  Bartrian  camel  is  of  smaBer  siw'and 
heavier  build,  and,  by  its  harder  and  more 
cloven  feet,  and  longer  and  finer  hair,  is  better 
adapted  to  a  rocky  and  cooler  region.  Its  hab- 
itat is  central  Asia.  Like  the  southern  species 
it  has  wonderful  endurance,  withstanding  the 
terrific  summer  heat  of  Persia  and  the  Tibetan 

flains,  and  the  Arctic  cold  of  the  passes  of 
[indu-Kush  and  Mongolia.  They  have  been 
successfully  employed  as  army  transports  by  the 
English,  in  northwestern  India;  and  for  many 
years,  through  all  weathers,  trains  of  these 
camels,  sometimes  of  many  thousands,  were  al- 
most the  only  means  by  which  tea  and  other 
merchandise  was  transported  between  China 
and  Russia. 

The  many  breeds  of  camel  exhibit  great  di- 
versity. Some  are  those  bred  only  for  the  sad- 
dle, others  as  baggage-carriers  or  draft  anim^ 
for  they  are  also  trained  to  haul  carriages  in 
harness.  Properly,  a  'dromedary"  is  any  camd 
of  either  sjiecies  of  a  saddle-breed,  distin- 
guished for  its  speed  and  ease  of  gait  As  a 
beast  of  burden  the  camel  has  great  powers  of 
endurance.  The  Arabian  species  carries  twice 
the  load  at  a  mule,  while  it  is  not  unusual  for 
the  Bactrian  species  to  carry  half  a  ton  weight 
upon  its  back ;  by  reason  of  which  it  is  some* 
times  poetically  termed  the  "shiji  of  the  des- 
crt.'  Caravans  frequently  contain  as  many  as 
l,tiOO  camels,  which  more  along  at  a  steady  and 
onifoTfti  pace  of  about  two  and  a  half  miles  an 
haur.  When  bred  especially  for  the  purpoae 
they  have  been  known  to  carry  a  traveler  140 
nilas  B  day.  They  move  with  a  pacing  motioiH 
lifting  the  feet  on. the  saine  .ii&  soccosnvclji. 


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CAMKl  —CAMELIDA 


Their  money  value  is  about  the  tatne  as  that  of 
horses  of  similar  grade  uid  purpose. 

The  camel  serves  the  nomadic  inhabitants 
of  Arabia  and  the  Sahara  and  tbe  East  in 
many  ways  besides  as  a  ridioK  animal  or  beast 
of  burden.  It  gives  them  hair  that  may  be 
woven  into  the  coarse  fabric  for  tent-covers 
and  ropes,  or  the  finer  shawls  and  ru^  that 
are  often  of  great  market  value.  Its  milk  and 
flesh  are  food  and  its  hide  and  bones  are 
utilized,  while  its  dried  dung  serves  as  fuel 
when  no  wood  is  obtainable;  and  from  its 
trades,  in  reading  which  the  Bedouins  are 
amazingly  ^Iful,  the  nomad  derives  informa- 
tion  of  interest  and  importance  as  to  the  niove- 
ments  of  neighbors  or  the  strategy  of  enemies. 
This  animal  forms  an  important  element  in 
the  ecoaomy  of  the  civilized  people  of  those 
regions,  in  warfare  as  well  as  in  agricuhure 
and  commerce.  A  Camel-corps  has  long  been 
a  r^gularpart  of  the  organization  of  the  British 
airny  in  bg^t  and  in  northeastern  India,  serv- 
ing as  effective  cavalry. 

CAMEL,  a  water-tight  box  or  caisson,  used 
to  raise  a  sunken  vessel  or  to  float  a  vessel 
over  a  shoal  or  bar.  Its  invention  is  ascribed 
to  tbe  Dutch  and  its  first  use  is  said  to  have 
been  about  1688.  It  is  sunk  by  the  admission 
of  water  and  is  attached  to  the  vessel,  after 
which  tbe  water  b  piunped  out,  and  the  camel, 
rising  by  its  buoyancy,  lifts  the  load.  Modern 
camels  are  buih  of  steel  and  fitted  with  ma- 
chinery for  working  the  chains  which  support 
the  wreck  or  attach  it  to  the  camel. 


CAHBL-CRICKBT.    See  Mamtis. 

CAHBLPORD,  England  village  on  the 
Camel,  28  miles  northwest  of  Plymouth.  The 
streets  arc  spacious  and  well  paved,  but  the 
houses  are  in  general  very  indifferent.  Five 
miles  to  the  northwest  of  Camelford  :         ' 


slate  quarries  of  Delabole.  The  inhabitants  ; 
chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture, 
CAUELID.S,  a  family  of 
mals,  including  the  Old  World  camds  (gcnos 
Camelus)  and  New  World  guaniicos  and  vi- 
cugnas (genus  Llama),  as  the  existiiu:  retnainder 
of  a  divergent  group  formerly  close^  connected 
both  in  structure  and  in  geographical  distribu- 
tion. It  forms  a  distinct  section  of  the  Ruminate 
.JJa  named  Tyiopoda,iTi  reiwencela  the  character 
of  the  feet,  in  which  only  the  third  and  fourth 
to«s  are  developed,  and  these  are  embedded  in 
a  cutaneous  pad,  forming  a  broad  elastic  sole 
to  die  foot.  The  two  tnetapodial  or  ■cannon* 
hones  of  each  of  the  long  limbs  arc  separated 
far  a  oonsiderable  distance  at  the  lower  end, 
where  the  articular  surfaces,  instead  of  bdtlg 


tyta),  are  rounded  and  auooth.  The  toes 
minale  in  small  ttail^  and  the  weight  of  tiie 
animal  rests  upon  the  padded  sole  of  the  foot 
instead  of  on  hoofs,  in  adaptation  to  the  sof^ 
sandy  soil  of  deserts,  ia  whidi  this  race  of 
animals  teems  to  have  lived  «ver  since  its 
origin.  The  dentition  of  the  prolonged  jaws 
has  ccrtaia  peculiarities.    The  full  number  of 


is  present  in  youth,  but  ia  the  u^er 
jaw  these  disappear,  except  the  outermost, 
which  persist  tbrougji  hfe,  while  those  in  the 
lower  jaw  are  procumbeoL  Canines  arc  pres- 
ent in  both  jaws.  The  niolars  arc  of  the  seleno- 
dont  type.  The  neck  is  very  long  and  flcxuaus; 
the  shoulders  are  high ;  and  the  hinder  part  of 
the  body  is  much  contracted  and  drooping  in 
appearance.  The  tail  is  well  developed  and  the 
^on  is  dothcd  with  loos,  shaggy  hair.  The 
nostriis  are  high  and  may  be  closed  against 
the  admission  of  dust;  and  the  lips  are  pro- 
longed and  flexible  There  are  no  hams  or 
antlers  in  either  sex.  The  interior  anatomy  is 
pecuhar,  prindtnlly  in  Ae  character  of  the 
digestive  organs,  described  iii  tbe  article 
Cauel    See  Caueu&k,  fbssn. 

CAMKLID.ffi,  PoflaiL  The  evolution  of 
tbe  camel  (q.v.)  through  the  Tertiary  and 
Quatetnaty  pariods  is  nearly  as  cotnpletely 
loiown  as  that  of  the  horse,  and  is  hardly  less 
instructive.  The  camels  now  inhabit  central 
A<ia  and  iiorthern  Africa,  the  llamas,  South 
America.  No  fossil  cimds  or  llamas  are 
found  in  these  countries  in  depositB  much  older 
'than  the  QuatCRBry.  But  in  uie  Tertiary  strata 
oi  North  America  have  been  found  a  series 
of  animals  which  appear  to  be  the  direct  an- 
cestors of  this  family,  and  connect  them  ^ith 
the  primitive  hoofed  animals  of  the  earliest 
Eocene.  The  earliest  member  of  this  series, 
ancestral  probably  to  the  camels  among  other 
ruminants,  is  TrigonoUsUs  of  the  Lower 
Eocene,  smaller  than  a  cotton-tail  rabbit,  with 
the  c(Hnplete  series  of  incisor,  {ircmolar  and 
molar  lectb,  the  molars  of  the  primitive  buno- 
dont  type  (see  Bunodont)  and  probably  five 
complete  toes,  the  side  toes  very  slender,  and 
the  metapodials  all  separate.  In  the  Upper 
Eoctuie  stage,  Protflopvi,  a&  large  as  a  jack- 
rabbit,  the  molars  have  become  selenodont 
(q.v.),  aa  in  nstdem  camels,  but  with  shorter 
^crowns,  and  the  side  toes  in  the  hind  leg  are 
represented  only  by  splints,  fn  the  01iRi>ccne 
stage,  iPoibrolhefiiim),  as  large  as  a  gazelle,  the 
molars  have,  longer  crowns,  the  splints  are  re- 
duced to  small  nodules  of  bone  and  the  meta- 
podials, though  still  separate,  are  dosely  ap- 
pressed.  In  the  Miocene  stage  (Procamtlus, 
.etc.)  the  metapodials  arc  tometimes  separate, 
sometimes  united;  tbe  indsors  and  premolars 
are  generally  reduced  in  size  and  the  anterior 
upper  incisors  arc  often  lost;  and  the  form  of 
the  teetfa  and  sktiU  comes  doaer  to  the  modem 
type.  The  Pliocene  camels  (Pliauchenia,  etc) 
are  still  doser  to  the  modem,  type,  all  with 
mited  met^odials  and  reduced  incisors  and 
premolars,  and  at  diis  epoch  they  spread  to 
South  America  and  tbe  Old  World,  the  gradual 
rising  of  the  continentt  having  made  land  con- 
nections between  dibn  aboM  uds  time.  During 
the  Pleistocene  epoch  the  camels  all  became 
exdnct  in  their  original  bom^  althongh  th^ 
still  survive  in  the  alien  continenta  to  which 
they  had  wandered. 

Tbe  most  remarkable  peculiarity  of  the 
camels  ts  the  adaptation  of  tbe  stomach,  which 
enables  the  animal  to  go  a  long  time  without 
water  (see  Caubl)  ;  paleontology  gives  no 
direct  evidence  of  the  evolution  of  this  charac- 
ter. But  the  cushioned  foot,  equally  an  adapta- 
tion to  desert  life,  is  not  indicated  (by  the  form 
of  tbe  toe  bones)  in  any  ancestral  came)  pre- 


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CAHSLLIA — CJUUK08  ~ 


vious  to  the  Miocene,  from  which  dme  it  be- 
came eradually  more  marked.  We  may  sup- 
pose, therefor^  th»t  the  earlier  anceiloTS  of 
the  camel  were  antelope-  or  deer-like  in  their 
habitat,  and  were  gradually  adapted  to  desert 
life. 

Besides  the  main  line  of  descent  there  were, 
especially  in  the  Miocene,  side  branches  now 
extinct,  one  of  which  iAlticamtius'i  was  sin- 
gijlarly  giraffe-like  in  proportions,  although  not 
related  to  the  giiafEes,  which  were  evolved  in 
the  Old  World  at  the  same  epoch. 

It  is  a  general  law  in  the  evolution  of  any 
race  of  ammals  that  at  each  succeediag  stage 
I  its   development   the   progressive  characters 


n  earlier  period  in  the  lifetime  of  the 
The  young  individuals  of  one  staKb 

resemble   the  adults  of   the  precedii^ 


sMtcai 


while  the  old  individnals  take  on  some  of  the 
characters  of  that  next  succeeding.  This  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  camels,  especially  of  the 
Miocene  ci>ach ;  in  yoimg  individuals  the  meta- 
podials  are  always  separate,  as  they  are  in  all 
adult  camels  of  the  Ollgocene,  and  they  are 
iisually  not  completely  consolidated  mitil  a  com- 
paratively advanced  age.  In  modern  camels 
and  llamas  they  are  consolidated  before  birth. 
The  anterior  incisors  and  premolars  usually 
drop  out  in  old  individuals  of  Miocene  camels; 
in  the  later  stages  they  are  minute  stumps  or 
scales  which  disappear  early  in  life. 

CAMELLIA,  k^i-merj^a,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  family  Ternstromaacea, 
beautiful  flowering  shrubs,  natives  of  Asia, 
The  name  Camellia  was  given  to  this  genus  by 
Linnsus  in  honor  of  Kkmel  or  Camellus,  a 
Moravian  Jesuit  Camellia  japonica,  as  it 
grows  in  the  woods  and  gardens  of  Japan  and 
China,  Ls  a  loftv  tree  of  beautiful  proportions, 
and  clothed  with  a  deep  green,  shining  foliage, 
with  large,  elegant  flowery  either  single  oi 
double,  and  of  a  red  or  pure  white  color. 
There  are  numerous  varieties  of  this  species  in 
China,  the  greater  part  of  which  have  found 
their  way  to  Europe  and  America,  while  other 
new  varieties  have  been  produced  by  breeding. 
The  double-white,  double-striped  and  doublo- 
waratab,  the  last  so  called  from  the  central 
petals  resembling  ChoEe  of  the  waratah  plant  of 
Australia,  are  conudered  the  finest  varieties, 
and  both  grow  and  Sower  welt.  The  peony- 
flowered  and  fringed  are  also  much  aomired. 
The  oil-bearing  camellia  (C  tatanqHa)  is  cuL- 
livated  for  ^ts  seeds,  from  which  an  oil  is 
expressed  that  is  very  generally  used  by  the 
Chinese  in  their  cookery.  It  thrives  best  in  a 
red  sandy  soil,  and  attains  a  hei|^t  of  six  to 
eight  feet,  producing  a  profusion  of  white 
blossoms  and  seeds.  Besides  these  spedes 
C.  reticulata  is  cultivated. 

The  single  red  camellia  is  propagated  by 
cuttings,  layers  and  seeds.  It  forms  suitable 
stocks,  on  which  the  others  are  either  inarched 
or  budded  and  enRi^tted.  The  cuttings  to  he 
selected  are  the  ripened  shoots  of  the  preceding 
summer;  these  are  taken  off  In  .Aogutt,  being 
cut  smoothly  at  a  joint  or  bud;  two  or  three 
of  the  lowec  leaves  are  taken  off,  and  the  cut- 
tings then  planted  firmly  in  the  soil  with  a 
dibble.  Inarching  or  engrafting  is  performed 
early  in  spring,  when  the  plants  begin  to  grow. 
A  few  seeds  are  sometimes  obtained  from  the 
single  red  »^  semi-double  camellias,  and  from 


the  single  waratah.  These  require  two  years  to 
come  up,  but  make  the  best  stocks  of  any. 

CAHBLOPARD.    See  Goatwk. 

CAMELOPARDALIS,  one  of  the  north- 
ern drcumpolar  constellations  added  by  Heve- 
lius  in  1690,  It  b  a  large,  irregularly  shaped 
constellation,  something  like  the  animal,  and  is 
more  than  40°  in  length,  with  its  head  close  to 
the  North  Pole.  It  borders  upon  Ursa  Minor, 
Draco,  Ursa  Major,  Lynx,  Auri^,  Perseus, 
Cassiopeia  and  Cepheus.     It  contains  no  stars 


uncovered  by  constellations.  Being  introduced 
later  than  Bayer's  time,  it  has  no  letters  except 
a,  j3,  and  7,  which  Baily  introduced  into  the 
'B.  A.  C*  in  1S45.  While  these  have  not  been 
universally  accepted  by  astronomers,  they  will 
probably  be  adopted  in  a  general  revision  of 
the  northern  constellations. 

CAMBLOT.  m  the  Ardiurian  legends,  the 
city  where  King  Arthur's  palace  with  the 
Round  Table  was  located  Tennyson,  in  'The 
Coming  of  Arthur,'  describes  the  city  and  the 
royal,  court,  and  mentions  it  in  others  of  tlie 
•Idylls  of  the  Kihg'  and  in  <The  Lady  of 
Shalott.'  It  is  also  referred  to  by  Shakespeare 
in  'King  I^ar.>  The  site  of  Camelot  has  been 
much  in  dispute;  Shakespeare  supposed  it  to 
be  in  Somersetshire;  Tennyson  and  Capell  lo- 
cated it  at  or  near  Winchester;  and  Caxttm 
placed  it  in  Wales.  The  monks  of  Glastonbury 
were  chiefly  responsible  for  the  Somerset 
theory,  whiui  they  maintained  for  the  purpose 


of  attracting  thither  pilgrims  and  i 


their 


CAMEL'S  HUMP,  one  of  Oie  peaks  of 
the  Green  Mountains,  in  Vermont,  17  miles 
west  of  Montpeher.  Its  height  is  about  4,100 
feet. 

CAHEL'S-THORN,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  family  Pabacece.  They  are  herba- 
ceous or  half-shrubby  plants,  with  simple  leaves, 
minute  stipules,  axillary  peduncles  terminating 
in  spines,  and  red  flowers  arranged  in  racemes. 
Only  three  species  of  this  genus  are  known, 
Alhagi  eomelorutn,  A.  gracorum  and  A.  mauro- 
rum.  They  grow  in  the  deserts  of  Egypt  and 
the  East,  and  their  common  name  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  they  afford  a  food  mudi 
relished  by  camels.  The  species  yield  a  gxmuny, 
saccharine  exudation   like  manna. 

CAMEN.     See  Kamek. 

CAMEOS.  Certain  carved  reliefs  on  stones, 
shells  or  other  substances  in  which  the  engraver 
takes  advantage  of  the  medium  having  two  or 
more  super-imposed  layers  or  stratifications  of 
different  colors  or  tones  to  obtain  the  most 
striking  effect.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is 
contested.  The  late  Rev.  Charles  King,  one  of 
the  most  prominent  collectors  and  authorities, 
says  the  term  comes  from  the  Arab  word  eatn- 
ant,  a  flower,  and  it  was  used  since  the  Crusades. 
He  says  the  term  ramoAulwn  (from  the  Syriac 
rhemeia,  a  charm)  first  appears  in  the  13th 
century.  In  early  times  the  cameo  has  also 
bem  termed  cadmgus  and  cameus.  In  most 
cameo  examples  the  relief  or  subfect  is  com- 
posed from  the  troper  layer  and  the  lower  layer 
IS  utilized  as  background  The  substance  used 
covers  a  wide  range,  among  others:  Agate, 
on^x,     sardonyx,     opal,  .  amethyst,     emerald. 


CiQ 


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CAMERA  —  CAUORA  'UTCIDA 


carbuncle,  JAcintb,  chrysoKte, 
lapis,  ^roei,  turquoise,  jasper,  beryl, .  bematiie, 
malachite,  antber,  mother-Ctt-paarl,  coral,  aui<l  the 
shells,  strotubus  gigat,  ctusif  rufa,  (Ottis  t%ber- 
osa,  etc.  The  "nicolos"  are  artificially  treated 
stones  (heat  or  acid  action).  Glass  plates  were 
also  used  in  ancient  Greek  art  as  a  medium ;  one 
example  by  Dioscorides'  son,  in  Vienna,  is  a 
portrait  of  Augustus.  The  "Portland*  vase 
(q.  V.J,  in  the  British  Museum,  is  another.  The 
paste  was  usually  of  blue  groundwith  a  white 


it  is  rare  to  find  cameos  engraved  i 
as  well  as  the  face  side ;  some  exist,  however, 
and  the  Paris  BibUotfaeque  Nationale  possesses 
one  with  Agrippa  on  one  side  and  Julia  on  die 
other.  The  connoisseur  usually  classifies  an- 
tique cameos  as  mythological,  symbolic  and 
heroic;  frequently  tney  are  also  divided  into 
periods. 

The  uses  to  wlndi  cameos  have!  been  pai  are 
quite  numerous.  The  andents  ornamented 
vases,  hair  ornaments,  bracelets,  brooches,  even 
furniture  with  them.  The  knight  fastened  them 
upon  his  armor,  small  ones  were  worn  as  am-- 
nlets.  In  the  Midifie  A^es  Aey  «ere  lavished 
upon  reliquaries,  chahces,  crosses,  in  the 
church.  A  peculiar  condition  that  prevailed  in 
arlf  Christian  times  was  the  adaptatioli  of 


Stones  having  pagan  engravings  to  Biblical  sub- 
jects.  Thus  they  took  Jupiter  for  Saint  John 
the   Evan^list  because  of   the  accompanying 


eagle  attnbute.  Another  peculiar  fact  is  that 
cameos  in  olden  times  were  rarely  set  in  rings^ 
although  there  are  a  few  such  Roman  and 
others  of  the  Renaissance  period.  The  subjects 
treated  in  cameos  are  mottly  facts  tennttultinK 
at  die  base  of  the  neck,  entire  figures  and 
proupB.  Of  the  former  there  are  lohle  contain- 
ing two  profiles  superimposed,  the  upper  one 
receding  so  as  to  expose  th«  one  beneath.  Such 
beads  are  teinied  conioi»ed,  and  the  ^eces  arc 
known  as  baijoirgs.  The  ruler  and  bis  consort 
are  often  so  treated.  The  cameos  of  the  noted 
Greek  Dioscorides  are  marvels  ofart  and  execu- 
tion as  also  those  signed  GlycoOi  of  whom  the 
Cabinet  de  France  Paris,  possesses  an  Anphi- 
trite.  This  cabinet  also  has  a  signed  Evodus 
example  and  other  cameos  such  as  the  Minerva 
and  Neptune  (known  to  the  Middle  Ages  as 
Adam  and  Eve),  the  Apodieosis  of  Germaiiicuc, 
Triumph  of  Licuiius  (4th  century).  Apotheosis 
of  Augustus  (imported  from  the  Orient  in  the 
13th  century),  the  Grande  Camie  (or  cameo  of 
Salnte  Chapdje) ,  a  cameo  of  five  layers,  measur- 
ing 30  ccnIlRKters  by  26,  on  which  are  engraved 
the  Apotheosis  of  An%ustus,  Ihe  Family  of  the 
CtesBrs  and  Group  of  Captives  and  Warriors. 
On  the  Byzantine  cameos  we  find  Agnostic  sym- 
bols and  such  early  Christian  monograms  as 
IC-XC  (Jesus  ChristV  KG  (Savioor)  etc. 
The  wonderful  TazzaFamese,  now  in  Naples, 
is  a  Itenaissance  work  from  the  Lorenzo  de 
Medici  collection.  The  Renaissance,  besides  its 
other  art  giants,  brought  forth  gr^ai'  cameo  ar- 
tists. Domenico  of  Milan,  called  Domenico  dei 
Camei  (of  the  Cameos)  was  engraver  to  the 
Medids;  (riovanni  delle  Comiok  (also  of  the 
ISth  century)  recdved  his  title  Camelian  from 
his  work  in  this  gem  stone;  Matteo  dal  Nasaro, 
of  Verona,  followed  Pranks  Premier  (eartv 
16th  century)  to  France  where  he  did  veiyfine 
portraits    in    canwo.      The    French    engrarrer 


wodi; 


Julien  de  Fontenay,  known  in  art  as  Coldor^ 
did  such  splendid  Work  that  Queen  ISizabeth 
employed  him  at  her  Gnj^ish  court,  where  be 
produced  her  portraits  in  turquoise  and  onyx 
(one  is  in  the 'Vkloria  and  Albert  Museum, 
London,  another  in  the  Cabinet  de  Prance, 
Parts).  Henri  IV  was  extramely  infatuatea 
with  cameos  a»d  wore  12  of  them  as  buttons 
(they  repreMBted  the  12  Qesars),  also  a  cameo 
in  his  sword,  all  of  which  are  in  tbe  Cabinet  de 
France.  Among  tbe  noted  family  of  Picblerr, 
gem  engravers  who  i£d  fine  cameo  work,  are 
Giovanm,  of  Florence^  and  Luigi,  second  son  of 
Antonio;  tbe  latter  was  Austrian  court  en- 
graver under  Frand*  1.  In  the  l?th  century 
the  cameo  was  so  much  in  vogue  that  the  cele- 
brated Flemisii  a>tist  Rubens  designed  a  num- 
berof  copies  of  antiaues.  In  the  IStk  century 
<  Guar,  of  Marseilles,  <Ed  beautiful 
Jean  Laurrat  Natter,  of  Nuremberg, 
was  great  in  imitating  antiques,  and  even  the 
Uarquiae  de  Fompadonr  ensraved  and  signed 
the  Genius  of  Music  cameo.  Artist  Bcmcbi 
designed  cameos  and  Louis  Chapat,  and  the 
most  noted  cameo  artist  of  all,  Joseph  Pichkr, 
have  left  ua  very  fine  speciraenB  of  this  glyptic 
art.  The  Smooc,  (father  and  son),  as  well  as 
£erim  and  Jeuffroy,  belong  to  the  wellrlcnown 
caneo  artists  of  uie  19lli  century.  Bcmardo 
Pistmcd  did  fine  work  in  London.  A  Scots- 
man named  James  Tassie  rcyroAiaed  (late  18th 
ce^turyj,  to  propagate  art  Iniowledge,  beautiful 
copies  in  g]3si  of  antique  cameos  which  are 
collected  l^  connoisseurs  of  this  day  on  their 
art  merits;  they  are  fetching  $10  of  more  these 
days  thoush  sold  originally  at  $2.50;  their  colors 
are  very  brilliant,  but  these  pieces  closely  re- 
semble antiques.  Besides  the  collections  in 
Paris  atreadv  mentioned,  there  are  extensive 
cabinets  at  Dresdeiv  Vienna,  the  Saint  Peters- 
burg Hermitage  Museum,  Florence,  Rome, 
Naries  and  London. 

BibUography.— Babelon,  E.  C.  P.,  'Cata- 
logue des  Camfes  i  la  Bibfioth*que  Nationale' 
(Paris  1897);  Same,  *La  Gravure  en  pierres 
fines'  (Paris  18M)  j  Bucher,  B.,  'Die  drd 
Mdster  der  Gemmen^yptik*  (Vienna  1874); 
Cltabouillet,  J.  M.  A-,  'Catalogue  g*n4ral  et 
raisonni  des  camies  et  pierres  gravees  de  la 
Bibliothfaue  Nationale'  (Paris  1858);  Daven- 
port, C.  ;.,  'Cameos'  (London  1900);  Raspi. 
R.  E,,  'A  descriptive  (Catalogue  of  a  (General 
Collection  of  ancient  and  modem  Engraved 
Gems>  (including  Tassie  Gems,  London  1791). 

(^ewBNT  W.  COOMBE,  * 

CAMERA,  Photomphic,  a  camera  ob- 
scure SO  constructed  tW  sensitiaed  plates  or 
films  may  be  [daced  at  the  hack  and, receive  the 
image.  There  arc  inan>[  styles  of  camera  in  use, 
those  of  the  tripod  variety  b«an([  uaed  for  por- 
traits and  landscapes  where  a  tioae  exposwe  is 
required  and  the  hand  camera  for  Inatantaneous 
exposures,  used  by  tourists  op  account  of  its 
convenient  shape  and  sixe.  See  Caiosa  Ob- 
scura;  PHOTOGBAPHy. 

CAMBKA  LUCIDA  (Lat.  light  cham- 
ber*), an  optical  instrument  employed  to  fadU- 
tate  the  skeicfcing  of  objects  from  nature.  It 
acts  by'total  reflection,  and  may  have  vari- 
ous forms,  of  which  that  proposed  by  Wol- 
laflton,  and  illustrated  in  the  accompanying 
figures,  is  one  of  the  commonest.  The  es- 
sential iiart  is  a  totaQy  relleeiing  prim  wJdi 


[ig 


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CAiaSXA  OB8CUKA 


of  tbe  two  faces  which  contain  the  ri^t  angle 
is  turned  toward  the  abject  tn  be  sketched.    Rays 
falling  in  a  straight  line  oa  its  face,  as  x  r,  ar« 
totally  rcflecMd  frotn  ^ 
face  t  d  io  the  next  fate 
d    a,    whetioe    they    are 
again  totally  reflected  to 
the    fourth    face,,   from 
which  tl><7  emerke  in  a 
straight    line.      Tne    eye 
iPf)  placed  so  as  to  re- 
ceive the  emergent  lays 
will    see    an    image    of 
the    object    In    a    direc- 
■    Pro.  i  tion  of  right  angles  to 

that  in  which  the  object  lies.  In  practice 
the  eye  is  held  over  the  corner  a  of  the 
prism  in  such  a  position  that  one-half  of  the 
pupil  receives  these  reflected  rays,  while  the 
other  half  receives  light  in  a  parallel  directioa 
outside  the  prism.  Tlie  observer  thus  sees  the 
reflected  image  projected  on  a  real  background, 
which  consists  of  a  sheet  of  paper  for  sketch- 
ing. He  is  thus  enabled  to  pass'  a  pencii  over 
die  outlines  of  the  image  —  ^ndl.  ima^e  attd 
paper  being  simultaneously  visible.  It  ts  very 
desirable  that  the  image  should  lie  In  the  platte 
of  the  paper,  not  only  because  the  pencil-point 
and  the  image  will  then  be  seen  with  the  same 
focusing  of  the  eye,  but  also  because  parallkX 
is  thus  obviated,  so  that  when  the  observer 
^fts  his  eyes  the  pencil-point  b  not  displaced 
□D  the  image.  The  introduction  of  an  ordinal^ 
^stop*  as  used  in  photograi^y  remedies  this 
defect,  although  greatly  reducing  the  volume  of 
li^t  passing.  As  the  pa^r,  for  convenience  of 
drawing,  roust  be  at  a  distance  of  about  a  foott 
a  concave  lens,  with  a  focal  length  of  some- 
ibing  less  than  a  foot,  is  placed  close  in  frost  of 
the  prism  in  drawing  distant  objects.  By  rait- 
ing or  lowering  the  prism  in  tts  stand  (JeVj.  2), 
tbt  image  of  the  object  to  be  sketched  laay  be 
made  to  coincide  with  the  plane  of  the  paper. 
The  prism  is  mounted  in  such  a  way  that  It 
(ID  be  rotated  abotit  either  a  horizontal  or  a 
vertical  axis;  and  its  top  is  usually  covered 
with  a  movable  plate  of  bUckened  metal,  having 
a  semi-circular  notch  at  one  edge  for  the  ob- 
server to  look  through. 

Another  form  of  the  camera  lucida,  that  of 
Amici.  an  Italian  optician,  is  sometimes  pier 
ferred  to  that  of  Wollaston,  inasonnch  as  it  «1- 

r 

PlG.1 

lows  the  observer  to  change  the  position  of  bis 
fye  conuderably  without  ceasing  to  see  the 
image  of  the  object  he  is  tracing.  The  prism  in 
this  case  is  triangular  in  shape,  and  one  of  the 
angles  is  a  right  anglft    In  uring  It;  the  rigfat 


an^e  Is  turned  upward,  so  that  one  of  the  pet- 
pendiculai*  faces  is  turned  toward  the  object  in 
an  obliauc  direction,  while  the  edge  of  the  other 
perpemucular  face  meets  a  transparent  glass 
plate  at  rigjit  angles.  The  rays  from  the  object 
falHag  upon  the  face  of  the  prism  which  is 
ttuuea  toward  It  are,  after  being  more  or  leas 
refracted,  thrown  upon  the  base  of  the  jmsm, 
from  wmch  tbey  are  totally  reflected  in  the 
direction  of  the  other  perpendtcular  iace.  In 
emerging  from  the  pritm  of  this  face  tbey  arc 
again  refracted  and  thrown  upon  the  tratis- 
pareat  glass  plaM.  By  this,  again,  the  rays  ana 
partially  cellected,  being  thrown  upward  m  the 
direction  of  the  eye  of  the  observer,  who, 
looking  throu^  the  plate,  sees  an  image  of  the 
object,  on. a  aheot  of  paper  beneath,  the  outlines 
of  which  can  be  traced  by  a  pencil  as  before. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  use  of  the  camera 
lucida  is  its  adaptation  and  attachment  to  .tha 
fldaroscope ;  but  here  also  direct  photography 
has  almost  wholly  superseded  handwork. 

CAMERA  OBSCURA  (Lat.  ^dark  cham- 
ber"), an  optical  instrument  employed  for  ex- 
hiUting  the  Images  of  external  objects  in  their 
forms  and  colors,  so  that  they  may  be  traced 


and  a  picture  formed.  From  certain  scattered 
observations  in  die  writings  of  Friar  Roger 
Bacon,  in  the  13th  centuiy,  it  would  appear  Inat 
he  was  acquainted  with  the  principle  is^on 
which  the  camera  obscura  is  cgnstructcd,  but  ' 
the  first  complete  description  of  this  instrmnent 
is  found  in  Uic  'Magia  Naturalis'  of  Giambat- 
tista  della  Porta,  published  in  1S69.  and  PorU 
is  commonly  credited  with  its  invention. 

In  its  simplest  form  the  camera  obscura  con- 
sists of  a  daiicened  chamber,  into  which  no  light 
is  permitted  to  enter  excepting  by  a  small  hole 
in  the  window- shutter.  A  picture  of  the  objects 
opposite  the  hole  will  then  be  seen  on  the  wall, 
or  a  white  screen  olaced  so  as  to  receive  the 
light  coining  throu^  the  opening.  The  images 
thus  obtained  become  sharper  as  the  size  of  the 
hole  is  diminished;  but  this  diminution  involves 
loss  of  light,  so  that  It  is  impossible  by  this 
method  to  obtain  an  image  at  once  bright  and 
sharp.  This  difficulty  can  be  overcome  by 
facing  a  lens  in  ^  opeiung  in  the  shutter. 
If  the  objects  in  the  external  landscape  are  all 
at  distances  many  times  greater  than  the  focal 
length  of  the  lens,  their  images  will  all  be 
formed  at  sensibly  the-  same  distance  from  th^ 
lens  and  may  be  received  upon  a-Bcrean  pUoed 


:,  Google 


.  cAHraEAitnra  ^cajoeroh 


at  this  diitance.  The  images  are  inverted,  i 
are  of  the  same  «ze  whether  the  lens  ts 
DoMtion  Of  not,  so  long  as  the  screen  rema 
fixed;  but  they  are  far  sharper  and  more  dis- 
dnct  when  the  lens  is  used.  As  an  attraction 
at  seaside  resorts  and  other  places  of  amuse- 
nentj  the  camera  obscnra  consists  of  a  small 
boJIdrng  or  of  a  tent  surrounded  by  opaque  cur- 
tains and  having;  at  its  top  a  revolving  lantern, 
containing  a  lens  with  its  axis  horizontal,  and 
A  mirror  placed  behind  it  at  a  slope  of  45°,  to 
reflect  the  transmitted  light  downward  of  a 
sheet  of  white  paper  lying  on  (he  top  of  a 
central  table.  Images  of  external  objects  are 
thus  depicted  on  the  paper,  and  their  outlines 
can  be  traced  with  a  pencil  if  denred.  It  is  still 
better  to  combine  lens  and  mirror  in  one  by  the 
arrangement  represented  in  section  in  the 
figure.  Rays  from  external  obiectt  are  first 
refracted  at  a  convex  surface,  then  totally  re- 
flected at  the  back  of  the  lens  (or  prism) .  which 
is  plan^  and  finally  emerge. through  the  Dottom, 
which  is  concave,  hot  has  a  larger  radius  oi 
curvature  than  the  first  surface.  The  two  re- 
fractions produce  the  effect  of  a  converging 
meniecUE.  The  camera,  obscura,  which  was  lor- 
Eoerly  chiefly  employed  for  purposes  of  amuse- 
tnent,  has  nqw  Decorae  well  known  from  its 
adaptation  to  photography.  See  Photocsaphy. 
CAHERARIU3,  ka-ma-ra-rl-oos,  lotcUm, 
German  classicist  and  educator;  b.  Bamberg, 
12  April  ISOO;  d.  Ldprig,  17  April  1574.  His 
proper  name  was  Liebbard  but  he  changed  it 
to  Camerarins,  because  his  ancestors  had  been 
chamberlaitis  (Lat.  camerarii)  at  the  court  of 
the  bishops  of  Bamberg.  At  the  age  of  13  he 
entered  the  University  of  Leipzig.  In  1518  he 
began  to  teach  Gredc  at  Erfurt;  in  1521  he 
.  taught  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  became  the 
friend  of  Melanchthon ;  and  in  1541  he  under- 
took a  professorship  at  Leipzig,  which  he  re- 
tained until  his  death.  He  contributed  not  only 
to  the  progress  of  knowledge  by  his  own  worlcs 
and  bv  edidons  of  classical  authors,  but  also 
by  a  Setter  organization  of  the  universities  of 
Leinzig  and  .Tubingen  luid  of  the  gymnasium 
at  NurembErg.  He  took  an  important  share 
in  the  political  and  religious  affairs  of  bis  time. 
and  in  1555  was  deputy  of  the  Univcrsi^  ot 
Leipzig  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.  His  critical 
'  judgment  was  superior  to  mat  of  Melanchthon. 
whose  equal  be  was  in  classical  studies,  ana 
be  must  be  ranked  as  the  greatest  German 
classicist  of  his  century.  Together  with  mai^ 
theological  and  biographical  Ixioks,  bis  worlcs 
include  editions  ot  'Homeric  Poems'  (with  the 
so-called  scholia  of  Didymus,  Basel  1541) ; 
'Greek  El^ac  PoeU'  (Basel  1550)  ;  'Theoc- 
ritus* (Frankfort  1545) ;  'Sophocles'  (Basel 
1556);  'Herodotiis>  (Base!  l540  and  1557); 
<Theophrastus*  (Basel  1541)  ;  coeditor  on 
'Galen'  (Basel  1538) ;  'Quiniilian' ;  'Ocero' 
(1540)  ;  and  several  others.  Consult  Bursian, 
'Geschicbte  der  klassischen  Philotoeie  in 
Deutschland'  (pp.  185-90,  Munich  1883),  and 
Sandys,  <A  History  of  Classical  Schobrship' 
(Vol.  II,  CJunbridge  1908). 

CAMERARIUS,  Kudolph  Jakob.  German 
botanist:  b.  Wiirtemberg,  12  Feb.  1665:  d. 
TuMngen,  11  Sept.  1721.  To  him  is  aicnbed 
the  discovery  of  the  sexual  relation  in  plants. 
He  was  in  charge  of  the  botanic  gardens  at 
Ttibingen  and  was  also  a  medical  professot. 


CAMBKINO,  ka-«t&-ra'a5  (aadent  Ca- 
kezinum),  Ital;^  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Macerata,  41  miles  southwest  of  Ancona,  be- 
tween the  Oiienti  and  the  Potenii  It  is  the 
seat  of  an  archbishopric  datiiw  from  1737,  and 
contains  some  good  public  buildings,  among 
which  are  the  archieiHscopal  palace,  Qtt  ducal 
palace^  the  new  ^ace  and  the  cathedral  built 
m  1832,  oc(;upyiRg  the  ate  of  a  temple  of 
Jwpiter«  There  is  a  university,  founded  in 
1727,  and  a  bronze  statue  of  Sixtus  V,  erected 
in  1587>  Silk  is  grown  and  manufactured  here. 
Pop.    11,689. 

CAMERLBNGO  (It.  camerKngo.  «a  cham- 
berlain*), one  of  the  highest  officerg  of  the 
Vatican  court,  who  controls  the  finances  and 
secular  interests  of  the  Pope.  A  cardinal 
camcrlengo,  during  a  vacancy  m  the  Holy  See, 
takes  charge  of  all  the  temporalities,  and  pre- 
sides over  the  apostolic  chamber  or  palace. 
The  other  cardinals  assist  in  spiritual  offices. 
There  is  also  a  camerlengo  of  uie  sacred  col- 
lege of  cardinals,  and  a  camerlengo  of  the 
Roman  clergy. 

CAUBRLYNCK,  k&'m«Hmk,  Achille, 
Belgian  sociologist  and  BiUical  scholar:  b. 
Reninghelst,  BeTsium,  9  May  1869.  He  was 
educated  at  RouTers,  Bruges  and  at  the  Unf- 
Versity  of  Louvain.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1894,  and  from  1899  to  1910 
was  professor  of  Scripture  and  socitriogy  at 
the  Seminary  of  Bruges.  In  1910  he  became 
dean  of  Ostend  and  rector  of  Saints  Peter  and 
Paul,  Ostend.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Belgian 
Superior  Council  of  Labor  and  the  Belgian 
Society  of  Sodokigy.  He  is  the  author  of 
'Saint  Ir^nfa  et  le  canon  du  Nouveau  Testa- 
ment' (1896);  <De  quarti  Evangeliiauctoredis- 
sertatio'  (2  vols..  1898-99)  ;  'Quelques  con- 
siderations   !■ —    '~    ' -*-■' -'-■ '-     -' 


«  sodologique  sur  les  peuples  incultes'  (1905) 
'Compendium     Introductionis     gen  era  lis     in 
Sacram  Scripturam'  (2  vols.,  1911-13);  'Evan- 
gclionun    secundum    Matthjnmi,    Uarcum 


Epistolas  Catholicas'  (Sth  ed.,  1909)  and  'Cotn- 
mentarius  in  Actus  Apostolorum'  (6th  ed., 
1910),  and  was  a  contnbutor  to  'Collationes 
Bnigenses,'  *The  Catholic  Encyclopedia^  and 
<Annates>  de  la  SodM  Beige  dc  Sodologie,  etc 
CAMERON,  ^ne«  Deuii,  Canadian  edu- 
cator, traveler  and  lecturer:  fa,  Victoria,  B.  C, 
1S63;  d.  there  1912.  She  taught  for  18  years 
and  became  widely  known  for  her  interest  in 
exploration  and  national  development,  giving 
lectures  in  Canada,  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  Slates,  based  on  personal  observation 
of  the  natural  resources  of  Canada,  during 
travels  all  over  the  little  known  country  exten<t 
ing  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  She  was  elected  vice- 
president  of  the  Canadian  Women's  Press  Oub 
-  1909.    She  was  associate  editor  of  the£dt«ra- 


CAMERON,  Arnold  Gayot,  American 
educator:  b.  Princeton.  N.  J,  4  March  1864. 
He  was  graduated  at  Priocelon  Universi^  in 


d=v  Google 


1686,  and  during  the  -next  two  yean  studied 
abroad.  In  1888-91  be  was  professor  of  French 
and  Germ&i)  languages  and  their  litcnitures  in 
Miami  University;  in  1891-97  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  French  in  tiie  Shefiield  Scientific 
Sdiool  of  Yale  University;  and  in  1897  accepted 
the  chair  of  French  at  the  John  C.  Green  School 
of  Science  of  Princeton  University.  He  is 
editor  of  the  textbooks  'Daudet,'  'Mfriniie,' 
'l»ti,>  'Copp^  and  MaiQiassant'  and  'The 
Gonconrts,'  and  has  lectured  on  literaiy  topics. 

CAUERON,  Sir  Charles,  Scotch  journalist 
and  politician:  b.  Dublin  1841.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Madras  College.  Saint  Andrew's, 
Trint^  College,  Dublin,  ana  at  medical  schools 
in  Paris,  Berlin  and  Vienna.  He  edited  the 
North  Brtlish  Daily  Mail  from  1864  to  1874, 
and  from  the  latter  ^-ear  till  1900  was  one  of 
the  members  of  Parliament  for  Glasgow.  The 
adoption  of  six-penn^  telegrams  was  the  result 
of  a  resolution  which  he  introduced  in  the 
House,  and  he  was  likewise  instrumental  in  the 
conferring  of  municipal  franchise  upon  women 
in  Scotland.    He  was  knighted  in  1893. 

CAMERON,    Sir    CfairlCB    f Alexander), 


lin  in  1862.  In  1867  he  was  elected  professat  of 
hygiene  and  chemistry  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  in  Ireland.  He  was  kirighted  in'  1886 
in  recognition  of  his  services  to  public  health. 
He  has  written  'Chemistry  of  Agriculture' 
(1857);  'Lectures  on  Public  Healfli*  (1868); 
'History  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
,  Ireland,  efe.>  (1886)  ;  'Elementary  Chemistry 
and  Geology'  (1896);  'Reminiscences'  (1913). 
CAMERON,  Charles  Duncan,  EngUsh 
soldier;  d.  1870.  He  served  in  iheKaffir  War 
(1846-47)  and  in  the  Crimean  War  at  the  de- 
fense of^Kars.  .In  1860  he  became  British 
consul  in  Abyssinia.  He  undertook  two  years 
later  to  deliver  a  letter  from  Queen  Victoria 
to  King  Theodore,  and  was  imprisoned  by  the 
King  for  14  months  on  the  charge  of  interfer- 
ing with  the  internal  politics  of  that  country. 
He  was  released  only  to  be  shortly  imprisoned 

r'n,  together  with  Rassan,  agent  of  the  Brit- 
govertuuent,  and  others,  their  final  release 
being  effected  by  the  advance  o£  English  troops 
upon  Theodore's  stronghold  at  Magdala  in. 
April  1868.  An  account  of  these  matters  by 
Cameron  was  published  in  the  'Parliamentary 
Primed  Papers'    (1868-69). 

CAMERON,  SiB  Douglas  Colin,  Cuiadian 
kni^t  and  statesman :  b.  Hawkelbury,  On- 
tano,  1854.  He  became  a  prosperous  lumber 
cajtitalist  with  business  interests  In  Manitoba, 
British  Columbia  and  Ontario.  He  was  prom- 
inent as  a  Liberal  member  in  the  Ontario  legis- 
lature 1902-05,  in  1911  received  the  appointment 
of  lieutenant-governor  of  Manitoba  and  was 
knitted  in  1914. 

CAMERON,  Edgar  Spier,  American  mural 
mist:  b.  Ottawa.  Ill.j  26  May  1862.  After 
earl^  study  and  training  in  New  York  and 
Pans,  he,  with  Walter  UcEwing  and  Robert 
Rdd,  were  selected  to  execute  the  mural  paint- 
ing! for  the  Clhicago  World  Pair.  The  decora- 
tions in  the  library  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
Springfield;  IlL  are  representative  of  his  mora) 
work,  white  distinctive  easel  work  indudes 
'The  Youth   of   Christ,'    his  most   important 


woric;  'Glass  Blowers'  and  ^Dreamland,*  ex- 
hibited at  Berfin  in  1910.  Prom  1891-1900  he 
was  art  critic  and  correspondent  of  the  Chicago 
Tnbitne,  and  at  die  Paris  Exposition,  1900, 
was  a  member  of  the  international  jury.  Marie 
Caueron,  his  wife  is  well  known  for  success- 
ful portraiture  and  genre  woric 

CAMERON,  Frank  Kenneth,  American 
chemist:  b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  2  Feb.  1869.  A 
student  at  Johns  Hopkins  University^  after 
instructiiKi  at  Cornell  and  at  the  Cathohc  Uni- 
versity of  America;  he  was  associated  with  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
became  head  of  the  laboratory  of  soil  chemistry.. 
His  technical  writings  include  numerous  de- 
partmental bulletins  and  'An  Introduction  to 
the  Stud^  of  the  Soil  Solution'  (1910);  and 
'The  Soil  Solution,  the  Nutrient  Medium  for 
Plant  GroYrth'  (1911). 

CAMERON,  GtoTgt  Frederick,  Canadian 
poet:  b.  New  Glasgow,  Nova  Scotia,  1854; 
d.  1885.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  Univer- 
sity, Kingston,  Ontario;  resided  for  a  time  in 
the  United  States ;  returned  to  Canada,  and 
edited  the  Kingston  News.  As  a  lyrical  poet 
he  received  high  nraise  from  leading  critics,  his 
songs  on  Spanish  oppression  in  Cnba  being 
especially  full  of  6re. 

CAHBEON,  James  Donald,  American 
capitalist  and  politician:  b.  Middletown.  Pa., 
14  May  1833.  He  is  the  oldest,  son  of  Simon 
Cameron  (q.v.),  and  was  graduated  from 
Princeton  College  in  1852.  He  devoted  himself 
to  business  pursuits  and  in  1861  was  made  vice- 

« resident  and  two  years  later  president  of  the 
lorthern  Central  Railroad.  He  remained  in 
this  office  tUl  1874.  In  1876  President  Grant 
appointed  him  Secretary  of  War,  and  in  1877 
M  succeeded  his  father  as  United  States  sen- 
ator from  Pennsylvania.  He  was  re-elected  in 
1883  and  1890.  He  retired  in  1897.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  campaign  of  1876,  first  as 
opposing  the  nomination  of  Blama,  and  then  in 
working  for  Hayes'  election.  But  Hayes  re- 
fused to  continue  him  in  the  Cabinet.  In 
1880  be  was  chairman  of  the  Rt^ublican  Na- 
tional Committee.  Consult  McCIure,  'Old  Time 
Notes  of  Pennsylvania'  (Philadelphia  1905). 

CAMERON,  John,  Scottish  scholar:  b. 
Glasgow  1579;  d.  there,  13  May  1625,  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  at 
the  age  of  20  held  an  appointment  there  as 
reader  in  Greek.  In  1600  he  went  to  the  Con- 
tinent, where  his  ability  and  erudition  secured 
for  hfen  spveral  appointments  at  Bergera<i 
Sedan,  Saumur  and  other  seals  of  learning. 
Returning  to  C^reat  Britain  in  ICBO,  he  was 
ttfo  yean  later  appointed  principal  of  the  Uni-  . 
versity  of  Glasgow;  but  in  less  than  a  year 
returned  to  Saumur,  and  thence  to  Montauban, 
where  he  received  a  divinity  professorship. 
Here,  as  at  Glasgow,  his  doctrine  of  passive 
obedience  made  him  many  enemies,  by  one  of 
whom  he  was  stabbed  in  die  street,  and  he  died 
from  the  effects  of  the  wound.  Sir  Thomas 
Urquhart  styles  him  a  "walking  library,"  and 
Milton,  'an  ingenious  writer  in  high  esteem.* 
He  was  considered  one  of  the  best  scholars  of 
his  day ;  in  Biblical  criticism  he  was  inclined  to 
be  perverse;  where  there  was  a  difficulty  he 
nsually  chose  the  opposite  view  to  that  held 
by  odier  divines^  especially  Bexa.    His  theolog- 


=,  Google 


iaU  opnipiM  were  bf  a  loiiicwhat  lax 'Charac- 
ter, hu  ei^t  works,  in  Latin  utd  French  (10 
VMS.,  1616>-42)  being  said  to  be  the  foundation 
ot  Moses  Amyraut'a  doctrine  of  universal 
grace  (1634).  His  EoUowers  are  scKoetiDies 
called  Camcronites.  His  collected  works  were 
published  with  a  memoir  by  L.  Cappel  (Geneva 
1642). 

CAMERON,  5n  Matthew  Crooks,  Cana- 
dian statesman  and  jurist :  b.  Dundas,  (^tarjo, 
1822;  d.  1891.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  of 
Upper  Canada  in  1849,  and  was  first  returned 
to  Parliament  in  1861.  He  subsequently  sat  in 
the  provincial  legislature  of  Ontario  i  was 
provincial  secretary  1867-71 ;  commissioner  of 
Crown  lands  1871 ;  and  leader  of  the  opposition 
1872-76.  He  was  appointed  to  the  bench  in 
1878,  and  in  1884  became  chief  justice  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas  of  Ontario.  He  was 
knighted  in  1887. 

CAMERON,  Richard,  Scottish  Cov- 
enanter; b.  Falkland,  Fifeshire,  1648;  d.  Ayrs- 
rooss,  22  July  1680.  He  was  at  first  a  school- 
master, and  for  a  time  was  tutor  in  the  family 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott  of  Harden.  Being  con- 
verted by  the  field-preachers,  he  became  an 
enthusiastic  votary  of  the  Covenant.  On 
20  June  l(i&3,  in  company  with  about  20 
Other  persons,  well  armed,  he  entered  the  vil- 
lage of  Sanquhar,  and  proclaimed  at  the  crOss 
that  he  and  those  who  adhered  to  him  re- 
nounced their  allegiance  to  the  King  on  account 
of  his  having  abused  his  ^wemment,  and  also 
declared  a  war  against  him  and  all  who  ad- 
hered to  him,  at  flie  same  time  avowing  their 
resolution  to  resist  the  succession  of  his  brother, 
the  Duke  of  York.  The  privy  council  imme- 
diately put  a  reward  of  S.OOO  merks  upon  Cam- 
eron's head,  and  3,000  upon  those  of  Cargill 
and  IDouglas,  his  associates,  and  parties  were 
sent  out  to  waylay  them.  The  little  band  kept 
together  in  arms  for  a  month  in  the  mountain- 
ous country  between  Nithsdale  and  Ayrshire. 
But  on  22  July,  when  they  were  lying  in 
Ayrsmoss,  near  Auchinleck  in  Ayrshire,  Bruce 
of  Eartshall  approached  them  with  a  party  of 
horse  and  foot  much  superior  in  numbers.  A 
brief  skirmish  took  place,  in  which  the  in- 
surgents were  allowed  even  by  their  enemies 
to  have  behaved  with  great  bravary:  bnt  nothing 
could  avail  against  superior  numbers.  Cameron 
being  among  the  slain,  his  head  and  hands  were 
cut  off  and  carried  to  Edinburrii,  alon^  with 
the,  prisoners.  Consult  Herkiess,  ^Richard 
Cameron'  (In  'Famous  Scots  Series,'  New 
York  18%).    See  Oueboniaksi  CAUEaoNiAK 

R£GIMENT. 

CAMERON,  Simon,  American  statesman; 
'  b.  Donegal,  Lancaster  County,  Pa.,  8  Mardf 
1799;  d.  there,  26  June  1889.  He  learned  print- 
ing  and  in  1820  he  was.  editor  of  a  pai>er  in 
Doyleatown,  Pa.,  and  in  1822  held  a  similar 
post  in  Harrisburg.  He  then  interested  himself 
m  banking  and  the  building  of  railroads,  and 
for  a  time  served  as  adjutant-general  of  Penn-' 
ayivania.  In  1838  he  was  commissioner  to  settle 
accounts  with  the  Winnebago  Indians  and  was 
accused  of  swindling  them.  From  1845  to  1849 
he  was  United  States  senator  from  Pennsyl- 
vania, elected  by  the  Democratic  parly.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Republican  party  on 
its  formation,  and  in  1856  was  again  elected 
United  States  senator.    He  was  imsucce3Efu% 


arming  of   fueiiive  slaves  and  other  c 


Russia.  He  succeeded  in  gaining  the  support 
of  the  Rlissian  government  for  the  Union.  In 
November  of  the  same  year  be  resigned,  and 
lived  in  retirement  till  1866,  when  he  was  again 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  In  1872 
he  became  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  For- 
eign Affairs.  In  1877  he  retired  from  the 
Senate  In  favor  of  his  son.  Tames  Donald 
Cameron.  His  influence  over  me  Republican 
parlif  was  strong,  and  his  power  in  the  polilics 
of  ms  State  practically  absolute.  The  control 
transferred  later  to  M.  S.  Quay  and  Boies 


t    powerful 
His  ideals 


State  "boss"  in  American  politics, 
may  be  gathered  from  his  defimiiuii  oi  na 
honest  politician  as  *one  who  will  stay  tx)ught 
when  he  is  bought*  He  was  a  vigorous  op- 
ponent of  civil  service  reform  during  the  ad- 
nunietration  of  President  Hayes.  Consult 
McOure,  *01d  Time  Notes  of  Penngylvama> 
(2  vols.,  Philadelphia  190S). 

CAMERON,     Vemey     Lovett.     English 

traveler  in  Africa:  b.  Weymouth,  I  July  1844; 
d.  Leighton  Buzzard,  26  Marcii  1^.  He  en- 
tered the  British  navy  in  1857,  and  in  1872  was 
chosen  by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of 
London  to  conduct  an  expedition  for  the  relief 
of  Dr,  Livingstone.  He  was  only  in  time  to 
meet  the  remains  of  Livingstone  at  Unyan- 
yembe,  but  pushed  onward  to  Ujiy  on  Lake 
Tanganyika,  and  partly  circumnavigated  this 
great  sheet  of  water,  establishing  the  fad 
that  its  outlet  was  the  Lukuga.  Not  being  able 
to  follow  the  Lualaba  River  downward,  he  con- 
tinued his  journey  westward  to  Benguela,  and 
was  thus  the  first  to  cross  tropical  Africa  from 
cast  to  west.  Returning  to  England  in  1876^ 
he  was  raised  to  the  rant  of  a  commander.  In 
1878  he  made  a  journey  throuph  Asia  Minor 
and  Persia-  in  order  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  the 
feasibility  of  a  railroad  connecting  India  with 
the  Methterranean,  and  in  1882  with  Sir  Rich- 
ard Burton  explored  the  country  behind  the 
Gold  Coast.  He  published  accounts  of  his 
journeys  in  his  'Across  Africa'  (1877):  'Onr 
Future  Highway  to  India'  (1880);  and  <To 
the  Gold  Coast  for  Gold'  (with  Sir  R.  F.  Bur- 
ton, 1883).  He  died  from  an  accident  in  the 
hunting  field. 

CAMERON,  Mo,  city  of  Climon  County 
on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacihc  and  the 
Chicago,  BurKngton  &  Quincy  railroads,  SO 
miles  northeast  of  Kansas  City,  The  dairying 
industry  is  important,  gloves  are  raanufacturedi 
municipal  waterworks  and  electric  lighting 
plants  are  operated  and  Missouri  Wcsleyan  Col- 
lege is  situated  here.    Pop.  2,980. 

CAMERON,  Teicas,  dty.  county-seat  of 
Milan  County,  on  the  Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa 
Fe  and  the  San  Antcmio  &  Aransas  Pass  rail- 
roads. 53  miles  south  of  Waco.  Stock  raiung 
and  cotton  growing  are  the  chief  industries  and 
coal  and  timber  are  exploited  from  neighboring 
deposits  Cameron  was  founded  in  1875.  Pop. 
3,263.  . 


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CAHBROM  HiaKLAHDmS— CAHILLU8 


CAKBROH  HI0HLANDEB8,  the  old 
79th  Regimcai  in  the  Briti^  wtttf,  raited  in 
1793  by  Allan  Ouncroo  of  Erroch.  It  wears 
the  HiRhluKl  drew  and  forms  the  first  battalion 
of  the  King's  Own  Cameron  Highlanders.  Its 
depot  is  at  Inverness  and  its  record  ofHce  is 
maintained  at  Perth.  A  second  battalioik  is  now 
linked  with  the  regiment,  the  first  being  known 
as  the  79th  Foot. 

GAHERONIAN  REQIMBNT,  a  British 
rtsiment  raised  in  1669  among  the  Cameroiiiang 
of  the  west  of  Scollend  to^smiDort  William  III, 
and  long  famous  as  the  2Kb  Regimeut  It 
forma  now  the  first  battalion  of  the  Camero- 
luans,  Scottish  rifles  (RcKiineiital  District  No. 
26;  Depot  and  Record  Office  Hamilton,  N.  B.), 
the  second  battalion  being  the  old  90th  Regi- 
ment It  takes  it)  name,  from  William  Cun- 
eron,  and  its  origin  goes  back  to  the  time  when 
the  Covenanters  went  armed  to  public  meetings. 

CAMBRONIANS,  a  sect  of  Scotch  Pres- 
byterian diMenters.  named  after  Richard  Cam- 
eron. James' I  had  enforced  on  his  Scottish 
subjects  a  liturgy  which  the  people  abhorred, 
and  this  led,  in  1638,  to  the  formatian  of  the 
covenant,  'in  behalf  of  the  true  reHgion  and  the 
freedom  of  the  kingdom,*  The  oreaiiizatiaD  of 
the  Scottish  presbytery  was  still  further  com- 
peted in  the  adoption  of  the  Presbyterian 
form  of  Church  government,  a  Calvinistic 
confession  of  faith,  and  the  two  catechisms, 
which    documents    are    the    standards    of    the 


inflexiUe  hostiliQ'  to  the  roya.1  usurpation  of 
rclinous  freedom.  They  supported  the  Prince 
of  Orange  on  his  assummg  the  Crown  of  Ejik- 
land,  but  were  di^leased  and  disappointed  oy 
the  form  in  which  the  Presbyterian  Church  was 
restored.  In  1?09  they  exerted  all  their  in- 
fluence against  the  union  of  Scotland  and  Eng- 
land. The  presbytery  of  this  denomination  was 
not  organized  until  I  Aug,  1743,  when  an  act  of 
toleration  was  [trocured  in  their  favor.  They 
still  have  a  distinctive  existence  in  Great  Bri- 
tain and  America,  under  the  name  of  Reformed 
Presbyterians. 

CAMEROONS,  ka-me-roon',  or  I^ME- 
SUN,  a  German  colonial  possession  in  West 
Africa  having  originally  an  area  of  151.130 
square  miles,  which  was  increased  in  1911  to 
295,000  square  miles  by  France  agreeing  to  cede 
Kongo  territory  as  compensation  for  loss  of 
Gcrmnn  influence  in  Moioeco.  It  is  bounded  by 
Lake  Chad  on  the  north,  French  Kongo  on  the 
east  and  sonth,  Spanish  Guinea  on  the  south- 
west and  the  Bight  of  Biafra  and  Ni^ria  on 
the  west.  From  the  sea  to  Lake  Chad  it  meas- 
ures over  700  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
from  east  to  west  is  600.  The  territory  re- 
cm  ves  its  name  from  the  Cameroon  River, 
which  enters  the  Bight  of  Biafra  by  an  estuary 
nearly  20  miles  wide.  The  swamps  along  the 
banks  of  the  river  render  this  distnct  unhealthy 
tor  Europeans.  Northwest  of  the  river  lies  the 
volcanic  group  called  the  Cameroon  Mountains, 
which  rise  to  a  height  of  13,760  feet.  The  lower 
slopes  of  these  monntains  are  more  healthy  and 
are  covered  with  ebony,  redwood  and  palm- 
trees.  More  important  than  the  Cameroon 
River  is  tfie  much  longer  Mbam,  entering  the 
Bight  of  Biafra  a  little  south  of  the  former, 
and    navigable    for   40   miles   inland   to    Idia. 


Among  cultivated  plants  are  the  banana,  oil- 
palm,  cocoanut,  groundnut,  manioc,  yam,  sweet- 
t>otato  vid  colocasia;  of  more  recent  introduc- 
tion are  cacao,  coffee,  tobacco,  etc.  Among  the 
minerals  are  gold  and  iron.  There  is  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  cotton,  ivory  and  oil.  The 
inhabitants  are  almost  entirely  of  the  Bantu 
Stock,  widely  diffused  throughout  the  more 
southerly  portion  of  the  connnent,  and  many 
of  them  have  almost  regular  European  fea- 
tures. The  coast  of  the  Cameroon  territory 
was  annexed  by  Germany  in  1884,  and  the  in- 
terior was  afterward  acquired,  the  whole  faav- 
mg  been  a  German  colony  tmder  a  governor. 
Tne  seat  of  government  was  at  Buea,  situated 
3,000  feet  above  sea-level  near  the  coast.  At 
Duala  there  was  a  commodious  floating  dock; 
ISO  miles  of  railroad  had  been  constructed  and 
there  was  wireless  communication  with  Berlin 
through  Togoland,  The  colony  had  never 
raiseti  sufiicioil  revenue  to  meet  its  expendi- 
ture, the  last  figures  of  which  were  i882,500i 
with  receipts  £361,500^  imports  £1,712,000  and 
exports  £1,165,000. 


minated  in  January  1916  when  14.000  i 
troops  and  900  ofJicers  withdrew  over  the  south- 
western frontier  into  Spanish  Guinea  and  there 
gave  up  their  arms.  A  month  later  the  northern 
garrison  capitulated. 

CAHILING.  ki'm«-ling,  Philippines,  town 
of  Lnzon,  Tartac  province,  on  the  Camiling 
River,  80  miles  northwest  of  Manila.  Fine  tim- 
ber, tice,  com  and  su^r  are  the  chief  products. 
The  place  has  an  unfortunate  reputaUon  as  a 
lading  place  for  thieves  and  outlaws.  Pop. 
26,000. 


king,  and  to  have  aided  Tumus  against  .Eneas 
(Virgil,  'j^ndd,'  vii).  She  was  slain  tw 
Arruns,  an  Etruscan  ally  of  fneas  (Virgil, 
»jEneid,'  xi.  648-«33). 

CAHILLE.  ka-mel',  the  heroine  of  Du- 
mas' novel,  ana  the  play  adapted  from  it.  (See 
La  Daue  aux  CAuiuAs) ;  also  the  heroine 
of  Corneille's  'Les  Horaces,'  founded  on  the 
old  Roman  legend  of  the  Curiatii. 

CAMILLUS,  Harcui  FuiUB,  Roman  patri- 
cian: d  365  B.C.  He  is  famous  as  the  deliverer 
of  the  city  of  Rome  from  the  Gauls.  He  first 
came  into  notice  as  consular  tribune  in  403  B.a 
His  militaiy  successes  were  numerous,  bot  the 
accounts  of  them  have  become  mixed  with  con- 
siderable mythological  fiction.  In  396  B.C.  he 
was  made  dictator  during  die  Veientine  War 
and  captured  the  town  of  Veii  after  it  had 
defied  the  Roman  power  for  more  than  10 
years.  In  394  rc  Camillus  besieged  die  Falerii, 
and  by  an  act  of  generosity  induced  them  to 
surrender.  Three  years  later  the  envy  and 
jealousy  of  enemies  caused  him  to  exile  himself 
for  a  time,  and  he  was  living  in  retii«ment 
when  the  Gaols,  rnider  Brennus,  invaded  and 
captured  Rome,  with  the  exception  of  the  cap- 
itol.  Camillus  was  now  appointed  dictator  a 
second  time,  and  was  successful  in  repelling  the 
invaders,  rebuilt  Rome  and  gained  new  victories 
over  the  Volsci  and  others.  In  386  he  was 
elected  dictator  for  the  third  time  and  refused 
the  office.    la  38L  be  carried  the  Roman  arms 


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CAMIH&TZIIC  — CAHOU 


to  victop'  against  Pneneste  and  other  Latia 
towns.  For  the  fourth  lime  he  became  dictator 
in  368,  but  abdicated  in  the  same  year.  A  new 
invasion  of  the  Gauls  caJled  him,  at  the  age  of 
80,  once  more  to  that  position,  and  he  defeated 
and  dispersed  the  barbarians  near  the  site  of 
Alba  Longa,  and  conclnded  a  Mace  between 
patrkians  and  plebeians  and  aided  in  passing 
the  Licinian  Laws.  He  erected  a  temple  to 
Concordia  near  the  Capitol,  retired  from  public 
life  and  died  of  the  plague  about  365  B.C.  uni- 
versally respected  and  lamented.  See  Roke, 
HiSTOSY,  and  consult  Plutarch,   'CamiUus.' 

CAMINATZIN.  ka-mc-na-ts5n',  or  CACU- 
MAZIN,  Mexican  kinr:  d.  30  June  1520.  He 
was  nephew  of  King  Monlezutna  and  reigned 
over  Te^cuco  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  con- 
quest Caminatiin,  with  more  courage  and 
enterfirise  than  his  uncle,  proposed  to  his  sub- 
jects a  declaration  of  war  against  the  foreign- 
ers. The  proposal  was  received  with  entnu- 
siasm,  and  Caminatzin  called  upon  the  Span- 
iards to  leave  the  country  immediately  or  to 
expect  to  be  treated  as  enemies.  Montezuma 
invited  his  nephew  to  Mexico  to  become  recon- 
ciled with  the  Spaniards.  The  answer  qf  Cam- 
inatzin was  that  he  could  enter  Mexico  only  to 
destroy  the  tyrants  of  his  country,  Montezuma 
then  (fespatched  secret  agents  to  Teicuco  to  get 
possession  of  the  young  prince  by  whatever 
His   tirst   officers   and  nearest   friends 


were  corrupt,  and  he  was  delivered  by  thetn  t< 
Cort^  and  imprisoned.    He  perished  duri 
evacuation  of  Mexico  by  the  Spaniards. 


CAHISARDS.  kSml-zirdz,  Protestants  in 
France  (in  the  C4vennes),  who,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  century,  in  consequence  of  the 
persecution  to  which  they  were  exposed  after 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685, 
rose  against  the  royal  deputies.  The  name  is 
usually  thought  to  be  derived  from  "^camise,"  a 
provincial  form  of  the  French  word  "chemise," 
signifying  a  shirt  or  smoclL  and  it  is  said  to 
have  been  applied  to  Ihem  because  their  or^- 
nary  outer  garment  was  a  smock  or  blouse.  The 
first  occasion  on  which  they  broke  out  into  open 
revolt  against  the  royal  dgiuties  was  on  the 
night  of  24  July  1702,  when  50  of  them  attacked 
the  house  of  the  Abb£  du  Chayla,  one  who  bad 
signalized  himseff  by  his  cruelty  during  the 
persecutions.  They  set  free  the  prisoners  whom 
they  found  confined  in  the  dungeons,  and  put 
the  abbe  himself  to  death.  This  was  the  signal 
for  a  general  rising  of  the  mountaineers.  The 
government  sent  troops  to  punish  the  authori 
of  these  acts.  A  certain  Jean  Cavalier,  »  pea>- 
uit,  whom  a  fortune-teller  had  pointed  out  as 
the  deliverer  of  Israel,  placed  nimsdf  at  the 
head  of  the  Camisards,  His  unlimited  authority 
with  his  adherents,  his  talents  and  courage, 
cirabled  him  to  oppose  the  measures  of  experi- 
enced generals  with  so  much  success  thai  nego- 
lialion  was  substituted  for  force.    The  Uars&al 


into  the  royal  service  as  a  colonel.  This  treaty, 
however,  did  not  satisfy  his  associates,  because 
it  did  not  concede  to  them  liberty  of  conscience, 
and  on  that  account  Cavalier  was  reproached 
as  a  traitor  who  had  sacrificed  the  cause  of 
bis  coreligionists  to  his  own  interest.  At  the 
court,  too,  he  was  received  witb  coldness,  so 
that  in  a  short  time  he  was  glad  to  go  into  vol- 


unury  exfie.  He  weat  to  Endxnd,  where 
Queen  Anne  gave  him  a  favorable  reception, 
'oltaire,  who  became  acquainted  with  him  in 


of  the  cross),  was  given  to  a  band  of  Roii__.. 
Catholics  formed  to  put  dowji  the  Calvinistic 
Camisards,  who  w«%  called  ctMnuards  nairs,  or 
black  Camisards.    See  also  France — Hisioky. 

CAHLBT,  or  CAHBLBT  ^in  Frendi, 
cametot),  a  name  applied  in  Englana  to  a  fabric 
made  of  long  wool,  hand-spun,  sometimes  mixed 
with  cotton  or  linen  yam.  Various  derivations 
of  the  word  are  ^ven.  Some  consider  it  to  be 
of  d)e  same  root  with  camel,  because  it  was 
ori^nally  made  of  camel's  hair;  others  derive  it 
from  the  Arabic  chamal,  signifying  fine,  because 
according  to  them  it  was  onginally.  made  of 
the  fine  Hair  of  the  Angora  goat  • 
~  CAMHAERTS,  cam-marts',  Smile,  Bel- 
gian poet  and  journalist.  He  gained  a  world- 
wide celebrity  by  his  fierce  poetical  denuncia- 
tions of  the  German  invasion  of  Belgium  in 
1914,  But  thou^  his  muse  at  times  rises  to 
impassioned  heights,  it  is  rather  as  the  poet  of 
domestic  joys  and  sorrows  that  he  shines;  it  is 
through  the  tender  details  of  his  descriptions 
that  he  makes  his  best  verses.  With  a  number 
of  exiled  literary  and  artistic  compatriots,  Cam- 
maerts  issued  in  1916  a  work  *in  recognition  of 
the  help  given  by  the  British  empire  and  the 
United  States  during  the  great  War,*  It  bore 
the  title  of  "A  Book  of  Belgium's  gratitude.* 
Consult  'New  Belgian  Poems;  Les  trois  rois 
et  autres  pomes'  (New  York  1916)  ;  'Chants 
tatriotiques  et  autres  po^es,'  in  French  and 
English, 

CAMAIERHOPP,  John  Christophe  Fred- 
eric, Moravian  bishop  in  America:  b.  near 
Magdeburt  Germany,  28  July  1721 ;  d.  Bethle- 
hem, Pa.,  28  April  1751.  He  was  educated  at 
Jena,  and  at  the  age  of  25  was  consecrated  a 
bishop  in  London  and  came  to  America  as 
Bishop  Spangenburg's  assistant.  He  preached 
in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  but  his  great- 
est successes  were  made  among  the  Indians. 
The  Iroquois  adopted  him  into  the  Turtle  tribe 
of  the  Oneida  nation,  and  gave  him  the  name 
of  Gallichwio,  or  'A  Good  Message."  In  1750 
he  undertook  amid  great  hardships  a  tour  to 
Onondaga.  It  occupied  three  months,  embraced 
a  distance  of  1,500  miles  and  was  filled  with 
hair-breadth  escapes.  He  was  too  weak  to  en- 
dure such  enterprises,  and  died  the  following 
year.  The  Iroquois  mourned  him  as  a  brother 
and  said  of  him  *He  was  an  honest,  upright 
man,  in  whose  heart  no  guile  was  found.* 
Thirh"  years  later  Zeisbcrgcr  'heard  his  name 
mentioned  among  them  with  deep  respect  and 
veneration.  The  memory  of  his  devotion  and 
irrepressible  missionary  zeal  has  ever  been  held 
in  honor  by  the  people  of  his  faith. 

CAMObS,  ka-mon'esh,  or  CAMOBHS, 
Luiz  Viz  de,  Portuguese  poet:  b.  Lisbon 
probably  1524,  or  15S;  d.  there  1579.  His 
father,  Simon  Vaz  de  Camoes,  was  a  ship- 
captain,  who  perished  by  shipwreck  on  the  coast 
of  Goa  about  1552,  CamScs  studied  at  Coim- 
bra,  of  which  his  uncle,  Dom  Benio  de  Camoes 
became  chancellor  in  1539,  the  year  of  Luis' 


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oitrance  to  the  ooiveisitjr.  At  that  time  wnten 
were  esteemed  in  proportion  as  they  imitated 
the  aodents.  CamQes  was  inspired  by  the  his- 
loiy  of  his  country,  and  by  the  manners  of  his 
age.  His  lyric  poems,  like  the  worics  of  Dante, 
Petrarch,  Ariosto  and  Tasso,  belong  to  the 
literatare  formed  under  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tiaiuty.  After  the  comj^etion  of  his  studies  he 
returned  to  Lisbon,  where  he  fell  deeply  in 
love  with  a  lady  of  the  palace,  Catharioa 
d'Atayada.  Violent  passions  are  often  joined 
with  great  talents — Cam6es  had  both.  He  was 
exiled  to  Santarem  on  account  of  disputes  in 
which  his  love  for  Catharina  involved  him. 
Prom  despair  be  became  a  soldier,  and  served 
in  the  fleet  which  the  Portuguese  sent  against 
Uorocco.  He  composed  poetry  in  the  midst  of 
battles,  and  as  danger  kindled  his  genius,  so 
genius  animated  his  courage.  An  arrow  de^ 
prived  bim  of  liis  right  eye  before  Ceuta.  He 
hoped  diat  his  wounds  would  receive  a  recom- 
pense, though  his  talents  were  not  appreciated; 
bnt  envy  opposed  his  claims.  Full  of  indigna- 
tion at  seeing  himself  neglected,  he  embarked  in 
1533  {or  India.  His  powerful  imagination  was 
excited  by  the  heroic  deeds  of  his  countrymen 
in  this  quarter,  and  although  he  had  much 
reason  to  complain  of  them,  he  could  not  resist 
the  desire  of  celebrating  their  glory  in  an  epic. 
But  this  vivacity  of  mind,  essential  to  the  poet, 
is  not  easily  united  with  the  moderation  which 
a  dependent  condition  demands.  CamSes  was 
displeased  with  the  abuses  of  the  government 
in  India,  and  wrote  a  satire,  which  caused  his 
banishment  to  Macao.  Soon  after  he  was  re- 
moved to  the  Moluccas,  but  after  three  years 
of  captivity  a  new  viceroy  recalled  the  decree 
of  banishment  against  him,  and  appointed  him 
administrator  of  the  effects  of  deceased  per- 
sons at  Macao.  His  chief  poem,  the  '^Lusiad,' 
was  composed  partly  during  the  period  of  bs 
captivity,  and  partly  while  he  held  the  ofKce  of 
administrator.  Camoes  was  at  last  recalled 
from  his  banishment.  At  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Mekon,  in  Cochin-China,  he  was  ship- 
wrecked, and  saved  himself  by  swimming  — 
holding  in  one  hand  above  the  water  the  manu- 
script of  his  poem,  the  only  treasure  which 
he  rescued  from  the  waves.  In  Goa  he  en- 
countered new  persecutions :  was  confined  in 
prison  for  alleged  erabewlement  of  funds  en- 
trusted to  him  during  his  tenure  of  office  at 
Macao,  and  not  allowed,  until  his  friends  be- 
came responsible  for  him,  to  embark  and  return 
to  Lisbon  in  1569.  King  Sebastian,  yet  hardly 
past  the  age  of  childhood,  took  an  interest  in 
Camoes.  He  accepted  the  dedication  of  his 
epic  (which  appeared  in  two  editions,  vaiying 
both  in  the  text  and  the  orthography,  in  1572), 
and  being  on  the  point  of  cmbarlung  on  his 
expedition  against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  felt 
more  sensibly  than  others  the  genius  of  the 
poet,  who,  like  him,  loved  dangers  if  they  led 
to  ^ory.  But  Sebastian  was  lulled  in  a  battle 
before  Alcazar  in  1578,  and  with  him  the  royal 
family  became  extinct,  and  Portugal  lost  her 
independence.  Every  source  of  assistance,  as 
well  as  every  hope  of  CamSes,  was  destroyed 
by  this  event.  So  great  was  his  poetry  uiat 
at  nieht  a  slave,  whom  he  had  brou|;ht  with 
him  from  India,  begged  in  the  streets  in  order 
to  support  the  life  of  his  master.  In  this 
misery  be  /et  wrote  lyric  poem^  some  of  whidt 


contain  the  most  moving  compkints.  This  hero 
of  Portuguese  literature,  the  ornament  of  his 
country  and  Europe,  died  in  a  hospital,  neg- 
lected. In  1596  a  splendid  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory.  Vasco  da  Gama's  ex- 
pedition to  India  is  the  subject  of  his  great 
poem.  The  parts  of  it  which  are  best  known 
are  the  episode  of  Ines  de  Castro,  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  Adamaslor  who,  by  means  of  his 
power  over  the  storms,  aims  to  stop  Gama's 
voyage  when  he  is  about  to  double  the  Cape. 
In  conformity  to  the  taste  of  the  time,  Cam5cs 
united  in  this  poem  a  narrative  of  the  Fortu< 
gnese  history  with  the  splendor  of  poetic  de- 
scription, and  Christianity  with  mythological 
fables.  He  pleased  himself  with  tracing  the 
descent  of  the  Portuguese  from  the  Romans, 
of  whom  Mars  and  Venus  are  considered  the 
progenitors  and  protectors.  Since  fable 
ascribes  to  Bacchus  the  first  conquest  of  India, 
it  was  natural  to  represent  him  as  jealous  of 
the  undertaking  of  the  Portuguese.  If  the 
imitation  of  the  works  of  classical  antiijuity  has 
been  of  any  disadvantage  to  the  ^Lusiad,'  the 
injury  consists,  perhaps,  in  a  diminution  of  the 
ori^nality  whidi  one  expects  in  a  work  in 
which  India  and  Africa  are  described  by  an 
eye-witness.  The  general  interest  of  the  poem 
consists  princij^lly  m  the  patriotic  feeling  which 
pervades  it.  The  national  glory  of  the  Portu- 
guese appears  here  in  every  form  which  inven- 
tion can  lend  to  it,  and  therefore  the  country- 
men of  CamSes  must  naturally  admire  tms 
poem  more  than  foreigners.  Some  critics  pro- 
nomice  the  <Lusiad>  a  more  powerful  and 
pure  historical  painting  than  Tasso's  'Jerusalem 
Delivered,'  A  valuable  edition  of  the  <Lusiad> 
(Os  Lusiadas,  etc.)  was  published  by  Joze 
Maria  de  Souia-Botelho  (Paris  1817).  It  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Fanshaw, 
Mickle  and  DuS;  by  I.  J.  Aubertin  (with 
Poriuguese  text),  and  by  Sir  R.  F.  Burton 
(with  'Life  of  CZamoes,  Commentary,'  etc.;  6 
vols.,  London  1881).  The  works  of  Camoes, 
besides  the  'Lusiad,'  consist  of  sonnets,  songs, 
odes,  elegies,  eclogues,  rtdottdiltas,  epigrams, 
satires,  letters  and  three  dramas,  'Amphitryon,* 
after  Plautus,  'King  Seleucus'  and  the  'Love 
of  Philodemus.'  The  most  complete  edition  of 
Camoes'  works  is  that  of  the  Visconde  de 
Juromenha  (6  vols.,  Lisbon  1860-69)  ;  also  the 
small  handy  edition  of  Theophile  Braga  (3 
vols-  Oporto  1874)  and  the  edition  by  Carl 
von  Reituiardstoettner  (Strassburg  1874).  Con- 
sult also  Viscount  Strangford,  'Poems  from 
the  Portuguese  of  Luis  de  Camoens,  with  Re- 
marks on  bis  Life  and  Writings,  Notes,  etc.* 
<6th  ed.,  London  1810) ;  and  Branco,  Camiilo 
Castello,  'Manual  bibliographico  portuguex* 
(Oporto  1878) ;  Da  Silva,  I.  F.,  'Diccionario 
bibliographico  portuguez'  (Vol.  V,  -Lisbon 
1860),  and  also  VolsTxiV  and  XV  (Vols,  VII 
and  VIII  of  the  continuation  of  Brito  Aranha: 
Lisbon  1S86~88),  These  volumes  are  devoted 
exclusively  to  Camoes  and  his  works,  and  are 
profusely  illustrated.  Consult  Adamson,  'Mem- 
oirs of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Luis  De 
Camoes>  (London  1820)  ;  Braga,  'Historia  de 
Camoes'  (3  vols.,  Oporto  1873-75);  Castello- 
Branco,  'Luis  de  Camoes'  (Oporto  1880); 
Storck,  'Luis  de  Cam5ens  Leb«n'  (Paderborn 
1890),  the  best  Inograpfi  -  -  - 
pufatished.    Scf  LuBMA  1 


d=,  Google 


CAHOHIU — CAHOUPLAOB 


CAMOMILE.     See  Chahouile. 

CAUONICA,  ka-mfi-nilca,  or  VALLE 
CAMONICA,  a  valley  in  North  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Brescia,  formed  by  two  branches  o£ 
the  Rhatian  Alps,  watered  by  the  Oglio,  and 
stretching  about  50  miles  from  north-northeast 
to  south -southwest  as  far  as  Lake  Iseo,  It  is 
a  principal  thoroughfare  between  Italy  and  the 
Tyrol.  It  has  quarries  for  iron,  copper,  lead, 
marble  and  slate.  Its  soil  is  fertile,  agriculture 
being  one  of  the  leading  occupations;  maize, 
grapevines  apd  mulberry  trees  are  extensively 
ciUtivated. 

CAMORRA,  an  association  in  Naples,  the 
members  of  which  (Camorristi)  carried  on  ex- 
tortion as  a  regular  business  and  were  found 
at  markets,  fairs  and  all  public  gatherings  in 
die  exercise  of  their  employment.  The  band 
became  known  in  1820,  when  it  was  not  political 
but  social,  originating  in  the  Neapolitan  prisons, 
ttien  filled  with  victims  of  Bourbon  misrule. 
It  was  carried  into  the  dt^  in  1830  and  became 
a  political  body  o£  great  mtiuence  in  1848.  A 
determined  effort  was  made  to  exterminate  it 
in  1877,  but  in  spite  of  the  lessening  of  their 
power  It  has  still  remained  vigorous.  In  1900, 
a  government  inquiry  was  made  in  the  course 
of  a  libel  suit,  the  result  of  which  was  the 
formation  of  tne  Honest  Government  League 
and  the  consequent  defeat  of  the  Camorra  in 
the  municipal  elections  of  1901. 

They  were  divided  into  several  classes — 
those  who  dressed  as  gentlemen  and  mineled 
with  people  of  rank;  those  who  practised  t&eir 
work  on  tradesmen  and  the  like;  and  the  politi- 
cal and  murdering  camorristi.  There  were 
various  ranks  and  grades  which  might  be  at- 
tained in  the  Society,  and  certain  ceremonies  of 
a  very  severe  character  were  celebrated.  The 
Association  extended  its  ramifications  over  en- 
tire Naples.  It  had  central  stations  in  all  of  the 
large  provincial  towns  and  12  in  the  city  of 
Navies.  Consult  Monnier,  'La  Camorra' 
(Florence  1863) ;  Alongi,  'La  Camorra* 
(1890);  Heckethom,  'Secret  Societies  of  All 
Ages'  (London  1897). 

CAMOUFLAGE,  c&'  moo-flaih.  This  art 
is  In  reality  an  adaptation  of  the  science  of 
color  to  meet  man's  requirements  according  to 
the  plan  of  nature's  pn>tecti¥e  coloring  but 
the  idea  ma^  be  greatly  extended  in  scope  as 
will  be  bnefly  suggested  in  the  following 
paragraphs.  It  is  well  known  that  many  species 
of  birds,  fishes  and  animals  assume  colorings 
and  patterns  which  quite  effectively  conceal 
them  in  their  natural  envirotmients.  Some  of 
these  change  their  colorings  and  patterns  from 
season  to  season  and  the  chameleon  and  cer- 
tain fishes  have  the  ability  to  aher  their  color 
very  jiuiekly  to  an  approximation  of  that  of 
their  immediate  snrroundinf^.     Some  fishes  are 


e  placed.  The  eflectivcness  of  this  scheme  of 
protective  coloring  has  indicated  to  man  the 
possibility  of  providing  protective  concealment 
for  men,  hitteries,  etc.,  in  warfare  and  in  other 

"'  '  '  s  and  the  science  of  color  has  revealed 


other  possibilities.    In  utilising  this  a 


oanslder    t 

lighting  and  herein  Ae  greatest  obatadea  are 
usually  eiKoantered  because  of  its  cfaangcaUe- 
ness.  The  scheme  will  be  introduced  by  means 
of  a  few  examples.  It  is  easy  to  mask  a 
battery  in  the  sumner  time  amid  ^een  ioKage 
by  usmg  a  screen  of  ^een  branches,  givss,  etc. 
The  duck-hunter  utihxes  a  suit  of  grass  or  a 
bUnd  of  vegetation  in  the  same  manner.  In 
other  seasons  suitable  changes  in  the  screens 
may  be  made.  If  soldiers  are  to  be  concealed 
in  a  snow-covered  winter  landscape  which  is 
devoid  of  vegetation  this  may  be  accomplished 
by  means  of  white  clothing  and  even  white 
masks  or  paint  on  their  faces.  On  an  overcast 
day  the  concealment  may  be  accomplished  quite 
effectively  but  on  clear  sunlit  days  the  shadows 
cast  upon  the  surface  of  the  snow  and  the 
shadows  on  the  various  contours  of  the  form 
usually  render  complete  deception  impossible 
especially  if  the  soldiers  are  moving.  If  the 
winter  landscape  is  not  wholly  barren  of  trees 
or  shrubs  and  the  soldier  is  on  stationary  out- 
post duty,  a  dark  gray  cloak  is  effective.  In 
the  case  of  vessels  it  has  been  found  that  a 
mottled  pattern  of  ^ys  has  been  quite  effec- 
tive toward  rendering  them  less  conspicuous 
or  practicaljy  invisible.  If  the  vessels  lie  low  in 
the  water  it  is  obvious  that  the  deception  is 
generally  more  successful.  However,  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  surface  of  the  water  varies 
with  the  lighting  and  with  the  character  of  the 
sky  and  of  the  waves.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
surface  of  the  water  assumes  many  appearances 
with  a  given  lighting  and  sky  condition,  in- 
cluding the  calm  smooth  surface,  the  choppy 
sea  and  the  long  swells  or  roUii^  sea.  To  a 
distant  observer  these  differ  least  in  appearance 
on  a  uniformly  overcast  day.  On  a  sunlit  day 
there  are  usually  bright  high-lights  on  the 
waves  which  arc  reflected  images  of  the  sun. 
Furthermore  the  surface  color  of  the  water  is 
largely  due  to  reflected  images  of  the  sky  and 
clouds.  The  color  of  a  smooth  surface  of  the 
water  at  some  distance  from  a  given  observer 
him  quite  similar  to  that  of  the 
on  of  the  sky  in  the  direction   in 

i  gaung.     Tbs  is  readily  seen  if  a 

diagram  is  made  and  the  optical  law  of  reflec- 
tion—  the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the 
angle  of  reflection  — is  applied  When  small 
waves  are  running,  beautiful  color-effects  are 
seen  if  the  color  of  the  zenith  or  upper  por- 
tions of  the  sky  differs  materially  from  that 
of  the  lower  sky  near  the  horizon,  as  is  usually 
the  case  after  sunset.  Such  a  surface  of  water 
appears  to  be  a  scries  of  stripes  alternating  in 
color.  Prom  the  simple  diagram-  previously 
suggested  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lagging  side 
of  a  wave  is  reflecting  toward  the  observer  an 
image  of  a  patch  of  sky  near  the  horizon  and 
the  advancing  side  is  reflecting  an  image  of  a 
patch  somewhat  nearer  the  zenith.  If  these 
patches  are  different  in  color,  die  beautiful 
effects  already  mentioned  are  accounted  for. 
These  different  appearances  of  the  water  have 
been  discussed  in  order  to  show  that  the  best 
protective  coloring  for  vessels  differs  according 
to  lighting,  sky  condition,  and  surface  chai^ 
acter  of  the  water.  In  other  words,  if  prac- 
ticable, several  removable  coatings,  differing  in 
pattern,  could  be  provided.  In  general  the  most 
suitable  color  is  bluish  gray  but  there  is  always 
the  difllicultsr  with  glint  or  high-lights,  even  if 


appears  1 
lower  por 
which  he 


d=,  Google 


CAHOUFLAGB 


aae 


smoke  can  be  suppressed  or  avoided.  It  is  a 
comparatively  simple  problem  to  provide  a  coat- 
ing for  rendering  a  loW'lying  ship  incon- 
sptcuous  or  even  mvisible  under  specific  con- 
ditions of  ligiltjng,  sty  and  surface  of  the 
water;  however,  in  practice  a  compromise  must 
be  made  in  order  that  one  coating  will  serve 
wdl  under  all  conditions.  In  marine  camouBa^ 
(he  outline  of  the  vessel  is  important  for  it  is 
usually  seen  against  the  sky  by  the  sab- 
marine  or  distant  enemy.  Tlie  science  of  color 
can  be  used  effecdvely  in  reveslfng  gruns, 
soldiers,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  enemy  if  they 


(Onta  Ligbl)  CBlna  light) 

-J  tbB  eOKt  o(  cDlond  tighlB  voaa  dw 

i^ivausnca  ot  jix  cnknd  btsks 

have  not  been  provided  with  coverings  closely 
resembling  their  environments.  The  plan  is 
quite  the  reverse  of  camouflage  in  that  it  aims 
to  augment  the  contrast  in  hue  or  in' brightness. 
In  general,  all  objects  arc  "colored";  that  is, 
relatively  few  objects  are  without  hue.  The 
latter  are  the  whites,  blacks  and  intermediate 
grays.  We  see  an  object  only  when  there  is  a 
contrast  between  it  and  its  background  or  im- 
mediate surroundings.  This  contrast  ina^  be 
in  hue  or  in  brightness  but  usually  it  is  a 
mixture  of  both.  Camouflage  aims  to  eliminate 
these  contrasts.  It  is  a  fact  of  color-science 
that  a  colored  object  — for  example,  a  pigment 
—  will  not  appear,  in  general,  the  same  under 
two  different  illumin^ts.  Both  the  hue  and 
value  or  reflection  factor  of  a  colored  object 
change  with  the  illmninants.  For  examnle,  in 
Fig.  1  are  shown  the  relative  values  or  bright- 
ness-contrasts of  six  colored  fabrics  under  red, 
green  and  blue  lights,  respectively,  as  indicated. 
For  example,  the  lower  middle  one,  which  was 
a  blue  fabric,  is  very  dark  under  red  light  and 
is  very  bright  under  blue  lighL  This  experi- 
ment IS  significant  in  indicating  the  possibilities 
of  using  various  colored  screens  before  the 
eyepieces  o£  field  passes  and  telescopes.  A 
study  of  a  landscape  hy  means  of  such  filters 
may  reveal  objects  owing  to  the  augmented 
contrast  which  would  not  be  otherwise  suffi- 
ciently conspicuous.  Experiments  made  by  the 
author  before  the  beginning  of  the  European 
War  indicated  such  possibilities.  For  example, 
a  khald  cloth  amid  green  foliage  may  be  made 
to  appear  darker  or  bri^ter  than  the  sur- 
rounding green  foliage  by  viewing  it  through 
blue-green  and  yellow- orange  filters  respec- 
tively. Actual  measurements  of  the  ratio  ot  the 
brightness  of  the  khaki  cloth  to  that  of  a  green 
leaf  were  respectively  0.7  through  a  blue-green 
filler,  and  l.S  throu^  a  yellow-oranoe  filter. 
These  ratios  are  on  the  basis  that,  under  day- 
light illumination,  the  two  objects  appeared  of 
the  same  brightness  when  viewed  without 
cokjred  filters.  The  applications  ot  colored 
screens  to  field  glasses  appears  to  be  well  worth 
while  for  many  purposes  outside  of  warfare. 
In  order  to  meet  all  the  conditions  to  be  found, 
a   series    of    filters,    say    blue,    green,    yellow, 


orange  and  red,  could  be  provided  in  pairs  for 
field  glasses  and  arranged  in  a  convenient  man- 
ner for  quickly  changing  from  one  set  to 
another.  These  screens  should  be  as  pure  in 
color  as  practicable.  Another  promising  filter 
is  a  yellow  or  canary  screen  whose  object  would 
be  to  eliminate  the  bluish  hate  which  is  usually 
present  in  distant  landscapes.  A  large  per- 
centage of  light  is  sacrificed  with  such  screens 
but  fortunately  the  intensity  of  daylight  is 
usually  far  greater  than  is  necessary.  It- is 
doTibltuI  that  artificial  li^t  will  play  an  ap- 
preciable part  in  the  art  of  camouflage  in  war* 
fare;  however,  it  has  possibilities  in  other  fields 
in  certain  developments  in  color- effects  ap- 
plicable to  the  stage,  etc.  Applying  the  prin- 
ciple already  discussed  briefly  in  connection 
With  Fiff.  1  it  is  possible  to  relate  various 
colot^  with  certain  patterns  in  such  a  manner 
that  certain  parts  of  the  scene  will  disappear 
completely  under  a  given  illuminant.  For  ex- 
ample, a  gray  on  a  red  background  is  readily 
distinguished  under  ordinary  light  because  of 
the  difference  in  bri^tness  and  in  hue.  Under 
A  red  light  there  will  be  no  difference  in  hue 
if  the  red  background  has  been  properly 
selected  in  relation  to  the  illuminant.  There 
remains,  theiL  only  the  possibility  of  a  con- 
trast in  brightness  which  depends  upon  the 
relative  amounts  of  light  reflected  by  the  gray 
and  red  objects.  If  the  gray  is  properly 
selected  it  will  appear  of  the  same  brightness 
as  the  red  t^ckgrnund  undw  the  red  li^t  and 
therefore  will  be  indistingiiishable  or  invisible. 
By  the  use  of  the  same  principles  applied  to  a 
number  of  pigments  (those  having  the  quality 
ot  high  transparency  being  more  satisfactory), 
striking  disappearing  effects  can  be  obtained  by 
varying  the  color  of  the  illuminant.  The  effect 
which  is  possible  by  applying  these  principles 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2  although  rather  feebly. 


N  api^ied  to  tanvBB 

owing  to  the  absence  of  color.  The  paints 
which  were  made  of  high   transparency  aiul 

fiurity  were  so  chosen  .  that  under  ordinary 
lluminatton  the  scene  appeared  as  in  the  illus- 
tration at  the  left  Under  an  orange-red  light 
the  mountain  and  entire  background  disap- 
peared with  the  result  that  the  scene  appeared 
as  in  the  n^t-hand  illustration. 

This  example  indicates  what  could  be  ac- 
complished outdoors  if  both  the  landscape  and 
lifting  could  be  controlled.  Many  effects 
have  been  produced  on  canvas,  such  as  changjng 
a  summer  landscape  to  a  winter  scene,  causing 
figures    to    disappear,    etc     The    schemg^  has 


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possibilities  on  th«  stage,  in  displays  and  in 
advertising.  Ordinary  pigments  are  not  as 
satitfactory  as  water  colors  or  paints  made  by 
coloring  a  while  base  with  amline  dyes.  In 
applying  the  art  of  camouflage  it  is  seen  that 
the  science  of  light  and  color  contains  the  under- 
lying principles.  With  a  thorough  acquaintance 
with  these  much  can  be  accomplished.  Even 
some  of  the  efforts  of  the  enany  tg  conceal 
soldiers,  batteries,  etc.,  could  be  rendered  in- 
effective by  utilizing  colored  screens  on  tele- 
scopes and  field  glasses  unless  the  colors  were 
very  carefully  chosen  by  the  enemy.  For  ex- 
ample, for  perfect  concealment  the  object  must 
possess  the  same  color  as  its  surroundings,  not 
only  as  viewed  by  the  eye  but  as  analyzed  by 
the  spectroscope.  This  point  is  too  intricate  to 
discuss  in  detail  but  in  color-work  it  is  always 
well  to  remember  that  in  respect  to  color  the 
eye  is  synthetical  and  not  analytical.     In  other 


consist     For  example,  I 


V  appear 


-  -       -     .    ™*y 

the  same  to  the  eye  under  a  given  illui 
though  they  may  be  quite  unlike  in  spectral 
composition.  If  &e  latter  is  true,  the  two 
yellows  will  not  in  general  appear  alike  under 
any  other  ilium  inant  Camouflage  has  been 
practised  in  all  wars,  but  in  the  European  War 
It  has  been  highly  develo|)ed.  Consult  Xuckiesh, 
it..  'Color  and  Its  Ai^hcations.' 

M.   LUCKIESH. 

CAMP,  kaA,  Mndtne  do.  See  Do  Camp, 
Maxiue. 

CAMP,  Walter,  American  manufacturer 
and  writer:  b.  New  Britain,  Conn.,  7  April 
1859.  He  was  educated  at  the  Hopkins  Gram- 
mar School  and  at  Yale  University,  from  which 
he  was  graduated  in  1880  with  the  degree  of 
AB.  For  over  30  years  he  has  been  asso- 
ciated with  the  New  Haven  Clock  Company,  of 
which  concern  he  is  now  president.  He  was 
active  in  the  management  of  athletics  at  Yale, 
giving  especial  attention  to  football.  On  this 
Sport  he  became  a  leading  American  authority, 
and  was  in  demand  on  various  committees 
which  undertook  the  revision  of  football  rules 
and  brought  about  the  present  ^stem  of  play. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Yale  University 
Council.  He  is  a  prolific  writer  on  sports,  of 
articles  relating  to  the  effect  of  sport  and  plsy- 
grounds  on  the  development  of  character;  is 
sports  editor  of  various  periodicals;  also  a 
liberal  contributor  on  sporting  topics  to  The 
Century,  Harpers',  Coliitt's,  Saml  Nicholas,  and 
numerous  other  American  and  English  maga- 
zines. He  is  editor  of  The  Boys  Magazine ; 
editor-in-chief  of  'The  Young  People's  Li- 
brary.' He  is  author  of  'The  Substitute' 
(1908) ;  'Jack  Hall  of  Yale>  (1909) ;  'Old 
foerson'  (1911);  'Danny  Fists'  (1913); 
•Captain  Utanny' ;  <Danny  the  Freshman* ; 
'Brid^  Don'ts' ;  'Auction  Bridge  Don'ts* ; 
'Auction  Bridge  up  to  Date' ;  'Book  of  Col- 
lege Sports';  'American  Football';  'Football 
Facts  and  Figures'  (1886);  'Football';  'Yale, 
Her  Campus,  Oass-Room  and  Athletics' ; 
'Drives  and  Puts,'  with  Lillian  Brooks  (1899). 

CAMP,  in  military  use,  the  place  and 
aggregate  tiody  of  tents  or  huts  for  soldiers  in 
the  field.  In  modern  times  a  difference  is  often 
made  between  camp,  bivouac  and  cantonment, 
the     first     signifying     the     quarters     of     an 


amy  sheltCKd  in  tents  j  the  tnvouac  the 
situation  of  one  which  dbpenses  with  them, 
and  remains  either  entirely  in  the  open 
air,  or,  when  time  allows  it,  in  luUs 
built  of  branches,  etc. ;  the  cantonment 
when  the  troops  occupy  buildings  in  towns  or 
villages.  Camps,  in  a  general  sense,  are  of 
very  ancient  origin,  since  almost  all  nations  in 
their  infancy  Jived  as  nomads,  dwelliog  in 
tents,  as  is  &e  case  with  many  tribes  in  Asia 
and  Africa  at  the  present  day,  for  example,  the 
Arabs.  Among  the  Greeks,  the  Lacedxmonians 
seem  to  have  been  the  hrst  who  devoted  atten- 
tion to  the  art  of  forming  military  camps. 
The  form  which  they  adiMtted  wds  the  circular, 
that  being  the  form  which  was  best  calculated 
to  enable  the  general,  who  had  his  tent  in  the 
centre,  to  have  a  view  of  the  whole  camp,  and 
to  dispatch  assistance  in  the  shortest  possible 
time  to  any  part  of  the  camp  that  might  be 
attacked.  The  Romans  probably  first  carried 
the  art  of  encampment  to  a  high  degree  of  per- 
fection, on  account  of  *heir  many  wars  in  dis- 
tant and  thinly  settled  re^ont,  where  thdr 
large  armies  round  no  cities  to  quarter  in. 
Cjcsar  and  several  other  Roman  authors  give 
us  much  information  on  their  way  of  construct- 
ing a  camp,  and  in  Polybius  we  nave  a  detailed 
description  of  the  consular  camp  as  it  was  made 
iu  his  time.  This  form  of  camp,  with  some 
modifications,  continued  to  be  the  usual  one 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  Roman  domina- 
tion, and  down  to  the  time  of  the  invention  of 
Einpowder.'  The  site  was  chosen  by  the  general 
mself,  or  by  one  of  the  military  tribunes;  a 
spot  from  which  a  view  of  the  whole  camp 
could  be  obtained.  This  spot. was  marked  by  a 
white  pole  as  the  point  from  which  the  rest  of 
the  camp  was  measured  out,  and  the  place  where 


and  it  was  divided  'mx<S  two  parts  by  a  street 
from  50  to  im  feet  wide,  called  the  ^rinfi^ta 
or  via  principalis,  which  ran  across  it.  One  of 
these  divisions  occupied  about  one-third  of  the 
whole  space^  the  bther,  the  remaining  two- 
thirds  ;  and  it  was  in  the  former  of  these  that 
the  prasiorium  was  situated,  widi  an  open  area 
around  it  extending  100  feet  on  all  sides.  On 
the  right  of  the  br<rtorivm  was  the  forum  or 
market-place,  and  on  the  left  the  guastorium, 
where  were  tne  camp-stores  under  ihe  superin- 
tendence of  the  quastor.  Beyond  these  again 
on  each  side  there  were  select  bodies  of  horse 
and  foot  taken  from  the  extraordinaries,  and 
behind  this  whole  line  of  the  encampment  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  street  100  feet  broad, 
was  the  place  reserved  for  the  main  body  of 
the  extraordinaries,  and  for  foreigners  and  oc- 
casional auxiliary  troops.  Immediately  in  front 
of  the  line  of  tne  encampment  first  described 
the  tents  of  the  military  tribunes  and  of  the 
prafecti,  or  officers  of  tne  allies,  were  erected, 
the  former  before  the  forum  and  quirstorium. 
the  latter  before  the  select  bodies  of  horse  and 
foot.  These  tents  lined  the  principia  on  the 
side  of  the  prirtorium,  On  the  other  side  of 
the  principia  the  main  body  of  the  army  was 
quartered,  the  allies  being  stationed  on  the  ridllt 
and  left,  the  two  Roman  legions  which  be- 
longed to  every  consular  army  in  the  middle. 
The  whole  was  surrounded  with  a  ditch  (fossa) 
and  a  rampart  (vallum)  at  the  distance  of  200 
feet  from  the  tents.    On  every  side  of  die  camp 


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CAKP  ALLBffilANY 


an 


tkere  was  a  gate.  Tbat  behind  tlw  pratormm 
was  called  porta  fraloria,  the  one  oo  the 
oKKttite  side  porta  decuma«a.  The  other  two 
were  at  the  ends  of  the  lirincipia,  and  were 
called  respectively  ^orla  prtncipaUs  dexlra  and 
poria  principatii  nnistra.  The  camp  was  ink- 
proved  in  streosth  and  convenience  according 
to  the  time  that  it  was  occtxpied,  and  in  some 
cases,  from  the  want  of  fortresses,  it  was  made 
the  basb  of  tbeir  miliury  operations. 

After  the  inventioa  of  gunpowder,  en- 
tiencbed  camps,  such  as  tbat  just  described, 
proved  of  very  little  service,  as  they  afforded,  oo 
protection  against  projectiles  shot  from  long 
langes,  and  it  became  necessary  to  keep  the 
mass  of  the  army  not  actually  engaged  at  such 
a  distance  in  the  rear  of  the  hghtiiv  line  as  to 
be  beyond  the  re»ch  of  the  most  powerful  guns 
of  the  enemy.  In  the  Eurc^an  War  raises 
as  high  as  18  miles  were  attained,  and  in  a  few 
instances  20  miles  was  recorded  for  a  few 
shots  from  each  new  gun.  The  can^,  in  the 
old  sense,  therefore,  has  lost  its  former  swai£- 
cance,  and  has  become  httle  more  than  a  depot 
of  temporary  lodgment  of  reserves,  the  fightmg 
line  and  its  immediate  supports  being  protected 
underground   in   dugouts   and   bombproof   con- 


With  the  advent  of  the  fighting  aeroptme  a 
new  danger  has  to  be  met.  These  machines 
may  rise  behind  the  enemy  tines  to  a  height 
where  they  are  no  longer  visible,  and  travel 
many  miles  to  the  rear  of  an  opponent's  fighting 
line  and  drop  high  explosives  upon  a  camp 
which  is  safe  from  gunfire.  In  these  conditions 
the  camp  must  be  so  disguised  by  the  art  of 
camouflage  (q.v.)  as  to  be  indistinguishable 
from  the  adjacent  country  when  viewed  from 
above  by  the  aviator.  The  camp  defenses,  then 
become  reduced  to  two:  (1)  Against  spies;  and 
(2)  against  aircraft.  For  the  latter,  quick-fir- 
ing guns  which  may  be  pointed  upward  at  v 
high  ang;1e,  are  motmted  on  automobile  trucks, 
and  stationed  at  outlying  points  surrounding 
the  camp  It  has  recently  become  common 
to  fonn  camps  in  time  of  petioe  foi  tb^  sake 
of  disciplining  the  soldiers  to  a  camp  life;  and 
exercising  them  in  the  evolutions  and  roanceu- 
vres  of  actual  warfare.  These  are  called  camps 
of  instruction,  of  which  examples  are  seen  m 
the  United  States,  where  the  organi;iations  of 
the  National  Guard  in  tha  different  States  are 
accustottKd  to  annual  encampments  far  these 
purposes;  also  in  the  camp  for  British  troops 
at  Aldershot.  and  temporary  camps  throughout 
Great  Britain  for  the  training  of  tne  militia  and 
volunteers,  and  in  the  like  customs  and  estab- 
lishments of  other  countries.  Such  camps  are 
fenerally  of  a  permanent  type,  with  substantial 
uildings  and  arranged  to  provide  many  more 
of  the  comforts  of  life  man  is  usual  with 
camps  in  the  field. 

In  the  United  State*  army  the  duty  of  gdect- 
ing  the  site  and  laying  out  the  camp  devolves 
Upon  the  engineer  corps.  This  section  of  the 
work  of  the  engineers  is  termed  technically 
*caBlramclation.»  The  practice  followed  re- 
quires tbat  the  site  shall  be  on  sli^tly  sloping 
grouad  easily  drained,  and  with  a  sunny  expo- 
sure. The  surface  should  be  well  covered  with 
short  Brass,  and  the  subsoil  should  be  sandy  or 
gnLvel&.  For  a  summer  camp  a  hi^  and 
oreezy  spot  is  selected ;  for  a  winter  camp  a  site 
with  a  soudiein  exposure,  and  a  windbreak  of 


woods    toward  tfac  north.    The  wat«r   supi^y 

should  be  pure,  abundant  and  reasonably  ac- 
cessible. Good  roads  should  approach  the 
camp  site  from  several  directions.  Fuel;  for- 
age, pasture  and  supplies  should  be  available 
near  by.  The  streets  of  the  camp  are  ditched 
on  both  sides,  and  each  tent  is  surrounded 
with  a  shallow  trencL  The  streets  are  swept 
daily,  and  no  refuse  is  permilled  to  lie  between 
the  tents.  As  a  protection  a^inst  epidemics, 
the  camp  is  movea  to  a  new  site  every  two  or 
three  weeks.  The  United  Slates  soldier  car- 
ries as  a  part  of  his  pack  a  half  of  a  *pu^ 
tent,  which  buttoned  to  the  half  carried  by 
another  soldier  forms  a  shelter  for  'the  two 
men.  When  set  up  it  covers  a  ground  area  of 
six  feet  in  length  and  four  feet  in  width,  and 
is  three  feet  high  at  the  peak.  A  regiment  of 
2,200  men  requires  an  area  of  close  to  30  acres, 
equivalent  to  a  plot  of  ground  about  1,100  feet 
square.  For  the  permanent  cam[i  of  instruc- 
tion there  is  required  also  a  considerable  area 
for  drills,  parades  and  manceuvres.  This 
need  not  be  directly  adjacent,  but  should 
be  conveniently  near.  See  Army  Osganiza- 
TION.  Consult  Moss,  J.  A.,  'Manual  of 
Military  Training>  {Menasha,  Wis  1915); 
and  'Training  officers'  Manual'  (Menasha, 
Wis,,    1911). 

CAMP  ALLEGHANY,  W.  Va,  a  Con- 
federate camp  where  an  engagement  took  place 
13  Dec  1861.  After  the  affair  at  Camp  Bar- 
tow, 3  Oct.  1861,  the  Union  tfoops  had  re- 
mained at  Cheat  Mountain  Summit.  Gen.  R. 
H.  Milroy,  who  was  in  command  12  Dec.  1861, 
determined  to  attack  Camp  Alleghany,  the  sum- 
mit of  Alleghany  Mountain,  to  which  the  Con- 
federates had  fallen  back  from  Camp  Bartow, 
and  which  was  held  bj;  Col.  Edwara  Johnson, 
with  1,400  men  and  eight  guns,  partially  en- 
trenched. With  1,800  men  Miltoy  marched  to 
Camp  Bartow,  12  December,  and  made  his  dis- 
positions. One  column  of  900  men,  under  Col. 
James  A.  Jones,  was  to  ascend  the  mountain, 
until  near  its  summrt,  when,  leaving  the  road, 
it  was  to  move  to  the  left  and  attack  Johnson's 
right  and  rear,  while  another  colnmn  of  900 
men,  under  Col.  G.  C.  Moody,  was  to  move 
down  the  Greenbank  road  and  by  a  circuitous 
route,  concealed  by  heavy  forests,  assail  John- 
son's left.  The  attacks  were  to  be  simBltaneou* 
at  4  A.M.  of  the  I3th.  Tones  started  at  mld- 
nj(;ht,  gained  his  assigned  position  on  time,  and 
waited  for  Moody,  but  his  presence  being  dis- 
covered, he  was  quickly  engaged  and  for  a  time 
met  with  success,  driving  the  Confederates  be- 
fore him,  but  Johnson  rallying  his  troops  on 
tliat  flank  and  fighting  desperately,  Jones  was 
repulsed  after  a  two-hours'  contest,  leaving  his 
dead  ai:d  many  wounded  on  the  field.    White 


and  it  was  after  8  o'clock  when  he  became  en- 
gaged, and  was  met  by  such  a  severe  fire  of 
artillery  and  musketry  that  he  could  make  no 
progress,  but  continued  a  desolton'  skirmish 
until  afternoon,  when  he  fell  back,  and  the 
whole  force,  reuniting  at  Camp  Bartow, 
marched  back  to  Cheat  Summit.  The  action 
was  the  most  severely  contested  one  of  the 
West  Virginia  campaign  of  1861.  The  Union 
loss  was  20  killed,  107  woundad  aai  10  missing: 
the  Confederate  loss  20  killed,  98  wounded  and 


v  Google 


CAMP  BAHTOW— CAUP  SCHOOLS 


28  missing.  Consult  'Official  Records'  (Vol. 
V). 

CAMP  BARTOW,  or  GREANBRIBR 
RIVER,  W.  Va.,  a  place  wliere  an  engagement 
in  the  Civil  War  was  fought,  3  Oct.  1861.  On  2 
Octol>er  the  Confederates  held  Camp  Bartow, 
where  the  road  frotn  Beverly  to  Staunton 
crosses  the  Greenbrier  River,  with  about  2500 
men  and  eight  guns,  under  command  of  Gen. 
H.  R.  Jackson.  Gen.  J.  J.  Reynolds,  com- 
manding the  Union  troops  at  Cheat  Mountain 
Summit,  12  miles  west,  concluded  to  feel  Jack- 
son's position  and.  if  possible,  force  it.  He 
marched  at  midnight  of  the  second  with  about 
5,000  men  and  13  guns,  drove  in  a  picket  post 
west  of  the  Greenbrier  on  the  morning  of  the 
third,  and  coming  to  within  6O0  or  700  yards  of 
Jackson's  entrenched  position  beyond  the 
stream,  opened  on  it  with  his  artillerv,  the  Con- 
federates promptly  replying.  Several  guns  were 
disabled  on  either  side,  and  Reynolds  then, 
under  cover  of  a  demonstration  on  Jackson's 
left,  moved  with  six  re^ments  to  turn  his  right. 
Th;  regiment  to  make  the  demonstration  on  the 
left  crossed  the  stream,  but  was  quickly  driven 
back,  and  when  the  six  regiments  were  about 
to  cross  the  stream  on  Jackson's  right  they  were 
met  by  such  a  severe  fire  of  artillery  and 
musketry  that  Reynolds  deemed  further  effort 
inadvisable  and  withdrew  with  a  loss  of  43 
killed  and  wounded.  The  Confederate  loss  was 
39  killed  and  wounded.  Consult  'Official  Rec- 
ords*   (Vol.  V). 

CAMP  DISEASES,  disorders  common  to 
camp  life  and  more  or  less  incidental  to  the  con- 
ditions of  active  military  service,  which  are 
often  such  as  to  increase  the  virulence  of 
ordinary  diseases.  They  are  generally  of 
epidemic  and  infectious  type,  due  in  large 
measure  to  overcrowdioE  and  uncleanliness. 
The  formerly  dreaded  scourge  known  as  camp 
fever,  or  typhus,  is  now  easily  controlled  bv 
keeping  the  men  free  from  the  body  lice  whicn 
carry  the  disease  from  on«  map  to  another. 
Improper  food,  exposure  to  wet  and  to  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  hard  muscular  labor,  un- 
hygienic  surroundings  and  immoral  or  intem- 
Iteraie  habits,  contribute  to  the  general  condi- 
tions in  which  (hsease  flourishes.  Some  of  the 
troublesome  infectious  diseases  of  military  life 
are:  Asiatic  cholera,  bubonic  plague,  cerebro- 
spinal meningitis,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  infiuema,. 
malaria,  measles,  mumps,  typhoid  fever  and 
tuberculosis.  Typhoid  fever  has  been  enor- 
mously decreased  throuah  inoculation  with 
anti-typhoid  serum.  Alcoholism  and  venereal 
diseases  depend  on  personal  habits ;  bronchitis, 
frost-bile,  [Hteumonia,  rheumatism,  snow-blind- 
neEs  and  sunstroke  come  from  exposure. 
Scurvy  was  formerly  common,  but  it  is  now 
not  often  met  with,  owing  to  scientific  feeding. 
From  forced  marches  or  severe  exertion  the 
modern  soldier  often  suffers  from  heart- tronble, 
which  often  permanently  incapacitates  him  for 
further  service.  However,  the  medical  corps  of 
modem  armies  arc  so  eilicient  that  the  propor- 
tion of  cases  of  sicknss  and  of  deaths  resultinK 
therefrom  is  less  than  in  most  well-organiied 
communities  at  home,  owing  doubtless  to  the 
fact  that  in  the  army  the  orders  of  the  medical 
sCafF  are  compulsory. 

CAMP  FIRE  CLUB  OP  AMERICA,  a 
social  oi^nixation  with  headquarters  in  New 


interests  of  higher  sport,  to  the  protection  of 
wild  animals,  birds  and  nsh,  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  forests.  Formulated  bj;  the  well-known 
naturalist,  Dr.  WilUiim  T.  Homaday,  its  code 
of  ethics  forbids  "the  killing  of  all  female 
hoofed  animals,  the  sale  of  wild  game  for  food, 
diKlares  a  good  photograph  of  a  large  wild  ani- 
mal in  its  haunts  entitled  to  grearer  credit  than 
the  dead  trophy  of  the  animal,  and  counsels  the 
greatest  conservatism  in  the  killing  of  all  kinds 
of  gime,  and  strict  observance  of  all  legislation 
calculated  to  protect  and  increase  the  supply  of 
game.*  Membership  now  numbering  nearly  500 
and  including  welt-known  American  sportsmen, 
writers  on  outdoor  life,  painters  and  sculptors 
of  animal  and  bird  life,  is  limited  to  "those  who 
have  camped  in  the  wildemess  a  total  of  30 
days  or  more,  and  who  have  successfully  hunted 
and  killed  at  least  two  specimens  of  big  game.* 
The  club  has  energetically  initiated  and  su^ 
ported  legislative  action  in  the  interests  of  its 
purposes,  notably  the  Homaday  clause  in  the 
1913  tariff  law  'prohibiting  the  importation  in 
the  United  States  of  wild  birds'  plumage  for 
millinery  purposes." 

CAMP  FIRE  GIRLS,  an  organization  dc 
signed  to  assist  in  the  develcwient  and  dis- 
semination of  the  home  siurit,  differing  ii     ' ' 


Powell's  ori^nal  "Boy  Scouts"  of  En^and,  and 
50  is  primanly  military  and  patriotic.  The  dis- 
tinction becomes  clearer  if  we  recall  the 
founder's    words :    "Here    is 


-  --,  „  „  rls  and  mothers  to  discover  that 
there  are  more  interesting;  and  happy  things  to 
do  and  relationships  to  enjoy  in  connection  with 
everyday  life  than  are  to  be  found  in  the  com- 
mercials supplied  amusements.*  Its  president 
is  Dr.  Ludier  Halsey  Gulick;  the  org^ization 
dates  from  1911;  the  membership  in  1916  was 
given  as  73,000. 

CAMP  HOSPITALS.  See  Hospitals. 
Military. 

CAMP-MEETINGS,  gatherings  for  re- 
ligious purposes,  held  usually  in  thinly  popu- 
lated districts^  and  continued  for  several  days 
/itli  ihc  view  of  securing  prolonged 


the   United   States   that   such   meetings 

became  especially  prominent  The  introduction 
of  the  protracted  camn-mcetings  into  England 
in  1799  by  Lorenzo  Dow  led  to  the  separation 
of  the  Primitive  Methodists  from  the  Wesley- 
ans.     See  Chautauqua. 

CAMP  SCHOOLS,  Bnmmer  camps  for 
girls  and  boys  affording  oppontmities  for  phyM- 
ca!  training  and  educational  advanta^s.  In 
some  of  the  camps,  regular  instruction  is  given 
in  school  subjects  mainly  to  assist  students 
who  have  failed  of  promotion  in  school  or  ndio 
wish  to  prepare  for  entrance  examinations,  tn 
other  camps,  there  is  no  formal  stu^  of  school 
subjects,  but  instruction  is  provided  in  nature 
study,  camp  craft,  manual  training,  photograph}' 
music,  besides  the  usual  activities  in  land  and 
water  sports.     In  addition  to  this,  ibt  camps 

Dgil  zed  =,  Google 


CAHPA  — CAHPAN 


873 


and  self-reliance.      Some  of   these  instilutions 
are  conducted  by  private  individuals,  and  others 
by  philanthropic  associations.     The  bej^ — '"~ 
(fates  back  to  about   1885.     Consult  Fiiw 
J.,    *  Fielden    Demonstration  _  School 


Findlay,   f 
il  'Record' 


I,  pp.  65^109) ;  Sandys,  E.  W..  'Camps  and 
Camping*  (in  Outing,  Vol.  30,  p.  373);  Seton. 
E  T.,  'The  Birch-Bark  Roll  of  the  Wood- 
craft Indians' ;  Shield,  G.  O.,  'Camping  and 
Camp  Outfits'  (Chicago  and  New  York)  ; 
Talbot,   W.   T.,    'Summer  Camping  for  B6ys' 

(American    Physical   Education    Reviev),    Vol. 
V,  pp.  30-33). 
CAHPA.    See  Antl 

CAHPAGNA,  kam-pan'ya,  GiroUmo 
(called  DE  Vekgna),  Italian  sculptor:  b.  Verona 
1552 ;  d.  about  1623.  He  was  a  pupil  and  assist- 
ant of  Cataneo,  many  of  whose  works  he  com- 
pleted. His  earliest  known  work  b  a  statue 
of  the  Doge  Leonardo  Lovedan  in  S5.  Giovanni 
e  Paolo,  Venice.  Among  his  own  works  are  the 
bronze  group  for  the  high  altar  of  San  Giorgio ; 
a  Madonna  and  child  in  San  Salvatore;  the 
Saint  Anthony  in  San  Giacomo  de  Rialto,  con- 
sidered his  masterpiece,  and  the  altar  in  the 
Santi  Giovanni  e  Paolo  (all  at  Venice).  Padua, 
Verona  and  Urbino  also  possess  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  his  art.  His  technical  ability  was  of  a 
high  order  and  his  treatment  of  decorative 
effects  was  highly  successful.  However,  he  was 
fettered  by  the  mannerisms  of  his  age. 

CAMPAGNA  DI  ROMA,  Italy,  a  terri- 
tory which  comprehends  the  greater  part  of  Old 
Latium,  from  30  to  40  miles  wide  and  100  lon^. 
By  it  IS  usually  understood  the  desert  [dain 
which  begins  near  Ronciglione  or  Viterbo,  and 
including  the  Pontine  Marshes,  extends  to  Ter- 
radna.  In  the  middle  of  this  region  lies  Rome, 
on  its  seven  hills,  and  on  the  Tiber  A  sandy 
plain  stretches  along  the  Mediterranean.  The 
ground  is  never  more  than  200  feet  above  sea- 
level  and  is  entirely  volcanic.  The  lakes  of 
the  Campagna  are  evidently  craters  of  extinct 
volcanoes.  Thus  the  Lake  Regnllus  above 
Frascati  lies  at  the  bottom  of  an  inverted  cone 
of  hard,  black  lava,  rising  in  wild  and  naked 
masses  from  40  to  60  feet  higL  The  craters 
contuning  the  lakes  of  Albano  and  Nemi  have 
a  very  regular  conical  form.  The  I.ake  of 
Albano  is  also  remarkable  for  its  aqueduct,  or 
rmitsarium,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  eat- 
cellent  worles  of  the  Romans,  which  discharges 
the  waters  of  the  lake  through  the  mountains. 
It  answers  its  original  purpose  even  at  the 
present  d^.  There  are,  also,  many  sulphur 
spring  here,  particularly  between  Rome  and 
Tivoli,  where  the  water  issues  almost  boiling 
from  the  earth,  and  forms  the  Lake  of  Solfa- 
tara,  which  contains  floating  islands,  consisting 
of  a  calcareous  deposit,  that  collects  round 
substances  thrown  into  the  water.  The  vapors 
which  rise  from  the  gt;ound  all  over  the  (Sm- 
pagna,  and  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of 
this  lake,  render  the  whole  district  unhealthy. 
The  soil  of  the  Campagna  is  in  genera!  dry,  but 
very  fertile  in  the  lower  parts.  In  the  middle  of 
the  summer,  when  fevers  render  a  residence  in 
the  Campagna  very  dangerous,  all  the  inhabit- 
ants who  can  do  so  take  refuge  in  the  neigh- 
boring towns  or  in  Rome  itself;  or  Aey  may 

VOL.   5  — IS 


retire  with  thdr  cattle  to  the  mountains.  Be- 
sides huts,  innumerable  ruins  of  temples,  dr- 
cuses  and  monuments  are  scattered  over  the 
Campagna,  particularly  near  the  Via  At^ia; 
and  long  rows  of  aqueducts,  some  in  ruins, 
some  in  a  state  of  preservation,  are  overgrown 
with  ivy  and  other  plants.  In  me  winter  flocks 
of  sheep  pasture  in  these  solitudes;  during  the 
summer  they  are  driven  up  the  Apennines. 
Herds  of  half-wild  cattle  remain  during  the 
whole  year  in  the  Campagna.  The  herdsmen  are 
mountecL  and  armed  with  long  lance  s^  with 
which  they  manage  the  cattle  very  skilfulty. 
Scarcely  a  ninth  part  of  the  Campagna  is  culti- 
vated, the  rest  is  used  for  pasturage.  In  the 
times  of  the  andent  Romans,  this  dreary  soli- 
tude exhibited  a  smiling  picture  of  abundance 
and  fertility.  Yet  even  in  those  times  the  cli- 
mate was  far  from  being  a  healthy  one.  Strabo, 
Livy,  Gcero,  Horace  and  others  agree  in  de- 
scrilnng  the  districts  in  the  ndghborhood  of 
Rome,  Ardea  and  other  towns  v^ch  stood  in 
what  is  now  the  Campagna  di  Roma,  as  ex- 
tremely unwholesome,  especially  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year;  and  it  was  only  through  the 
greatest  exertions  on  the  part  of  the  ancient 
cultivators,  and  the  numerous  aids  to  cultivation 
that  stood  at  thdr  command,  that  this  tract, 
now  so  desolate,  was  then  made  so  productive. 
Several  of  the  popes,  particularly  Pius  VI, 
have  attempted  to  lessen  the  insalubrity  of  the 
air  by  the  draining  of  the  Pontine  Marshes 
which  form  the  southern  portion  of  the  tract. 
In  recent  years  the  Italian  government  has 
taken  up  the  problem,  and  has  accomplished 
much  in  the  way  of  reclamation  by  planting 
eucalyptus  trees,  and  by  drainage  and  other 
works,  thereby  increasing  the  bealthfulness  of 
this  historic  region. 

CAHPAGNOLA,       Domenico,       Italian 

K'nter  and  engraver:  ftourished  about  1520. 
was  probably  bom  at  Padua,  where  he  was 
a  rival  of  Titian  in  painting  the  frescoes  in  the 
Scuo^  del  (Ermine  and  in  the  Scuola  del  Santo. 
He  is  considered  one  of  the  best  painters  of  the 
Venetian  school,  and  his  work  as  an  engraver 
is  less  important.  Of  14  engravings  which  are 
known  to  belong  to  him,  10  are  dated  1517, 
and  one,  'The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,' 
bears  the  date  1518. 

CAHPAN,  kaA'pan,  Jeanne  Louise  Hen- 
riettc,  French  authoress  (Genest)  :  b.  Paris, 
6  Oct.  1752;  d.  Mantes  16  March  1822.  She  be- 
came reader  to  the  daughters  of  Louis  XV; 
gained  the  favor  of  the  wife  of  the  Dauphin, 
afterward  Queen  Marie  Antionctle,  who  gave 
her  in  marriage  to  the  son  of  her  private  secre- 
tary, M.  Campan,  and  appointed  her  the  first 
lady  of  the  bed-chamber.  Madame  Campan 
gave  her  patroness  many  proofs  of  fidelity  and 
attachment  and  wished  to  follow  her  into  the 
temple  after  10  Aug.  1792,  which,  how- 
ever, Pition  did  not  allow.  After  the  fall 
of  Robespierre,  Madame  Campan  established 
a  boarding  school  for  the  education  of  young 
ladies  at  Saint  Germain,  which  soon  acquired 
a  wide  reputation.  On  this  account  Napoleon 
appointed  her  the  principal  of  an  institution 
founded  by  him  for  the  daughters  of  the  officers 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  at  Ecouen,  which  she 
organized  and  superintended  for  seven  years. 
After  the  restoration  Louis  XVITI  abolished 
the  institution,  and  Madame  Campan  lost  fact 


:,  Google 


974 


CAHPAHA — CAMPANIA 


situation.  Her  only  son  died  in  1621,  in  cotv' 
sequcDce  of  ill  treatment  inflicted  because  he 
was  a  relation  of  Marshal  Ney.  She  published 
^U^oires  sur  la  vie  priv£e  de  Marie  An- 
toinette' (1823);  'Journal  anecdotique'  (1824); 
<  Co  rrespon  dance  inedite  avec  la  reine  Ho  (tense ' 

S1835) :  'De  l'6ducation.>  Ginsult  Flamermont, 
ules,  'Les  mfmoires  de  Madame  de  Campan' 
(Paris  1886). 

CAMPANA,  kam-pa'na,  Pedro  (in  the 
Netherlands  known  as  PETitR  de  Kekpeneek), 
Flemish  painter  of  Spanish  descent:  b.  Brussels 
1503 ;  d.  there  1580.  In  1530  he  went  to  Italy 
for  study  of  the  Italian  masters;  he  visited 
Venice  under  the  patronage  of  Cardinal 
Grimiani,  for  whom  he  painted  several  pictures. 
At  Bologna  he  painted  some  of  the  decorations 
of  the  triumphal  arch  for  the  reception  of 
Charles  V;  he  later  lived  in  Seville,  Cordova 
and  other  cities  of  Andalusia  and  in  1S62  re- 
turned to  Brussels  where  he  became  chief 
engineer  of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  in  1563  tw' 
came  art  director  and  maker  of 


on  a  charge  of  conspira^  against  the  Spanish 
government,  to  which  Naples  was  then  subject 
A  scheme  was  imputed  to  him  of  having  en- 
gaged the  Turks  to  assist  him  in  making  him- 
self master  of  Calabria.  On  this  improbable 
and  apparttiUy  unfounded  accusation  he  was 
imprisoned,  and  after  being  repeatedly  tortured, 
condemned  to  perpetual  confTnement.  In  this 
situation  he  wrote  many  learned  works,  after- 
ward published.  At  length,  in  1626,  Pope 
Urban  VIII  procured  his  removal  to  Rome, 
and  in  1629  gave  him  his  liberty,  and  bestowed 
on  him  a  pension.  Dreading  some  further  per- 
secution from  the  Spaniarot,  he  withdrew  in 
1634  to  France,  where  he  was  honorably  re- 
ceived bv  Louis  XIII  and  Richelieu,  and  much 
esteemed  by  the  learned  men  of  that  country. 
He  died  at  the  monastery  of  his  order.  Cam- 
panella  was  a  firm  believer  in  astrology  and 
magic.  Among  his  numerous  works  may  be 
mentioned  'Atheismus  Triumphatus'  (1631); 
'Monarchia  Messise'  (1633);  'Prodromus 
Philosophic  Instaurands'    (1617);    'De   Sensu 


school  of  Raphael  and  the  Flemish  painters. 
His  best-known  work  is  in  the  cathedral  at 
Seville,  the  'Descent  from  the  Cross.'  Hii 
'Purification'  and  'Resurrection'  are  also  in 
the  Seville  Cathedral;  other  paintings  of  his 
are  in  the  same  city  and  he  also  painted  the 
altar-piece  of  the  church  of  Santa  Anna  in 
Triana,  a  suburb  of  Seville.  The  National 
Gallery,  London,  contains  his  'Christ  Preaching 
in  the  Temple.' 

CAHPANARI,  Gitueppe,  Italian  operatic 
baritone:  b.  Venice  1859.  Both  as  orchestral 
'cellist  and  concert  singer,  a  member  of  the 
Boston  Symphony  Orchestra  1884-93,  he  be- 
came known  to  cultured  musical  circtes,  and 
attained  national  reputation  by  his  appearance 
as  Tonio  in  the  first  American  production  of 
'Pa^iaccL'  He  was  a  member  of  the  Met- 
ropolitan Opera  Company  1895-98.  later  con- 
fining himself  to  concert  work  witn  occasional 
appearances  in  opera.  His  musical  career  be- 
gan as  a  'cellist  at  La  Scala  Opera  House,  Milan, 
where  he  also  studied  singing. 

CAMPANBLLA,  kam-pan-flla,  Tom< 
maso,  Italian  philosopher:  b.  Stilo,  Calabria, 
5  Sept.  1568;  d.  Paris  1639.  He  displayed  great 
quickness  of  parts  when  quite  yoimg,  and  at  the 
age  of  15  entered  into  the  order  of  the. 
Dominicans.  He  studied  theology  and  other 
branches  of  knowledge  with  assiduity  but  was 
principally  attracted  by  philosophy.     The  opin- 


.  ind  the  love  which  inclines  it 
will  its  good.  He  held  a  political  theory  based 
on  self-love  and  individual  liberty  This  book 
procured  him  some  admirers,  and  more  enemies. 
He  then  went  to  Rome,  and  afterward  to 
Florence,  where  he  was  well  received  by  the 
Grand  Duke  Ferdinand.  In  1598  he  returned 
to  Naples,  and  revisited  shortly  after  CalabriiL 
whcr^  in  the  following  year,  he  was  arrested 


epilogisticae  partes  quattuor,  hoc  est  de  r 
natura,  hominum  moribus,  politica,  cui  Avitas 
solis  adiuncta  est,  et  CEconomica'  (1622).  A 
'Life  of  Campanella,'  by  Baldacchini,  was 
published  at  Naples  (184<M3). 

CAMPANKRO.    See  Bell-bird. 

CAMPANI-ALIMBNIS,    kam-pa'ne    a-le- 
ma'nls,  llatteo,   Italian  mechanician :   &.    17th 


through  which  Cassini  discovered  two  satellites 
of  Saturn.  He  wrote  'Horologium  solo  naturse 
motu*  (1678),  a  work  on  the  construction  of 
clocks. 

CAHPANIA,  Italy,  an  ancient  province  of 
the  Roman  cepublic  and  empire,  and  a  depart- 
ment of  the  modern  kingdom  of  ItaW,  lying 
along  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  and  bounded  on  the 
land  side  by  Latium,  Samnium  and  Lucania, 
which,  part&  on  account  of  its  natural  curi- 
osities, including  Vesuvius,  the  Phlegrxan  fields, 
the  Lake  of  Avemus,  and.  partly  for  its  re- 
markable fertility,  was  a  favorite  resort  of  the 
distinguished  Romans,  who  built  there  mag- 
nificent country  houses.  Cumx,  Puteoli,  Naples, 
Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  Baiz,  Stabia^^  Sale  mum, 
Nola,  Teanum,  Vena  f  rum  and  Capua,  the 
principal  cities  of  Campania,  are  names  nch  in 
classical  associations.  The  Appian  and  Latin 
ways  led  into  the  interior  of  this  charming  prov- 
ince. The  early  inhabitants  were  of  the  Oscan 
race,  who  were  disjilaced  by  the  Greeks;  ihe 
latter  founding  the  cities  of  Cumx  and  Neapolis. 
The  Etruscans  later  obtained  possession  of  it, 
but  the  Oscan  clement  was  still  considerable 
and  so  remained  untU  the  country  was  entirely 
Romanized  about  90  b.c.  Cicero  had  a  villa  at 
Pompeii  and  under  Augustus,  Campania  and 
Latium  formed  the  first  district  of  Italy.  The 
vineyards  of  Mons  Massicua  and  Ager  Falemus 
were  famous  at  an  early  period,  as  also  the 
olives  of  Venafrum.  Even  now  (Campania  b 
the  most  beautiful  and  fruitful  part  of  Italy, 
and  no  traveler  can  wish  for  a  more  delightful 
country  than  the  fields  of  Campania,  filled  in 
the  month  of  April  with  barley  four  feet  higi, 
and  adorned  with  lofty  poplars,  which  are 
connected     by    luxuriant    vines,     forming    a 


=,Googlc 


CAMPAMILE — C  AHFAKHl 


tns 


canopy  over  the  fields.  *Tfaere,'>  says  Goethe, 
*i[  is  worth  while  to  till  the  ground?  The 
modeni  department  of  Campania  includes  the 
provinces  of  Ave  1  Una,  Beneveoto,  Caseria, 
Napoli  and  Salerno,  covering  an  area  of  6,227 
iquare  miles.    Pop.  (1  Jan.  1915)  3,426,754. 

CAMPANILE,  kam-pane'U,  a  detached 
tower  containing  bells.  Campaniles  are  most 
common  in  Italy.  Several  of  them  have  devi- 
ated considerably  from  the  perpendicular,  in 
consequence  of  their  great  height  and  narrow- 
ness of  base.  The  earliest  examples  date  from 
ihe  5th  century  and  are  circular  in  form,  the 
most  notable  examples  being  those  of  the  basilicas 
of  Saint  Apollinare  Nuovo  and  Saint  Appotlinare 
in  Classe  at  Ravenna.  After  the  8th  century 
the  square  design  prevailed.  Brick  was  always 
used  m  Rome,  while  marbie  or  stone  entered 
mto  their  composition  in  northern  Italy.  The 
campanile  of  Pisa,  called  Torre  Pendente  (or 
Leaning  Tower),  is  one  of  the  most  remari- 
able.  Its  architects  were  Bonano  of  Pisa,  and 
Witlhelm  of  Innsbruck,  and  it  was  begun  in 
1174,  The  tower  consists  of  eight  stories,  each  of 
which  is  surrounded  by  columns,  and  it  inclines 
nearly  13  feet  from  the  perpendicular.  Another 
celebrated  campanile  is  that  which  was  begun 
at  Florence  in  1334,  after  the  designs  of  Gotto, 


bas-reliefs,  and  16  statues,  representing  biblical, 
pagan  and  allegorical  subjects.  Giotto  intended 
10  surmount  this  tower  with  a  siure  nearly  100 
feel  high,  but  his  intention  was  never  carried 
out.  The  Torre  degli  AsinolH  and  the  Torre 
Gari  sends  at  Bologna  are  also  remarkable 
^lecimens  of  the  campanile.  The  campanile  of 
Saint  Mark's  Church,  Venice,  is  probably  the 
best  known  to  Americans.  Begun  as  far  back 
as  8S8  by  Pietro  Tribuno,  it  did  not  assume  the 
form  which  tourists  are  familiar  with  until 
ISW.  For  centuries  its  majestic  height  domi- 
nated the  city.  Its  pinnacle  was  about  325  feet 
irom  the  ground. 

In  1417  a  marble  top  was  pnt  on  the  old 
tower.  One  hundred  years  later  it  was  crowned 
with  the  figure  of  an  angel  near^  16  feet  hig^ 
Simple  in  design,  the  campanile  stood  out  in 
sharp  contrast  with  the  famons  belfry  of  Flor- 

The  Loggetta  at  the  foot  of  the  campanile 
was  built  by  the  famous  Tacopo  Sansovino^  and. 
was  the  rendezvous  for.  the  nobles  of  the  town. 
Sansovino  adorned  it  with  reliefs  and  with 
bronze  statues  of  Minerva,  Apollo,  Uercnry  and 
Peace.  The  bronce  doors  of  the  vestibule  have 
long  been  regarded  as  masteniieces  that  de- 
serve to  rank  by  the  side  of  the  woi^  of  the 
Rreat  Italian  sculptors.  Like  many  another 
Italian  structure,  the  Loggetta  lost  much  of  its 
old-time  significance.  From  a  meetin^place  for 
the  nobles  it  degenerated  into  a  wattrng-room 
for  commanders  of  the  guards  during  the  ses- 
sions of  the  great  councif  Latterly  it  was  uncd 
for  auctions  and  lottery  drawings. 

The  tower  was  peculiar  in  that  it  had  no 
staircase.  It  was  ascended  by  a  winding  in- 
clined plane,  having  38  bends  and  ending  in  a 
few  steps.  The  tower  was  always  open;  but 
visitors  were  not  allowed  to  enter  alone.  F<w 
that  reason  a  single  traveler  was  compelled  to. 
engage  a  bystander  to  accompany  him. 

Proin   tune  immemorial   a  watchman   was. 


stationed  in  the  lantern.  In  the  days  of  the 
grand  maritime  Vettetian  repuUic  it  was  from 
the  tower  that  the  watchman  cau^t  the  first 
glimpse  of  home-coming  war  vessels.  In  mod- 
ern times  the  watchman  no  longer  scanned  the 
horitoa  for  vessels,  but  kept  a  lookout  upon  the 
city  for  fires. 

The  campanile  served  other  purposes  as 
well.  It  was  also  used  for  the  purpose  which  its 
name  signifies.  According  to  some  authorities, 
four  bells  were  hung  in  the  olden  days  in  the 
tower,  to  be  sonnded  for  difierent  purposes, 
La  marangola  was  sounded  at  dawn  to  call  the 
l^ioring  daises;  la  ttstametaona  opened  the 
official  Dureaus;  la  trotterar  called  the  councils 
to  duty;  and  the  bell  del  mal*fitw  tolled  out  the 
requiem  for  those  who  were  out  to  death.  A 
fifth  bell  was  later  brought  from  Candia  and 
tolled  only  on  Ascension  D^.  In  1518  there 
hung  halfway  up  the  tower  a  wooden  cage,  in 
which  prisoners  were  kept  until  they  were 
starved  to  death.  Scientifically,  the  tower  was 
of  interest  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  from  it 
Galileo  made  many  observalions.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  14<  July  191^  the  campanile  collapsed  and 
fell  with  a  great  crash  into  the  souare.  The 
church  of  Saint  Mark  and  the  palace  of  the 
Doges  were  not  damaged,  but  the  campanile  in 
fail! ■--'•    ■"--    •" * ' 


ig  carried  away  the  Sansovino  Lo^etta 
and  me  library  of  the  Ro/al  Palace.  Steps 
were  taken  at  once  to  rebuild  and  the  coraer- 
stone  of  the  new  edifice  was  laid  on  24  April 
1903.  A  strengthened  pile  foundation  was  put 
in  place  and  the  campanile  re-erected  in  the 
form  it  had  presented  since  being  remodeled  in 
1517,  A  study  of  the  data  provided  by  the  ex- 
amination of  the  remains  of  the  fallen  tower 
showed  that  (he  bricks  had  been  used  for 
various  purposes  at  a  previous  stage,  in  arches, 
fortifications,  tops  of  walls,  etc.  The  most 
important  fact  was  that  they  were  not  Venetian, 
but  Roman  bricks.  Moreover,  when  they  were 
manufactured,  they  were  not  manipulated  like 
modern  bricks,  but  formed  from  slices  of  clay, 
as  they  were  found  without  the  natural  layers 
being_  disturbed.  This  process  resulted  in  each 
individual  brick  being  able  to  support  a  wci^t 
quite  four  limes  as  great  as  the  modem  brick. 
The  bricks  examined  are  of  the  1st  century. 
One  bore  the  impression  of  a  horseshoe,  prov- 
ing the  debated  point  that  horseshoes  were  then 
in  use.  In  the  Renaissance  period  a  few  cam- 
panili  of  note  were  erected;  the  finest  is  that 
of  San  Giorgio  Maggiore  by  Palladio  and  Sca- 
mozzi  in  Venetia.  It  is  of  brick  with  a  marble 
superstructure  and  has  a  spire.  Modern  ex- 
amples of  this  kind  of  construction  are  the 
campanile  of  the  Capital  at  Rome,  the  Victoria 
Tower  by  Barry  at  the  Houses  of  Parliament, 
Westminster,  the  great  tower  of  the  Basiliquc 
du  Sacri  Cceur,  Montmartre,  Paris,  and  the 
memorial  tower  in  the  Brown  University 
campus  at  Providence,  R.  I. 

CAMPANINI,  kam-pa-ne'ne,  ttaXo,  Italian 
singer:  b.  Parroa,  29  June  1846;  d.  Vigatto,  23 
Nov.  1896,  His  father  was  a  blacksmith.  At 
14  the  boy  enlisted  in  Garibaldi's  army  and 
served  in  two  campaigns,  after  which  he  worked 
at  his  father's  trade  until  the  age  of  18.  Mean- 
while, having  shown  that  he  possessed  an  ex- 
cellent voice,  he  had  taken  singing  lessons,  and 
after  spending  a  year  at  the  Conservatory  in 
Parma,  be/appeared  in  that  dty  as  the  notary 


.Google 


are 


CAMPANULA— CAHPBKU. 


in  'La  Sonnambula,'  but  suffered  failure  and 
ridicule.  He  still  continued  to  sing  in  public, 
and  in  1869  began  to  study  under  Lamperti,  a 
celebrated  teacher  of  Milan.  In  that  city,  at  La 
Scats,  he  sang  in  'Faust,'  and  immediately  was 
acclaimed  a  great  tenor.  He  appeared  in  Lon- 
don in  1872,  and  in  the  following  year  made  his 
first  visit  to  the  United  States,  appearing  with 
Nilsson  at  the  Academy  of  Music,  New  York, 
in  'Lucrezia  Borgia.'  Afterward,  in  this  coun- 
try and  Europe,  he  sang  with  great  success,  and 
was  regardea  as  the  foremost  tenor  of  his  time. 
The  partial  failure  of  his  voice,  mainly  throuf^ 
an  affection  of  the  throat,  caused  some  intemi^ 
tion  of  his  career  but  scarcely  diminished  his 
popularity  until  near  the  close  of  his  life. 

CAMPANULA,  BELL  FLOWER,  or 
BSLLWORT,  a  genus  of  annual,  biennial 
and  perennial  herbs  of  the  family  Cam' 
paniilacett.  The  species,  of  which  there  are 
about  Xfi,  are  almost  all  natives  of  the  cooler 
parts  of  the  northern  temperate  zone,  and 
among  them  are  some  of  the  most  widely  grown 
garden  plants,  which  are  popular  on  account  of 
uieir  bell-shaped  blue,  violet  or  white  flowers, 
and  the  ease  with  which  they  are  cultivated. 
C.  rapuncvtus,  native  of  Europe,  Asia  and 
northern  Africa,  is  known  as  rampion ;  the 
leaves  and  the  radish-like  roots  are  used  for 
salads.  C.  medium,  a  European  species,  is  the 
common  Canterbury  bells.  C.  rolundifolia, 
which  occurs  in  Europe,  Asia  and  North  Ajner- 
ics,  is  the  harebell  or  blue  bells  of  Scotland,  so 
frequently  mentioned  in  literature.  Several 
species  are  natives  of  North  America. 

CAMPANULACE£,  a  family  of  herba- 
ceous and  shrubby  plants,  generally  abounding 
in  a  bitter,  white  juice.  Their  leaves  are  alter- 
nate and  entire  or  toothed,  rarely  opposite. 
Tlieir  flowers  usually  form  spikes,  thyrsi  or 
heads.  They  have  a  monosepaious  calyx,  with 
four,  five  or  ei^t  persistent  divisions,  and  a 
regular,  monopetalous,  usually  bell-«haped  co- 
roTla,  having  its  limb  divided  into  as  many  lobes 
as  there  are  divisions  of  the  calyx.  The 
stamens  are  five,  the  anthers  free,  or  brought 
together  in  the  form  of  a  tube.  The  ovary  is 
interior  or  semi-inferior,  with  two  or  more 
cells,  each  containing  numerous  seeds.  The 
style  is  simple,  terminated  by  a  lobed  stigma, 
sometimes  surrounded  by  hairs.  The  fruit  is  % 
capsule  crowned  by  the  limb  of  the  calyx,  with 
two  or  more  cells  opening  either  by  means  of 
holes  which  are  formed  near  the  upper  part, 
or  by  incomplete  valves.  The  seeds  are  very 
small  and  very  numerous.  These  plants  are 
chiefly  natives  of  the  temperate  and  colder 
climates  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 

CAMPANULARIANS,  or  SBRTULA- 
RIANS,  hydroids  of  the  order  Calyptoblastea, 
formerly  called  Campanulanx.  They  are  al- 
ways colonial  and  possess  hydrOthecK,  and  in 
most  cases  give  rise  to  a  medusa,  with  auditory 
organs  on  the  flaps.  The  ectoderm  is  protected 
by  a  homy  or  cnitinous  sheath  (perisarc)  en- 
veloping the  zooids.  The  hydroids  retract, 
when  disturbed,  into  small  cups  (hydrothecx^, 
arnnged  in  opposite  rows  on  the  stalk  as  in 
Sertutaria,  or  singly  at  the  ends  of  the  s'talks, 
as  in  Campatutlana,  while  the  sheaths  (gonothe- 
cae>  protecting  the  medusa-buds  are  distin- 
guished by  their  much  larger  size  and  cup- 
shaped  form.    The  Sertularians  abound  tm  sea- 


weeds, and  may  be  recognized  from  their  resem- 
blance to  mosses.  The  meduste  of  these  and 
many  other  hydroids  can  be  collected  by  a  tow- 
ing-net,  and  emptied  into  a  jar,  where  they  can 


siz.  A.,  'North  American  Acalephat'  (iTlu 
trated  Catalogue  of  the  Museum  of  Com^ia- 
tive  Zoology  at  Harvard  College,  No.  2,  Caro- 
bridec  laeS)  :  Agassiz,  E.  C,  and  A.,  'Seaside 
Studies  in  Natural  History'  (Boston  1871); 
Nutting,  'American  Hydroids'  {'Special  Bul- 
letin of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum':  Wash- 
ington 1900),  contains  a  full  bibliography. 

CAHPARDON,  kan-pir-don,  Emile. 
French  writer:  b,  Paris  1834.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Ecole  des  Chartes,  and  then  had  charge 
of  the  archives  there.  In  this  position  he  had 
opportunity  to  examine  Che  documents  relating 
to  the  18th  centurv  and  the  period  of  the  French 
Revolution.  He  nas  written  among  other  his- 
torical works  'Hbton  of  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal  of  Paris'    (1861);   'Marie  Antoinette 


'Unpublished  Documents  of  J.  B.  Poquelin 
Moliire' ;  'Voltaire,  Unpublished  Documents'; 
'The  Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  the  18th  Cen- 
tury'; and  'Memoirs  of  Frederic  UI,  King  of 
Prussia'  (with  E.  Boutaric). 

CAMPBELL,  Alexander,  known  as  the 
founder  of  the  Disdples  of  Christ  or  *Camp- 
bellites* :  b.  Ballymeda,  Antrim  County,  Ire- 
land, 12  Sept.  1788:  d  Bethany,  Va.,  4  March 
1866.  His  mothers  ancestors  were  French 
Huguenots.  His  father,  Thomas  Campbell,  a 
clergyman  and  teacher  in  the  Church  of  the 
Covenanters  and  Seceders,  in  April  1807  sailed 
from  Londonderry  to  Philadelphia  and  located 
at  Washington,  Pa.  (one  year  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  Washin^on  CoUef^e).  Young 
Alexander  embarked  with  the  remainder  of  the 
family  in  October  1806,  but  was  delayed  by 
shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Scotland  whidi  ^ve 


under  the  direction  of  his  father,  he  prepared 
for  the  ministry. 

In  March  1811,  at  West  Liberty.  Va.,  he 
married  Miss  Margaret  Brown  of  Buffalo 
Creek,  Brooke  County,  Va.,  and  thereafter  re- 
sided at  the  home  of  his  father-in-law,  from 
whom  he  later  (1814)  recdved  a  deed  for  the 
home  property.  Immediately  following  his 
marriage  he  took  steps  to  become  naturalized. 
In  the  same  jrear  he  was  licensed  to  preach, 
and  began  near  home  a  series  of  preaching 
tonrs.  In  1812,  after  following  his  father  in  a 
movement  to  reunite  different  religious  denomi- 
nations, he  took  the  lead  in  organizing  the 
Disdples  of  Christ  (q.v.),  based  on  the  doc- 
trine that  the  Bible  should  be  the  only  creed. 
Through  his  preaching  tours,  which  in  later 
years  were  gradually  extended  throughout  the 
South  and  Middle  West  and  eastward  to  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay,  he  became  widely  known.  He 
also  won  a  wide  r^atation  through  Ua  pub- 


.Google 


CAHPBBLL 


Be  debates  witb  prominent  Presbyterian  tnm* 
isters  in  1820-23,  and  later  througli  more  fa- 
mous debates  with  Robert  Owen  in  1829  and 
Archbishop  Purcell  in  1837.  In  1818-19  he  es- 
tablished Buffalo  Seminary  and  sent  for  his 
falber  to  assist  in  the  work  of  instruction;  and 
in  1823  he  established  the  Christian  Baptist, 
which  in  1829  became  the  Millennial  tiar- 
binofr  and  continued  under  his  editorship  until 
1865.  In  1S27,  finding  it  inconvenient  to  mail 
his  letters  and  publications  at  West  Liberty,  be 
succeeded  in  establishing  at  his  residence  at 
Buffalo  a  post-office  under  the  name  of  Bethany, 
which  also  became  the  name  of  the  town  later 
laid  out  Iv  him  (1847).  He  thus  obtained  tbe 
franking  privilege  which  enabled  him  greatly 
to  extend  his  correspondence.  In  1829-30  he 
represented  Brooke  County  in  the  Virginia  Con- 
(litutional  Convention.  In  the  debates  he  toolc 
an  active  ^art  in  urging  a  system  of  free  popu- 
lar education  and  a  more  equitable  representa- 
tion of  the  western  counties  in  the  legislature. 
In  1840  beginning  witli  an  endowment  from  his 
own  means,  he  founded  Bethany  College,  which 
was  opened  in  1841,  and  he  remained  president 
of  the  institution  until  his  death.  In  1847  he 
visited  England,  France,  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
In  18S0  by  invitation,  in  connection  with  one  of 
his  eastern  trips,  he  made  an  address  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  at  Washington. 

Campbell  was  a  prolific  writer  and  continued 
to  write  and  preacn  until  1865.  He  published 
many  religious  volumes,  including  hjronbooks 
and  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament.  In 
1861  he  published  the  'Memoirs  of  Thomas 
Campbell,'  his  father  and  associate,  who  died 
at  Bethany  on  4  Jan.  1854. 

CAMPBELL,  Aleauuider,  American  poli- 
tician :  b.  Concord,  Pa.,  4  Oct  1814 ;  d.  La  ailfc 
111.,  9  Aug.  1898.  He  received  a  common-school 
education   and  entered  the  iron  business,   re- 


CAHPBXLL,  BartleT,   American  drama- 
'.  Allegfacny  q^,  Pa.,J2  Auk.  1843;  d. 


-I  18^,  a  member  of  the  Illinois  legislature  — 
1858  and  a  member  of  Congress  in  1875.  He 
was  widely  known  as  the  'father  of  the  Green- 
back party.' 

CAHPBBLL,  Sir  Atexmnder,  Canadian 
statesman :  b.  Yorkshire,  England,  9  March 
1822 1  d.  Toronto,  24  May  1892.  He  be^an  the 
practice  of  law  in  1843  as  a  partner  of  Sir  John 
A.  Macdonald.  In  1858  he  entered  the  legis- 
lative council,  and  in  1863  was  elected  speaker. 
In  1864-67  he  was  commissioner  of  Crown 
lands.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Confederation 
conferences  in  1864,  received  a  nomination  to 
the  Dominion  Senate  (1867),  where  he  was  the 
government  leader,  and  was  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral in  the  first  Federal  Cabinet.  In  1873  he 
became  Minister  of  the  Interior.  With  the 
other  Cabinet  officers,  be  resigned  in  the  same 
year  on  account  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  scandal. 
On  the  return  of  Macdonald  to  power^  he  was 
successively  Receiver- General  ot  Militia  and 
Defense  and  Postmaster- General.  From 
1881-85  he  was  Minister  of  Justice,  and  from 
1887-92  lieutenant-governor  of  Ontario.  He 
represented  Canada  at  the  Colonial  Conference 
held  in  London  in  1887.  He  was  created  K.C. 
M.G.  in  1879. 


-    ^cny  (. 

Middletown,  N.  Y.,  30  July  1 

journalism   early   in   his   career   and   estab- 


lished the  Evening  Mail  in  PttUburgh  (1868) 
and  the  Sowthem  Magaeint  in  New  Orleans 
(1869).  His  first  drama  that  met  with  success 
in  New  York  was  'My  Partner,'  appearing  in 
1879.  "^Fairfax,  or  Life  in  the  Sunny  South,* 
and  'The  Galley  Slave,'  were  on  the  metropoli- 
tan boards  during  the  same  season.  Included 
in  his  plays  are  'Matrimony';  'The  White 
Slave';  'Siberia' ;  and  'Paquita.'  Several  of 
his  plays  were  brou^t  out  in  Ejigland.  He 
was  manager  of  the  FoBrteenth  Street  Theatre; 
New  York,  for  some  time.  He  became  insane 
in  1886  and  died  in  an  asylum. 

CAMPBELL,  Beatrice  Stella  Tanner  <  Mas 
Patwck  Campheu.),  English  actress:  b.  Lon- 
don 1867;  married  m  1884  to  Patrick  Campbell, 
who  was  killed  in  1900  in  the  Boer  War.  Her 
first  appearance  on  the  professional  stage  v 

1-    -■_     lOOD    _.    .!._     ai^ _J Ti. t JL    I 


■John -a- Dreams'  and  'The  Notorious  Mrs. 
Ebbsmitfa.'  She  has  also  appeared  in  such 
Shakespearean  roles  as  Juliet,  Ophelia  and 
Ladv  Macbeth  in  conjunction  with  Sir  Johnston 
ForSes-Roberlson ;  and  has  played  M£lisande 
to  the  Pelleas  of  Sarah  Bernhardt  She  has 
frequently  visited  tbe  United  States,  playing  in 
most  of  the  leading  cities.  She  married  in 
1914  George  Comwallis-West. 

CAMPBELL,  Sir  Colin,  English  soldier 
and  administrator:  b.  1776;  d.  1847.  He  was 
first  a  midshipman;  then  entered  the  army, 
fought  with  Wellesley  in  India,  1801-04,  and 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Assaye.  He  served 
also  in  Denmark  and  the  Peninsula,  and  was 
on  Wellin^on's  staff  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
He  was  lieutenant-^ vemor  of  Nova  Scotia, 
1834-40,  and  of  Ceylon,  1839^7. 

CAHPBBLL,  Sra  Colin  (Loas  CLtve.), 
British  general:  b.  Glasgow,  20  Oct.  1792;  d. 
14  Aug.  1863.  His  father  was  a  carpenter, 
named  Maclivcr.    He  vras  educated  at  the  ex- 


of  York's  when  the  youth  was  introduced  t 
him  as  a  candidate  for  a  commission,  assumed 
the  name  of  Campbell.  Entering  the  army  in  . 
1808,  and  serving  in  the  Peninsular  War  (1810- 
13),  he  was  severely  wounded  at  the  siege  of 
San  Sebastian  and  tne  passage  of  the  Bidassoa. 
He  served  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1814,  and  then 
passed  nearly  30  years  in  garrison  dutjr  at 
Gibraltar,  Barbadoes,  Demerara  and  various 
places  in  England,  in  1837  becoming  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  98th  Foot.  He  served  in  India 
previous  to  the  Crimean  War,  on  the  outbreak 
of  which,  in  1854,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  HigUand  brigade.  The  victory 
of  the  Alma  was  mainly  his;  and  his,  too,  the 
splendid  repulse  of  the  Russians  by  the  'thin 
red  line*  in  the  battle  of  Balaklava.  When,  on 
11  July  1857,  the  news  reached  England  of  the 
Sepoy  mutiny,  Lord  Palmerston  offered  him 
the  command  of  the  forces  in  India.  He 
effected  the  relief  of  Lucknow  on  19  March 
1858,  and  succeeded  in  quellinR  the  mutiny.  He 
was  created  Baron  Oyde  in  July  of  tbe  same 
)rear. 


d=v  Google 


.878 


CAMPBELL,  Colin,  Scottish  dm-eyinan 
and  Egyptologist :  b.  Campbelltovm,  Argylshire, 
1848.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
EdinbuFRh  and  Heidelberg,  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Established  Kirk  of  Sc:atland,.and  hu 
been  minister  of  the  parish  of  Dundee  from 


Castle  and  Cr»hie  Parish  ChurclL  and  hai 
published  'The  First  Three  Gospels  in  Gredt' ; 
'Critical  Studies  in  Saint  Luke's  Gospel* 
(1891);  'Two  Theban  Queens*  <1«»):  'Two 
Theban  Princes'  (1910) ;  'The  Miraculous 
Birth  of  King  Amon-hotep  III  and  Other 
Egyptian  Studies'    (1912). 

CAMPBELL,  Douglas  Houghton,  Ameri- 
can educator:  b.  Detroit,  Mich.,  16  Dec.  1859. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
pji  in  1882  (Ph.D.  in  1886),  and  then  studied 
in  Europe  for  four  years.  Returning  be  was 
professor  of  botany  in  the  University  of  In- 
diana till  1891,  when  he  was  called  to  the 
similar  chair  in  Stanford  University.  He  b 
suthor  of  'Elements  of  Structural  and  ^s- 
lematic  Botany'  (1890);  'Structure  and  De- 
velopment of  Mosses  and  Perns'  (1895)  ;  'Lec- 
tures on  the  Evolution  of  Plants'  (1899);  <A 
University  Textbook  of  Botany'  (1902)  ;  'Plant 
Life  and  Evolution'    (1911). 

CAMPBELL,  Edward  de  MlUe,  Ameri- 
can industrial  chemist :  b.  Detroit,  Mich.,  9 
Sept  1863.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Michigan,  and  after  serving  as  chemist  to  the 
Ohio  Iron  Company  in  1^,  to  the  Sharon 
Iron  Company,  Pennsylvania,  la  1887,  to  the 
Dayton  Coal  and  Iron  Company,  Tennessee,  in 
1888,  from  assistant  professor  in  1890  he  ad- 
vanced to  the  position  of  director  of  the 
chemical  laboratory  at  his  alnta  mater,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  in  1905. 

CAMPBELL,  GeorEc.  Scottish  clergyman: 
b.  Aberdeen,  25  Dec.  1719;  d.  6  April  1796.  He 
was  educated  at  Marischal  College,  and  after- 
ward articled  to  a  writer  of  the  signet  at  Edin- 
burgh. In  1741  he  relinquished  the  law  and 
studied  divinity  at  Aberdeen.  He  was  ordained 
in  1748,  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Aber- 
deen 1757,  where  he  was  a  fellow  member  of 
Thomas  Reid  in  a  philosophical  society,  and 
L   1759  was  appointed  principal   of   Marischal 


essay.  lit  1771  be  was  chosen  professor  of 
divini^,  and  in  1776  jjave  to  the  world  his 
'Philosophy  of  Rhetonc,'  which  established 
bis  reputation  as  a  grammarian  and  critic.  His 
'New  Translation  of  the  Gospels'  appeared  in 
1778.  (xinsult  the  biography  by  Keith  prefixed 
to  Campbell's  'Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory' (London  1800). 

CAMPBELL,  Sir  George,  English  ad- 
ministrator and  author:  b.  1824;  d.  London, 
18  Feb.  1892.  He  was  educated  at  Haileyfaury 
for  the  East  Indian  service  and  held  several 
important  posts  under  the  Indian  government. 
He  represented  the  Kirkcaldy  burghs  in  the 
House  of  Commons  in  the  Liberal  interest  from 
1875  until  his  death.  The  success  diat  had 
attended  him  as  an  administrator  in  India  did 
not  follow  him  as  a  politician.  He  pubhshed 
'India  as  It  May  Be';  'The  Ethnology  of 
India'  (1865);  'Handy  Book  of  the  Eastern 
Question'    (1876)  ;    'Black  and  White  in  the 


CAMPBELL,  Harry,  English  physician: 
b.  Margarettin^  Essex,  England.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Saint  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Col- 
lege and  was  appointed  to  the  staff  of  North- 
west London  Hospital,  1886,  and  that  of  Wel- 
beck  Street  Hospital,  1896.  He  has  published 
'The  Physiology  of  Eyesight'  (188S) ;  'The 
Causation  of  Disease'  (18^);  'Flushing  and 
Morbid  Blushing'  (1890);  'Differences  Si  the 
Nervous  Organization  of  Mao  and  Woman' 
(1891)  ;  'Headache  and  Other  Morbid  Cephalic 
Sensations'  (1894);  'Respiratory  Exercises  in 
the  Treatment  of  Disease'  (1898);  'On  Treat- 
ment'   (1907). 

CAMPBELL,  Helen  Stuart,  American 
author ;  b.  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  4  July  1839.  She 
was  educated  at  Mrs.  Crook's  Seminary,  Bloom- 
field,  N.  J.,  1850-54  and  very  early  began  con- 
tributing to  periodicals.  From  1881  to  1884 
she  edited  Our  CoHiinent  (Philadeli^ia).  Her 
especial  interest  has  been  in  social  and  domestic 

Suestions,  such  as  the  condition  of  the  poor, 
ousehold  rnanagement,  etc^  and  her  writings 
for  the  most  part  consist  of  essays  and  stories 
illustrating  these  topics.  Chief  among  them  are 
'The  Ainslee  Series'  (186+*7)  ■  'Six  Sinners' 
(1878) ;  'Unto  the  Third  and  Fourth  Genera- 
tion' (1880);  'Under  Green  Apple  Boughs' 
(1881)  ;  'The  Easiest  Way  in  Housekeeping  and 
Cooking'  (1881);  'The  Problem  of  the  Poor' 
(1882);  'Mrs.  Hemdon's  Income:  a  Novel' 
(1885);  'Prisoners  of  Poverty'  (1887);  'Pris- 
oners of  Poverty  Abroad'  (1889);  'Roger 
Berkeley's  Probation'  (1891) ;  'Anne  Brad- 
slreet  and  Her  Time'  (1892)  ;  'Women  Wage- 
Earners'  (1893);  'InForeignKitchens'  (1894); 
'Some  Passages  in  the  Practice  of  Dr.  Martha 
Scarborough'  (1893) ;  'Ballantyne:  k  Novel' 
(1901). 

CAMPBELL,  Henry  Donald,  American 
scientist :  b.  Lexington,  Va.,  29  July  1862.  He 
was  graduated  at  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity in  1882;  later  studied  at  Berlin  and 
Heidelberg,  and  in  1887  became  professor  of 
geology  and  biology  at  Washington  and  Lee 
University.  He  was  made  dean  in  1906  and 
was  acting  president  of  the  university  January 
to  July   1912. 

CAMPBELL,  Jamu  Edwin,  American 
politician:  b.  Middletown,  Ohio,  7  July  1843. 
After  an  academic  education  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  During  the  Civil  War  he  served 
for  a  time  in  the  navy  and  was  with  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Red  River  flotillas.  He  was  a 
Democratic  member  of  Congress,  I883-S9;  gov- 
ernor of  Ohio,  1890-92.  He  was  defeated  for 
re-election  by  William  McKinley,  afterward 
President  of  the  United  States.  In  1895  he 
was  a^n'  a  candidate,  but  was  defeated  by 
A.  S.  Bushnell. 

CAMPBELL,  James  Mann,  Scottish- 
American  cler^>man :  b.  Scotland,  5  May  1840, 
He  received  his  education  at  the  universities 
of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and  in  1874  came 
to  the  United  States,  He  has  lectured  much 
on  religious  themes  and  has  published  'Unto 
the  L^termost'  (1889) ;  'The  Indwelling 
Christ'  (18951;  'After  Pentecost,  What?' 
(1897) ;  'The  Teachings  of  the  Books' 
'Clerical    Types'     (1900);     <Bible     " 


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CAMPBELL 


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Me*  (1911);  'The  presence*  (WlOi'  'The 
Place  of  PrBycT  in  the  Chriidan  Religion* 
(1914). 

CAMPBELL,  James  V>letitiiie,  Ameri- 
can jurist:  b.  Baffalo.  N.  Y.,  25  Feb.  1823; 
d.  Detroit,  Mich.,  26  March  1890.  His  family 
moved  to  Detroit  in  1826.  He  was  Rraduated 
at  Saint  Paul's  College,  L.  I.,  in  1841;  was 
admitted  to  the  Michigan  t»r,  1844;  practised 
with  success  until  1857.  He  was  then  elected 
a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  a(  Michigan, 
le-elected  at  eveiy  succeeding  election^  and  was 
chosen  chief  justice  for  nine  terms  in  succes- 
sion. From  18S9  he  lectured  for  20  years  in 
the  law  department  of  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan. Much  of  his  leisure  was  devoted  to 
literary  and  historical  studies,  especially  the 
history  of  Michigan  and  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory. Until  1854  he  was  a  Whig,  but  thereafter 
acted  chiefly  with  the  Republicans.  He  wrote 
'Outlines  of  the  Political  History  of  Mictugan* 
(1876). 

CAMPBELL,  John,  American  editor:  b. 
Scotland  1653;  d.  March  1728.  He  was  one  of 
a  family  or  Idn  of  Boston  booksellers  and 
'  public  (^kials  whose  relationships  are  not  de- 
terminable. John,  as  postmaster,  was  the  news 
centre  of  the  New  England  provinces;  and  in 
1703  was  writing  'news  letters*  of  European 
news  to  Governor  Winthrop  of  Connecticut, 
and  perhaps  to  other  goveraars,  made  up  ot 
information  received  from  arriving  travelers, 
etc,  with  inferences  as  to  New  Qigland  poli^. 
In  1704  he  concluded  to  make  these  pttblic  and 
for  sale;  and  on  24  April  issued  the  first  itews- 
paper  in  America,  the  Boston  News  Letter 
<q.v.},  which  he  edited  till  1722.  In  1719  he 
was  deprived  of  the  postmastership.  He  was 
justice  of  the  peace  for  Suffolk  County  for 
some  jrears. 

CAMPBELL,  John.  See  Abcyik,  Camp- 
bells or. 

CAMPBELL,  John,  British  historian:  b. 
Edinburgh,  8  March  1708;  d.  28  Dec.  I77S. 
His  writing  before  1742  were  published  anony- 
mously. From  1755  to  the  close  of  his  life  he 
was  agent  of  the  British  government  for  the 
province  of  Georgia.  Among  his  works  are 
<A  Concise  History  of  Spanish  America' 
(1741);  'Lives  of  Ihe  English  Admirals' 
0744)  ;  'A  Survey  of  the  Present  State  of 
Europe'  (1750)  ;  and  'Trade  of  Great  Britain 
to  America'  (1772).  He  also  wroie  many  of 
the  biographies  in  the  'Biographia  Britannica,' 
and  Samuel  Johnson  makes  many  allusions  to 
his  erudition  and  popularity. 

CAMPBELL.  John  (Bason]^  Lord  Hif^ 
Chancellor  of  Eqetaiu):  b.  Sprmgfield,  near 
Cupar,  county  of  Fife,  Scotland,  IS  Sept.  1779; 
d.  22  June  1861.    He  was  educated  at  the  gram- 

'   school   of   Cupar,   and   at   12   entered  the 


remaining,  however,  for  some  years  at  college, 
he  resolved  to  abandon  the  clerical  profession, 
and  determined  to  try  his  fortune  in  London. 
In  1798  he  quitted  his  native  country  for  die 
metropolis,  where  he  became  reporter  and 
theatncat  critic  on  the  Momittg  Chronicle.  In 
November  1800  he  entered  as  a  student  of 
Uncoln's  Inn,  and  in   1806  was  c^ed  to  the 


bar.  He  traveled  the  Oxford  drcuit,  and  ob- 
tained considerable  practice.  In  1830  he  was 
elected  member  of  Parliament  for  Stafford, 
and  in  1832  was  appointed  solicitor-general 
In  1834,  on  the  retirement  of  Sir  William 
Home,  he  became  Attorney- General,  and  the 
same  year  was  elected  one  of  the  members  of 
Parliament  for  the  dty  of  Edinburgh,  serving 
till  1841,  when  he  was  created  chancellor  oi 
Ireland,  and  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Campbell  of  Saint  Andrews.  He  had  scarcely, 
however,  assumed  his  official  duties  in  Ireland, 
when  be  quitted  office  with  the  Melbourne  min- 
istry; and  having  now  more  lebure  worked  on 
his  'Lives  of  the  Chancellors,'  the  Arst  series 
of  which  was  published  early  in  1846.  On  the 
accession  of  Lord  John  Russell  to  power  in 
that  year  Lord  Campbell  accepted  the  chancel- 
lorship of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  but  still 
continued  his  literary  labors,  completing,  in 
seven  volumes,  his  'Lives  of  the  Chancellors,' 
and  adding  two  other  supplemental  volumes, 
entitled  'I^ves  of  the  Chief  Justices  of  Elng- 
land.'  In  1850,  on  the  retirement  of  Lord 
Denman,  be  was  appointed  chief  justice;  in 
1359,  on  I»rd  Pahnerston's  resumption  of  the 
Premiership,  Lord  Campbell  reached  the  hif[fa- 
est  le^al  dignity  in  the  British  empir^  becoming 
Lord  High  Chancellor.  Considt  'Life  of  Lord 
CampbelD  by  bis  daughter,  the  Hon.  Mrs. 
Hardcastle. 

CAMPBELL,  John  Archibalil,  American 
tawyer:  b.  Washington,  Ga.,  24  June  1811;  d. 
Baltimore  12  Mardi  1889.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  Georgia  University  in  1826  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1829  before  coming  of 
age,  by  virtue  of  a  special  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture. Removing  to  Alabama  he  scx>n  became 
prominent  in  his  profession,  and  in  1853  was 

S pointed  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
urt  of  the  United  States,  resigning  in  1861. 
He  was  subsequently  appointed  Confederate 
Secretary  ot  War,  and  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners named  by  President  Davis  to  meet 
President  Lincoln  and  Secretary  Seward  at  the 
conference  in  Fortress  Monroe  in  February 
1865.  He  was  imprisoned  for  some  monchs 
after  the  close  of  the  Qvil  War  and  on  his 
release  resumed  his  legal  practice. 

CAMPBELL,  John  Douglas  Sutherland. 
See  AsGYLE,  Campbells  of. 

CAMPBELL,  John  Lyle,  American  chem- 
ist; b.  Rockbridge  County,  Va^  7  Dec.  1818;  d. 
Lexington,  Va.,  2  Feb.  1886.  He  was  graduated 
at  Washington  College  (now  Washington  and 
Lee  University)  in  1843.  On  leaving  college  he 
became  assistant  in  the  academy  at  Staunton, 
Va.,  and  afterward  had  charge  of  a  similar  in- 
stitution in  Richmond,  Ky,  In  1851  he  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  and  geology  at 
Washington  College  an  oflice  which  he  con- 
tinued to  occupy  until  his  death.  He  was  a  rec- 
ognized authority  on  the  geology  of  Virginia, 
and  wrote  reports  on  that  subject  as  well  as 
frequent  contributions  to  the  scientific  journals. 
Among  his  larger  works  are  'Geology  and 
Mineral  Resources  of  the  James  River  Valley' 
(1882),  and  'Campbell's  Agriculture:  a  Manual 
of  Scientific  Agriculture  lor  the  School  and 
Farm'   (Philadelphia  1859).       . 

CAMPBELL,  Lewis,  British  classical 
scholar:  b.  Edinburgk  3  Sept.  1830;  d.  Lago 
Maggiore,  25  Oct  1908.    He  received  his  early 


,  Google 


CAMPBBLL 


education  at  E£nbur^h  Acaden^  and  after- 
ward attended  the  University  of  Glasgow  and 
Trinity  and  Balliol  colleges,  Oxford.  Ordained 
in  1857,  be  became  vicar  of  Milford,  Hants,  in 
the  following  year,  a  post  which  he  held  till  his 
appointment,  in  1863,  as  professor  of  Greek  in 
Saint  Andrew's  University,  a  position  he  held 
until  1892.  The  1894-95  series  of  (Afford  Lec- 
-tures  at  Saint  Andrews  was  delivered  by  him. 
As  a  writer  he  is  known  mainly  by  his  editions 
and  translations  of  ancient  Greek  authors,  the 
chief  of  which  arc  Plato's  <Thealetus'  (I86I) ; 
Plato's  'Sophistes  and  Politicus'  (1867) ; 
•Sophocles— The  Plays  and  Fragments' 
(18re);  'Sophocles  in  English  Verse'  (187J- 
83) ;  '-feschylus  in  Engiish  Verse*  (1890)  ;  and 
Plato's  'Republic'  (with  Benjamin  Jowctt 
1894) ;  'Tragic  Drama  in  .Xsthylus,  Sophocles 
and  Shakespeare'  (1904) ;  'Paralipomena 
Sopfaoclea>  (1907).  <The  Christian  Ideal.' 
published  in  1877,  is  a  volume  of  sermons;  and 
his  other  works  include  a  'Guide  to  (jreek 
Tragedy*  (1891) :  'Lite  of  lames  Oerk  Max- 
well (with  W.  (iamett  1882) ;  'Life  of  Benja- 
min Jowett'  (with  E.  Abbott  1897) ;  'Religion 
in  Greek  Literature'  (1898),  the  substance  of 
his  Gifford  Lectures. 

CAMPBELL,  Un.  Patrick.  See  Cauv- 
BELL,  Beatrice. 

CAMPBELL.  Reginald  John,  Engtisb 
Congregational  clereyman:  b.  London,  1867. 
After  receiving  a  collegiate  training  at  Univer- 
sity G^ilege,  Nottingham,  and  (^rist  Church 
College,  Oxford,  he  entered  the  Congregational 
ministry  in  1895.  He  first  held  the  pastorate  of 
the  Union  Church,  Brixton,  where  he  quickly 
acquired  celebrity  as  a  preacher.  He  succeeded 
Dr.  Parker  at  the  Gty  Temple,  London,  in  1903, 
continuing  there  until  his  resignation  in  1915. 
For  a  time  his  attitude  to  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  occasioned  alarm  among 
orthodox  Congregationa lists,  his  'New  Theol- 
ogy' (1907),  whidi  set  ethics  above  dogma,  be- 
ing especially  the  centre  of  attack.  By  1915  he 
had  swung  in  the  other  direction,  for  in  October 
of  that  year  he  announced  his  intention  of  sedE- 
ing  orders  in  the  Ai^Ucan  Church,  and  was  or- 
dained to  the  diaconate  at  Birmin^am,  24  Feb. 
1916.  He  has  published  'The  Making  of  an 
Apostle';  'The  Restored  Innocence'  (1898); 
'A  Faith  for  To-day'  (1900)  ;  'Christianity  and 
the  Social  Order'  (1908) ;  'Thursday  Morn- 
ings at  the  City  Temple'  (1906). 

CAMPBELL,  Robert,  British  fur  trader 
and  explorer:  b.  Glenlyon,  Scotiand,  1806;  d 
1894.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  in  1832;  and  in  1838  be^n  a 
senes  of  explorations  in  the  Northwest,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  discovered  Fnnces  Lake, 
the  Peliy  and  Lewes  rivers  and  the  upper 
Yukon,  which  he  traversed  under  the  impres- 
sion that  it  was  the  Calvill^  but  the  identity  of 
which  he  subsequently  estaolished. 

CAMPBELL,  Thottias,  British  poet:  b. 
Glasgow.  27  July  1777;  d.  Boulogne,  France,  15 
June  1844.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  where  he  distinpuished  himself  by 
the  excellence  of  his  poetical  translations  from 
the  Greek.  After  leaving  the  university  he  re- 
sided for  a  short  time  in  Edinburgh;  and 
sprang  suddenly  into  fame  by  pubKsning,  in 
1799,  'The  Pleasures  of  Hope.*    It  produced  an 


extraordinary  sensation,  and  soon  became  a 
familiar  bo<^  throughout  the  kingdom.  This 
was  due  not  more  to  the  graces  of  its  style 
than  to  the  noble  purity  of  its  thoughts.  After 
the  publication  of  'The  Pleasures  of  Hope'  he 
went  to  (jermanj/',  where  he  met  Klopstock  at 
Hamburg,  and  visited  the  scene  of  the  battle 
celebrated  in  'Hohen linden,'  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  his  poems.  The  appearance  of  the 
English  fleet  caused  him  to  leave  AJtona,  where 
he  had  resided  for  some  time.  Dtirii^  this 
tour  several  of  his  best  lyrics  were  written  or 
suggested,  among  them  'The  Exile  of  Erin,' 
'YTUariners  of  England'  and  'The  Battle  of 
the  Baltic*  In  1803  a  new  edition  of  'The 
Pleasures  of  Hope,'  with  other  poems,  ap- 
peared, and  in  that  year  he  married.  Settling 
in  London,  he  devoted  hiitiself  to  literary  wotk, 
and  in  1805  obtained  a  pension  of  £200,  through 
the  influence  of  Fox,  of  whose  politics  he  was 
an  admirer.  After  this  he  appears  for  a  time 
to  have  given  his  attention  less  to  poetry  than 
prose,  but  in  1809  he  a^ain  made  his  appearance 


sidered  superior  to  'The  Pleasures  of  Hope.' 
In  1814  he  visited  Paris,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  received  a  legacy  of  over  i4/XX).  Id  ' 
1819,  by  his  'Specimens  of  the  British  Poets,' 
accompanied  with  critical  essays,  he  proved  him- 
self the  possessor  of  great  critical  acumen  and 
an  admirable  prose  style.  In  1820  he  became 
editor  of  the  New  Monthly  Magtuint,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  held  till  1S30.  As  an  editor  he 
was  a  si^al  failure.  In  1824  he  published 
'Theodonc,*  which,  though  not  devoid  of  tine 
passages,  scarcely  sustained  bis  reputation. 
For  many  years  he  took  an  active  interest  in  the 
emancipation  of  Greece  and  Poland,  and  in  the 
foundation  of  the  London  Universi^,  of  which 
he  considered  himself  the  originator.  He  was 
lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow  from 
1826  to  1829.  In  1828  his  wife  died,  and  thence- 
forth his  vigor,  both  bodily  and  mental,  began 
to  decline;  and  thou^  he  afterward  published 
'Letters  from  the  South'  (1837),  describing  > 
visit  which  he  had  paid  to  Algiers,  a  'Life  of 
Mrs.  Siddons'  (1834-^2),  and  a  'Life  of 
Petrarch,'  and  eiOier  wrote  or  edited  the  'Ufe 
and  Times  of  Frederick  the  Great,'  he  failed  to 
equal  his  more  vouthful  efforts.  In  1331^  he 
was  editor  of  the  Metropolitan  Magasitie,  and 
in  1832  he  founded  the  Polish  Association, 
Among  his  works  not  mentioned  above  art 
'The  Advent,'  a  hymn;  'Love  and  Madness'; 
'Lord  Ullin's  Daughter' ;  'The  Wounded  Hus- 
sar' :  'Gilderoy* ;  'The  Soldier's  Dream' ; 
'Judith';  'The  Name  Unknown';  'The  Turk- 
ish Lady*;  'Lochiel's  Warning*;  The  Rain- 
bow'; 'The  Last  Man':  'Navarino';  'Pilgrim 
of  Glencoe*;  'Moonli^l,'  etc.  See  Beatlit 
'Life  and  Letters  of  "Thomas  Campbell' ;  and 
Redding,  'Literary  Reminiscences  of  Camp- 
bell.' 

CAMPBELL.  Thomaa  W„  American 
clereyman:  b.  Tnree  Rivers,  Quebec,  Canada, 
24  Sept.  1851.  He  was  graduated  at  Victoria 
University  in  1879,  and  became  a  Methodist 
minister.  Joining  the  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church,  he  was  elected  a  bishop  in  1891.  and 

S-esiding  bishop  in  1S94.    In  1895  he  moved  to 
rooklyiK  N.  Y,  to  become  -ciastOT  of  the  Re- 
formed Episcopal  church  of  m  Rccondliaticn 


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CAHPB8LL — CAHPBBIX-B  AHNBHH  AN 


and  resigned  to  «nl«r  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  1898.'  In  October  1899  be  became  pastor  of 
the  Noble  Street  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  re- 
signed October  1905;  organized  Stony  Brook 
Association  and  Assembly;  secretary  and  man- 
ager till  May  1915. 

CAHPBBLL,  William,  American  soldier: 
b,  Augusta  County,  Va.,  1745 ;  d.  Rocky  Uitls, 
Va,  23  Aug.  1781.  He  was  of  Scottish  de- 
scent Commissioned  a  captain  in  the  first  reg- 
ular troops  raised  in  Vir^nia  in  1775,  and  later 
becoming  a  colonel  of  militia,  he  distingnished 
himself  greatly  in  the  battles  of  King's  Moun- 
tain and  Guilford  Court-House.  His  military 
career  was  short  bat  brilliant,  and  on  all  occa- 
sions marked  by  conspicuous  bravenr-  Lafay- 
ette gave  him  the  command  of  a  brigade  of 
riflemen  and  light  infantry-  Washington,  Gates 
and  Greene,  tne  Virginia  legislature  and  the 
Continental  Congress  expressed  their  high  sense 
of  his  merits  and  services.  He  was  taken 
fatally  ill  a  few  weeks  before  the  siege  of 
Yorktown.  He  married  a  sister  of  Patrick 
Henry.  Consult  Warfield,  E.  D.,  (in  the  Maga- 
tine  of  Wetlent  History,  January,  1887). 

CAHPBBLL,  William  (Lord),  English 
royal  governor  of  South  Carolina  lb.  ( ?)  ;  d.  5 
Sept.  1778.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  John, 
4lh  Duke  of  Argyle.  He  received  a  captaincy 
in  the  British  navy,  20  Aug.  1762;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  in  1764,  and  governor  of 
Nova  Scoti^  176&-73.    In  1774  he  was  appointed 

Kvemor  of  South  Carolina,  entered  u^n  his 
ties  in  June  1775,  was  courteously  received  by 
Ihe  people,  for  whom  he  profensed  great  friend- 
ship. The  hollowness  of  his  promises  was  soon 
proved,  however,  and  finding  his  residence  in 
Charleston  unsafe,  he  fled  on  board  a  British 
man-of-war,  where  he  was  soon  joined  by  his 
wife,  who  was  a  Miss  Sarah  Iiard,  sister  of 
the  patriot,  Ralph  Itard,  who  belonged  to  the 
wealthiest  family  in  the  province.  In  1776 
Campbell  served  as  a  volunteer  on  board  Sir 
Peter  Parker's  flagship,  Bristol,  in  the  attack 
on  Fort  Sullivan,  28  June,  and  was  severely 
wounded  early  in  the  action,  while  in  command 
of  the  lower  deck.  He  ultimately  died  from 
the  effects  of  the  wounds  received  at  this  time. 
Consult  McCrady.  'The  History  of  South  Car- 
olina in  the  Revolution'  (Vol.  I,  1901). 

CAMPBELL,  Wntiam  B.,  Americ;in 
soldier  and  statesman:  b.  Sumner  Counhr, 
Tenn.,  1  Feb.  1607;  d.  near  Lebanon,  Tenn.  31 
Aug.  1867.  He  was  educated  in  Abingdon,  Va., 
and  studied  law  at  Winchester,  Va.,  in  the  then 
noted  law  school  of  the  Hon.  St.  George 
Tucker.  He  began  the  practice  of  his  profes- 
sion in  1829  at  Carthage,  Tenn.,  was  elected 
attorney-general  of  his  district  in  1830,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature  in  1835.  He  resigned  and 
raised  a  company  of  dragoons  to  serve  in  the 
war  with  the  Indians  in  Florida  in  1836.  In  this 
year  also  he  formed  a  volunteer  company,  of 
which  he  was  made  captain,  and  fought  in  the 
Creek  and  Seminole  War  as  part  of  the  2d 
Tennessee  Volunteers  under  Col.  William 
TroQsdales.  In  1837  Captain  Campbell  was 
dected  to  the  United  States  Congress  and 
served  four  terms  successively.  In  1844-45  he 
served  as  major-general  of  his  military  division. 
He  was  colonel  of  the  1st  Tennessee  Regiment 
in  the  Mexican  War.  He  was  present  at  Mata- 
ndras  (Palo  Alto),  Monterey,  where  he  was 


conspicuous  for  his  gallantry.    He  waa  at  Vera 

Cruz  on  2Z  March  1847  and  at  Cerro  Gordo. 

April  1847.     In  all  he  displayed  unflinching 


his  return  to  Tennessee  Colonel  Campbell  was 
elected  unanimously  circuit  judge  in  bis  native 
place.  He  held  the  post  for  several  years,  fill- 
ing it  with  dignity  and  wisdom.  In  1851  he 
was  elected  governor  of  Tennessee  serving 
one  term  and  declining  re-election.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1865-66.  In  his  public 
life  he  escaped  to  a  marked  degree  the  cen- 
sures and  criticism  incident  to  public  station, 
as  a  result  of  his  integrity  and  untiring  devotion 

CAMPBELL,  WilliMm  Walkce,  Ameri- 
can astronomer:  b.  Hancock  County,  Ohio,  11 
April  1862.  After  graduation  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  he  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  University  of  Colorado  in  1836- 
88,  and  instructor  in  astronomy  and  assistant 
in  Detroit  Observatory,  University  of  Michigan, 
in  1888-91,  making  a  specialty  of  comet  observa- 
tions and  orbit  computation.  He  became  as- 
tronomer in  1891,  and  director  in  1901  of  the 
Lick  Observatory,  and  also  had  charge  of 
eclipse  expeditions  to  India,  Spain  and  Flint 
Island.  He  received  several  medals  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  work,  including  ihe  Janssen  prize  of 
the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1910  and  the 
Bruce  gold  medal  in  1915.  Besides  many  papers 
on  the  motion  of  solar  eclipses,  stars,  comet 
orbits  and  on  the  spectra  of  nebutx,  comets  and 
stars,  he  has  published  'The  Elements  of 
Practical  Astronomy'  (1900);  "The  Return  of 
nancy's  Comet'  (1909)  and  'Stellar  Motions* 
(1912). 

CAMPBELL,  Vmium  Wilfred.  Canadian 
poet:  b.  Berlin,  Ontario,  Canada,  1  June  1861. 
He  was   educated   at   Toronto   University   and 


Canada,  retiring  from  it  in  1891  i: 
order  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  literacy  pur- 
suits. He  has  published  'Lake  Lyrics*  (1889) ; 
'The  Dread  Voyage'  (1893) ;  'Mordred,  a 
Tragedy,'  and  'Hildebrand'  (1895),  the  latter 
two  being  dramas  in  blank  verse;  'Beyond 
the  Hills  of  Dream'  (1899) ;  'Sagas  of  Vaster 
Britain'  (1906);  and  the  novels,  'Ian  of  the 
Orcades'  (1906);  'A  Beautiful  Rebel'  (1909), 
and  'The  Canadian  Lake  Region'  (1910). 

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN.  Su  Henry, 
English  statesman:  b.  7  Sept  1836;  d.  Lon- 
don, 22  April  1908.  He  was  the  son  of  Sir 
James  Campbell,  but  added  the  surname  Ban- 
nerman,  under  the  will  of  a  maternal  uncle.  In 
1868  he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for 
Stirling  borou^.  From  1871-74,  and  from 
1880-82,  he  was  financial  secretary  of  the  War 
OfSec;  1882-84,  Secretary  of  Admiralty;  1884- 
85,  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland;  1886  and  1892- 
95,  Secretary  of  War.  In  February  1899  he  be- 
came leader  of  the  Liberal  party;  on  4  Dec 
1905  succeeded  Sir  Arthur  Balfour  as  Premier. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  his  patience  and 
common  sense.  He  gathered  about  him  a  min- 
istry of  very  able  people,  including  for  the  first 
time  a  representative  of  the  labor  department 
in  Mr.  John  Bums.  He  resigned  the  Premier- 
ship in  April  1908.  Consult  McCarthy,  'Sir 
Henry  Campbetl-Bannerman'  (New  York 
1903)  ;  Chanmng,  'Sir  Heniy  C"      '   " 


,  Google 


CAMPBELL  ISLAND— CAMFE 


man'  in  the  Fortnightly  Review  (Vol. 
LXXXIX,  London  1908). 

CAMPBELL  ISLAND,  a  lonely  island  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean  in  lat.  52^  3?  S.,  long.  169° 
9"  E.,  36  miles  in  circumference.  Though  veiy 
mountainous,  it  has  several  good  harbors.  It  is 
a  dependency  of  New  Zealand  and  180  miles 
southeast  of  the  Auckland  Islands.  It  is  vol- 
canic, with  a  rich  and  rare  flora. 

CAMPBELLFORD,  Canada,  town  in 
Northumberland  County,  Ontario,  beautifully 
situated  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  32  miles 
west  of  Belleville  and  on  the  Trent  Valley 
Canal.      It    manufactures    woolens,    has    pulp, 

fapcr  and  flour  mills,  bridge  works  and  shoe 
actory.  Pop.  (1911)  3,051. 
CAMFBELLITES,  followers  of  Rev.  John 
McLeod  Campbell,  who  was  deposed  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1831  for  teachins  the 
universality  of  the  atonement.  He  established 
a  church  at  Glasgow  in  1833.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  members  of  the  Church  founded  in 
the  United  States  by  Alexander  Campbell.  See 
Disciples  of  Christ. 

CAMPBELL'S  STATION.  Tenn.,  the 
tcene  of  an  engagement  between  Federal  and 
Confederate  forces,  4  Nov.  1863.  Gen.  Braxton 
Bragg,  who  was  besieging  Chattanooga,  de- 
tached Longstreet's  corps  of  10,000  men  and  35 
guns,  with  Wheeler's  cavalry  force  of  5,000 
men,  to  capture  Burnside  or  drive  him  out  of 
East  Tennessee.  Longstreet  reached  the  south 
bank  of  the  Tennessee,  near  Loudon,  on  the  13Ui, 
and  that  night  and  next  day  laia  bridges  at 
Huff's  Ferry,  two  miles  below  Loudon,  and 
began  crossing  his  infantry.  Bumside,  who 
was  holding  the  north  bank  of  the  river  from 
Kingston  to  Lenoirs,  concluded  to  leave  one 
brigade  at  Kington  and  retire  the  rest  of  his 
command  to  Knoxville,  about  30  miles,  where 
he  had  prepared  to  make  a  stand  behind  de- 
fensive works.  He  skirmished  sharply  with 
Longstreet's  advance  on  the  14th  and  gradually 
falling  back  on  the  15lb,  at  night  concentrated 
Hartranft's  and  Ferrero's  divisions  of  the  9th 
corps  and  White's  of  the  23d,  at  Lenoirs.  He 
had  about  5,000  men.  Longstreet  followed,  at- 
tacked during  the  night  and  was  repulsed.  Be- 
fore daybreak  of  the  16th  Hartranft,  with  his 
(Uvision  and  some  cavalry,  was  put  on  the 
march  to  secure  Campbell's  Station,  the  inter- 
section of  roads  coming  from  the  south.  After 
destroying  many  wagons  and  contents,  taking 
the  teams  to  assist  his  artillery  over  the  baa 
roads,  axle- deep  in  mud,  Bumside  followed 
with  the  other  two  divisions,  artillery  and  trains, 
closely  pursued  by  Longstreet,  with  Hood's 
division,  commanded  by  (jen.  Micah  Jenkins, 
with  whose  advance  his  rearguard  had  several 
sharp  encounters.  McLaws'  division  of  Long- 
street's  corps  took  a  more  direct  road  to  the 
left,  the  two  roads  intersecting  about  a  mile 
southward  of  Campbell's  Station,  15  miles  south 
of  Knoxville.  Hartranft  reached  the  coveted 
point  in  advance  of  McLaws  ani  turning  west 
on  the  Kingston  road,  deployed  nts  division  in 
such  manner  as  to  confront  McLaws,  and  at  the 
same  time  cover  the  Lenoir  road,  along  which 
the  trains,  were  movinK  in  advance  of  the  in- 
fantry. He  had  scarcely  made  his  dispositions 
when  McLaws  apjieared  and  attacked,  but  Hart- 
ranft held  on  until  Burnside,  with  the  trains 
and  the  remainder  of  the  troops,  had  passed 


and  the  troops  taken  poslti<Ki,  when  he  fell  back 
and  formed  on  the  left  of  White's  division,  in 
position  half  a  mile  beyond  the  junction  of  the 
two  roads,  Ferrero's  division  on  White's  right, 
and  the  artillery  on  commanding  ground  sweei^ 
ing  the  road  and  the  open  country  in  front 
The  jaded  train  continuea  on  the  road  to  Knox- 
ville. McLaws  advanced  and  drew  up  in  the 
plain,  but  the  forbidding  aspect  of  Bumside's 
artillery,  which  opened  viciously  on  him,  for- 
bade direct  attack  with  infantry,  whereupon  he 
opened  with  artillery,  and  Longstreet  ordered 
attacks  upon  both  Banks  of  Bumside's  line, 
which  were  made  and  nicely  parried  or  re- 
pulsed; but,  largely  superior  in  numbers,  Long- 
street  was  able  to  move  around  both  t1ank& 
especially  on  Bumside's  left,  which  obliged 
him  to  fall  back  to  a  ridge  nearly  a  mile  in  the 
rear.  This  he  did  in  a  hanosomc  manner, 
though  under  a  heavy  and  constant  fire,  and 
ciose^  pressed  on  all  sides.  It  was  four  o  dock 
when  Hood's  division  made  an  attack  on  Bum- 
side's  left,  which  was  repulsed.  McLaws  at- 
tacked his  right  and  was  thrown  back,  and 
Longstreet  then  prepared  for  a  general  advance 
of  Us  entire  line,  but  before  his  preparations 
were  completed  it  was  becoming  dark  and  his 
train  secure  and  well  on  the  way  to  Knoxville. 
Bumside,  after  dark,  resumed  bis  march.  His 
advance  reached  Knoxville  about  daybreak  next 
morning.  17  November,  Longstreet  wearily  fol- 
lowing aurine  the  day,  and  the  siege  of  Knox- 
ville began.  In  this  action  at  Campbell's  Station 
and  the  skirmishes  preceding  it  at  HufFs  Ferry, 
Lenoirs,  and  on  the  march,  the  Union  loss  was 
303  killed  and  wounded,  and  135  missing.  The 
Confederate  loss  is  not  definitely  Icnown. 
Hood's    division,    the    most   seriously   engaged. 


ords*  (Vol.  XXXV)  T  the  Century  Company's 
'Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Gvil  War'  (Vol. 
ni)  ;  Woodward's  'Bumside  and  the  9lh  Army 

CAMPBELLTON,  Canada,  seaport  in 
Restigouche  County,  New  Brunswid^  on  the 
Intercolonial  Railway.  It  is  the  northernmost 
town  in  the  province  and  a  great  centre  for 
hunters  of  same.  Light  and  water  are  munici- 
pally owned.  Its  industries  include  foundry 
and  machine  shops,  lumber,  shingle  and  plan- 
ing mills,  woodworking  factories,  etc  Pop, 
3,817. 

CAMPBELTOWN,  Scotland,  seaport 
and  popular  summer  resort,  famed  for  its 
scenic  and  historic  attractions,  in  Argyllshire, 
on  a  fine  bay  indenting  the  southeast  point  of 
the  Kintyre  peninsula^  82  miles  by  water  south- 
west of  Glasgow,  whisky  distilling  is  the  chief 
industry,  producing  _  annually  over  2,000,000 
gallons,  half  of  which  is  exported.  Coal  is 
mined,  woolens  manufactured,  shipbuilding- 
with  allied  industries  carried  on  and  the 
fisheries  are  important  The  walls  remain  of 
the  ancient  church  founded  by  Saint  Columba, 
and  the  sculptured  granite  cross  of  archaeologi- 
cal fame,  from  lona,  stands  in  the  principal 
stred.  An  ancient  stronghold  of  the  Macdon- 
aid  of  the  Isles,  here  in  1647  at  Dunaverly  Cas- 
tle 300  of  the  Macdonalds  were  slain  after 
their  surrender.     Pop.  9,500. 

CAMPS,  kam'pe,  Joachim  Hcbirich,  Ger- 
man teacher  and  juvenile  Author:  b.  Deensen, 


:,  Google 


CAlf^HS — CAMPHAU8EN 


acted  for  Hiiiie  time  as  a  teacher 
positions.     He  ardently  supported  the  educa- 
tion reforms  of  BasedTow  whom  he  succeeded 


l^  the  Kovcrnment  of  Brunswick  to  superin- 
tend ana  reform  the  schools  of  that  duchy,  but 
his  radical  views  brought  him  into  conflict  with 
the  Church  and  government  and  he  was  un- 
able to  put  them  through.  He  became  likewise 
the  head  of  a  schoolbook  publishing  house  at 
Brunswick,  and  his  own  works,  which  were  is- 
sued from  it,  contributed  greatly  to  extend  its 
reputation.  These  consist  principally  of  educa- 
tional works  and  books  for  youth,  the  most  suc- 
cessful being  'Robinson  Crusoe  der  Jiingere,* 
an  adaptation  of  Defoe's  'Robinson  Crusoe.' 
'Diis  attaioed  an  immense  popularity,  being 
translated  into  almost  at!  the  languages  of  Eu- 
rope. He  also  wrote  a  'History  of  the  Dis- 
covery of  America.'  Consult  Leyser,  'loachim 
Heinrich  Cainpe>  (2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1896). 

CAHPECHB,  or  CAMPEACHY,  Mex- 
ico, seaport  town  in  the  state  and  on  the  bay  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Yucatan,  about  100  miles  southwest  of 
Merida,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railroad. 
Under  the  Spanish  regime  Campeche  was  one 
of  the  three  open  ports  of  this  coast,  and  its 
Ecneral  appearance  still  gives  evidence  of  its 
former  wealth  and  importance.  '  Founded  in 
1540  on  the  site  of  a  native  village,  of  which 
there  are  interesting  remains,  the  ci^  has  wit- 
nessed many  important  events  down  to  the 
revolution  of  1842.  It  contains  a  citadel  a 
university  with  a  museum,  a  hospital  an<i  a 
handsome  theatre.  Campeche  is  an  important 
mart  for  logwood  or  Campeachy  wood,  of 
which  great  quantities  are  exported.  Other 
important  exports  are  wax,  cigars  and  hene- 
quen  or  nsal-hemp,  sugsr,  salt,  mahogany  and 
hides.  Owing  to  the  »allowness  of  the  road- 
stead large  vessels  have  to  anchor  five  or  six 
miles  off.  There  is  a  lighthouse  on  the  coast 
at  this  port.  Pop.  17,109:  The  state  of  Cam- 
peachy  has  an  area  of  18,091  square  miles. 
Pop.  87,000.  The  Bay  of  Campeachy,  part  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  lies  on  the  southwest  of 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and  on  the  north  of 
the  province  of  Tabasco. 


Padua  in  1511,  and  gained  a  high  reputation, 
\\'hen  holding  this  otlice  he  married,  and  be- 
came the  father  of  several  children  but  having 
lost  his  wife,  took  orders.  Pope  Julius  II  made 
him  bishop  of  Feltri,  and  Leo  X,  after  giving 
him  a  cardinal's  hat,  employed  him  on  several 
important  missions,  the  execution  of  which 
gave  him  some  prominence  in  connection  with 
the  Reformation.  One  of  his  missions  was  to 
Germany,  for  the  purpose  of  regaining  Luther; 
and  another  to^  England,  to  attempt  to  lev^  a 
tithe  for  defraving  tne  expense  of  a  war  against 
the  Turks-  _  He  tailed  simially  in  both,  but  in- 
gratiated himself  with  Henry  VHI,  and  was 
made  bishop  of  Salisbury  and  archbishop  of 
Bologna  (1524).  Under  Clement  VII  he  was 
sent  as  legate  to  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg,  where 


he  vainly  endeavored  to  unite  the  princes  in 
opposition  to  Luther  I  and  to  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg. He  again  visited  England,  with  exten- 
sive powers  to  decide  in  the  question  of  di- 
vorce between  Henry  VHI  and  Queen  Cath- 
erine; but  his  temporizing  measures  lost  him 
the  confidence  of  all  parties,  as  well  as  his 
bishopric  of  Salisbury.  Notwithstanding  his 
repeated  failures,  he  remained  high  in  favor  at 
the  papal  court  At  his  death  he  was  archbishop 
of  Sabina.  His  tomb  is  in  the  church  of  Saint 
Maria  of  Trastevere. 

CAHPBN.     See  Kaupen. 

CAMPBN,  Jacob  de.    See  Kaupen,  Jacob 

CAHPEH,  Jan  van.      See  Kaufen,  Jan 

CAMPER,  kam'per,  Pieter,  Dutch  anat- 
omist: b.  Leyden,  11  May  1722;  d.  The  Hague, 
7  April  1789.  He  distinguished  himself  in  an- 
attimy,  surgery,  obstetrics  and  medical  juris- 
prudence, and  also  as  a  writer  on  esthetics. 
From  1750  to  1755  be  was  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Franeker,  and  from  the  latter  year  to 
1763  at  Amsterdam.  Henceforth  till  his  resig- 
nation in  1773  he  held  a  professorship  at  Gro- 
uin^en.  His  'Dissertation  on  the  Natural  Va- 
rieties,' etc,  is  the  first  work  in  which  was 
thrown  much  light  on  the  varieties  of  the  human 
species,  which  the  author  distinguishes  by  the 
shape  of  the  skull.  His  'Treatise  on  the  Nat- 
ural Difference  of  Features  in  Persons  of  Vari- 
ous Countries  and  Ages,'  and  one  on  'Beauty 
as  Exhibited  in  Ancient  Paintings  and  Engrav- 
ings,' followed  by  a  method  of  delineating  va- 
rious sorts  of  heads  with  accuracy,  is  intended 
to  prove  that  the  rules  laid  dawn  by  the  most 
celebrated  limners  and  painters  are  very  de- 
fective.  His  general  doctrine  is,  that  the  dif- 
ference in  form  and  cast  of  countenance  pro- 
ceeds from  the  facial  angle.  His  collected 
writings  were  published  under  the  title 
'CEuvres  qui  ont  ioar  objet  I'histoirc  natureile, 
la  physiolo^e  et  fanatomie  compar£e>  <3  vols., 
Paris  1803). 

CAHPERDOWN  (Dutch,  Camperduin), 
Holland,  a  stretch  of  sandy  hills  or  downs  m 
the  province  of  North  Holland,  between  the 
North  Sea  and  the  small  village  of  Camp,  off 
which    the    British,    under    Admiral    Duncan, 

S'nedahard-won  victory  over  the  Dutch,  under 
Winter,  11  Oct.  1797.  For  this  victory  Ad- 
miral Duncan  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Viscount  Duncan  of  Camperdown,  His  son 
became  Earl  of  Camperdown,  and  this  title 
still  belongs  to  a  descendant. 

CAMPERO,  Nardso,  nar-the'sQ  kam-  • 
p5'r6,  Bolivian  statesman  and  soldier :  b.  Tojo 
(now  in  Argentina)  1815 ;  d.  Bolivia  1896.  He 
studied  and  traveled  in  Europe,  and  on  his  re- 
turn entered  the  Bolivian  army,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier'general.  He  was  Minis- 
ter of  War  in  1872.  After  the  overthrow  of 
Hilarion  Daza  in  1880  he  was  chosen  President 
of  Bolivia.  He  commanded  the  combined 
forces  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  in  Tacna  campaign, 
but  was  defeated  at  Tacna,  36  May  1880.  In- 
ternally, his   administration  was  quiet 

CAMPHAUSBN,  kampliow-zen,  Wilbeha, 
a  German  military  painter :  b.  Diisseldorf,  8 
Feb.  1818;  d.  there,  16  June  1885.  He  studied 
under   Alfred    Rethel    and    Carl    Sohn.     His 


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C  AHPHBNE — CAMPION 


paindnn  include  'Cromwellian  Troopers'  (Na- 
tional Gallery,  Berlin),  'Duppet  after  the  As- 
sault' (same);  '(Juries  1  at  Naseby'  (Kunst- 
hallc,  Hambuti) ;  'Tilly  at  Brdtenfeld'  (Co- 
logne Museum);  'Napoleon  III  after  Set^n,' 
and  portraits  of  Emperor  Wiiliam,  Bismarck 
and  Wolke.  He  was  at  first  of  tbe  romantic 
school,  and  although  his  best  works  are  his- 
torical, they  are  depicted  with  fine  attention  to 
detail  and  realism. 

CAMPHENB,  or  CAMPHINB,  (1)  a 
general  name  for  those  terpenes  which  are  solid 
at  ordinary  temperatures  (sec  Tehpene)  ;  (2) 
a  puriEed  form  of  turpentine,  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling that  substance  over  quicklime  in  order 
to  remove  the  resins  that  the  crude  product 
contains,  and  widely  used  as  an  illuminating  (M 
before  petroleum  was  available. 

CAMPHOL,  a  substance  now  better  known 
as  bomeol  (q.v.). 

CAlfPHOK,  a  white,  translucent,  crystal- 
line substance  occurring  in  the  wood  and  bark 
of  the  camphor  laurel  {Camfhora  officinariitm, 
Cittnamomtim  camphora,  or  Launti  camphora), 
a,  tree  indigenous  to  Japan  and  central  China, 
and  cultivated  in  many  warm  countries.  The 
camphor  "gum'  is  obtained  by  distilling  the 
leaves,  bark  and  chips  of  wood  with  steam, 
and  afterward  driving  out  the  water  and  vola- 
tile oils  from  the  distillate  with  a  low  degree 
of  heat,  and  then  subliming  the  gum  at  350  F. 
Purified  camphor  consists  of  a  clinging  mass 
of  tough,  colorless,  hexagonal  crystals  which 
break  apart  readily,  but  cannot  be  reduced  lo 
powder  except  with  the  addition  of  a  little  al- 
cohol—  which  evaporates  spontaneously  during 
the  grinding.  It  has  the  chemical  formula 
Ci.Hi.0,  melts  at  350°  F.,  boils  at  500°  F.,  and 
sublimes  to  an  appreciable  extent  at  practically 
ail  temperatures.  It  has  a  strong,  pleasant, 
characteristic  odor,  and  a  peculiar,  cooling, 
aromatic  taste.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about 
0.992,  and  it  dissolves  to  a  slight  extent  in 
water,  and  freely  in  alcciiol  or  ether.  Small 
shavings  of  it  exhibit  lively  motions  when 
thrown  upon  a  water- surf  ace  that  is  abso- 
lutely free  from  oily  matter.  (See  Surtace 
Tension),  It  is  familiar  about  the  household, 
on  account  of  its  use  for  protecting  furs  and 
woolens  from  the  attacks  of  moths  and  other 
insects,  and  in  domestic  medicine.  It  is  also 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  celluloid  and 
various  explosives, 

"Synthetic  camphor*  is  the  name  given  to  a 
camphor  artificially  prepared  from  turpentine 
oil.  It  is  identical  with  natural  camphor  ex- 
cept that  it  is  optically  inactive.  Tbe  process 
by  which  it  is  made  consists  of  first  converting 
the  turpentine  into  pinene  hydrochloride 
(which  IS  known  commercially  as  ''artificial 
camphor*),  and  then  changing  this  to  cam- 
phene  by  the  elimination  of  the  hydrogen 
chloride.  Oxidation  of  the  camphene  bv  any 
one  of  several  patented  processes  yields  the 
synthetic  camphor. 

The  name  'camphor*  has  been  given  to 
many  similar  substances  of  widely  different 
derivation  ;  as  peppermint  camphor  (menthol)  ; 
cedar  camphor  (from  the  oil  of  juniper)  ;  cubeb 
camphor  (from  the  oil  of  cubebs)  ;  thymol 
(from  the  oil  of  thyme),  etc.  At  one  of  the 
government  experiment  stations  in  the  South 
a  good  yield  of  natural  camphor  has  been  »e- 


and  distilled  in  the  green  state.    See  ^bneou 

CAMPHORIC  ACID,  an  organic  sub- 
stance crystallizing  in  colorless,  needle-like, 
monoclinic  crystals,  and  obtained  by  oxidizing 
camphor  by  boiling  it  with  concentrated  nitric 
acid,  or  with  an  alkaline  perman^nate.  It  has 
the  formula  CuH>.0<,  and  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.19,  and  melts  at  about  370°  F,  It  is  abnost 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  is  soluble  in  hot 
waterj  alcohol  and  ether.  Camphoric  acid  has 
a  limited  use  in  medicine  in  the  treatment  of 
chronic  disorders  of  the  respiratory  system. 

CAMPHUYSKN,  kampTioi-ien,  Dirck  Ra- 
felsz,  Dutch  theologian  and  poet:  b.  (jorkum 
1586;  d.  Dokkum,  9  July  1&7.  He  lost  his 
parents  at  an  early  age,  and  was  left  to  the 
care  of  an  elder  brother,  who,  thinking  that 
he_  observed  in  Rafelsz  an  mdination  for 
painting,  placed  him  as  a  pupil  in  the  studio 
of  the  artist,  Dirck  (Jovertsz.  He  soon  aban- 
doned art  to  devote  himself  to  theology,  which 
was  the  reigning  passion  of  the  age.  He  em- 
braced the  doctrines  of  Arminius,  and  shared 
in  the  persecutions  under  which  Arminianism 
then  suffered ;  was  expelled  from  the  curacy 
of  Vleuten;  became  a  fugitive  from  village  to 
village,  a  prey  to  suffering  and  privation  and 
found  now  in  writing  short  poems  his  only 
relief  and  consolation.  These  are  generally 
upon  religious  subjects,  and  are  characterized 
by  a  remarkable  depth  of  feeling.  Recent 
art  criticism  has  shown  that  the  paintings  for- 
merly attributed  to  him  were^  in  point  of  fact, 
by  the  other  Camphuysens,  his  n^hews,  R,  G. 
and  J.  G.  Camphuysen,  or  his  son,  Govert. 

CAMPI,  kim'pE,  a  group  of  Italian  artists 
who  founded  what  is  known  in  painting  as  the 
school  of  Cremona.  Of  the  four  of  this  name, 
Giulio,  Antonio,  Vincenzo  and  Bernardino,  the 
first  and  the  last  are  the  best  known.  Giulio 
(b.  probably  about  1500  or  1502,  d.  in  1S72), 
the  eldest  and  the  teacher  of  the  others,  was 
influenced  by  Giulio  Romano  after  1540,  as  his 
paintings  of  that  period  plainly  show,  and 
acquired  from  the  study  of  Titian  and  Por* 
denone  a  skill  in  coloring  which  gave  the  school 
its  high  place.  Bernardino  (b.  about  1522;  d. 
about  1590  or  1595}  was  the  greatest  of  the 
school.  He  took  Romano,  Titian  and  Correg- 
gio  in  succession  as  his  masters.  It  is  important 
to  note  that,  while  the  first  three  —  Giulio,  An- 
tonio and  Vincenzo  —  were  brothers,  the  com- 
mon assumption  that  the  fourth,  Bernardino, 
belonged  lo  the  same  family,  is  not  supported 
by  any  positively  known  facts. 

CAMPINAS,  kam-pe'n^s,  Brazil,  town  on 
the  Piradcaba  River,  state  of  Sio  Paulo,  114 
miles  by  rail  from  the  port  of  Santos,  and  65 
miles  northwest  of  Sio  Paulo.  It  is  an  import- 
coffee    exporting    centre,    also    producing 


CAMPION,  Sdmtind,  English  theologian: 
b.  London,  25  Jan.  1540;  d.  1  Dec.  1581.  He 
was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital  and  Saint 
John's  College,  Oxford,  and  distinguished  him- 
self greally,  becoming  B.A.  in  1561  and  M.A. 
in  1»4.  Though  at  first  a  Roman  Catholic  he 
adopted  nominall:;  the  Reformed  faith  and  took 
deacon's  orders  in  the  Church  of  England. 


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CAMPION— CAHPOAHOR  Y  CAMPOOSORIO 


ass 


When  Queen  Elizabeth  visited  Oxford  in  1566 
he  was  selected  to  make  the  oration  before  her, 
as  formerly  while  at  school  he  had  been  chosen 
(o  deliver  an  oration  before  Queen  Mary  on 
her  accession.  He  went  from  college  to  Ir^ 
land,  and  while  there  wrote  the  history  of  that 
country,  a  superficial  work  of  no  real  valu^ 
and  connected  himself  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Churdi.  His  enthusiasm  leading  him  to  seek  to 
make  proselytes  to  his  new  faith,  he  was  seized 
and  imprisoned;  but  after  a  short  time  effected 
his  escape  to  the  Low  Countries,  and  soon  after 
joined  the  English  coll^re  of  Jesuits  at  Douay, 
I»ssed  his  novitiate  as  a  member  of  that  So' 
dety,  and  became  distin^shed  for  his  piety 
and  leaminK-  At  Rome  m  1573  he  was  admit- 
ted a  member  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  after 
which  he  resided  for  a  time  at  Vienna,  where 
he  composed  a  tragedy,  which  was  received 
with  much  applause  and  acted  before  the  Em- 
peror; and  at  Prague,  where  he  taught  rhetoric 
and  philosophy  for  six  years.  Sent  oy  Gregory 
Xllf  on  a  mission  to  England  in  1581.  he  chaf- 
IcDKcd  the  universities  and  clerev  to  dispute 
wift  him.  His  efforts  were  followed  by  so 
large  a  number  of  conversions  as  to  disquiet 
the  ministry  of  Elicabeth;  and  he  was  arrested 
and  thrown  into  the  Tower  upon  a  charge 
of  having  excited  the  people  to  rebellion,  and 
of  holding  treasonable  correspondence  with 
foreign  powers.  Being  tried,  lie  was  found 
guilty,  condemned  to  death  for  higli  treason 
and  executed  at  Tyburn.  The  insults  of  the 
populace  attended  him  to  the  Tower,  where 
torture  was  fruitlessly  applied  to  extort  from 
him  a  confession  of  treason  or  a  recognition  of 
the  suprematy  of  the  English  Church,  and  after 
his  death  a  fragment  of  his  body  was  sent  to 
each  of  the  principal  towns  for  exposure.  Be- 
sides his  history  of  Ireland,  he  wrote  'Decem 
Rationes'  ('Ten  Reasons'),  and  compiled  a 
•Universal  Chronology,'  and  collections  of  his 
letters  and  several  essays  were  published  after 
his  death.  He  was  beatified  by  Leo  XIIT  in 
1886.  His  biography  has  been  written  by  Rich- 
ard Simpson   (London  1867),  and  a  complete 


1619.  His  father  died  when  Campion  was  nine 
years  of  age,  and  his  mother  soon  after.  His 
stepfather,  Augustine  Steward,  sent  him  to 
Cambridge.  He  had  intended  studying  law  at 
Gray's  Inn,  but  did  not  practise  and  was  not 
admitted  to  the  bar.  Information  concerning 
the  rest  of  his  life  is  vague.  In  1606  he  ap- 
pears as  a  physician  in  London,  where  he  re- 
mained until  ms  death.  He  wrote  a  volume  of 
'Poems'  (1595),  being  Latin  elegies  and  epi- 
grams. He  wrote  a  masque  for  the  occasion 
of  the  marriage  of  Lord  Haye\  and  three 
masques  for  the  court  of  James  I.  He 
published  (1610-12)  four  'Books  of  Airs,' 
containing  songs  written  by  himself  to  airs  of 
his  own  composition :  the  first  book  contains 
'Divine  and  Moral  Songs':  the  second,  'Light 
Conceits  of  Lovers';  the  third  and  fourth  are 
not  distinguished  by  any  separate  sub-title.  In 
his  songs  the  verse  and  the  music  are  most 
happily  wedded.  While  be  was  very  popular 
in  his  own  day,  he  soon  sank  into  oblivion. 
His  works  are  full  of  freshness  and  charm. 


Consult  the  edition  by  A.  H.  BuUen,  which  ex- 
cludes 'A  New  Way';  'Songs  and  Masques' 
(ed.  by  BuUen,  1903,  with  an  introduction  by 
Janet  Dodge) ;  'Poems'  (ed.  b/  Vivian,  1907)  ; 
'Complete  Works'  (ed.  by  Vivian,  Clarendon 
Press,    1908). 

CAMPLI,  kam'ple,  Italy,  a  town  in  Naples, 
in  the  province  of  Teramo,  and  five  miles  north 
of  the  town  of  Teramo,  It  has  a  cathedral, 
three  churches,  an  abbey,  several  convents,  a 
hospital  and  a  mont- de-pi dtS.    Pop.  7,236. 

CAMPO  BASSO,  kam-po-bas'so,  Niccolo 
(COHTE  da),  Italian  soldier;  f).  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  15th  century.  He  had  first  sup- 
ported the  house  of  Anjou  in  the  kii^ora  of 
Naples,  but  afterward  transferred  his  services 
to  their  opponent,  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  At  the  siege  of  Nancy,  in  1477,  on 
the  approach  of  a  superior  force  under  Fer- 
rand,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  to  relieve  the  place, 
Campo  Basso  deserted  to  the  enemy  immedi- 
ately before  battle.  The  Burgundians  were  in 
consequence  defeated,  and  the  Duke  himself 
slain.  The  treacherous  Italian  was  supposed 
to  be  the  murderer. 

CAHFOFORHIO,  Italy,  town  66  miles 
northeast  of  Venice,  famous  for  the  treaty  of 
peace  between  Austria  and  France  which  was 
sifped  in  its  neighborhood,  17  Oct.  1797.  Its 
chief  provisions  were  that  Austria  should  cede 
the  Belgian  provinces  and  Lombardy  to  France, 
receiving  in  compensation  the  Venetian  states. 


Situated  at  an  altitude  of  nearly  1,000  feet,  a 
meteorological  station  is  maintained  here.  Wme 
and  woolen  goods  are  manufactured.  The  town 
is  celebrated  in  literature  and  history  by  Scott's 
ballad,  'The  Bold  Dragoon,'  depicting  an  inci- 
dent of  the  siege  in  1811  during  the  Peninsular 
War.     Pop.  6,000. 

CAMPO  SANTO  (■holy  field>),  the  name  , 
given  to  a  buryii^-ground  in  Italy,  best  known 
as  the  appellation  of  the  more  remarkable,  such 
as  are  surrounded  with  arcades  and  richly 
adorned.  The  most  famous  Campo  Santo  is 
that  of  Pisa,  which  dates  from  the  12th  century, 
and  has  on  its  walls  frescoes  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury of  great  interest  in  the  history  of  art 
Among  more  modem  Italian  cemeteries,  that  of 
Genoa  is  distinguished  for  its  magnificence. 

CAHPO  SANTO  OF  THE  DISSENT- 
BRS.    See  Bunhiu^Fisjis. 

CAMPOAMOR  Y  CAMPOOSORIO, 
kim-po-S-mAr'  i  c&m-pd-A-sfi'r£-o,  Ramon  dc, 
Spanish  poet;  b.  Na^la,  24  Sept.  1817;  d.  II 
Feb.  1901.  He  studied  medicine  with  great 
enthusiasm  and  thus  got  his  iirst  love  of  science 
which  never  left  him  and  which  continued  to 
influence  powerfully  all  his  literary  work  ani 
to  a  certain  degree,  his  political  and  social 
writings.  But  thou^  his  love  of  science  re- 
mained with  him  he  soon  tired  of  medicine 
and  turned  to  literature.  Realizing  thai  his 
education  was  superficial  and  that  he  lacked  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  literature  and  art 
of  his  own  and  foreign  lands,  be  shut  himself 
up  in  the  public  library  and  went  through  a 
self-imposed  course  of  reading  intended  to  help 
fit  him  for  a  literary  life.  His  literary  work, 
which  at  the  beginmng  was  as  much  journal- 

Digil  zed  =,  Google 


CAMPOBAS80 — CAHPODEA 


istic  as  auythiDg  else,  early  brouriit  him  into 
promineace  in  polidcal  circles  and  he  received 
one  political  office  after  another.  When  Chris- 
tina fied  from  Spa.in  in  1S40,  Canjpoamor  de- 
fended her  and  ever  afterward  he  continued 
to  show  admiration  for  and  devotion  to  her. 
Naturally,  holding  these  views,  he  was  a  Con- 
servative, views  which  were  somewhat  modified 
in  his  later  days.  But  to  his  political  views 
we  owe  a  great  deal  of  his  prose  work  which 
was  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  most  powerful 
influences  at  work  in  Spain  in  the  middle  of 
the  last  century.  This  political  work  brought  to 
Campoamor^  among  other  offices,  thoscof  gov- 
ernor of  Alicante  end  Valencia  and  State  Coun- 
sellor under  Alfonso  XII  (1874).  The  political 
views  held  by  him  at  this  period  of  his  hfe  are 
|>retty  fully  and  forcibly  expressed  in  'Polim- 
icas  con  la  Democracia,'  and  other  works  of  a 
like  nature,  which  present  vividlv  the  burning 
political  and  social  questions  of  tne  day.  Even 
his  philosophical  works,  mostly  of  an  eclectic 
tendency  and  subjective  idealism,  are  influenced 
by  his  political  ideas  and  the  struggle  in  which 
he  was  engaged. 

Already  when  scarcely  out  of  his  'teens, 
Campoamor  began  to  be  recognixed  as  a  Itoet 
of  force  and  futurity,  and  die  Liceo  Artistico, 
of  >vhich  he  was  a  very  active  member,  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  his  poems  in  1840  and  fol- 
lowed up  with  his  'Fabulas'  two  years  later. 
In  the  same  year  a  Madrid  house  published 
'Los  ayes  del  alma';  all  of  which  brought 
hjm  immediate  popularity  and  gave  him  an 
entrie  into  joumalism  and  literary  life.  He 
became  an  editor  on  El  EspaHol,  a  most  valued 
contributor  to  El  Heraldo,  one  of  the  strongest 
and  most  feared  poUtical  writers  of  the  day,  and 
one  of  the  most  prolific  contributors  in  Spain  to 
magaiines,  reviews  and  newspapers.  His  work 
was  widely  copied  by  the  provincial  press,  so 
that  his  name  was  soon  found  among  the  best 
known  in  literary  circles  and  bv  the  general 
public  wherever  the  Spanish  language  was 
spoken.  With  this  publicity  his  popvilarity  as 
a  writer  grew  with  great  rapidity.  In  18^  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Spanish  Academy, 
Gradually  he  grew  tired  of  political  controversy 
and,  in  his  latter  days,  he  clevoted  his  time  and 
energy  to  work  of  a  strictly  literary  nature, 
in  which  poetry  began  to  take  the  foremost 
place. 

Juan  Valera,  the  great  Spanish  critic,  has 
said  of  Campoamor  that  love  and  joy  are  the 
characteristics  of  the  first  half  of  his  life. 
This  is  iiot  alto^ther  true,  for  the  sadness,  bitter- 
ness, mild  cynicism  and  scepticism  of  his  later 
writings  show  through  frequently  in  his  earlier 
work.  Yet  he  is  ever  the  artist  and  his  touch 
is  sure  and  true.  A  word  painter,  he  is  vivid 
passionate,  yet  ever  true  to  nature.  As  a  poet  and 
thinker,  as  a  molder  of  new  forms  of  expres- 
^on  and  shades  of  thought,  he  is  in  the  fore 
rank  of  the  Spanish  poets  of  the  past  century. 
The  very  faults  attributed  to  him  by  his 
severest  critics  are  but  the  reflection  of  the  age 
in  which  he  lived  and  labored;  for  he  is  at 
once  realistic,  sceptical  and  spiritual,  all  in  a 
mild  way  that  conveys  the  impression  that  faith 
and  doubt  are  constantly  striving  in  his  soul 
for  the  mastery;  while  all  the  time  we  are 
conscious  that  he  is  toying  with  a  constantly 
intruding   paganism.     For  he    b   a   veritable 


__  __]ods,  pasung  from  the  Ugfaest 

pinnacle  of  Joy  to  ^e  lowest  depths  of  despair. 

As  a  poet,  Campoamor  possesses  a  style  chaiac- 

'  led  by  much  variety  and  lending  itself  to 

of  reasoning  and  of  form  of  eqres- 


presentation  and  his  energy  and  dire __ 

style,  rather  than  bis  facility  df  political 
thought;  created  for  him  a  place  in  the  held 
of  political  controversy. 

Cainpoarnor  ranks  higher  as  a  poet  than  as 
a  prose  writer  or  philosopher.  Among  his  best 
known   poetical   works   are    'Dolores*    (1S40): 

'    "- 2): 

^    —on'    (185" 

'  El  Drama  Nacional '  ■  '  Cuentos 
'Pequenos  poemas* ;  'Nuevospequenospoemas' 
(188?);  'Dolores  y  cantares'  (1882);  'Poeslas 
y  fibulas';  and  'Humoradaa.'  His  dramas, 
which  were  never  successful  on  the  stage,  in- 
clude 'El  honor';  'Guerra  k  la  guerra';  'El 
galacio  de  la  verdad' ;  'Dies  trx> ;  'Glorias 
umanas' ;  'Cuerdos  y  locos.'  His  most  im- 
portant prose  works  are  'Historia  crfdca  de  las 
Coriea  reformadoras' ;  'Filoiofia  de  las  leyes' ; 
'Las  polemicas  con  la  Democracia ' ;  '£1  Per- 
sonalismd' ;  <Lo  Absoluto' ;  *£I  tdeismo' ; 
'Canovas';  'La  Politica.' 

John  Husorr  Cornym, 
NatioHol  University  of  Mtxito. 
'  CAMPOBASSO,  Italy,  city,  capital  of 
Campobasso  (formerly  Molise)  province,  on 
Montevcrde  in  the  Apennines,  2,200  feet  above 
sea-level,  170  miles  by  rail  east- southeast  of 
Rome.  It  is  a  busy  agricultural  market  centre 
with  long-establishcid  manufactures  of  steel  and 
iron  ware,  notably  cutlery.  It  has  a  healthful 
climate,  good  educational  institutions,  a  cathe- 
dral, and  the  romantic  ruins  of  a  feudal  15th 
century  casde  overlook  the  city.    Fop.  17,000. 

"CAMPOBELLO,  New  Brunswick,  an 
island,  eight  miles  long.  In  Passamaquoddy  Bay, 
Chariotte  County,  situated  qutside  of  the  Maine 
boundary,  in  lat.  44*  57'  N.  and  long^  66*  55'  W. 
It  is  noted  as  a  summer  resort.  Though  cop- 
per and  lead  ores  exist,  the  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  herring  mackerel  and 
cod  fisheries.  From  1767  Admiral  Owen's  fam- 
ily retained  it  as  private  possession.  It  was 
acquired  in  1880  by  a  grow  of  capitalists  from 
Boston  and  New  York.    Pop.  1,230. 

CAMPODBA,  a  wingless  insect  of  the  or- 
der Tkysanura.  Owing  to  its  very  primitive 
features  it  has  been  regarded  by  Brauer  and 
by  Packard  as  being  the  form  nearest  related 
to  the  probable  ancestor  of  all  insects.  It  is  a 
little  white  insect  living  under  stones.  The 
body  is  long  and  narrow,  each  thoracic  st^fment 
equal  in  size,  the  antennie  long  and  narrow, 
while  the  body  ends  in  two  very  large,  slender, 
many-jointed  appendages.  It  is  very  agile  in 
its  movements  and  might  be  mistaken  for  a 
young  centipede  iLilhobius).  Though  allied  to 
the  bristle-tail  (Lefirwo)  it  is  still  more  primi- 
tive. The  mouth-parts  have  undergone  some 
degeneration,  being  partly  withdrawn  within 
the  head.  It  has  a  pair  of  short  vestigial  legs 
on  the  first  abdominal  sepmenl.  This  and  other 
features   suggest  Its  ongin  from   some   foim 


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CAHFOS  — CAHU8 


and  this,  as  well  as  its  structure,  su^^sts  that  it 
is  an  aacient  form  which'  has  persisted  to  the 

CAHPOS,  kam^Ss,  Aramlo  Martinez  de, 

Spanish  military  ofncer:  b.  Segovia,  Spain,  14 
Dec.  1831 1  d.  3  Sept.  1900.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  Military  Staff  School  in  Madrid  and 
appointed  a  lieutenant  in  the  army  in  1858: 
served  on  the  staff  of  General  O'Donnell  and 
became  chief  of  battalion  in  the  Morocco  cam- 
paim  of  1859;  was  on  duty  in  Cuba  with  the 
rank  of  colonel  in  1869-72.  Returning  to  Spain, 
he  became  a   leader  in   the   restoration   of   the 


commander-in-chief  of  the  Catalonia  district, 
and  crushed  Don  Carlos  at  Pefia  de  Plata  in 
1876.  For  these  services  he  was  promoted  cap- 
tain-general. In  1877  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Cuba^  and  brought  the 
revolution  to  a  close  chiefly  by  means  of  con- 
cessions-which,  as  Minister  of  War  and  Premier 
in  1879,  he  endeavored  unavailiUKly  to  carry 
out  He  was  Minister  of  War  m  1881  and 
1883,  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  North  of 
Spain  in  1884-85,  president  of  the  Spanish  Sen- 
ate in  1885  and  captain- general  of  New  Castile 
in  1888.  In  April  1895  he  was  appointed  sov- 
cmor-general  atfd  commander-in-chief  in  Cuba, 
but  in  January  1696  was  recalled  to  Spain.  He 
found  the  insurrection  more  formidable  than 
he  had  anticipated,  and  his  failure  to  pursue 
a  vigorous  war  policy  caused  much  dissatisfac- 
tion in  Spain.  On  his  arrival  in  Madrid  he 
repeated  his  belief  that  the  trouble  in  Cuba 
could  only  be  ended  by  granting  reforms.  In 
1899  he  was,  for  the  third  time,  j)resident  of 
the  Senate.  For  accounts  of  his  important 
connection  with  Cuban  affairs,  see  Spain  — 
History. 

CAHPOS,  Brazil,  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
state,  on  the  Parahyba  River,  30  miles  from 
the  sea  at  the  head  of  navigation  for  small 
steamers,  and  145  miles  northeast  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro  city.  The  trading  centre,  since  its 
establishment  in  1730,  of  a  fertile  alluvial  su^r- 
cane  growing  region,  also  producing  coffee, 
rice,  cotton  and  tropical  fruits,  its  chief  indus- 
trial establishments  are  sugar  refineries.  Cam- 
pos is  the  staUing  point  for  several  small  in- 
dependent railroad  lines  and  communicates 
indirectly  with  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  way  of 
Macafae.  The  dly,  electrically  lighted,  has 
many  &ne  buildings.  Pop.  of  city  22,500;  of 
mumcipal  boimdanes  78^000. 

CAMPRA,  Andr£,  French  composer:  b. 
Aix,  Provence,  4  Dec.  1660;  d.  Versailles,  29 
July  1774.  He  served  as  master  of  the  King's 
chapel,  and  composed  for  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music.  He  ranks  among  the  most  distin- 
guished composers  of  operas,  his  themes  being 
classical  love  stories,  notably  'Hesione'  (17CX>)  ; 
'Iphigenie  en  Taunde'  (1/11);  'Triomphe  de 
I'Ajnowr' ;  'Les  Amours  de  Mars  et  de  vinns.' 


It  is  die  terminus  of  >  branch  railway 


from  Ploesd,  exporting  die  products  of  its 
paper  mills,  operated  by  river  water  power. 
Besides  ancient  Roman  remains  there  are  also 
an  interesting  13th  century  monastery  ;md 
a  cathedral.    Pop.  13,000. 

CAMPUS  MARTIUS  (knovra  also  as 
Campus,  merely)  was  a  large  place  in  the  sub- 
urbs of  ancient  Rome,  consisting  of  the  level 
ground  between  the  Quirinal  CapitoUne  and 
Pincian  hills  and  the  river  Tiber.  From  tho 
earliest  times  it  seems  to  have  been  sacred  to 
the  god  Mars,  from  which  circumstance  it  re- 
ceived its  name.  It  was  originally  set  apart 
for  military  exercises  and  contests,  as  also  for 
the  meeting  of  the  comitia  by  tribes  and  by 
centuries.  In  the  later  period  of  the  republic, 
and  during  the  empire,  it  was  a  suDurban 
pleasure  ground  for  the  Romans,  and  was  laid 
out  with  gardens,  shady  walks,  baths,  etc  After 
the  time  of  Julius  Qesar  it  became  crowded 
with  public  buildings  and  monuments.  Consult 
Plainer,  'The  Topography  and  Monuments  of 
Ancient  Rome'  (pp  339-92,  New  York  1911). 
The  district  is  now  called  Campo  Marzo,  m 
which  the  greater  part  of  modem  Rome  lies. 

CAMPUS  SCELERATUS,  a  name  given 
to  a  spot  within  the  walls  of  Rome,  and  close 
by  the  Porta  Collina,  where  those  of  the  ves- 
tal virgins  who  had  trans^essed  their  vows 
were  entombed  alive  ^Liv,  viii,  15),  from  which 
circumstance  it  took  its  name. 

CAHUCCINI,  ka-moo-che'ne,  Vmcenzo, 
Italian  historical  painter:  b.  Rome,  21  Feb. 
1771;  d.  there,  2  Oct.  1844.  He  followed  the 
academic-classical  style,  and  is  generally  re- 
pcarded  as  the  most  notable  successor  of  Mengs 
in  Rome.  Among  his  best-known  works  are 
'Death  of  Caesar'  and  'Death  of  Virginia' 
(originals  in  Capodimonte  at  Naples)  ;  attar- 

Siece  representing  the  incredulity  of  Thomas 
in  Saint  Peter's,  Home)  ;  portrait  of  Thorwald- 
sen,  painted  in  1808;  portrait  of  Pius  VII," 
painted  1814;  portraits  of  the  King  and  Queen 
of  Naples,  painted  in  1818;  'Christ  Blessing  the 
Children,'  painted  for  Duke  Blacas  d'Aulps, 
1826;  portrait  of  Pius  VHI,  now  in  Cesena, 
1829;  'Virgil  Reading  Aloud  from  His  Own 
Poems,'  painted  for  Prince  Alexander  of  Rus- 
sia, 1839;  and  'Camillus  Freeing  the  Capitol,' 
painted  for  the  King  of  Sardinia,  1840. 

CAMUS,  ka'mu',  Artnaad  Gaston,  French 
revolutionist:  b.  Paris,  2  April  1740;  d.  2  Nov. 
1804.  A  zealous  and  ascetic  Jansenist  and  a 
master  of  ecclesiastical  law,  he  was  elected 
advocate-general  of  the  French  clergy,  and  in 
1789  memoer  of  the  Slates-General  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Paris,  He  now  appeared  as  the  resolute 
foe  of  the  ancient  regime,  gained  possession  of 
and  published  the  so-called  'Red  Book,'  with 
its  details  of  expenditures  so  disadvantageous 
to  the  court  and  its  ministers.  While  attempt- 
ing to  capture  Dumouriez'he  was  himself  cap- 
tured and,  after  two  years  in  Austria,  was 
exchanged  for  the  dao^ter  of  Louis  XVI.  He 
was  absent  in  Belgium  during  the  King's  trial, 
but  sent  his  vote  for  death.  He  was  made 
member  and  afterward  president  of  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred,  but  resigned  in  May  1797  and 
devoted  his  time  to  literature.  He  was  con- 
servator of  the  national  archives,  and  as  such 
preserved  the  old  dociuuents  of  the  abolished 


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CAMWOOD  —  C  ANAGHU8 


corporations  and  institutions,  and  wrote  several 
legaV  works. 

CAMWOOD.  BARWOOD,  or  RING- 
WOOD,  3  red  dye-wood  (Bapkia  nilida)  ob- 
tained in  Brazil  and  also  in  Africa  of  the  fam- 
ity  Leguminastt.  It  once  was  cotnmon  in  the 
oeiglibDrhood  of  Sierra  Leone,  and  was  also 
found  in  Tonquin  and  other  parts  of  Asia. 
This  wood  is  of  a  very  fine  color,  and  is  prin- 
cipally used  in  turnery  for  making  knife-handles 
and  similar  articles.  The  dye,  mordanted  with 
alum  and  tartar,  obtained  from  it,  is  brilliant, 
but  not  permanent. 

CANA  OP  GALILBE,  town  in  Palestine, 
at  no  great  distance  from  Capernaum  (or 
C^pharnaum),  remarkable  chiefly  as  havine 
been  the  scene  of  onr  Lord's  first  miracle.  It 
was  there  that  He  turned  water  into  wine  (John 
ii,  1).  It  was  also  the  ci^  of  Nathanael  and 
the  place  where  Jesus,  having  been  appealed  to 
t^  tne  nobleman  from  Capernaum  on  behalf  of 
his  dying  son,  with  a  word  effected  the  cure. 
A  long-established  tradition  has  identified  it 
with  a  village  bearing  the  name  of  Kefr' 
Kenna,  i^ich  lies  about  four  miles  northeast 
of  Nazareth;  but  in  recent  years  two  other 
sites  have  been  mentioned  by  Bible  students  as 
possible  claimants,  namely,  Kanet-et-Jebil,  about 
six  miles  farther  north,  and  Ain  Kana,  which 
lies  somewhat  nearer  to  Nazareth.  It  is  to  be 
said  that  Kefr'  Kenna  is  at  present  a  village  of 
about  600  rough  and  uncivilized  inhabitants, 
but  with  two  churches,  one  Franciscan,  one 
Greek.  At  Kanet-el-Jelul  there  are  only  ruins. 
The  argument  in  favor  of  Ain  Kana  is  purely 
etymolo^cal  and  is  not  supported  by  tradition. 

CANAAN,  ki'nan,  the  ancestor  of  the 
Canaanites  (q.v.).  He  was  (he  son  of  Ham 
and  the  father  of  Sidon  and  Heth  (Gen.  it.  6fli.) 
and  the  brother  of  Gush,  Mizraim  and  Put.  In 
Rabbinical  hterature  he  is  the  first  of  the  seven 
sinners    who    made    idols    for    the    heathens 


1  the  Ark,  contrary  to  God's  wish  that 
me  sexes  be  separated  therein.  The  curse  of 
Noah  (Gen.  ix,  lS-22)  descended  on  him  be- 
cause of  the  sin  of  his  father,  Ham  (Gen.  ix, 
20-27),  which  story  many  biblical  scholars  be- 
lieve to  have  been  told  at  first  of  Canaan. 
Probably  (his  conclusion  was  reached  because  it 
was  contrary  to  Jewish  sentiment  for  ao  inno- 
cent man  to  be  punished  for  the  sin  of  another. 
The  story  of  the  curse  was  written,  according 
to  some,  to  account  for  and  justify  the  servile 
condition  of  the  Canaanites  and  Ine  Isrjelitish 
supremacy. 

CANAAN  and  CANAANITES,  geograph- 
ical and  ethnological  terms  applied  to  the  coun- 
try and  the  inlrabitants  of  southern  Syria  in 
general.  TTie  country  extended  from  the  foot 
of  Mount  Hermon  to  the  lower  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  including  territory  both  east  and  west  of 
the  Jordan ;  that  is,  Jndea,  Phcenida  and  Phil- 
igtia  proper.     Ethnologfcally  the  name  was  ap- 

eled  to  all  of  the  heathen  peoples  (Jebusites, 
ittites,  Amorites,  etc.)  whom  the  Israelites 
found  west  of  the  Jordan.  The  counlt^  is  in 
some  instances  connected  with  Phtentaa,  and 
in  consequetKe  it  appears  (e.g.,  Hos.  xii,  8:  Is. 
xxiii,  8)  in  the  general  sense  of  merchant.  The 
geographical   inference  is  that   the   land  was 


originally  a  small  strip  of  coast,  gradually  ex- 
taided  by  conquest.  The  etymologv  has  been 
derived  from  the  .dialectic  wora  meaning 
*low,*  because  of  the  fact  that  in  Egjiptian  the 
word  appears  with  tiie  article  jwebxed  "the 
canaan*;  but  this  derivation  has  been  con- 
tested, and  the  suggestion  has  been  made  that 
the  land  took  its  name  from  the  people,  not 
vice-versa. 

The  earliest  mention  of  'Canaan*  is  found 
in  the  Amarna  tablets  where  the  name  is  used 
interchangeably  with  ■Amurru'  for  the  laud 
subject  to  the  Amorite  Aziru  (162,  41)  (see 
AtfORiTE),  but  mostly  as  a  general  nomencla- 
ture of  Syria.  In  the  Egyptian  inscription^ 
Canaan  (Ka-n'nJ  is  mentioned  at  the  time  of 
Seti  I,  and  within  the  territory  of  Phnnicia  in 
the  days  of  Rameses  III ;  and  the  *laad  of  Ca- 
naan* apparently  as  Philistia  in  two  papyri 
from  the  19th  dynas^.  Coins  from  the  time  of 
Antiochus  IV  and  his  successors  bear  the  leg- 
end of  'Laodic^  a  metropolis  in  Canaan.* 

What  the  original  language  o!  the  Canaan- 
ites was  we  do  not  know,  but  in  later  .times  it 
was  understood  to  mean  Hebrew  or  the 
closely  allied  Phcenidan  dialect. 

On  the  basis  of  the  Egyptian  and  As^rian 
inscriptions  the  history  ot  Canaan  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  periods:  (a)  the  pre-Israelitish, 
from  about  3S00  B.C  down  to  the  definite  con- 
stitution of  Israelitish  supremacy;  (b)  the 
Israelitish  supremacy  from  about  1100  B.a — 
740  B.C.;  (c)  decline  of  this  supremacy  ending 
in  the  absotption  o£  Canaan  by  Assyria  ana 
Babylonia  5S7  b.c  After  the  return  of  the  He- 
brews from  the  so-called  Babylonian  exile,  tbe 
historv  of  the  north  and  south  becomes  in- 
volveo.  in  the  various  attempts  to  found  a 
world  power  by  Persia^  Macedonia  and  Rome. 
The  characteristic  note  m  tbe  history  is  the  im- 
possibility of  political  union  among  the  vari- 
ous peoples,  probably  due  to  the  split-up  na- 
ture of  the  coast  lands  which  they  inhabited. 
Consult  tbe  'Te)-Al-Amama  Letters'  (ed.  by 
Winckler  with  trans.  1896) ;  Sellin's  report  of 
excavations  at  Tel  Ta'annek;  Vincent,  <Ca- 
naan>  (1907) ;  Beniiger,  'Hebraische  Arche- 
o!ogie>  (1907);  Bohl,  'KanaanSer  und 
Hebraer.'  and  any  of  the  biblical  dictionaries. 

CANA-BOTA,  %  large  shark  {HexaHckut 
or  Noitdanits)  which  frequents  the  waters  of 
the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Uediterranean. 
Specimens  have  been  found  in  the  waters  near 
the  West  Indies. 

CANACB,  kin'a-se,  (I)  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, a  daughter  of  jCoIus  and  Enarete,  who 
was  punished  by  death  because  of  her  unlaw- 
ful passion  for  her  brother;  she  b  mentioned 
in  (mower's  'Confessio  Amantis,'  and  in  Chau- 
cer's 'Man  of  Law's  Tale.'  (2)  In  Chaucer's 
'Squire's  Tale>  the  daughter  of  King  Cam- 
buscan,  who  being  the  possessor  of  a  magic 
ring,  can  understand  Ae  love  plaint  of  a  fe- 
male hawk. 

CANACHUS,  Greek  sculptor  of  the  6tb 
centuiy,  b.c.  He  was  a.  native  of  Sicyon  in 
Achxa.  His  most  celebrated  works  were  two 
statues  of  Apollo,  one  in  bronze  executed  for 
the  temple  of  Miletus,  tbe  other  of  cedar-wood 
for  the  d^  of  Thebes.  Representations  of  the 
statue  of  Miletus  have  come  down  to  us  on  the 
coins  of  the  period. 


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r  P 


,8101 


itized=,G00QlC 
D  OB 


DOMINION  or  CANADA 

AND 
NEWFOUNDLAND 


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CANADA  — 6XOG&APUT  (U 


CANADA,  D«ainioa  of.  In  tk«  foUowinE 
Kiits  o[  articles  will  be  fouml  a  conprebenuve 
treatment  of  Canada — its  history,  Kovenunen^ 
economic  developmmt,  reUctous  and  aacial  ac- 
tivities, etc. 

1.  Guenplij  : 

1.  OntGiM  HutoT  uul  ft>-    : 

Litical  D«Vttlopni«Dt         is.  r^utpoKn  ijovasaaat 
y  Tit  Bn   at  Euly   Dia-    26.  Ronuo  Catholic  Chunib 

eonnt  «  Cuuda 

4.  Undir  the  Pnonh  Rule        1>.  Tin  pTendi  ''*-**— 
i.  GnM      Biiulo'i     ?tgbt    IS.  FoimlUiDnj  RmUI   Dit- 

wilh  francs  tor  Nortt  fiibut.'  '    " 

6.  Osdw    Britah    Rnl*    to    3*. 

Coofadtntkn  30.  UiJIbiiy8l 

1.  The  Uuitime  Pravinca  3t.  Tbt  Afsdii 

to  Confedenlkni  31.  The  Duelie 

-  -  M.  Th«  Xibba 


M  ClDsy  RewTH 

35.  Seignioml  TcDuit 
of   tha    36.  Hudson'!  Say  Compsn; 
31.  Wuhio«DB  TMaty 
3S.  Jaaait  btaUa  Act 

39.  Agricullum 

40.  Ponct  and  Lumber  In- 


43.  Rihcrie 

■  of    44.  Uannla^.- 

id  sum  wiUi    tS.  Water  Pinnn 

46.  Commetce,    Tati 

17.  PnnurT  BdDcattop  TiantpoiWlioa 

It.  Oiaimt  BduOtiiu  48l  PubuTfinMei 

n.  Pifblic  Bducation  49.  Cumncy^    Coj"* 

11.  Ttchniol    Bducatkm   in  Lcsal  Tendei 

Cana&  N.  The  Oraiisn  i 

12.  CathoJk  Bdncation  SI.  Tha  Labor  Movnteat 

I.  GEOGRAPHY.  I.  General.— Area  and 
Boundaries.— With  the  exception  of  Alaska, 
Greenland,  Newfoundland,  and  the  two  small 
islands  of  Saint  Pierre  aod  Miquelon,  all  the 
northern  half  of  the  NorUi  Amcricao  continent 
is  comprised  in  iht:  Dominioo  of  Canada. 
Alaska,  the  great  peninsubr  projection  at  the 
northwest  comer  of  (he  contioeDt,  with  a  nar- 
row strip  of  coast  depending  from  it  south- 
ward, beloDgs  to  the  United  States;  Greenland, 
a  huge  island  at  the  northeast  corner,  is  Dan- 
ish; Newfoundland,  another  island  blocking  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  estuary  on  the 
cast  coast,  is  British,  and  Saint  Pierre  and 
Uiquelon,  lying  off  Newfoundland,  are  French. 
To  the  north  of  tlw  .cottttneut  there  i&  a  cluster 
of  large  islands,  divided  from  the  mainland 
Mid  from  one  another  by  comparatively  narrow 
channels.  All  of  these  fonn  part  of  Canada 
and  are  included  in  its  area,  bm  as  yet  tii^ 
have  been  only  partially  e^lored,  asd  their 
eua  dimensions  are  not  known.  The  official 
estimate,  as  nearly  accurate  as  it  can  be  made 
at  present,  gives  the  total  area  of  Canada,  in> 
chiduig  the  great  fresh-water  lakes  wholly 
within  its  botmdaries,  as  3,729,665  square  miles. 
The  bonndaries  sei>arating  Canada  from  its 
only  conlincntat  neighbor,  die  United  States, 
are  to  a  great  extent  meridians  of  longitude  or 
parallels  of  latitude.  Between  Canada  and 
Alaska,  beginnine;  from  the  north,  the  boundary 
follows  long.  141'  W.  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
to  Mount  Saint  EKas,  within  20  miles  of  the 
Pacific,  from  which  pomt  it  ts  an  irregular  line 
rnnning  about  parallel  with  the  coast  round  the 
Deads  of  an  bays  and  inlets  of  the  sea  at  a 
distance  of  20  to  30  miles  inland.  It  reaches 
Iiae-a-ater  again  at  the  head  of  Portland  Chan- 
nel, down  which  it  passes,  terminating  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean.    All   the   islands  of   the  coast 


south  of  Iftt  M*  4tf  bdons  to  Canada  as  far 
as  the  sonthem  extremity  oi  VoBcottver  Island, 
except  that  a  cluster  of  small  blaads  between 
the  southern  ead  of  Vancouver  Island  and  the 
mainUndf  but  south  of  lat.  49*,  are  inchided  in  ' 
the  temtoiy  of  the  State  of  Washington. 
The  international  boundary  bemos  again  in 
Juao  de  Puca  Strait  It  takes  a  devious  course 
from  Vancouver  Island  to  lat  49°  on  the  coast 
of  the  continent,  and  then  follows  the  49th 
parallel  as  £ar  east  aa  Lake  of  the  Woods.  A 
water  boundary  here  begins,  up  Rainy  River 
and  its  headwater  series  of  lakes,  cutting  across 
the  Imgbx  of  Iwad  to  another  chain  of  small 
takes  and  following  Pigeon  River  to  its  mouth 
in  Lake  Superior.  From  this  point  the  bound- 
ary is  the  chain  of  Great  Lakes  and  the  Saint 
Lawrence  River  to  its  intenection  with  lat.  45*. 
The  luie  now  follows  a  more  ot  less  arbitrary 
course  along  the  45th  parallel  for  some  distance, 
then  risitu  irregularly  to  the  nort^  almost  to 
lat  47°  3u,  then  down  the  umer  course  of  the 
Sant  John  River  as  far  as  Grand  Falls,,  then 
due  south  to  the  Saint  Croix  River,  which  it 
folhnrs  to  the  Bay  of  Fnndy.  The  areas  in 
sqtiare  miles  of  the  individual  provinces  and 
territories  since  the  reallotment  of  territory  in 
1912  are  as  foUows: 


Northw«T«Titorkt.. 

1,107,916 

1,142,224 

Total 

3,603.910 

125. TSS 

3,729,663 

Main  Fhvslcal  Features.— The  four  princi- 
pal surface  divisions  are:  (1)  The  Appalachian 
region,  forming  the  extreme  southeastern  cor- 
ner; (2)  the  Laurentian  plateau  or  peneplain, 
with  its  fringes  and  outliers  of  lowlands,  i 


mountain  region  to  the  west  Each  of  these 
divisions  represents,  on  the  whole,  a  different 
geological  formation  and  has  its  own  peculiar 
physical  features.  1.  The  Appaladiian  region 
of  Canada  is  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
system  of  parallel  ranges  of  mountains  pushed 
up,  as  it  were,  from  ue  southeast  against  the 
great  archaean,  or  Laurentian,  area.  The  ranges 
all  run  from  southwest  to  northeast,  the  Nova 
Scotian  peninsular  being  without  a  correspond- 
ing extension  in  the  United  States.  The  hills 
are  composed  of  older  rocks,' rising  out  of  the  ■ 
carboniferous  strata  which  once  overlay  the 
whole  district,  but  of  later  fonnation  than 
the  Laurentian  plateau  to  the  north.     They  arc 


tian  plateau  or  peneplain  which  covers  about 
half  the  entire  area  of  Canada  is.  geologically 
speaking,  the  nucleus  of  the  continent.  It  pre- 
sents a  sfaield-shuMd  surface  of  archsan  rocks, 
broken  into  on  the  north  by  Hudson  Bay,  and 
extending  south  to  the  Saint  Lawrence  Kiver 


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CANADA —  GBOGRAPRT  <1> 


As  is  implied  1^  calling  it  a  peneplain,  it  is  a 
much-weathered  surface  nowhere  rigiiw  to  any 
great  height,  but  maintaining-  a  fair  elevation 
above  the  aea-level,  except  along  the  west  shore 
of  Hudson  Bay.  It  is  a  country  of  hard,  crys- 
talline rocks,  everywhere  scored  by  glacier  ac- 
tion, and  sparsely  covered  with  soil  in  which 
pinf^  spruce  and  other  northern  trees  ^row 
more  or  less  densely,  giving  place  in  the  higfaer 
latitudes  to  mosses  and  lichens.  As  a  result 
of  the  melting  of  the  glaciers  which  covered 
this  region  in  the  last  geological  period,  the 
whole  surface  is  a  net-work  of  small  lakes  and 
streams.  The  latter  have  been  unable  to  wear 
down  the  hard  rocks  to  anv  appreciable  extent, 
and  consequently  present  all  diveraities  of  level 
with  many  falls  and  rapids  in  their  course. 
The  western  limit  of  the  plateau  is  marked  by 
a  series  of  great  lakes,  from  Great  Bear  Lake 
in  the  north  to  Lake  Huron  near  the  southern 
extremity.  Adjoining  the  Lanrentian  plateau 
on  the  north  and  south  there  is,  as  it  were,  a 
irinee  of  later  geological  formatians.  Most  of 
the  large  islands  north  of  Hudson  Bay  as  of 
the  mainland  west  of  it  appear  to  consist 
chiefly  of  older  sedimentary  rocks  in  ondia- 
turbed  arrangement  but  the  partial  glaciation  of 
these  islands  has  hitherto  prevented  any  de- 
tailed geological  or  other  survey.  South  of  the 
Laurentian  plateau  again  occurs  a  lowland  area, 
consisting  of  the  valley  of  the  Saint  Lawrence 
River  and  the.  peninsula  enclosed  by  the  three 
lower  members  of  the  chain  of  great  lakes.  It 
is  smalt  in  extent,  but  of  great  importance  in 
the  history  of  Canada,  because  the  first  Euro- 
pean settlements  were  established  mainly  within 
Its  limits  and  it  still  contains  the  greater  part 
of  the  population.  HI.  The  centraf  plain  is  of 
vast  extent,  reaching  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  so  that  only  its  northern 
portion  lies  in  Canada.  It  is  the  elevated  bed 
of  a  carboniferous  sea,  and  from  a  breadth  of 
fiOO  miles  at  the  international  boundary  it  is 
gradually  narrowed  toward  the  north  by  the 
westerly  trend  of  the  Laurentian  plateau  and 
broken  into  by  subsidiary  ranges  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Still  farther  north,  where  it  ter- 
minates at  the  Arctic  Ocean,  it  again  expands 
to  a  width  of  about  300  miles.  There  are  three 
steppes  of  different  elevations  in  this  great  plain, 
rising  from  east  to  west,  and  the  eeneral  slope 
is  from  the  southwest  downwara  to  the  east 
and  north.  IV.  The  fourth  great  region,  the 
mountain  belt,  is  also  of  vast  extent,  being 
traceable  in  greater  or  lesser  width  from  the 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  at  the  extremity  of  South 
America,  to  the  farthest  western  point  of 
Alaska  In  Canada  this  mountain,  or  Cordil- 
leran,  region  attains  a  breadth  of  about  400 
miles,  the  greatest  average  elevation  being  in 
the  southern  portion.  The  Rocky  Mountains, 
the  most  easterly  range,  are  paralleled  by  a 
succession  of  smaller  ranges,  the  most  westerly 
of  which  is  represented  by  the  mountains  of 
Vancouver  Island  and  the  Queen  Charlotte 
Islands.  The  geological  age  of  this  division 
is  more  ancient  than  thai  of  the  central  plain, 
and  Ihe  changes  in  the  cnist  have  been  violent 
and  recent,  resultinj?  in  the  unheaval  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  the  youngest  of  the  ranges 
of  the  Cordilleran  System. 

Altitndes  and  Slopeo.— The  greatest  alti- 
tudes in  Canada  are  in  the  Saint  Elias  range  of 
mountains,  a  small  group  near  the  Alaska  iron- 


tier,  not  far  ftom  tke  Pacific  Ocean.  Mount 
Logan  is  the  highest  of  these  and  is  estimated 
at  19^539  feet  The  next  greatest  elevations  are 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  the  parallel  ranges  immediately  to  the  west, 
where  several  peaks  exceed  12,000  feet,  although 
only  on^  Motmt  Robson,  possibly  reaches 
13,500.  The  height  of  the  ranges  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  becomes  less  and  less  as  they 


approach  ^e  Pacific  Ocean,  and  in  Vancouver 
Island  the  highest  peak  is  under  7,500  feet 
The  next  greatest  altitudes  are  in  the  extreme 


of  the  I^aurentian  plateau,  in  northern 
Labrador,  where  a  range  of  hills  occurs,  bor- 
dering on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  attains  a 
height  of  6,000  feet  Elsewhere  in  Labrador 
the  Laurentian  plateau  seldom  exceeds  1300 
feet,  and  on  the  west  side  of  Hudson  Bay  the 
Laurentian  area  is  lower  and  gradually  merges 
in  the  central  plain.  The  Appalachian  region 
contains  ranges  of  low  hills  nowhere  exceeding 
4,000  feet,  which  is  only  reached  in  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  Gasp^  peninsula.  The  central  plain 
rises  in  three  steppes  from  the  valley  of  the 
Red  River,  about  800  feet  above  sea-level,  to 
the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  it 
has  an  extreme  elevation  of  4,200  feet  and  an 
average  elevation  of  about  3,000  feet  The 
Saint  Lawrence  lowlands  are  nAwhere  much 
higher  than  1,000  feet,  or  about  SOD  feet  above 
Luces  Huron  and  Eric,  and  sink  gradually  with 
the  Saint  Lawrence  River  to  its  mouth. 

Water  Ways.— The  distribution  of  land 
and  water  in  Canada  has  rendered  the  interior 
continental  area  peculiarly  accessible.  The 
Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  is  a  large  arm  of  the 
sea  affording  ready  means  of  entrance  from  the 
east,'  and  leads  to  w  broad  estuary  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  River.  Exploration  naturally  fol- 
lowed this  highway.  >Io  mountain  barriers  oc- 
cur to  obstruct  or  divert  approach  by  the  rivers 
Saint  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  to  the  chain  of 
great  takes  that  extend  to  the  very  centre  of 
the  continent.  The  length  of  continuous  water- 
way from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  the  Straits  of 
Belle-Isle  to  the  bead  of  Lake  Superior  is  2,388 
miles.  Similarly  Hudson  Bay,  a  huge  land- 
lodced  sea,  communicating  with  the  Atlantic  by 
Hudson  Strait,  reaches  even  farther  west  than 
'hake  Superior  to  the  south  of  it  It  was  by 
way  of  Hudson  Strait  and  Hudson  Bay 
that  the  English  explorers  arrived  at  the 
great  interior  idatns,  just  as  the  French 
voyageitrs  penetrated  to  the  same  region 
W  (he  Sami  Lawrence  and  the  Great  L^es. 
The  first  systematic  attempt  at  settlement 
of  what  is  now  the  province  of  Manitoba, 
where  the  prairies  begiii,  was  by  way  of  Hud- 
son Bay,  when  Lord  Selkirk  established  hb 
colony  of  Highlanders  at  the  junction  of  the 
Agsiniboine  and  Red  rivers  in  the  first  years 
of  the  19th  century.  Two  great  waterways  are 
found  in  the  central  area  leading  up  from  Hud- 
son Bay  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  very 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  These  are  the 
Nelson-Saskattjiewan  and  the  Mackenzie- Atha- 
basaca  river  systems,  both  of  wtuch  were  well- 
traveled  highways  for  voyageurs  and  fur-trad- 
ers long  before  settlements  along  the  Saint 
Lawrence  Valley  had  reached  the  Ontario  pen- 
insula. In  the  Appalachian  region  there  is 
one  river  of  considerable  length,  the  Saint 
John,  which  flows  across  the  ranges  into  the 
Bay  of  Fundy.    The  mountain  re{^on  possesses 


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CANADA— mCOffiRAPHY  <I) 


Ml 


ib  great  liven  ia  dM  Coltunbia.  did  Fnscf  and 
the  YulsMi, -all  of  which- originate  at  the  western 
bue  of  the  Rocky  MotBtauu  snd  empty  into 
the  Pacific  Biu. the  rivers  of  this  regioo  uc 
obstructed  by  numerous  end  fierce  rapids  axA 
have  not  afforded  the  sulie  iaeiUties  far  naviga- 
tion- as  the  rivers  of  the  central  and  eastern 
areas.  In  recent  years,  however,  the  Ytdcon 
lias  become  a  great  Uc^tw  ieaditw  to  the  gold- 
fields  of  Aiaaka.  and  the  Ynhon  Territory. 

CliDuite  tttd  Wtgttablt  Prodsctiotts.-- 
The  climate  of  Canada  bos  the  osQal  clmracter- 
istks  of  a  coQtiBental  cfimate  in  its  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  but  the  presence  oi  vast  bodies  of 
water,  Hudson  Bay  and  the  Great  Lalcei,  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  continent,  has  introdaceid  tnod- 
ificadoHB  of  tempwature  which  differentiate 
Canada  from  other  great  continental  areas. 
Thus,  the  Lanrentian  lowlands  enjoy  a  tem- 
perate and  fairly  equable  climat^  and  are 
wholly  free  from  periods  of  droi^iit.  The 
central  prainea,  moreover,  thcaigh- subject  to 
"' "'     tei^Krature,'    obtain    sufficient 


about  2Q;000  square  miles  fonus  part  of  the 
semi-arid  region  which  has  so  great  an  extca>- 
sion  south  of  the  intemational  boundary.  The 
grassy  plains  are  liable  to  frosts  la  the  eatly 
and  late  smmner,  perhaps  in  ooasequence  of  tm 
general  slope  down  toward  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
with  no  intenteniag  chain  of  imauntaina.  It  has 
been  found,  however,  that  where  the  gronnd  has 
been  brakoi  up  for  agrieulture  over  consider- 
able areas  these  unseasonable  frosts  do  not  oc- 
cur,  and  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  marked 
tendency  to  an  increase  in  the  average  predptla>- 
tion.  The  western  portion  of  the  centnd 
^ain  enjoys  mildo'r  winters  than  the  eastern, 
owing  to  the  phenooacnon  known  as  Chinook 
winds,  which  crosi  the  mountain  ranges  from 
the  -west  and  descend  upon  file  plain  as  wann, 
dry  winds,  evaporating  moisture  and  raising  the 
temperature.  This  contrast  is  even  more 
martced  in  the  north  than  in  the  south  of  the 
area,  in  the  mountain  regioh  great  variations 
are  presented  both  in  temperature  and  humidity. 
The  islands  and  the  coast  of  the  mainland  up 


.1  slopes  of  the  ranges  farther  inWdatso 

receive  abundant  rainfall  and  are  clothed  with 
dense  foresti.  But  the  interior  plateau  receives 
very  Uttle  moisture,  and  its  altitude  and  dryness 
combine  to  give  it  extreoKi  of  temperature  in 
summer  and  winter.  The  northern  part  of  the 
Laurentian  plateau  on  either  side  of  Hudson 
Bay  is.  for  climatic  reasons,  almost  uninhabit- 
able. The  forests  that  ckitbe  the  southern  por- 
tion of  the  same  plateau  give  place  to  grasses, 
sedges  and  mosses,  and  ice  remains  in  the  rivers 
and  lakes  tbroiq^iout  the  brief  summer.  This 
tinidra.  region,  some  of  which  has  not  yet  been 
explored,  covers  an  area  of  perhaps  200,000 
square  miles  west  of  Huds6n  Bay,  where  it  goes 
imder  the  name  of  'the  Bamn  Grounds,'*  and 
half  as  much  east  of  Hudson  Bay,  in  the  Labra- 
dor peninsula.  The  cKmate  of  the  Appalachian 
region  is  influenced  by  its  proximity  lo  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  and  presents  no  peculiarities. 
There  are  three  well-defined  belts  of  vegetation 
in  eastern  and  central  Canada.  The  southern 
part  of  the_central  plain  is  a  region  of  treelcM, 
grassy    prairies,   once  die  htime   of  countless 


buKilo.-  In  the  «Btreme  nordi,  on  ettUer  side 
of .  Hudson  Bay  arc  the  Arctic  tundias,  the 
Barren  Grounds,  where  only  mosses  and  other 
lower  forms  of  vegetaUe  lite  c»n  exist,  aSord- 
iag'  food  to  evormous  herds  of  caribou  and  a 
siraller  mnnber  of  musk-oxen.  Between  these 
tws  treeless  regions  is  the  great  forest  bdt 
wbith  covets  the  whole  of  eastern  Canada  and 
extend)  across  the  central  plain  to  the  moun- 
tain^ verging  oeattnuaUy  north  in  consequence 
of  the  decceasiiig  severity  of  the  wintu's,  until 
in  the  valley  of  the  Mackemie  River  it  reaches 
beyond  the  Arctic  cirde.  la  the  northerly  lat- 
itudes the  foreM  is  composed  chiefly  erf  pine, 
ifruces,  taowrack  and  aspen  poplar,  but  in  its 
aeutheni  exlea«oQ,  and  especialh'  in  the  Saint 
Xjvwrence  hmlapdi  and  the  Appalachian  regioiL 
dectduo«S'(recs,  such  as  the  maple,  beedt  and 
ash,  are  mingled  with  the  conifers  and  even 
nqtlace  them  in  the  river  valleys.  Before  the 
advent  of  the  while  men,  a  dense  growth  of 
fdresC  covered  dte  Appalachian  region  and  the 
LaitrBtitian  lowlands,  which  have  since  been 
cleared  to  a  great  extent  and  submitted  to  agri- 
culaiial  processes.  This  development  is  still 
Eoing  on,  seltletncot  is  piBhed  f aether  and 
farther  north,  and  forest  ia  giviiu'  place  lo 
iarms  wherever  Hke  soil  is  suitahlc.  The  prairie 
region  is  beihg  rapidlj;  converted  b>  agricultural 
uses,  even  the  semi-arid  comer  being  capable  <A 
cultivation  by  the  aid  of  irrigatioo.  The  moun- 
tainrCgioR,  throughoui  almost  its  entire  extent, 
is  heavily  wooded  near  the  coast  and  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  inland  range.  The  etur- 
mous  height  and  gicth  to  which  trees  of  some 
species,  such  as  uie  Douslas  fir  and  western 
Cedar,  may  attain  are  Well  known.  The  rivet 
vallqrs  and  alluvial  flats  of  the  southern  portion 
are  suitable  for  agriculture,  but  the  interior 
(tlateau  does  not  receive  enough  aioiatare  aad 
IS  given  over  to  ranching. 

U.  ThS  PnviiKxs.—  [For  the  sake  of  con- 
venience and  completeness,  the  physical  features 
and  topopnpby  of  the  provinces  compriung  . 
the  Dtnninion  are  here  Imefly  treated.  The 
articles  in  this  worlcon  the  iniuvidual  provinces 
should  be  cuisuhed  for  further  information.] 

Nova  Scotia^— The  province  of  Nova  Sco- 
tia, the  most  southerly  member  of  the  A^la- 
diian  region  in  Canada,  consists  of  a  penmsula 
about  250  miles  king  and  100  at  its  greatest 
breadth,  and  its  continuation,  the  island  of  Cape 
Breton,  tvhich  is  separated  from  Nova  Scotia 

S roper  by  a  narrow  straat,  the  Gut  of  Canso. 
[ore  or  less  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  pen- 
insula  ran  ranges  of  low  hills,  which  near  the 
Atlantic  become  mere  ridges  of  rock.  The 
country  on  this,  the  southern  side  of  the  pror^ 
iuee,  is  wild  and  rocky,  covered  with  forests 
and  dotted  widi  small  lakes.  Agriculture  is 
confined  to  the  alluvial  land  along  the  livcr 
valleys,  and  the  villages  and  towns  for  the  most 
part  are  situated  on  the  coast  at  the  heads  of 
the  nianerons  bays  which  here  indent  it.  The 
north  shore  of  the  peninsula  is  of  a  totally  dif- 
ferent aspect.  The  extended  ridge  of  trap  which 
forms  the  southern  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Fuady 
is  broken  into  in  a  few  places  only,  and  long 
narrow  bays  are  thus  fonned,  into  wliich  the 
tide  rushes  with  great  force.  The  <iief  agri- 
cultural district  of  the  province  is  behind  this 
protecting  wall  of  trap,  and  the  hills  beyond 
arc  covered  with  fertile  soil  and  clothed  to  tbor 
tops  with  dense  hardwood  forests.     Tbemarsfaes 


Cig 


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CANADA— GZOGRAPHY  (I) 


foimed  by  tlie  enannous  tides  of  Uinas  Basin 
and  Chignecto  Bay,  the  two  heads  of  the  Bay 
of  Fundjr,  have  been  recLaimed  and  diked,  and 
foim  a  rii±  pasture  country.  The  orchards  of 
the  sheltered  valWs  on  this  side  of  the  penin' 
suia  are  celebrated.  The  chief  region  of  rain- 
ing and  industrial  development  is  die  northeast 
girtion,  facing  Northumberland  Strait  and  (he 
ulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  Here  coal  apd  iron 
are  cxtensivelY  worlced;  gyi>»un>  also  occtu^ 
in  large  quantities  and  is  exported  i>rincmally 
from  the  district  around  Uinas  Basin.  Gold, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  found  in  the  wild  rotky 
r^on  along  the  southern  or  Atlantic  coast, 
and  is  mined  on  this  side  from  one  end  of  the 
peninsula  to  the  other.  The  fisheries  of  Nova 
Scotia  have  always  been  an  important  industry, 
carried  on  from  every  harbor  of  the  province. 
Cape  Breton  Island,  of  illegular  shape,  about 
lOO  miles  long  by  80  broad,  forms  pan  of  the  and  I 
province  of  Nova  Scotia.    An  arm  of  the  »e»,  Qi 

entering  from  the  northeast;  almost  divides  the      merly 


entering  from  the  northras^  almost  divides  the 
.island  m  two;  actual  division  is  accomphshed 
by  a  cans]  across  the  narrow  neck  of  land.    A 

Sreat  part  of  the  island  to  the  north  is  a  high 
□rest-covered  table-land,  and  the  centre  about 
ihe  Bras  d'Or  channel  is  the  most  pictnresque 
district  in  the  province.    At  the  east  side  occur 

I  the  coal  and  iron  ore  deposits  whkh  are  making 
Sydney,  its  chief  town,  one  of  the  industrial 
centres  of  Canada. 

New  Brunswick. —  The  second  In  import- 
ance of  the  maritime  provinces  is  New  Bruns- 
wick occiipying  tiie  centre  of  the  Appalachian 
region  of  Canada.  It  forms  an  irregular  square 
of  about  200  miles  in  extreme  length  and 
breadth,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Bay  of 
Chaleur  and  the  province  of  Quebec,  on  the 
east  by  the  GuH  of  Saint  Lawrence  and  North- 
umberland Strait,  on  the  s<nith  by  Nova  Scotia 
fat  the  isthmus)  and  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  on 
UK  west  by  the  State  of  Uaine  and  the  prownce 
of    Quebec.    Two   lines  of   hills  traverse  the 

.  province;  one  follows  die  coast'Une  of  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  the  other,  startii^  from  the  same 
southwestern  angle,  runs  diagonally  across  ihc 

Erorince  to  the  northeast.  Between  the  two 
es  a  triangular  low-lying  plain,  sloping  down 
to  the  cast  coast,  and  beyond  the  dia«>nal  range 
of  hills  the  northwest  region  of  the  i)rovince 
is  a  rolling  country,  fertile  and  well  suited  for 
agriculture,  but  at  present  covered  with  forests. 
New  Brunswick  is  a  country  of  fine  rivers, 
which  have  cut  broad  valleys  throu^  the  soft 
rocks  of  the  interior  and  am>rd  access  from  the 
sea-coast  to  the  innermost  recesses  of  the  prov- 
ince. The  Saint  John  River  flows  south  from 
the  extreme  northwest  angle,  entering  the  Bay 
of  Fundy  not  much  more  than  50  miles  from 
the  intematianat  boundary.  The  Saint  Croix, 
forming  the  boundary,  also  falls  into  the  Bay 
of  Fundy.  The  Restigouch^  flowing  into  the 
Bay  of  Cluleur  the  Miramichi  into  Miramichi 
Bay  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and  the 
Richibucto,  into  Northumberland  Strait  are  the 
other  )ar^  rivers,  A  dense  forest,  chiefly 
Spruce,  still  covers  tnoBt  of  the  province,  and 
lumfa«ring  is  the  principal  industry.  The  fish- 
eries are  second  in  importance.  Agriculture 
follows  the  river  valleys  mainly,  but  the  marsh 
lands  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  have 
been  converted  into  rich  pastures^  and  new 
land  in  the  interior  is  continually  being  brought 
under  cultivation.    In  time,  no  doubt,  the  whole 


of  die  level  area  in  the  centre  of  the  province 
will  be  devoted  to  agriculture,  when  the  forest 
wealth  has  been  exhunted  in  that  r^on.  The 
mineral  resources  of  New  Brunswick  have  not 
yet  been  developed  to  any  extent 

Price*  Kdwud  Uand^- Prince  Edward 
Island,  the  smallest  province  of  the  Dotninioi^ 
is  an  island  in  the  Gulf  at  Saint  Lawrence,  14S 
miles  lonK  with  an  extiene  breadth  of  about 
30  miles,  separated  from  New  Brunswick  and 
Nova  SoDtia  by  Nortliunberlad  Strait,  which 
varies  from  9  to  30  miles  in  width.  Hie  curv- 
ing coast  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  is 
broken  b^  a  deep  bay  widi  a  narrow  entrance, 
and  terminates  m  long,  narrow  points.  The 
south  coast  is  very  irrcenlar,  presenting  a  suc- 
cession of  bays  and  inkts.  The  island  has  a 
uniform,  gently  undulattng  surface,  eveiywhere 
fertile,  and  for  Ike  most  part  cleared  of  woods 
and  brought  under  cultivation, 

"luebeo-The  oldest  province,  Quebec,  for- 


coich'^keaking   people,    although    — 

extreme  south  a  groiqi  of  counties,  commonly 
known  as  the  Eastern  TownsMps,  were  settled 
almost  exclusively  bf  English-speaking  colo- 
nists. The  province  of  Qud>cc  is  the  largest 
in  Canada.  It  now  embraces  the  whole  of  the 
Labrador  Peainsnla  exoept  the  strip  of  eastern 
coast  which  belongs  to  Newfoondland  Its 
western  boundary  is  Hudson  Bay,  James  Bay 
and  a  north  and  south  line  from  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  James  Bay  to  the  head 
of  Lake  Timiskwning,  an  ei^ansion  of  the 
opper  Ottawa  River.  The  southern  boundary 
is  irregular,  consisting  of  the  Ottawa  River 
neariy  to  its  mouth,  then  the  45th  parallel  of 
latitiice,  and  the  rest  of  the  international 
boundary  eastward  as  far  as  New  Bninswick, 
and  finally  the  Restigonche  River  and  the  Bay 
of  Chaleur  separatiDg  it  from  that  province. 
The  island  of  Anticosti  and  the  Mwdalen 
groim  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  belong 
to  Quebec.  The  «4iole  of  Ae  valley  of  the 
Saint  Lawrence  River,  frcnn  a  short  distance 
above  Uontreal,  lies  within  its  boundaries  and 
constitutes,  with '  the  Eastern  townships,  the 
chief  agricultural  district  The  valleys  of  the 
principal  afHumis  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  are 
also  cultivated,  and  two  new  agricultural  dis- 
tricts, that  watered  by  the  upper  Ottawa  and 
the  country  aboat  Lake  Saint  Jtdin,  out  of 
which  flows  the  Saguenay  River,  are  receiving 
a  great  influx  of  settlers.  Except  for  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Labrador  peninsula  and 
''  in    the    eittJcme    northwest    of    the 


Gulf.  From  the  north  come  the  Ottawa,  th« 
Saint  Maurice  and  die  Saguenay,  and  many- 
others  of  less  note  farther  east,  wlule  from  the 
south  the  onl^  ones  of  importance  are  die 
Richelieu,  flowing  from  Lake  Champlain,  and 
the  Saint  Charles,  emptying  neatly  opposite  the 
dly  of  Quebec  The  general  slope  of  the 
country  is  thus  apparent  The  southern  edge 
of  the  Laurentian  plateau,  which  nuts  not  far 
from  the  Ottawa  and  Saint  Lawrence  rivers, 
comes  quite  down  to  the  coast  of  die  Gulf. 
Sooth  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River  the  fertile 
lowlands  are  bounded  Iw  the  ranges  of  die 
Appalachian  system,  which  approach  ever 
nearer  to  the  rtver  until,  in  the  Gasp^  peninsuls, 
they  also  reach  the  water's  edge.   Next  to  agri- 


d=,  Google 


CANADA -.ffiEOGRAFHY  (1) 


cuitan  the  chief  industry  of  ifa«  province  ii 
tonbering.  The  iaunenM  extent  oi  the  forests 
on  the  Lanrentian  plateau  provides  a  source  of 
lupply  that  is  virtually  inexhaustible,  and  the 
recent  development  of  the  manufacture  of  pulp- 
wood  has  given  new  value  to  the  smaller  and 
softer  trees  ludi  as  the  spruce.  The  miDeral 
wealth  of  Quebec  is  at  present  undeveloped. 
Recent  geofogical  investigations  have  i)roved 
the  existence  of  copper,  platinum  and  antimony 
ID  the  southern  pSkTt  of  the  province.  Asbestos 
of  the  best  quality  is  found  m  the  southeastern 
part  and  virtually  constitutes  the  world's  sole 
supply  of  the  mineral.     Mica  is  also  mined. 

^taiio. —  The  province  adjoining  Quebec 
on  the  west,  Ontario,  is  the  most  populous  and 
wealthy  of  Canada.  It  extends  from  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec  to  Lake  of  the  Woods.  It  is 
bounded  t^  the  province  of  Quebec  from 'its 
southeastern  extremit:^  on  the  Saint  Lawrence 
River  to  James  Bay  in  the  north.  Its  north* 
em  boundary  is  the  waters  of  James  Ba^  and 
Hudson  Bay.  On  the  west  a  wholly  artificial 
boundary  hne  separates  it  from  the  province 
of  Manitoba,  consisting  of  the  boundary  of  the 
old  province  of  Manitoba  running  due  north 
from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  then  a  line 
running  northeast  from  the  northeasterly 
corner  of  the  old  Manitoba  to  Hudson  Bay 
where  the  89th  meridian  of  west  longitude  inter- 
sects the  shore  of  the  Bay.  The  southern 
boundary  is  die  international  boundary  formed 
by  the  chain  of  Great  Lakes  and  the  Saint 
Lawrence  River.  The  whole  of  the  province  is 
thus  to  the  north  of  the  great  waterway,  but 
as  both  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Saint  Lawrence 
River  in  its  npper  course  lie  at  the  very  south- 
em  limit  of  the  area  which  they  drain,  Ontario 
contains  all  the  tributary  rivers  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  system  as  far  down  as  the  Ottawa 
River.  These,  however,  are  not  as  numerous 
as  might  be  expected,  for  the  height  of  land 
between  the  Hudson  Bay  and  Lake  Superior 
slopes  runs  very  near  to  the  lake.  Almost  all 
the  northern  part  of  the  province,  therefore, 
drains  into  James  Bay  and  Hudson  Bay  by 
many  rivers  of  fair  size,  of  which  the  chief  are 
the  Severn,  Albany  and  Moose  rivers  and  their 
tributaries.  The  Nipigon,  issuing  from  Lake 
Nipigon,  fiows  south,  extxptionally,  into  Lake 
Superior.  In  the  extreme  west  a  comer  of  the 
province  belongs  to  the  Lake  Winnipeg  drain- 
age area.  There  are  no  ranges  of  mountains 
in  Ontario.  The  Laurentian  plateau  includes 
the  northern  half  of  the  province,  while  the 
rest  is  part  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  lowlands. 
The  lo^vlando;  and  especially  their  western  ex- 
tretnity,  the  poiinsula  between  Lakes  Huron, 
Erie  and  Ontario,  are  the  chief  agricultural  lUs- 
trict.  The  peninsula  is  favored  with  an  ex- 
cellent climate  and  soil,  and  its  southern  por- 
tion is  the  principal  fruit-growing  district  in 
Ctnada,  die  chief  products  being  peaches, 
grapes,  strawberries  and  apples.  Hops,  tobacco 
and  flax  are  also  cultivated  successfully  in  this 
part  of  Ontario.  The  northern  part  of  the 
province  beyond  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior 
has  recently  begun  to  be  opened  up,  and  its 
a^ cultural  possibilities  are  being  developed 
with  great  rapidity.  Lumbering  has  always 
been  an  important  industry,  but  the  available 
timber  limits  producing  pme  have  begun  to 
shovf  signs  of  exhaustioti.  The  increasing  de- 
masd   ior  w«od-pulp  has  bowerer  given  new 


vahi«  to  the  great  nordiem  bdt  of  forest,  wlucb 
is  mainly  spruce.  Ottawa  is  the  chief  centre 
of  the  manufacture  of  lumber;  its  situation  on 
the  Ottawa,  the  great  log-camer  of  two  prov- 
inces, and  die  ma^ificent  water-power  of  the 
Chaudi^re  Falls,  utilized  for  operating  the  saw- 
milb,  ^ve  it  advantages  over  all  competitors. 
The  mineral  resources  of  Ontario  have  begun 
to  be  turned  to  account.  In  the  western  part 
of  the  Ontario  peninsula  petroleum  wells  have 
lon^  been  worked  but  the  production  is  now 
diminished.  The  comparatively  rare  metal, 
corundnm,  occurs  in  southern  Ontario.  The 
province  ranks  third  among  the  silver-produc- 
ing countries  of  the  world,  owing  to  the  recent 
ducoveries  in  the  Cobalt  district  Copper  is 
mined  in  increasing  quantities  in  the  Sudbury 
district  which  is  also  rich  in  nickel.  In  produc- 
tion of  nickel  Ontario  now  ranks  easily  first 
among  cotmtries.  Iron  is  found  in  many  dif> 
f  erent  localities  but  the  ore  is  principally  mined 
in  the  Algoma  district,'  northeast  of  Lake 
Superior.  The  water-power  of  the  rapids  in  the 
Saint  Mary  River  connecting  lakes  Superior 
and  Huron  has  been  utilized,  anc]  great  iron 
and  steel  manufactures  have  been  estahli^ed 
at  the  town  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

Manitoba. —  The  next  province  westward 
is  Manitoba.  It  extends  from  the  inter- 
national boundary  on  the  south  to  Hudson 
Bay  and  the  60th  parallel  of  latitude  on  the 
north.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Ontario 
and  on  the  west  l^  a  line  running  north  and 
south,  coinciding  with  long.  102°  in  its  northern 
portion  as  far  as  lat.  56°,  but  from  there  south 
trending  slightiy  eastward  until  it  intersects  the 
intemationitl  boundaiy  in  long.  101°  20'.  The 
southern  part  of  the  province  is  one  of  the 
chief  wheat-growing  districts  of  Canada.  It 
consists  of  a  perfectly  level  plain,  the  alluvial 
bed  of  a  former  lake,  througji  which  winds  the 
Red  River.  This  first  prairie  steppe  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Laurentian  plateau  which 
covers  all  the  eastern  part  of  Manitoba  beyond 
Lake  Winnipeg.  Westward,  an  escarpment, 
nowhere  rising  higher  than  500  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  first  steppe,  runs  in  a  northwesterly 
direction  and  marks  me  beginning  of  the  second 
prairie  steppe,  which  presents  a  more  undulat- 
ing surface.  The  area  covered  by  water  is 
con^derable.  Lake  Winnipeg,  a  very  large 
lake,  is  within  the  boundaries  of  Manitoba,  as 
are  also  Lake  Manitoba  and  Lake  Winnipegosi^ 
with  others  of  smaller  siie.  The  cliief  river  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  province  is  the  Red 
River  which  enters  Manitoba  from  the  south 
and  empties  into  Lake  Winnipeg.  At  Winnipeg 
the  Red  River  is  joined  from  the  west  by  the 
Assiniboine,  which  with  its  affluents  waters  all 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  province.  The 
northern  portion  of  the  province,  added  in  1913, 
contains  the  lower  t»urse  of  the  Churchill 
River  and  the  whole  of  the  Nelson  River  which 
flows  out  of  Lake  Winnipeg.  These  are  the 
two  largest  rivers  of  the  province.  The 
Saskatchewan  also,  which  flows  into  Lake 
Winnipeg,  and  thus  may  be  considered  as  the 
upper  course  of  the  Nelson  River,  passes 
throu^  Manitoba  in  the  latter  part  of  its 
lower  course.  The  predominating  interest  of 
the  province  is  agriculture  The  large  terri- 
tory recently  added  to  the  area  is  forested  to 
a  considerable  extent  and  may  prove  to  con- 
tain valuable  tnineials.     Bat  jA  pttatat  ^both 


Google 


CA!lADAi-.taXOGRAPHy  (I) 


lumbering  md  mineral  indtutries  in  the  prov- 
ince are  in  thnr  iniaacy. 

SBriEstchewin.~The  province  of  Sulmtdu- 
wan,  established  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  190!L 
is  bounded  on  the  south  fay  the  international 
boundary  and  on  the  north  by  the  60th  parallel 
of  latitude,  and  extends  from  the  ManitolM 
boundary  westward  as  far  as  die  110th 
meridian.  It  is  thus  a  huge  TCctansle  about 
equally  divided  between  prairie  and  wooded 
country,  the  limit  of  each  lying  northwest  and 
southeast  across  the  province.  Most  of  tUt 
northeastern  half  is  comprised  within  die  Laa- 
rentian  area,  where  the  forest  is  scantier  and 
the  trees  more  stunted  than  in  the  belt  of  wood- 
land contiguous  to  the  prairie  section.  In  the 
northern  portion  there  are  several  very  large 
lakes,  such  as  Lake  Athabasc^  Rein  Deer  Ladce^ 
Wollaiton  Lake,  and  the  chain  of  takes  whidi 
constitute  the  head  waters  and  upper  course  of 
the  Churchill  River.  The  Sadcatchewan  River 
flows  throng  die  middle  region  of  the  prov- 
ince; and  die  Q^'Appelle  River  waters  the 
Eairie  section  farther  south.  The  general  slope 
ing  from  west  to  east,  all  the  rivers  flow 
across  the  province  to  the  east  or  noT^dast; 
except  in  tlie  extreme  northwest  where  the 
slope  is  north  toward  Lake  Athabasca  and  the 
Hackenne  River  basin.  The  prairie  section 
comprises  all  of  the  second  prairie  st«>pe  not 
iifcluded  in  Uanitoba  and  a  portion  of  the  third 
and  highest.  The  escarpment  of  the  latter  mnt 
northwest,  appearing  from  the  lower  level  like 
a  ranf^  of  low  hills.  When  the  crest  is  reached 
die  third  socalled  steppe  is  found  to  be  a  mncb 
more  irr^ular  surface  than  the  rollii]^  plain 
below.  Certain  portions  of  it  form  small 
isolated  plateaus,  standing  as  high  as  ^000  feet 
above  the  surrounding  country.  Saskatchewan 
it  emphatically  an  agricultural  pi<ovtnce.  The 
production  of  wheat  is  even  now  more  tfaad 
twice  that  of  Uanitoba,  and  allhongh  sctUement 


.       --    .     ejust 

as  well  adapted  for  cultivation  of  grain  or 
ilodc  raising.  Lignite  coal  is  almost  the  only 
mineral  known  and  it  is  mined  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  province  to  some  extent 

Alberta. —  Adioining  Saskatchewan  on  the 
west  is  a  second  province.  Alberta,  cst^ilished 
by  Act  of  Parliament  in  1905.  Like  Saskatdie- 
wan  it  extends  from  the  international  boundary 
to  the  60th  parallel  of  latitude.  Its  western 
liniit  is  the  summit  hne  of  the  Rod^  Monntains 
from  the  international  boundary  to  the  point 
where  that  line  crosses  the  120ui  meridian  of 
longitude,  very  nearlv  in  laL  54',  and  from  this 
point  the  120th  mendian  to  lat  60°.  Alberta, 
like  Saskatchewan,  is  divided  almost  equally 
between  prairie  in  the  south  and  woodland  in 
the  north.  Its  praiiie  land  is  ahogether  within 
the  limits  of  the  third  prairie  steppe  described 
above ;  much  of  it  comtttutes  a  semi-arid  dis- 
trict, not  suitable  for  agriculture  except  by  the 
aid  of  irrigation,  but  making  excellent  pasture- 
land.  The  extreme  northeastern  comer  of  the 
province  touches  upon  the  rocky  Laurentian 
area,  but  the  rest  of  the  northern  half  of  the 
province  is  well-wooded  country,  broken  by 
prairie  opening,  with  abundant  streams  and 
small  lakes,  suitable  alike  for  grazing  or  crops. 
The  Peace  and  Athabasca  are  the  main  rivers 
ia  this  half  of  .the  province,  while  the  NorA 


■fid  South 'Saskatchewan  rireTs  with  v.- 

small  affluents  risii^  amid  tke  mountains  and 
foothills  «ut  their  cbannds  deeply  into  the 
rolling  pnirie  of  tbe  southern  portion.  The 
climate  of  Northern  Alberta  ia  much  milder 
than  the  Utitntle  would  indicate,  and  wheat  can 
be  grown  succeasfully  in  the  valley  of  die 
Peace  River  near  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
province.  Besides  agricultural  possihiUties. 
there  ace  mineral  resources  of  great  value  as 
yet  only  partially  developed.  Coal  ia  found 
ditoui^Mut  a  large  area,  and  in  various  for- 
Matiott,  from  anthracite  to  lignite.  Bitumoi 
(in  the  *tar  sands*  of  northen  Alberta),  oil 
and  natural  gas  are  alto  important  aaaeta. 

BridBh  Coltuabia.— British  ColmnlMa  oc- 
cupies the  whole  of  the  mountain  region  from 
the  intemUionBl  boundary  to  lat.  60  .  It  also 
cuts  oS  a  pordon'  of  the  central  plain,  where 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  province  leaves  the 
Roclqr  Mountaina  and  runs  north  aloitf^  long. 
120*.  Vancouver  Island  and  the  other  islands 
off  the  mainland  are  included  in  the  bounds  of 
the  provinoe.  West  of  the  broad  diain  of  the 
Rocnr  fountains,  which  form  die  eastern 
twundary.  three  older  ranges  run  approximately 
north  and  south  and  are  thus  ocmfined  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  province^  bang  extin- 
gtiished  northward  by  the  more  recent  upheaval 
of  tha  Roclbes,  whose  axis  inclines  to  north- 


Idik  and  the  Columbia  systems.  Near  and 
parallel  to  the  Pacifie  coast  another  broad 
mountain  system,  the  Coast  Range,  extends 
northward  mto  Yukon  Territory  and  Alaska, 
where  it  reaches  its  greatest  elevation.  Be- 
tween the  Coast  and  Columbia  ranges  there  u 
the  interior  plateau,  abom  100  miles  in  breadth 
and  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  in  elevation.  To 
the  north  it  is  cut  off  by  transverse  ranges  of 
monntains.  Vancouver  Island  and  the  Queen 
Charlotte  islands  are  the  unsubmerged  remains 
of  a  subsidiary  mountain  range  west  of  the 
Coast  Range.  The  rivers  and  Takes  of  British 
Columbia  occur  hi  deep  valleys  between  the 
ranges.  The  Columbia  River  and  its  chief 
ftfliuent,  the  Kootenay,  take  a  remarkable  course 
tfarouf^  the  valleys  between  all  the  eastern 
ranges,  mtuiing  north  and  south  in  ^eat  loops. 
The  lake-like  expansions  of  both  nvera  fonn 
the  chief  navigable  inland  waters  of  British 
Columbia.  The  Fraset  River  which  rises  in  the 
Rocl^  Moontains  flows  at  first  north,  but  soon 
turns  westward  round  the  head  of  die  Cariboo 
Uountains,  and  finally  runs  almost  due  south 
cutting  a  deep  citannel  in  the  interior  platean. 
It  breaks  through  the  Coast  Range  and  reaches 
the  sea  not  far  from  the  international  bonndary. 
Its  chief  affluent  is  the  Thompson.  Both  are 
very  turbulent  streams  and  form  an  additional 
d)stacle  rather  dian  an  assistance  to  inland 
communicadon.  The  northern  half  of  the 
province  is  stil!  very  imperfectly  explored.  In 
a  central  devated  plateau  many  rivers  take 
their  rise  some  flowing  south  to  join  the 
Fraser,  others,  such  as  the  Liard,  east  into  the 
Mackende  basin,  others  again  like  the  Skeena 
and  Stildne  westward  into  die  Pacific  Ocean. 
What  British  Columbia  lacks  in  a  system  of 
navigable  inland  waterways  is  more  than  made 
up  by  its  deeply  indented  coast  line,  where 
niaigr  magnificent  harbors  for  sea-gotng  ves- 
sels of  any  draught  are  available,  from  Port 


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CANADA -^  OUTUXE  HiarOBY  AN]>POX4XTICAL  DBVBLOPMKNT  (2>      8M 


SimpsoD  and  Prince  Rup«n  at  the  tloith  to 
Burrard  Inlet  at  the  sodA  extremity.  Tbe 
coast  at  Vancouver  Island  is  also  well  sup- 
plied with  harbors.  British  Columbis,  al- 
though so  mountaiaous,  is  not  without  its  agrir 
cuUuthI  industries,  "nie  interior  plateau  foms 
a  good  ranchiug  country,  and  in  the  sheltered 
vuleys,  where  irrigatioa  can  be  introduced, 
fruit  farms  are  verv  succcssiul.  Lumbering  is 
one  of  the  great  intUkstries  of  the  province,  and 
tbe  mineral  wealth  is  wry  great.  Gold  has  been 
found  in  many  localities  from  the  intematioiial 
boundary  to  Atlin  district  on  the  bordefs  of 
Yukon  Territory.  Placer  mining  alone  has 
been  carried  on  m  moat  of  these  places,  but  in 
the  Kooten^  ^strict  in  the  extreme  south, 
where  coaimuiucation  by  railway  and  water  ia 
ea^,  sdentilic  treatment  of  ores  has  been 
practised  for  some  years.  The  metals,  besides 
gold,  produced  by  ttiii  method  are  silver,  lead 
and  copper.  The  exceedingly  heavy  growth  of 
timber  has  added  to  the  difficulty  of  maldng 
roads  and  even  of  prospecting,  The  most  im- 
portant mining  industry,  liowever,  is  ccal- 
■nining.  Vast  deposits  have  been  explored  and 
are  being  worlced  in  various  parts  of  tbe  prov- 
ince but  dtiedy  on  Vancouver  Island  at 
Nanaimo  and  Comox  and  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains at  Crow's  Nest  Pass.  Another  great  in- 
dustry of  British  Columbia  is  the  salmon- 
fishery,  which  is  carried  on  chiefly  at  tiu  mouth 
and  in  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Fmser  River. 
Canneries  are  also  established  at  the  tnouths 
of  the  Naas,  Skeena  and  other  rivers. 

Yukon^— Tbe  Territory  of  Yukon,  under 
the  government  of  a  ^vemor  and  an  executive 
council,  ui  part  elective,  lies  north  of  British 
Columbia  aiid  is  boiuided  on  the  west  by 
Alaska.  It  has  also  a  northern  coait-line  c* 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  a  conkpsr^vdy  short 
one,  its  eastern  boundary  being  an  irregular 
line  sloping  from  southeast  to  itorthwest,  for 
the  most  part  following  the  eastemmoit  ranoe 
of  the  Rockies.  It  does  not  lie  entirely  outsioe 
of  the  Mackenzie  river  basin,  for  the  mountain 
boundary  is  low  and  the  upper  waters  of  many 
Streams  tributair  to  the  Liard  River,  whicn 
flows  into  the  Uackeiude  River,  take  their  rise 
in  the  southeast  part  of  the  Territory  and  flow 
south.  In  the  north  portion  also  the  Peel  River. 
flowing  parallel  to  the  Mackemie,  ia  contained 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  Territorv  for 
most  of  its  course,  but  bursts  throuKli  tbe 
mountain  barrier  near  its  mouth  and  empties 
into  the  Mackenzie  where  the  delta  of  the 
latter  be^ns.  The  great  part  of  Territory, 
however,  is  watered  t^  the  Yuk(»  and  its  tribu- 
uries,  the  Teslin,  Lewes,  Pelly,  Stewart  and 
Klondike  rivers,  all  flowing  from  southeast  or 
east,  and  in  tbe  northern  portion  tbe  Porcujvin<^ 
which  begins  by  flowing  northeast  as  if  to  join 
the  Mackenzie,  but  turns  sharply  and  flows  due 
west  until  it  crosses  the  boundary  into  Alaska. 
The  motmtain  system  of  the  Territorj;  is  the 
series  of  parallel  ranges  of  the  Rockies,  de- 
creaung  in  elevation  as  they  run  further  north 
and  turning  eastward  into  the  Alaskan  peoin- 

Tbe  Northwest  Tcrritoriea.—  The  re- 
mainder of  Canada,  north  of  the  provinces  and 
east  of  the  Yukon  Territory,  including  the 
islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  broadly  de- 
scribed as  the  Northwest  Territories,  the  for- 
ner  provisional  districts  of  Mackensie,  Kce- 


watio  and  Franklin  having  been  lUscmtinned. 
This  vast  cotmtry  is  under  the  direct  control 
o£  the  Domtnion  govenunent.  It  is  very  sparsely 
populated  by  Indians  and  Eskimos,  together 
witii  a  few  white  tiappen  and  traders  m  the 
esnpby  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and 
misnonaries.  The  valley  of  the  Mackenzie 
River  in  the  wast  b  fertile  and  covered  with 
trees  almost  to  the  very  mouth  of  the  river 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  climate  in  that  region 
is  not  so  severe  as  the  high  latitudes  would 
seem  to  imply:  the  summers,  though  short,  are 
hot  and  the  summer  days  lon^,  and  v^tables 
and  some  cereals  have  been  ratsed  by  Hudson's 
Bay  Company's  agents  at  most  of  their  posts  in 
the  district-  Coal  moreover  occurs  and  also 
INtch,  petroleum  and  natural  gas.  The  fur 
trade,  which  is  still  a  ccmsideraUe  industry,  is 
oarried  on  over  the  whole  area  covered  by  the 
sub-Arctic  forest,  and  much  of  this  vast  north- 
ern terriioty  will  remain  the  home  of  many 
species  of  fur-bearing  animals  as  long  as  that 
forest  remains  to  shelter  them.  But  the  north- 
em  portions  of  the  country  on  eadi  side  of 
Hudson  Bay  must  remain  a  hunting  country 
only.  The  Arctic  ardiipelago  has  at  present 
(mly  a  santimeBtal  value,  althouf^  the  whale 
fisbeiy  is  important  and  there  are  undeveloped 


explorers  who,  in  their  seazth  for  a  northwest 
passage,  discovered  the  various  islands,  and 
claimed  them  for  British  territory,  are  corn- 
memorated  in  the  names  given  to  the  islands 
tfaomaelves  and  to  the  principal  bays,  straits 
and  hexUaads.  For  ordinary  purposes  and  for 
men  of  the  iirfiite  race  they  arc  utterly  uoin^ 
habitable. 

Bibliography^- Amundsen,  R.,  <The  North- 
west Pasnge>  (London  1908) ;  Bradley.  A.  G., 
(Canada  in  the  Twentieth  Century'  (London 
1908) ;  Burpee,  U  I.,  'The  Search  for  the 
Wesbim  Sea>  (London  1908)  ;  Dawson,  5.  E., 
'The  Samt  Lawrence  Basin'  (London  1905) ; 
Gosling,  W.  G.,  'Labrador'  (London  1910)  i 
GreswciL  W.  P.,  'Geography  of  the  Dominion 
vt  Canada  and  Newfoundlaml'  (London  1891) ; 
Mair,  C,  'Throu^  the  Mackenrie  Basin> 
<Toronto  1908) ;  Mitin,  A.,  'La  ColomWe 
britanniqne'  (Paris  1908) ;  MoriCe,  A.  C,  'His- 
tory of  the  Northern  Interior  oi  British  Co- 
lumbia' (Toronto  1906)  ;  Seton,  E.  T.,  <The 
Arctic  Prairies'  (London  1912);  Tyrell,  J.  W, 
'Across  the  Sub-Arctics  of  Canada'  (new  ed, 
Toronto  1908);  'Annual  Reports  of  the  (jea> 
logkal  Survey  of  Canada'  (Ottawa  1915) ; 
'Atlas  of  Canada'  (rev.  ed,  published  under, 
the  direction  of  the  E>epartment  of  the  Interior, 
Ottawa  1915) ;  'Onada  Year  Book,  1915* 
(Ottawa  191S>;  'Fifth  Census  of  Canada  for 
191P  'Report  on  Area  and  Population  by  A. 
Bhie>  (Ottawa  1912) ;  'Reports  of  the  OnUrio 
Bureau  of  Mines'  (Toronto  1915);  Sanford's 
'Compendium  North  America'  (Vol.  I, 
'Canada'  by  H.  M.  Ami,  2d  ed,  London  1915). 

H.  H.  LanotoN) 
Edilorial  Staff,  Rtmtw  of  Historical  Publico- 
Hons  Relating  to  Canada. 

2.  OUTLINE  HISTORY  AND  PO- 
LITICAL DEVELOPMENT  (1534  to 
1918).  When  the  Dominion  of  Canada  came 
Into  existence  in  1867  the  word  'Caandifi  re< 
ceived  a  whoUy  new  significatioii.    Its  origin  is 


Ci.-i 


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906      CANADA  — OUTLINE  RISTORT  AMD  POUTICAL  BKTXI,OPMBNT  (2) 


doubtful  but  it  was  applied  loosely  in  the  early 
time  to  the  regions  occupied  by  France  on  the 
Saint  Lawrence,  called  by  the  French  themselves 
New  France.  When  in  1763  France  surrendered 
her  North  American  territory  to  England  the 
term  "Canada"  was  commonly  used  for  the  new 
British  dominions.  In  1774  these  dominiong, 
including  part  of  the  Canadian  Northwest  and 
what  is  now  the  northern  tier  of  western  Ameri- 
can States,  were  officially  called  the  •Provinco 
of  Quebec,"  Canada  does  not  appear  techni' 
cally  until  1791,  when  the  name  was  used  in  a 
constitution  given  to  Upper  and  Lower  Canada, 
practically  the  Quebec  and  Ontario  of  the 
present  time.  Later  these  provinces  were  known 
as  Canada  East  and  Canada  West.  Not  until 
1867  did  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  be- 
come a  part  of  Canada.  In  considering  the  hiS' 
tOT^  of  Canada  as  we  now  understand  the  word, 
it  IS  important  to  remember  that  it  includes  a 
separate  record  of  detached  provinces.  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Lower  Canada,  Upper 
Canada,  etc.,  until  1867- 

In  the  succeeding  articles  the  epochs  in 
Canadian  development  are  treated  in  detail.  It 
is  sufficient  here  to  outline  the  chief  phases  of 
Canada's  history.  The  first  of  these,  the  ige  of 
discovery  in  the  16th  and  early  17th  centuries. 
has  received  much  attention,  but  there  is  still 
great  obscurity  as  to  the  range  of  French  effort 
on  the  Saint  Lawrence.  Jacques  Cartier  (q,v.) 
and  Champlain  (q.v.)  are  the  most  honored 
names  in  this  pioneer  work.  Though  few  de- 
tails are  known,  an  extensive  fur  trade  and 
fishing  industry  existed  in  the  Saint  Lawrence 
region  long  before  the  end  of  the  16th  century. 
E^rly  in  the  17th  century  French  trading  com- 
panies were  fighting  for  the  monopoly  of  tibis 
trade. 

The  second  epoch  is  riot  of  French  coloniia- 
tion  and  exploration  witil  the  final  struggle  with 
Britain  for  the  country.  When  the  first  picMieer 
efforts  were  over  France  undertook  the  serious 
work  of  ccdonizBtion,  with  Quebec  as  her  centre 
of  influence.  Her  aim  was  to  transplant  French 
social  life  to  North  America.  Huge  grants  of 
land  were  given  to  seigniors  who  were  to  play 
the  parts  of  lords  in  Canada,  with  vassals  toot- 
ing to  them  for  light  and  leading  and  pa)^S 
rent  for  the  land  which  they  occupied.  The 
system  was  uncongenial  to  the  new  world,  but 
it  survived  during  the  whole  period  of  French 
supremacy  and  is  a  picturesque  and  interesting 
it  not  a  successful  feature  of  French  coloniza- 
tion.    See  article  Sbigniorial  Tenurb. 

The  first  permanent  settlement  apart  from 
.  trading  posts  occupied  only  in  the  summer  was 
at  Port  Royal,  now  Annapolis,  in  Nova  Scotia. 
Here  the  French  planned  really  to  till  the  soil 
and  develop  the  country.  From  the  first  the 
colony  had  a  terrible  struggle  for  life.  In  1613 
the  English  from  Virginia  aestroyedrtand,  after 
it  was  restored  to  France  in  1632,  the  adjacent 
American  colonies  were  always  planning  to 
drive  out  the  French.  After  a  chequered  his- 
tory they  at  last  succeeded  in  1710,  during  the 
reign  of  Anne,  in  taking  final  possession  of  the 
fort,  and  it  became  Annapolis.  The  quiet  vii- 
laf^e  of  the  present  day  was  thus  the  object  of 
stnfe  between  two  nations  for  well  nigh  100 
years. 

Samuel  de  Champlain  was  one  of  the 
IMoneers  at  Port  Royal,  but  in  1608  he  turned 
to  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  made  the  beginnings 


of  Quebec  lon^  the  centre  of  political  and 
commercial  life  in  Canada.  By  instinct  Cham- 
plain was  an  ex^Jorer.  Like  others  of  that  and 
a  later  time  he  hoped  that  the  Saint  Lawrence 
would  in  some  way  lead  to  a  water  route  to 
China.  To  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Ontario 
Champlain  penetrated,  but  the  obstacles  were 
enormous.  The  Iroqvois  IntKans  were  hostile 
to  the  French  from  the  first,  and  it  is  hardly 
strange  that  with  their  menace  added  to  the 
natural  difficulties  Champlain  could  do  but  little 
of  Kft  the  veil  from  the  North  American 
interior. 

Nor  was  he  left  free  from  European  rivals. 
The  English  followed  die  French  to  the.  Sunt 
Lawrence.  Quebec  they  attacked  and  captured 
in  163!i,  and  over  it  the  English  flag  floated  for 
three  years.  When  in  IG^  France  recovered 
the  place  the  fortunes  of  Canada  were  com- 
mitted to  a  great  commercial  company.  This 
company  of  *One  Hundred  Associates'  was  to 
be  lord  of  the  land  and  to  have  in  its  hands  the 
work  both  of  trade  and  of  settlement  In  France 
it  had  the  powerful  sUMwrt  of  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu, but  when  at  Quebec  in  1635  Champlain 
died,  New  France  lost  its  ablest  leader,  and 


and  in  America  in  the  t7th  century  the  French 
commercial  companies  had  no  success  while 
their  English  and  Dutch  rivals  succeeded. 

After  1635  Canada  was  the  scene  of  varied 
activity.      It  was   an   age   of    reli^oi: 


tive  tribes  of  the  country.  In  what  i_  ._ 
northern  New  York,  in  Ontario,  and  in  Quebec 
the  missionaries  did  heroic  work.  Since  the 
Frend)  missionaries  were  the  friends  of  the 
Huron  tribe,  the  relentless  Iroquois,  bent  on 
destroying  the  Hurons,  pursued  too.  the  French, 
By  1649  ■ttie  Huron  settlements  and  the  French 
missions  were  alike  dcitnwed,  and  the  Frendi 
were  driven  back  for  a  time  to  their  base  at 
Quebec,  They  had  founded  Uontreal  vn  164% 
but  it  was  long  only  a  fortified  outpost  to  check 
the  Iroquois. 

But  missions  represent  only  one,  if  the  dotn- 
mant,  phase  of  French  interest.  The  great  in- 
terior exercised  all  the  fascination  of  the  un- 
known upon  the  chivalrous  minds  of  the  French 
exnlorers.  Radisson,  La  Salle,  Marquette, 
Joliet  are  only  the  best  known  of  the 
leaders  who  penetrated  to  the  interior  before 
1700.  On  Lake  Huron,  Lake  Michigan,  L.ake 
Superior,  on  the  Mississippi,  even  in  the  far 
west  of  Canada  and  Hie  United  States  the  sur- 
vival of  French  names  to  this  day  bears  witness 
to  the  activity  of  these  explorers.  It  was  a 
French  Canadian,  La  Virendrye,  who  first 
advanced  so  far  across  the  prairie  as  to 
histify  a  belief,  still  held  by  many,  that  he  came 
tn  sight  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  But  this  was 
not  until  1743,  and  it  now  appears  likely  that 
he  did  not  advance  beyond  the  Black  Hills  in 
Soudi  Dakota. 

Between  missions  and  discovery  ifce  slow  and 
laborious  work  of  colonization  was  in  danger  of 
being  forgotten,  but  there  grew  up  gradually  on 
both  sides  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  near  the 
mouths  of  its  tributaries,  colonies  of  French 
farmers.  The  river  was  their  highway.  For 
protection  from  the  iTKhsns  they  hved  as  close 
together  as  possible  and  so  Aey  divided  die  bud 


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CAHABA— OUTLIHB  HISTORY  AND  POLITICAL  I>BVBLOPI£BtlT  (3)      007 


into  long  narrow  strips  with  the  bouses  stretch' 
ing  in  a  line  on  the  nver  front.  To  the  present 
day  it  is  the  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the 
French  Canadian  farms.  Colonization  was  slow 
work.  Adventurous  Frenchmen  preferred  the 
wild  life  of  the  forest,  and  it  was  so  difficult 
to  attract  settlers  that  in  1700  there  were  hardly 
more  than  6,000  Europeans  in  the  whole  of  New 
France.  Thty  enjoyed  no  semblance  of  political 
liberty.  Between  an  aggressive  church  and  a 
governor  with  the  ideals  of  Louis  XIV,  the 
subjection  of  the  French  habitant  is  in  stntdng 
contrast  with  the  liberty  of  New  EneUnd.  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  l/th  century  New  France 
was  committed  to  a  very  able  Governor,  Fron- 
lenac  (q.v.).  He  had  a  definite  program.  He 
would  curb  the  Church,  which  aimed  to  exclude 
settlement  from  the  interior  so  that  the  mission- 
aries might  be  alone  with  and  thus  continue  to 
control  the  Indian  tribes;  he  would  hold  back 
the  English,  build  a  cfaam  of  forts  from  the 
Saint  Lawrence  bv  the  Great  Lakes  and  the 
CAio  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  shut 
them  out  from  the  West,  and  finally  drive  them 
into  the  sea.  It  was  a  great  plan,  but  it  required 
resources  beyond  anything  that  France  could 


the  strength  she  could  muster.  So  Frontenac 
died  in  1698  with  his  plans  unrealized,  but  he 
had  done  a  definite  work.  The  mission  stage 
was  ended  in  New  France.  Entrenched  on  the 
Saint  Lawrence  and  soon  on  the  Mississippi, 
France  was  ready  to  enga^  in  the  supreme 
struggle  to  make  the  interior  French  and  to 
buiM  up  a  great  transatlantic  empire  for  the 
glory  of  the  French  nation. 

The  next  epoch  in  Canada's  history  covers 
the  prolonged  struggle  resultii^  in  the  British 
conquest  Probably  impossible  of  realization 
in  an^  case,  the  plan  of  a  French  emi»re  in 
America  was  ended  by  Louis  XIV's  misfortunes 
in  EuFope.  With  a  great  alliance  against  him, 
he  was  obliged  to  make  the  Peace  of  Utrecht 
(q.v.)  in  1713.  In  this  he  surrendered  his  claims 
to  Hudson  Bay,  to  Newfoundland  and  to  Novs 
Scotia.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  end. 
Thou^  in  Cape  Breton,  France  built  %  great 
fortress,  Louisbourg,  so  as  to  commana  the 
Saint  Lawrence,  and  thou^  she  still  held  the 
country  tributary  to  Quebec,  the  odds  against 
her  were  too  great  Walpole  managed  to  keep 
Greiit  Britain  at  peace  until  1744,  but  when  war 
then  broke  out  France  and  England  engaged  in 
a  final  struggle  for  North  America,  The  Treaty 
of  Aix-La-Chap«lle  (q.v.),  in  1748^  did  not 
really  bring  peace.  Both  sides  were  pre^ring 
steadily  for  renewed  conflict  On  the  Ohio,  on 
the  Atlantic  Coast,  on  the  Great  Lakes,  on  the 
Saint  Lawrence,  a  deadly  conflict  went  on  after 
1755,  and  when  on  a  September  day  in  1759 
Wolfe  (q.v.)  defeated  Montcalm  (q.v.)  before 

?uebee,  the  issue  was  at  last  decided.    By  the 
reaty  of  Paris    (q.v.)    in   1763,   France  sur- 
rendered her  dominion  of  New  France  to  Great 

The  4th  epoch  in  Canadian  history  covers 
British  rule  from  1763  to  the  Confederation  of 
the  Provinces  in  1867.  After  the  conquest  in 
1763,  Canada  was  for  a  time  governed  by  the 
Brid^  without  creating  a  special  constitution 
for  the  country,  and  not  until  1774  did  the 
Quebec  Act  (q.v,)  provide  for  a  permanent 
■TSteni.    The  Qndwc  Act  played  a  great  part  in 


both  American  and  Canadian  history.  It  set  up 
a  despotic  system  of  government,  and  it  aimed 
to  bring  the  whole  western  country  under  this 
despotic  rigime  at  Quebec.  While  introducing 
British  criminal  law  in  the  country,  it  re-estab- 
lished the  French  dvil  law.  The  seigniors  re- 
tained their  feudal  rights,  the  Church  was  given 
legal  power  to  collect  the  tithe. 

In  the  English  colonies  the  Quebec  Act 
caused  discontent  They  did  not  desire  despot- 
ism as  a  neighbor,  they  did  not  wish  to  be 
checked  in  the  West,  they  disliked  the  legal 
establishment  of  Roman  Catholicism,  and  when 
the  colonies  revolted  the  Quebec  Act  was  one 
of  their  grievances.  They  resolved  to  attempt 
the  overthrow  of  British  rule  in  Canada  and 
allied,  as  they  hoped,  with  the  conquered  French 
rising  against  their  new  masters  they  planned  to 
make  the  revolt  continental  in  character.  But 
in  1775  and  1776  the  American  army  failed  to 
take  Quebec;  and  some  of  the  French  showed 
fight  on  behalf  of  Great  Britain.  Soon  the 
plan  to  drive  the  British  from  Canada  was 
abandoned  and  the  country  remained  firm  iu  its 
British  allegiance. 

Probably  with  this  failure  the  die  was  casf 
finally;  it  is  certainlv  true  that  the  intervening 
seven  score  years  have  never  seen  any  real 
prospect  of  the  union  of  Canada  with  the  United 
Stales.  When  the  Loyalists,  driven  from  the 
United  StatesI  found  homes  in  Canada  they 
treasured  bitter  memories  of  the  revolutionary 
stri^gle  and  rendered  the  prospect  of  union 
even  more  remote.  But  once  settled  in  Canada 
these  refugees  from  the  United  States  demanded 
die  self-government  which  they  had  enjoyed  at 
home,  and  at  last  in  1791  the  British  Parliament 
established  Lower  Canada  and  Upper  Canada 
each  with  a  legislature  of  its  own  and  with 
some,  though  not  a  complete,  measure  of  self- 
government  In  1812  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  drifted  into  war,  and  die  second 
failure  at  that  time  to  overthrow  British  rule  in 
Canada  confirmed  die  results  of  the  defeat  be- 
fore Quebec  in  1776. 

In  1837  there  was  armed  rebellion  in  the  two 
Canadas.  In  Upper  Canada  the  inhabitants 
claimed  the  complete  control  of  thrir  own  affairs 
that  the  Colonial  Office  in  London  persistently 
refused,  and  to  vindicate  this  demand  a  few 
took  up  arms.  In  Lower  Canada  there  was  a 
war  of^races.  The  French  majority  demanded 
that  they  should  dominate  in  the  councils  of  the 
country.  The  English  minority,  allied  usually 
with  the  governor,  resisted  this  claim,  and  at 
length  some  of  the  French  also  appealed  to 
arms.  Elach  revolt  failed  completely,  but  the 
risings  threw  into  a  clear  light  the  causes  of  dis- 
content in  Canada  and  in  time  a  remedy  was 
furnished. 

Lord  Durham,  an  English  radical  Whig,  sent 
out  to  rule  Canada  with  despotic  authority  and 
to  restore  order,  in  a  very  able  report,  ^blished 
in  1839,  urged  that  the  English  province  and 
the  French  province  should  be  united  under  one 
legislature.  This  was  done.  In  1841  Canada 
received  a  new  constitutioti,  and,  joined  together 
for  the  first  time,  the  people  of  the  two  prov- 
inces could  demand  respect  and  consideration. 
With  more  than  a  million  people  Canada  could 
no  longer  be  treated  as  the  child  of  the  Cokoiial 
Office.  After  a  few  doubtful  years  under  the 
new  constitution,  the  Earl  of  E!^n,  the  gov- 
ernor-general, sent   out    from    England,    defi- 


>qIc 


see      CANADA— OUTLINE  mSTOBY  AND  POUTICAL  I«VBM>PWIT  &> 


lutely,  amidst  some  riotous  events  in  1849, 
recognized  tbe  supreme  authority  o£  the  Caoa- 
diaii  Parliam^it  in  regard  to  Canadian  affairs. 
Since  C^t  time  political  warfare  in  Canada  has 
bees  between  Canadian  parties  and  not  between 
Canada  and  the  Colonial  Office. 

But  the  union  of  the  two  provinces  contained 
nothing  of  finality.  Lord  Durham  had  hoped 
that  thje  Enslish  would  dominate  the  French. 
Instead  the  French  asserted  themselves  and, 
since  each  province  equaled  tbe  other  in  the 
number  of  its  representatives,  the  work  of  gov- 
ernment under  the  party  system  proved  ex- 
tremely difficult  A  better  political  temper  was 
growing  up  throughout  British  North  America. 
Once  free  to  control  their  own  affairs  the  prov- 
inces saw  tbe  advantages  of  union.  Their  in- 
sight was  quickened  when  in  1866  an  advan- 
tageous Reciprocity  Treaty  wi(h  the  United 
States  came  to  an  end,  and  in  self-preservation 
it  became  necessary  to  increase  the  commercial 
and  ^litical  strength  of  the  provinces.  With 
surprising  rapidity  negotiations  were  success- 
fully concluded  between  1864  and  1866,  and  in 
186/  the  Dominion  of  Canada  came  into  exist- 
ience. 

The  events  connected  with  Confederation 
furnish  a  distinct  epoch  in  Canadian  history.  In 
the  next  and  concluding  epoch  the  various  prov' 
inces  have  been  welded  together  until  a  real 
national  life  has  appeared.  The  development  of 
Federal  goveromeDt  in  Canada  presents  some 
interesting  contrasts  with  the  Federal  system  in 
the  United  States.  Sir  John  Macdonald  (q.v.) 
aimed  to  make  the  Federal  power  strong,  the 
Provincial  power  relatively  weak,  ani  since  his 
was  the  master  mind  that  directed  Confederal 
tion,  the  Canadian  constitution  reflected  his 
views.  The  powers  of  the  provinces  are  strictW 
definedj  the  undefined  residue  regaining  with 
the  Federal  government.  Carrying  out  his  views 
Macdonald  frequently  tried  to  curb  the  prov- 
inces, and  answering  him  there  was  a  ciy  for 
provmdal  rights.  In  spite  of  Macdonald' 9 
desires,  development  in  Canada  has  been  rather 
in  the  direction  of  strengthening  the  authority 
of  the  provinces,  but  it  is  itill  true  that  a  prov- 
ince in  Canada  falls  far  short  of  a  State  of  the 
Union  in  political  authority.  The  Federal  gov- 
ernment can  disallow  Provincial  legislation;  it 
can  dismiss  a  Provincial  lieutenant-governor 
and  has  done  so  more  than  once.  But  as  a  result 
of  the  experience  of  half  a  centuiT,  a  'fairly 
stable  balance  between  the  two  iurisdictiona  has 
now  been  reached.  During  this  time  a  real 
unity  has  grown  up  in  Canada,  and  it  makes 
Canadians,  as  it  long  since  made  Americans,  one 
in  sentiment  from  ocean  to  ocean.  The  Frencb- 
q>eaking  province  of  Quebec  is  perhapa  a 
partial  exception.  But  on  most  great  questions 
of  national  interest  Qtiebec,  too,  is  at  one  with 
the  rest  of  Canada. 

BibliogTxphv.— The  beginner  m  Canadian 
bistoty  cannot  do  better  dian  read  A  G.  Brad- 
ley's little  vohime  called  <Canada>  (Home  Uni- 
versity Library)  and  also  his  larger  volume, 
'Canada  in  the  Twentieth  Century,'  which 
describes  present-day  conditions.  He  might 
substitute  the  more  scientific  volumes  on 
Canada  in  Sir  Charles  Lucas's  'Historical  Geog- 
raphy of  the  British  Colonies';  'Canada  under 
French  Rule,'  by  Sir  Charles  Lucas;  'Canada 
under  British  Rule,*  by  Professor  Egerton ;  and 
'Canada,    Geogra;^]icat,>     by    J.    D.    Renters 


(Oareiidon  Press).  Professor  W.  L.  Grenft 
school  book,  tbe  'History  of  Canada,'  is  the 
best  small  textbook  (Toroato).  Miss  Agnes  C 
Laut's  volume  'Canada,  the  Empire  of  the 
North'    (Toronto),    has   imagination   and   n- 

The  most  exhaustive  gfenei^  woric  on  Canada 
IS  'Canada  and  Its  Provinces'  (Toronto),  a  huge 
co-operative  account  of  history  and  resources 
(22  vols.).  Kinf^ford's  'History  of  Canada' 
in  10  volumes  ^Toronto)  .is  full  but  lacks 
method.     'The  Qirdnides  of  Canada,'    (Glas- 

fow)  are  32  small,  readable  volumes,  sold  only 
y  subscription;  Stephen  Leacock  has  in  the 
series  three  volumes,  'The  Dawn  of  Canadian 
Histocy,'  an  account  of  early  discovery;  'The 
Mariner  of  Saint  Malo,'  a  life  of  the  6rst 
French  discoverer  in  (Canada,  Jacques  Cartier; 
and  'Adventures  in  the  Far  North,'  an  account 
of  the  attempts  to  find  the  Northwest  Passage, 
which  includes  the  tragic  story  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  Other  well-known  writers,  such  as 
Uiss  Agnes  C,  LauL  Colonel  William  Wood. 
Sir  Josa»h  Pope  and  Professor  C  W.  Colby, 
have  volumes  in  the  series,  which  covers  the 
whole  history  of  Canada.  Another  series,  'The 
Makers  of  Canada'  (Torcwto)  includes  biog- 
nqihies  of  the  chief  leaders  in  Canadian  history. 
For  special  periods,  Biggar's  'Early  Trading 
Companies  of  New  France'  (Univeruty  or 
Toronto)  is  a  learned  account  of  early  dis- 
covery.   The  history  of  the  French  rigim    *-- 


been  told  with  great  literary  charm  and  ripe 
scholarship  by  Francis  Paricman  (Boaton).  His 
volumes  can  be  read  with  p«re  eBJoyment  'The 


Pioneers  of  France  in  tbe  Early  World'  _  _.  _ 
account  of  Cartier,  Cbamplain  and  other  earb' 
leaders.  'The  Jesuits  in  North  America'  de- 
scribes heroic  and  trarac  missionary  labors. 
'The  Old  Rigune  in  Canada'  describes  tfae 
planting  in  Canada  of  the  French  type  of 
society  which  still  endures  in  the  province  of 
Quebec.  'La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the 
Great  West'  and  'Frontenac  and  New  France 
under  Louis  XIV  describe  French  efforts  aad 
policy  in  North  America  at  the  end  of  the 
17di  century,  while  'A  Half  Ontury  of  Con- 
flict' (2  vols.l,  'Montcalm  and  Wolfe*  (2 
vols.)  and  'The  Conspiracy  of  Fontiac'  (2 
vols.)  give  die  story  of  the  final  long  stmgsle 
between  France  and  Britain  which  in  the  end 
brought  Canada  under  the  British  flag.  (leorge 
M.  Wrong's  'Fall  of  Canada'  (Clarendon 
Press)  may  be  said  to  supplement  Parionan  by 
its  full  account  of  the  last  year  of  French  rule. 
Wood's  'Fight  for  Canada'  covers  the  Seven 
Years'  War  in  Canada. 

Of  English  speaking  Canada  the  story  has 
as  yet  been  less  thorougfily  told  and  one  or  two 
of  the  following  works  are  out  of  print.  Bour- 
inot,  'Canada  under  British  Rule'  (Cambridgre 
University  Press)  is  a  brief  outline.  Bradley's 
'Making  of  Canada'  (Constable)  and  Lucas's 
'History  of  Canada,  1763-1812,'  and  his  'The 
Canadian  War  of  1812'  (Clarendon  Press), 
both  cover  this  history  down  to  1815  including 
the  War  of  1812-15  with  the  United  States, 
The  later  period  has  not  yet  been  covered  in  a 
single  adequate  work  and  the  story  must  be 
studied  in  the  Hves  of  the  chief  actors.  The 
most  interesting  books  are  in  'The  Chronicles 
of  Canada'  such  as  Wallace's  'The  Family 
Compact*,  Grant's  'Tribnne  of  Nova  Scotia* 
(Howe),  and  Sir  Josei^  Pope's  'Day  of  Sir 


CANADA— TKB  EKA  OF  BARLY  JOSCOVJB&Y  <3> 


aw 


John  UacdoDald.'  In  the  'Makers  of  Canada' 
there  are  some  excellent  lives :  Lindsay's  'Wil* 
liam  Lyon  Uackeiuie'  tells  the  story  oi  the 
leader  of  the  rebellion  of  1837 ;  Shorit's  'Lord 
Sydenham.'  an  account  of  the  ^vemor  of 
Canada  wno  brought  about  the  Union  of  1841 1 
Parldn's  'Sir  John  Macdonald,'  a  good  account 
of  that  statesman;  and  Skellton'j  'Day  of 
Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier.*  Dent's  'Story  of  the 
Upper  Canadian  Rebellion'  and  his  'Last  Forty 
Years,  Canada  since  the  Union  of  1841'  are 
interesting  but  now  out  of  print.  Boyd's  'Sir 
George  Etienne  Cartier'  (New  York  )is  %  very 
full  recent  account  of  the  French  Canadian 
leader  in  the  federation  movement.  Sir  Joseidi 
Pope's  'Life  and  Times  of  Sir  John  Macdooald' 
(London,  Amcdd)  and  Sir  John  Willison's  'Sir 
Wilfred  Laurier  and  the  Liberal  Party'  (To- 
ronto, Morang)  eJcb  in  two  vohimei,  are  very 
full  and  excellent  ^egfried's  'The  Ract 
Question  in  Canada'  (London)  is  ai  penetrat- 
ing study  Of  French  ideals. 

The  vital  phase  of  the  later  histop'  of  Can- 
ada is  the  expansion  of  the  West.  Miss  Agnes 
C.  Lam's  'Conquest  of  the  Great  North- Wast' 
(2  vols.,  Toronto)  is  a  stirring  account  of  the 
Hndson's  Bay  Company,  and  her  'Vikings  of  the 
Pacific'  (New  York)  is  the  story  of  discovery 
from  the  Pacific  side.  Sir  William  Butler's 
'The  Great  Lone  Land'  and  <The  Wild  North 
Land'  (London)  are  vivid  accounts  of  life  on 
the  prairie  before  the  settlers  came  in.  Bur- 
pee's 'Search  for  the  Western  Sea'  (Toronto) 
IS  a  record  of  the  discovery  of  the  West.  Mil- 
Ion  and  Cheadle's  'The  North-West  Passage 
by  Land'  (London)  is  an  equally  vivid  account 
of  crossing  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  sixties 
and  should  be  supplemented  by  G.  M.  Grant's 
'From  Ocean  to  Ocean,'  written  10  years  later 
(Toronto  1873V  Hayden's  'The  Riders  of  the 
Plains'  (London)  describes  the  work  of  the 
mounted  police  in  the  West,  work  that  has  kept 
the  frontier  Ufe  of  Canada  almost  free  from 
crime.  Lant,  'The  Canadian  Commonwealth' 
HndianapoUs)  is  a  racy  discussion  of  present 
day  problems.  The  Constitution  of  Canada 
will  DC  found  in  E^rton,  'Federations  and 
Unions  in  the  BriQsh  &npire'  (Qarendon 
Press). 

On  Canada's  rdations  with  the  Empire  'The 
British  I^pirc'  (Pollard,  editor)  and  Tke 
Round  Table,  a  quarterly,  should  be  consulted 
hy  serious  students.  The  University  of  Toronto 
Library  publishes  an  annual  'Review  of  His- 
torical Publications  relating  to  Canada,*  in 
which  all  books  on  Canada  ar«  reviewed  from 
year  to  year  (21  vols,  up  to  1918).    Lamed'i 


Library  Association)   has  a  good  Bibliography 
of  Canada. 

Georce  M.  Wrong, 
Professor  of  HiHory,  Uaiverfily  of  Toronto. 
3.  THE  ERA  OF  EARLY  DISCOVERY. 
The  early  history  of  Canada  from  1497  to  1633 
may  for  the  sake  of  convenience  be  divided  into 
four  i^riods:  (1)  The  period  of  the  early  ex- 
plorations aloi^  the  Atluitic  seaboard,  1497- 
1533;  (2)  the  discovery  and  occupation  by  the 
French  of  the  gulf  and  river  Saint  Lawrence, 
1534-43;  (3)  the  rise  of  the  fur-trade,  1544- 
1612;  and  <4)  the  first  permanent  colonization, 
1613-32. 

Th«  BKploratloiM  along  the  Atlantic  8«ft- 


Boaud,  1497-1533<— The  first  European  to  act 
foot  on  British  North  America  after  the  de- 
parture of  the  Northmen  in  the  llth  centu^ 
was  John  Obot  (q.v.)  of  Bristol.  Though 
bom  lu  Genoa,  CJkbot  had  removed  in  1461  to 
Venice  and  by  his  natural iiation  in  1476  as  a 
citizen  of  that  republic  had  been  able  to  trade 
to  the  Venetiai)  factories  throughout  the  Le- 
vant, When  on  a  voyage  to  Alexandria  tor 
spices  he  made  up  his  mind  to  push  on  to 
Mecca,  then  the  great  mart  for  the  transfer 
of  eastern  and  western  goods.  He  wished  to 
team  the  situation  of  me  region  where  the 
spices  grew.  On  qnestioning  on  this  subject 
tiiDse  in  eharge  of  Uie  spice-caravans  at  Mecca, 
Aey  told  him  that  they  received  them  from 
other  caravans  coming  from  further  eastward 
to  whom  they  had  in  tum  been  handed  over  by 
others  coming  from  still  more  remote  regions. 
It  seemed  dear  to  Cabot  that  the  spices  must 

Kow  on  the  very  eastern  confines  of  Asia, 
that  case  wotud  it  not  be  more  practical 
to  bring  them  direct  to  Euro^  by  sea  across 
the  western  ocean?  With  this  idea  in  mind 
Cabot  removed  with  his  family  from  Venice 
to  London.  In  England  he  learned  that  in  the 
summer  of  1480  an  attempt  had  been  made  by 
tym  ships  from  Bristol  to  find  the  island  of 
Brazil  to  the  west  of  Ireland.  Under  Cabot's 
direction  fresh  efforts  were  made  to  find  both 
this  island  and  that  of  the  Seven  Oties  which 
should  but  form  stepping-stones  on  the  new 
route  to  Asia  by  the  west.  All  was  to  no  pur- 
pose. No  islands  or  land  of  any  sort  could  be 
discovered.  Suddenly,  however,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1493  news  reached  England  that  an- 
other Genoese,  Christopher  Colmnbus,  had 
sailed  out  into  the  western  ocean  with  three 
Spanish  ships  and  bad  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  Indies.  Cabot  and  bis  friends  were  roused 
to  fresh  efforts.  During  Henry  VH's  visit  to 
Bristol  in  the  winter  of  1495-96  Cabot  pro- 
ceeded to  set  before  him  the  advantages  to 
accrue  to  England  could  intercourse  be  opened 
between  that  country  and  Asia.  London 
would  become  in  a  short  time  a  greater  em- 
porium for  spices  than  was  then  Alexandria 
Itself,  As  a  result  of  this  interview  Setters 
patent  were  issued  on  5  March  1496,  {^ving 
Cabot  and  his  sons  permission  to  sail  to  Asia 
under  the  Etwllsh  flag.  Armed  with  these 
powers  Cabot  ntted  out  at  Bristol  a  small  vessel 
called  the  Mathetu.  Her  crew  consisted  of  but 
18  men.  Owing  to  various  delays  they  were 
not  able  to  set  sail  until  Tuesday,  2  May  1497. 
Roiuiding  Ireland,  they  first  of  all  headed  north 
and  then  west.  After  many  weeks  of  varied 
winds,  land  was  at  length  sighted  at  5  o'clock 
on  Saturday  morning,  24  June.  On  the  53d  day 
after  leaving  Bristol  they  had  reached  the  most 
easterly  pomt  of  C^pe  Breton  Island,  The 
royal  banner  was' unfurled  and  as  the  sbip'a 
boat  rounded  her  keel  on  the  beach,  perhaps 
of  Mira  Bay,  John  Cabot  stepped  ashore  and  la 
solemn  form  took  possession  of  the  land  in 
the  name  of  King  Henry  VII-  No  inhabitants 
were  seen,  but  the  sailors  found  snares  set 
for  game  and  a  needle  for  making  nets.  It 
wast  therefore,  judged  thai  the  country  was 
inhabited  As  the  climate  was  agreeable  and 
the  soil  fertile,  they  were  of  opinion  that  they 
had  reached  that  portion  of  the  coast  of  A»a 
where  grew   the.  spices   Cabot   had  seen   at 


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806 


CAHADA— TRX  BHA  OF  BA^T  lOSCOVMBY  <3) 


Mecca.  The  modem  Cape  Breton  waa  named 
"&pe  Discovery"  and  Scatari  Island  which  lies 
opposite,  'Saint  John's  Island,*  as  the  day  was 
Uie  feast  of  Saint  John  the  Baptist.  Sailing 
north  along'  Cape  Breton  Island  they  gave  to 
Cape  Ray  the  name  of  "Cape  Saint  George,* 
and  called  Saint  Pierr^  Miquelon  and  Langley 
islands  the  'Trinity  group."  Since  their  pro- 
visions were  none  too  plentiful  shotild  the  re- 
turn voyage  prove  a  Ion,;  one,  they  si>ent  no 
thne  in-  further  exploration  and  early  in  July 
set  sail  for  home  from  Cape  Race  which  they 
named  "England's  Cape.*  Favored  by  the 
westerly  winds  of  the  North  Atlantic,  they 
made  good  progress  and  on  Sunday,  6  August, 
the  Afalkew  dropped  aniihor  ooce  more  in 
Bristol  harbor.  Cabot  harried  to  Court  and 
on  the  following  Thursday,  10  August,  wai 
given  a  reward  of  ilO  for  his  successful  dis- 
covery. According  to  Cabot's  report  he  had 
found  some  700  leagues  to  the  west  of  Ireland 
the  country  of  the  Great  Khan.  Altboo^  silk 
and  brazil-wood  ^ew  at  the  spot  where  he 
landed,  it  was  his  intention  on  the  next  voyage 
to  proceed  on  down  that  coast  till  he  reached 
Opango,  for  in  his  o[)iiiion  this  was  the  region 
whence  came  the  spices  and  precious  stones 
he  had  seen  at  Mecca.  Henry  VII  was  de- 
hghted  and  granted  Cabot  a  yearly  pension  of 
i20.  On  3  Feb.  1498  new  letters  patent  were 
issued  authorizing  Cabot  to  prepare  a  fresh  Deet 
of  six  vessels.  In  order  to  secure  skilled  sea- 
men and  probably  also  to  hear  news  of  what 
Columbus  had  done,  Cabot  about  this  time 
made  a  trip  to  Lisbon  and  Seville.  In  Lisbon 
he  came  across  a  certain  Joao  Femandes,  called 
"Labrador"  because  he  owned  land  on  the  is- 
land of  Terceira.  When  Cabot  informed  this 
man  of  his  discovery,  Femandes  in  turn  told 
him  how  he  himself  had  also  visited  a  region 
to  the  west  of  Iceland  and  north  of  the  point 
in  Asia  reached  by  Cabot.  The  latter's  curios- 
i^  was  roused.  Here  was  perhaps  a  shorter 
way  of  returning  to  Asia  than  by  crossing 
again  the  dreaded  western  ocean.  On  Cabot^ 
return  to  Bristol  with  Fernandes,  a  brief  con- 
sultation with  the  merchants  of  that  town  who 
had  long  traded  to  Iceland  convinced  everyone 
that  this  was  the  best  route  to  take.  By  the 
beginning  of  May  the  two  vessels  manned  by 
300  men  were  in  readiness.  Since  it  was  known 
that  Cabot  was  taking  the  route  via  Iceland, 
*in  his  company  sayled  also  out  of  Bristowe 
three  or  foure  small  ships  fraught  with  sleight 
ajid  grosse  merchandizes,  as  course  cloth,  caps, 
laces,  points  and  other  trifles.*  Early  in  June 
they  reached  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  a  ht- 
tle  north  of  Cape  Farewell.  As  Fernandes  had 
already  told  them  of  this  region  they  named 
it  the  'Labrador's  Land.*  On  coasting  north 
along  this  desolate  shore,  they  found  the  ice 
to  grow  steadily  thicker  and  heavier  and  the 
cold  to  become  more  and  more  intense.  It  was 
also  noticed  that  the  coast  trended  continually 
eastward.  Finally  on  II  June  in  lat.  67*  30*. 
the  crews  mutinied  and  refused  tto  proceed 
further  in  that  direction.  Cabot  was  thereupon 
obliged  to  turn  his  ships  about  and  to  head 
back  to  the  south.  On  reaching  Cape  Fare- 
well, they  sailed  west  and  explored  the  south- 
em  and  also  the  western  coast  of  Greenland. 
On  meeting  with  ice  again  on  the  west  coast 
they  once  more  headed  west  until  they  arrived 
off   the  coast  of   the  present  Labrador,   near 


the  modem  TaUe  Hit)  in  57°  40*.  Since  tb^ 
had  not  penetrated  to  the  bottom  of  Davis 
Strait  they  naturally  supposed  it  was  merely 
a  gnlf  and  that  this  coast  was  one  with  the 
Labrador's  Land  in  the  nordi.  Following  on 
down  this  coast,  which  in  their  opinion  was 
that  of  Asia,  they  at  length  reached  C^pe 
Race  and  the  region  «q)lored  in  the  previous 
summer.  Proceeding  on  toward  the  south  they 
coasted  the  shores  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
England  until  they  reached  the  traiy  of  New 
York.  They  were  now  ipuch  struck  by  the 
distance  westward  they  had  come.  The  east 
coast  of  Greenland  Ues  in  43*  wlale  the  longi- 
tude of  Sandy  Hoc^  is  74°,  which  is  only 
three  qnarters  of  a  degree  less  than  that  of 
Cuba.  Cabot  could  well  say,  dierefore,  that  be 
had  now  *sayled  in  this  tracte  so  farrc  towarde 
the  weste,  that  he  had  the  Itande  of  Culn  on 
his  left  hande  in  maner  in  the  same  degree 
of  longitude.*  They  continued  to  coast  the 
shores  of  New  Jersey,  Delaware  and  Uarrland 
as  far  as  the  38*  parallel  of  latitude,  at  which 
point  the  low  state  of  their  provisions  and  the 
absence  of  any  traces  of  eastern  civilization 
induced  them  to  come  about  and  head  back  to 
Bristol,  where  they  arrived  late  in  the  autumn 
of  1498.  The  results  of  this  voyage  proved 
such  a  disajipointment  that  no  iitsu  expedi- 
tion was  dispatched  until  1501.  Meanwhile 
Joao  Femandes  returned  to  Portugal.  On  the 
island  of  Terceira,  where  he  had  his  boroe, 
a  PortE^guese  nobleman  named  Gasper  Corte- 
Real  (q.v. )  possessed  considerable  estates. 
This  nobleman,  who  was  much  interested  in  tbe 
discoveries  that  were  then  taking  place,  seems 
to  have  put  himself  in  communication  with 
Femandes,  The  result  was  that  early  in  the 
spring  of  1500  Corte-Real  applied  for  and  re- 
ceived letters  patent  empowering  him  t<r  un- 
dertake an  expeditim  to  the  northwest.  Set- 
ting sail  from  Lisbon  early  in  that  summer  be 
reached  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  on  8 
June.  Hiey  proceeded  to  follow  it  northward 
until  29  June,  when  the  ice-floes  and  icebergs 
in  Denmark  Strait  forced  them  to  head  back 
toward  the  south.  Rounding  Cape  Farewell 
they  explored  the  southern  and  western  coasts 
of  Greenland,  whence  as  the  season  was  well 
advanced  they  once  more  returned  to  Lisbon. 
In  the  hope  of  discovering  a  region  of  a  less 
wild  and  desolate  nature.  Gasper  Corte-Real 
fitted  out  a  fresh'  expedition  in  the  spring  of 
1501.  They  left  Lisbon  on  15  May  and  were 
oearing  Cape  Farewell  when  they  came  upon  a 
large  pack  of  field-ice,  which  forced  them  to 
alter  their  course  to  the  northwest.  At  the  end 
of  several  weeks  they  came  in  sight  of  the  coast 
of  our  present  Labrador  in  58°.  Following 
this  mainland  toward  the  south  they  came  upon 
a  band  of  Nasciuapee  Indians,  who  still  inhabit 
Labrador.  Thinking  they  would  make  good 
slaves  they  seized  50  of  these  natives  and 
stowed  them  under  the  hatches.  Continuing 
on  down  that  coast  they  reached  Conception 
Bay  in  Newfoundland  early  in  September.  It 
was  then  decided  that  the  two  vessels  with  the 
Indians  on  board  should  sail  from  here  direct 
to  Portugal  while  Gasper  Corte-Real  himself 
should  proceed  on  down  that  coast  in  order  to 
discover  its  connection  with  the  islands  discov- 
ered near  the  equator  trjr  Columbus.  The  two 
caravels  reached  Lisbon  in  safety  in  the  second 
week  in  October.    Thou^  the  Kcount  of  the 


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CANADA  ~THX  SKA  OF  BARLT  IiraCOVflRT  (3) 


901 


discovery  of  this  maintond  and  the  apporance 
of  its  idtatutants  excited  coiuider«ble  interest, 
more  importance  wat  attached  to  Gasper  Corto- 
Real's  expkiration  of  the  region  to  the  south. 
The  autumn  piiMed,  however,  without  anythiug 
being  seen  of  hhn  or  his  v«sseL  In  that  sum- 
mer an  English  expedition  had  been  dispatched 
to  the  same  coa^t  by  Joaa  Fernandes,  now  a 
naturalized  EngUsimiui,  and  sercral  other  £ng^ 
Hsh  merchants,  but  on  their  return  in  the  an- 
tuDin  with  three  Indians  tbey  reported  that 
they  had  seen  nothing  of  Gasper  CortcReaL 
In  January  1502  his  ri^Is  were  traneferred 
to  liis  brotlier  Miguel  who  l«ft  lisbon  on  10 
May  with  three  vessels  to  search  for  his  lost 
brother.  They  reached  Newfoundland  toward 
the  end  of  June  and  on  the  24th  of  that  month 
named  the  modem  Saint  John's,  Ihs  river 
Saint  John,*  in  commemoration  of  the  feast  of 
Saint  Jriut  the  Baptist.  To  (scilitato  the 
I  search  each  ship  was  ordered  to  visit  a  oertata 

portion  of  the  coast  and  to  return  to  Saint 
!  John's  by  20  August.    Two  of  the  vessels  re- 

turned at  the  date  fixed  but  the  vessel  of  Ui- 
miel  hunsdf  was  never  heu^  of   more.    An 
'  English  expedition  also  visited  the  sane  coast 

m  that  year  and  on  20  September  King  Henry 
VJI  granted  a  pension  of  ilQ  each  to  two  nat- 
uraliaed  Portnguese  *in  consideratiofl  of  the 
true  service  whitii  they  have  doon  unto  us 
to  oar  singler  pleasure  as  Capitaignes  into  the 
newc  foutide  Hinde.'  No  trace  had  been  secM 
by  them,  however,  of  either  of  the  missing 
Corte-Reals.  In  the  hope  of  iindii^  some  trace 
of  them,  Kii^  Hanoel  dispatched  two  vessels 
to  that  coast  in  the  summer  of  1^3,  but  neither 
these  vessels  nor  those  which  were  sent  out  in 
that  year  by  the  merchants  of  Bristol  saw  any 
trace  of  them.  They  were  thereupon  ^ven  up 
for  lost  The  rich  codfishing  on  this  coast 
had  now  become  so  well  known  that  in  1504 
the  Frettirh  and  Bretons  began  to  resort  thitber- 
Two  years  later  a  tax  was  laid  on  the  cod  from 
these  parts  taken  to  PortugaL  The  Frend 
rapidly  increased  in  niunbers  and  in  1512  when 
the  first  Spanish  expedition  to  this  coast  was 
fitted  out  tne  latter  got  their  pilots  in  Brittany. 
By  1519  the  French  fleet  ntm^red  100  sail  and 
included  vessels  from  EMeppe  aU  the  way  down 
to  B^onne.  In  1520  Atvarea  Fagundes  of 
Vianna  in  Portugal  colored  the  region  be- 
tween Saint  Pierre  and  Miqueton  and  the  coast 
of  Nova  Scotia.  On  his  return  he  received  a 
grant  of  these  regions  from  the  King  of  Portu- 
gal. It  is  possible  that  a  colffliy  was  sent 
thitfaer  in  1525.  in  this  same  year  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V  dispatched  Estevan  Gome* 
(q.v.),  who  had  sailed  with  Magellan,  to  dis- 
cover in  the  north  a  strait  similar  to  the  strait 
of  Magellan  in  the  south.  Gomez  explored  the 
Bay  of  Fundy  and  then  followed  the  coast 
southwards  as  far  as  the  West  Indies.  On  hta 
return  to  La  Corunna  with  a  ship-load  of  In- 
dians he  was  understood  to  say  he  had  spices. 
The  excitement  was  great  for  it  was  believed 
he  had  reached  the  Moluccas.  Ultimately  the 
mistake,  which  was  due  to  the  sttnilari^  of  the 
words  for  slaves  and  spices  in  Spanish,  was 
explained  and  afforded  the  Etnperor  and  his 
roort  much  amusement.  In  152/  two  Enelish 
vessels,  the  Samfon  and  the  Mary^of-Giijori, 
tbe  latter  being  a  three-masted  barque  of  250 
iCTis"  burden,  were  sent  out  to  find  a  northwest 
passage.     On    meeting   with    icebergs    at   the 


mouth  of  Davis  Str^t  they  beaded  soDlh.  On 
1  July  in  52°  a  storm  separated  them  and  the 
Sotiuon  was  never  heard'of  more.  The  Mary- 
of'GHiord  on  reaching  Saint  John's  on  3  Au- 

Sist  fonnd  "eleven  saiJe  of  Normans  and  one 
rtttaine  and  two  FoitugsU  Bailees  and  all  a 
fishing.'  Finding  no  news  here  of  the  Samton, 
■he  continued  her  course  to  the  south  "ofteiv- 
times  putting  her  men  on  land  to  search  the 
state  of  those  unknowen  rcBfons."  On  one  of 
these  occasions  the  Italian  pilot,  who  may  pos- 
sibly have  been  Giovatmi  Verraxano,  who  had 
explored  this  coast  for  Francis  1  in  1524,  was 
killed  by  the  Indians.  In  the  middle  of  No- 
vember the  Mary-of-GUford  reached  the  West 
Indies.  Being  refused  permission  to  enter  San 
Domingo,  she  set  sail  again  for  England.  In 
the  course  of  her  voyage  she  had  met  more 
than  50  French,  Portuguese  and  Spanish  fish- 
ing-vessels, which  shows  the  proportions  to 
which  the  cod-fishing  on  the  Banks  had  dien 
attained.  Each  year  in  fact  the  numbers  in- 
creased. 


Lawrence,  IS34-43.—  Theu^  during  the 
course  of  the  iirst  three  det^des  of  the  16th 
century  varioos  English,  Portuguese,  French 
and  Spanish  expe<£tions  had  explored  the  sea- 
board of  eastern  North  America  none  of  them 
had  penetrated  into  the  interior.  The  first  to 
do  this  were  the  French  in  1534.  lite  Prwich 
fiihenoen  who  resorted  every  summer  to  that 
portion  of  this  main  coast  which  was  ridi  in 
cod  had  noticed  that  a  bav,  called  bnr  tbem  the 
*Bbv  of  Castles*  from  the  formatton  of  the 
land  thereabout,  extended  so  far  inland  that 
not  one  had  ever  bten  able  to  reach  the  head 
of  it.  It  was  just  possible,  therefore,  that  tl^ 
migfat  be  the  entrance  to  a  strait  similar  to 
that  fonnd  by  Magellan  in  the  south.  On  this 
being  reported  to  the  authorities  at  home  as 
expedition  was  dispatched  from  Saint  Malo  in 
the  spring  of  1534  tmder  the  pilot  Jacques  Car- 
Cter  with  orders  to  ei^ilore  this  opening.  Car- 
der reached  Bonne  Espirance  Harbor  inside 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  (then  called  the  "Bay  of 
Castles')  on  Wednesday,  10  June.  Haying  dis- 
covered on  examining  the  coast  beyond  this 
point  with  the  kmg-boats,  that  it  was  com- 
ptetelv  barren  and  rocky,  sail  was  made  on 
Monday,  15  June,  from  Bonne  Espirance  Har- 
bor in  order  to  explore  the  land  seen  to  the 
south.  Following  this  south  shore  of  the  Strait 
of  Belle  Isle  they  were  led  steadily  down  the 
west  coast  of  w)ut  we  now  call  the  island  of 
Newfoundland.  Off  Saint  George's  Bay  to  the 
north  of  Cape  Itay  they  had  stormy  weather 
for  a  week,  which  forced  them  to  beat  up  and 
down.  On  resuming  their  course  southward 
they  fell  in  with  the  Bird  Rocks,  which  lie  55 
miles  north-northwest  of  Cape  Bretcm  Island. 
The  island  to  the  south  of  these  they  named 
*Brion  Island*  after  the  Admiral  of  France. 
From  the  currents  observed  here  Cartier  sur*- 
mised  that  the  opening  beside  Cape  Breton 
Island  was  a  strait  and  tliat  one  could  sail  from 
Brion  Island  directly  into  the  Atlantic.  *Should 
this  prove  to  be  the  case,*  added  Cartier,  'it 
would  mean  a  great  saving  both  in  time  and 
distance  should  anything  of  importance  be  dis- 
covered on  this  voyage."  As  is  well  known, 
this  opening,  Cabot  Strait,  is  now  used  quite 
as  miKh  as  the  Strait  of  Bdle  Isle.    Leaving 


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CAHADA— THE  ERA  OF  BABX.V  XHSCOVBRT  (S> 


Brion  Island 
crossed  over  to 
thn  coasted  the  norlhwMtem  comer  until  the 
following  Monday,  29  June,  when  on  the  wind 
veering  to  the  south  thev  had  to  set  sail  toward 
the  west.  They  were  under  the  impression  that 
these  islands  formed  the  main  shore  on  the 
south  side  of  the  guH,  and  when  on  Tuesday 
morning,  30  June,  they  reached  Caecumpequc 
Bay  in  Prince  Edward  Idand,  they  believed 
that  this  latter  formed  part  of  the  same  main 
shore  with  the  Maedalens.  The  western  end 
of  Northvimberland  Strait,  which  separates 
Prince  Edward  Island  from  the  mainland,  was 
mistaken  for  a  bay  and  called  'Saint  Leonore's 
Bay"  in  memory  of  a  Breton  bishop  whose  fes- 
tival is  celebrated  on  1  July.  Coasting  north- 
ward along  the  New  Brunswick  shore  they  be- 
lieved  on  reacting  Chaleur  Bay  that  they  had  at 


merely  a  deep  bay;  "whereat,"  says  Carticr, 
■we  were  much  put  out.*  On  account  of  the 
heat  enpericnced  there  they  christened  it  "the 
Bay  of  H^l"  Pursuing  their  course  northr 
ward  they  entered  Gaspe  Bay,  where  tfaey  were 
detained  for  ten  days  by  bad  weather.  On 
Friday,  24  July,  the  day  before  they  set  sail, 
tb^  set  up  a  cross  30  feet  high  as  a  landmarlc 
and  also  seized  the  two  sons  of  an  Indian  chief 
who  had  come  down  to  the  sea  with  his  tribe 
to  fish.  Rounding  the  peninsula  of  Gasp^  they 
were  heading  straight  for  the  mouth. of  the 
Saint  Lawrence,  wnen  one  of  the  mirages  so 
common  in  those  parts  led  them  to  believe  that 
this  passage  between  Gaspi  and  Auticosti  was 
merely  a  land-locked  bay.  They  consequently 
crossed  over  and  fallowed  the  south  shore  of 
Anticosti  as  far  as  the  eastern  extremity  of 
that  island.  Continuing  on  along  the  norft 
shore  of  Anticosti  they  at  length  caught  si^t 
of  the  Quebec  coast  opposite  and  saw  that  they 
were  entering  a  passage  which  they  called 
■Saint  Peter's  Strait."  At  this  point  a  con- 
sultation was  held  at  which  it  was  decided  that 
since  there  was  a  great  prol  . 
sage  being  the  one  they  were 
would  be  advisable  as  the  season  was  laie  m 
postpone  their  exploration  of  it  until  the  fol- 
lowing year.  They  consequently  headed  e»sl 
along  the  north  shore  of  the  gntf  and  were 
finally  brought  back  to  the  Strait  of  Belle 
Isle  or  the  "Bay  of  Castles,*  whence  ihey  had 
set  out.  The  fishermen's  statement  had  been 
ftilly  conlirmed.  This  narrow  opening  had 
turned  out  to  be  a  great  gulf  with  probably 
a  second  entrance  into  the  Atlantic  near  Brion 
Island.  There  was  also  a  prospect  that  the 
opening  they  had  just  discovered  in  the  north- 
west corner  of  this  gulf  wonld  yet  lead  them 
into  the  South  Sea.  Setting  sail  from  Belle 
Isle  on  Saturday,  15  August,  they  reached  Saint 
Malo  in  safety  on  Saturday,  5  September.  As 
they  were  in  great  hopes  that  the  opening  in 
the  northwest  corner  of  this  large  inland  gulf 
would  eventually  lead  them  to  t£e  South  Sen, 
a  fresh  expedition  consisting  of  three  vessek 
was  sent  out  under  Cartier  in  the  spring  of 
1535  in  order  to  explore  it  Passing  through 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  and  along  the  north 
shore  of  the  gulf  they  anchored  on  Monday, 
9  Au^St,  in  a  small  bay  on  the  Quebec  shore, 
Opposite  Anticosti.  As  the  following  day  was 
the    feast    of   Saint   Lawrence,    tlus   bay  was 


duisteiMd  *SBint  Lawrence's  Bay,"  The  name 
afterward  spread  by  mistake  to  the  whole  gulf 
and  was  finally  extended  to  the  river.  The 
two  savages  who  had  passed  the  winter  with 
Cartier  in  France,  now  informed  him  that  the 
land  on  the  south  side  of  this  Saint  Peter's 
Strait  was  an  island  and  that  further  west  he 
would  come  to  the  mouth  of  a  very  large  river. 
Where  that  river  rose  they  did  not  know.  Witli 
diis  informatiot)  to  help  him  Cartier  proceeded 
tbrou^   the   passage   north    of    Anticosti    and 

Cistng  on  up  the  gulf  entered  the  river  Saint 
.wrence  or  as  the  savages  called  it  the  "River 
of  Hochelaga.*  On  arriving -at  the  mouth  of 
the  Sa^uenay  his  Indian  gmdes  informed  him 
that  this  river  took  its  name  from  a  kingdom 
lying  toward  the  northwest  wUcb  was  'rich 
and  wealthy  in  precious  stones.'  Pleased  with 
this  information  Cactier  pushed  on  up  the 
*River  of  Hochelaga*  until  he  reached  a  large 
island  which  he  named  the  "Island  of  Orleaiu* 
after  Francis  I's  third  son,  Cbaries,  Ehike  of 
Orleans.  On  the  banks  of  asmall  stream  which 
here  enters  the  Saint  Lawrence  stood  the  hotne 
of  (he  two  Indians  who  had  passed  the  winter 
in  Prance.  For  this  and  other  reasons  Cartier 
laid  n^  his  two  largest  vessels  in  this  stream 
and  with  his  third  vessel  and  two  long-boats 
pushed  on  westward  to  visit  another  Indian 
village  called  Hochelaga.  The  shallow  water 
at  the  head  of  Lake  Saint  Peter,  which  be 
named  the  ^Lake  of  Angouleme*  after  Charles, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  checked  the  further  progress 
of  the  sailing  vessel  which  bad  to  be  left  bdiind 
here.  Pushing  on  in  their  long-boats  the;y 
reached  the  Huron-lroqnois  village  of  Hoche- 
laga on  the  island  of  Montreal  at  the  foot  of 
the  Lachine  rapids  on  Saturday,  2  October.  On 
the  following  morning  a  visit  was  paid  to  this 
village  and  an  ascent  was  also  made  of  a  moun- 
tain near  at  hand  which  Cartier  named  ■Mount 
Royal."  From  this  poiot  they  had  a  maanificent 
view  of  die  surrounding  conntiy.  Tfi^  spe- 
cially noticed  the  rapids,  which  checked  further 
progress  westward  and  heard  fr^i  the  savages 
that  there  were  more  such  "falls  of  water*  be- 
yond. Just  above  the  rapids  another  river  en- 
tered the  main  stream.  According  to  the  sav- 
ages this  was  the  best  route  to  the  kingdom  of 
S^iguenay,  whose  inhabitants  were  doUied  like 
die  French  and  had  great  stores  of  gold  and 
other  precious  metals. 

Cartier  made  his  way  back  to  his  vessels 
on  the  Saint  Charles  and  in  the  course  of  die 
winter,  during  which  part  of  bis  crew  was 
carried  off  by  scurvy,  sou^  to  obtain  as  much 
information  as  possible  about  this  northern 
Mexico  called  by  the  savages  the  '■kingdom  of 
Saguenay,*  That  King  Francis  might  have  as 
much  information  as  possible  on  this  snbject 
Cartier,  on  the  day  he  had  a  large  crass  crectcid 
to  mark  the  French  possession  of  this  region, 
onlered  his  men  to  seize  the  chief  of  this  vil- 
lage and  eleven  odiers  whom  he  placed  on 
board  his  vessels  as  prisoners.  Leaving  the 
Saint  Charies  with  only  two  of  his  vessds  on 
Saturday,  6  May,  he  passed  dawn  the  south 
shore  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  throu^  the 
passage  to  the  south  of  Anticosti  Island,  which 
on  his  first  voyage  he  had  mistaken  for  a  bay. 
From  Chaleur  Bay  he  steered  for  Brion  Island 
and  discovered  after  leaving  it  that  the  coast 
to  the  south  was  not  the  main  shore  but  a  group 
of  islands.    Heading  still  to  the  east  be  reached 

DigitzedsyGoOgIC 


CAHADA-wTHB  BRA  OF  SAHLY  DIBCOVBKY  ,<9 


Cape  Breton  Island  and  found  his  conjectnrt 
as  to  the  exiatence  of  a  strait  here  to  be  tMr- 
rect.  After  tonching  at  the  island  of  S«int 
Kerre  and  Miquelon  he  left  one  of  his  tong;- 
boats  in  a  smalf  harbor  10  miles  north  of  Cape 
Race  and  then  on  Monday,  9  June,  seltiil  for 
home.  Ther  reached  Samt  Malo  m  safety  on 
Sandajr,  16  July. 

OwinK  to  the  wars  in  -whidi  Fnnce  wks 
then  engaged,  nothing  fnithrer  was  done  nntil 
the  winter  of  1540-41,  when  an  expedition  was 
.organized  to  proceed  to  the  conqtteU  of  this 
rich  kingdom  of  Saguenay.  While  Cartier  was 
to  act  as  pilot,  the  command  of  the  land  forces 
was  given  to  a  Picard  nobleman  named  Rober- 
val,  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  recent 
wars.  Throngh  a  delay  about  the  artillery,  the 
latter  was  not  able  to  be  ready  in  time,  so  Cxr- 
tier  set  sail  from  Saint  Mato  alone  with  five 
vessels  on  Monday,  23  May.  They  had  a  bad 
passage  ont  and  having  waited  some  time  in 
Newfonndfend  for  Roberral  did  not  reach  the 
island  of  Orleans  until  the  end  of  August  Cap- 
tier  tocA:  up  his  <^uarten  this  time  at  die  river 
of  Cap-Ronge,  nme  miles  above  Qneboc.  A 
week  uter  he  sent  back  two  of  his  vessels  to 
France  'with  letters  unto  the  King  and  to  ad- 
vertise him  what  had  been  done  and  found : 
and  how  Monsieur  de  Roberval  was  not  yet 
come,  and  that  hee  feared  tbat  by  occasion  ai 
contrary  winds  and  tempests  he  was  driven 
backe  againe  into  France.*  Five  days  later 
Cartier  set  off  in  two  long-boats  to  re-examine 
the  rapids  of  Mochelaga  and  find  out  what 
arrangements  should  be  made  for  passing  them 


rapids  that  after  passing  this  one  there  were 
several  others  of  the  same  sort  before  the 
Saguenay  conld  be  reached.  With  this  infor- 
mation to  help  him  Cartier  returned  to  Cap- 
Rouge,  where  he  spent  the  winter.  Neither  in 
that  autumn  nor  in  the  spring  of  1S42  was  any- 
thing beard  of  Roberval  The  latter  did  not 
set  sail  from  France  until  the  middle  of  April 
1542  and  was  unaUe  to  reach  Newfoundland 
until  the  first  week  in  Tune.  When  at  anchor 
there  in  the  harbor  of  Saint  John's  he  was 
much  surprised  one  morning  to  see  Cartier 
arrive.  According  to  Carder's  account  'hee 
could  not  with  his  small  company  withstand  the 
Savages,  which  went  about  dayly  to  annoy 
him.*  On  being  commanded,  however,  1^ 
Roberval  to  retom  "he  and  his  company, 
mooved  as  it  seemeth  with  ambition,  because 
they  woidd  have  all  the  glory  of  the  discoverie 
of  those  partes  themselves,  stole  privly  away 
the  next  night  and  departed  home  for  Brittany.* 
Roberval  was  thus  obliged  toward  the  end  of 
June  to  make  his  wa^  up  the  Saint  Lawrence 
alone.  He  took  up  his  quarters  in  the  build- 
ings at  Cap-Ronge  which  Cartier  had  vacated 
Or  14  September  he  sent  back  to  France  two 
ships  'to  carie  ncwes  unto  the  king  and  to 
come  iMcke  aj^ine  the  yeere  next  ensuing  fur- 
■ntshed  with  victuals  and  other  things.*  Dur- 
ing the  coarse  of  the  winter  50  of  his  people 
were  carried  off  by  scurvy,  so  that  when  he 
set  off  early  in  June  1543  to  conquer  the  tdng- 
dom  of  Saguenay  he  had  only  8  boats  and  ^ 
men.  The  remainder  who  only  numbered  30 
were  left  in  charge  of  the  fort.  How  far  up 
the  Saint  Lawrence  Roberval  penetrated  we  do 
not  know;  for  no  further  account  of  his  move- 


ments has  come  down  to  ns.  It  scemi  probable, 
however,  tint  after  penetrating  a  shott  dis> 
tance  np  the  Ottawa  and  finding  no  trace  of 
gold  he  rotumed  to  Cap* Rouge -where  he  found 
Cartier,  iriio  had  been  sent  out  to  bring  him 
home.  In  the  conrse  of  the  autumn  the  test 
of  the  men  returned.  On  the  failure  of  this 
nerally  known  a  new 
/hen  any  object  in  ap- 


The  Riae  of  the  Pur  Trade,  1544-1612,— 
During  (he  10  years  in  which  the  French  had 
been  busy  exploring  the  gulf  and  river  Saint 
Lawrence  and  seeking  to  reach  the  mysterious 
kingdom  of  Saguenay,  the  number  of  vessels  of 
vanoDS  nationafities  engaged  m.  the  fishing 
trade  along  the  Atlantic '  seaboard  had  been 
steadily  increasing.  On  his  arrival  at  Saint 
John's,  Newfoundland,  on  8  June  1542,  Rober- 
val had  found  •sereniaene  shippes  of  fishers^* 
which  were  six  more  than  Rut  had  met  there 
in  August  1527,  Out  of  this  annual  fishing 
trade,  which  was  carried  on  along  the  coast 
from  Belle  Isle  as  far  south  as  Cape  Cod, 
gnDdially  grew  the  fur  trade.  The  fi«iermen- 
wben  riding  at  anchor  in  a  bcty  or  inlet,  found 
that  the  savages  of  the  neighborhood  were 
always  ready  to  part  with  their  furs  for  a 
mere  triAe.  Since  these  furs  sold  in  Europe  for 
a  high  price,  the  practice  grew  up  among  the 
fishermen  of  bringing  out  each  year  a  supply 
of  trinkets  on  purpose  to  barter  for  furs.  The 
returns  were  ao  good  that  in  process  of  time 
some  vessels  m*de  a  specialty  of  the  fur  trade. 
Thus  in  1569  we  besr  of  a  French  vessel  from 
Havre  that  ^ad  a  trade  with'  the  people  of 
divers  sortes  of  fine  furies.*  In  1581  some 
Saint  Malo  merdiants  sent  a  small  barque  vf 
30  totis  into  the  upper  Saint  Lawrence 'and  so 
sucoessfnl  did  the  vovage  prove  that  in  the 
fallowing  year  they  dispatched  a  ship  of  80 
tons.  In  I5S3,  in  which  year  the  merchants  of 
Saint  Malo  sent  three  vessels  to  the  Saint 
Lawrence,  Stephen  Bellinger  of  Rouen 
"brtrnght  home  a  kynde  of  mnske  called  castor; 
divers  beastes  skynnes,  as  bevers,  otters,  mar- 
tenes,  Incemes,  seales,  buffs,  dere  skj^nnes,  all 
dressed  and  painted  on  the  innerside  with 
divers  excellent  colours.*  In  the  following  year 
the  merchants  of  Saint  Malo  brought  back  with 
them  two  savages  in  order  that  diey  should 
learn  French  and  afterward  facilitate  more  ex- 
tended trading  relations.  The  result  was  that 
in  1585  they  sent  10  ^»  into  the  Saint  Law- 
rence, In  January  158B  two  of  Cartier"*  de- 
scendants obtained  a  monopoly  of  this  fur 
trade,  but  so  great  was  the  outcry  raised  by  the 
other  excluded  merchants  that  in  May  the 
monopoly  was  revoked.  The  trade  continued 
to  remain  open  like  the  fishing  trade  nntil  1999. 
In  addition  to  cod,  some  of  the  vessels  fished 
for  furs,  and  toward  the  close  of  the  century 
there  was  a  great  development  of  the  walrus- 
fishing.  In  the  spring  of  1591  the  BonavtnUi^e 
of  Saint  Malo  made  her  way  to  the  Magdalen 
Islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  where 
she  "slewe  and  killed  to  the  nmnber  of  fifteene 
hundred  morses  or  Sea-oxen,*  as  the  walruses 
were  then  called.  Whh  the  40  tons  of  train-oil 
into  which  these  were  boiled  down  she  reached 
die  month  of  the  Endish  Channel  in  safety,  but 
was  there  caiHured  by  an  En^ish  vessel  from 
Bristol.     Relying  on  the  infonnation  thus  ob- 


.Google 


CANADA -.THE  BSA  OP  BAHLY  DISCOTSKY  (») 


tained,  a  vessel  was  sent  thither  from  Falmoutk 
in  1593,  and  though  she  "tooke  certaine  Sea- 
oxen,*  it  was  'nothing  such  numbers  as  they 
mi^t  have  had,  if  they  had  come  hi  due  sea- 
son,* for  they  arrived  late  in  the  summer.  In 
tile  spring  of  1594  the  Grace  of  Bristol  set  sail 
to  Anticosti,  *being  informed  that  the  Whalea 
which  are  deadly  wounded  in  the  grand  Bay 
(the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence),  and  yet  escape 
the  fisher  for  a  time,  are  woat  usually  to  shoot 
themselves  on  shore  there.*  Finding  no  whales 
she  made  her  way  back  to  the  bay  of  Flacentia 
in  Newfoundland,  where  she  met  •fishermen  of 
Saint  John  de  Luz  and  of  Sibiburo  [Ctboure] 
and  of  Biskay  to  the  number  of  threescore  and 
odde  sayles,*  After  fishing  there  for  some  time 
she  made  her  way  to  Ferryland  ■        ' 


,  where  lay  *two  and  twentie  sayles 
Englishmen.*  In  that  port  she  'made  up 
fishing  voyage"  and  set  sail  for  home.     In 


r  of  1S97  the  Hofewell  of  London,  of 
120  tons,  was  driven  away  from  the  Magdalcns 
by  two  ships  of  Saint  Malo  and  two  otiiers  of 
Oboure,  which  united  their  forces  against  her. 
Meeting  with  a  similar  hostile  welcome  fmn 
five  French  ships  in  a  harbor  of  Cape  Breton 
Island,  she  repaired  to  the  port  of  Samte  Marie 
in' Newfoundland,  where  she  found  a  veuel 
from  La  Rochelle  and  another  froin  Belle-IslC' 
en-Terre  at  the  mouth  of  the  Loire.  Since 
this  latter  hailed  from  a  Catholic  part  of 
France  it  was  decided  to  capture  her.  'We 
first,*  says  the  account,  'sent  our  boat  aboord 
the  Rocheller  to  certifie  him  that  we  were  his 
friends  and  to  request  him  not  to  hinder  our 
fiett  with  the  enemy.  This  me&sage  being  sent, 
we  made  all  the  haste  we  could  unto  the  ship 
of  Belle  Isle,  which  first  began  with  us  with 
three  great  shot,  one  whereof  hit  our  maintop- 
saile,  but  both  the  other  missed  us.  And  we 
also  sent  one  unto  them ;  then  being  approached 
nere  unto  them  ten  or  twelve  of  us  went  in  a 
shallop  to  enter  them.  And  when  we  boorded 
them  in  our  boat,  they  betooke  themselves  to 
their  close  fights,  pUying  chiefly  upon  us  with 
shot  and  pikes  out  at  two  ports,  between  whidi 
we  entered  very  dangerously,  escaping  meere 
dangers  both  by  shot  and  pike.  Some  of  ovr 
men  were  wounded,  but  no  great  harme  was 
done.*  With  this  pri/e  tiie. Hopewell  returned 
to  En^and.  In  the  following  year  an  uniuc- 
cessfnl  attempt  was  made  io  establish  a  colony 
on  Sable  Island.  The  Marquis  de  la  Roche 
had   obtained  his   first  letters  patent   autho 


sail  thither  with  two  vessels.  The  "pinnace,* 
however,  had  been  obliged  to  return  throuf^ 
'fowell  weather,*  and,  though  the  larger  vessel, 
after  being  "well  beaten  by  four  Enghsb  ships 
which  this  French  ship  had  thought  to  have 
robbed,*  had  "taken  her  course  for  Newfound- 
land,* we  do  not  know  what  was  done  there. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  La  Roche  merely 
selected  a  spot  for  settlement,  since  it  was  not 
until  1564  that  the  colonists  were  embarked. 
Unfortunately  *his  greatest  ship  of  300  tons 
was  caste  awaye  over  against  Brouage*  on  the 
west  coast  of  France,  and  so  the  expedition 
came  to  nau^t.  From  1589  to  1596  La  Roche 
was  kept  a  prisoner  by  the  Due  de  Uerctmr, 
but  on  his  release  he  made  a  fre^  attempt  to 
establish  a  colony.  In  the  summer  of  1598  he 
landed  on  Sable  Island  60  "sturdy  male  and 


fetaale  beggars,*  taken  from  the  prisons  of 
Normandy.  On  returning  thither  from  the 
mainland  he  was  blown  all  the  way  back  to 
France.  No  fresh  attesipt  was  made  to  con- 
tinue his  colony,  and  when  the  remnant  was 
sucoored  tiv  a  fishing  vessel  in  1603,  only  11 
persons  were  still  alive.  On  this  failure  of  La 
Roche's  colony,  no  sign  was  left  that  France 
claimed  the  region  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  as 
her  own.  To  remedy  this  state  of  affairs  a 
monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  for  10  years  was 
granted  m  the  spring  of  1599  to  a  fur  trader  of 
Honflenr,  who  yearly  sent  out  four  vessels  to 
the  Saint  Lawrence.  The  condition  was  that 
he  should  people  the  country  each  year  with 
50  colonists.  In  fulfilment  of  diis  agreement, 
on  the  conclusion  of  his  annual  barter  with  the 
Montagnais  at  Tadoussac  in  the  summer  of 
1599,  he  left  behmd  16  men  huddled  together 
far  warmth  in  a  small  log  hut  at  the  mondi 
of  the  Saguenay.  On  the  return  of  the  vessels 
in  the  following  stmuncr,  no  fresh  ocdonists 
were  landed  and  only  five  of  the  (oimer  batch 
were  found  alive,  lliete  had  only  saved  theai- 
selves  from  perishing  by  taking  refuge  among 
the  DeiBfaboTiiw  Indians.  In  the  meantime  the 
remainug  tiaders,  who  were  well  awaie  lliat 
die  few  colonists  taken  out  were  only  to  throw 
dust  in  the  qres  of  the  government,  londW  caro- 
plained  ^;ainst  dieir  exclusion  from  the  fur 
trade.  To  quiet  matters,  a  oommissaon  was 
^ipointed  in  the  winter  of  16(&~03,  which 
recommended  the  admission  of  certain  Rouen 
and  Saint  Malo  traders  on  condition  they 
should  bear  their  share  of  die  cost  of  coloniza- 
tion. Before,  however,  nure  colonists  were 
sent  out  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  explore  the 
coimtry  in  detail  in  order  that  the  best  site 
available  might  be  chosen  for  the  settkment 
This  survey  was  carried  out  in  the  sumnter  of 

1603  by  Samuel  de  Champlain,  an  officer  of  the 
navy,  and  Dupont-Grave,  one  of  the  for 
traders.     The  result  was  that  in  the  spring  of 

1604  a  fresh  monopoly  for  10  years  was  gtren 
to  a  company  foimed  by  the  Sieur  de  Uonts 
on  condition  that  60  colonists  a  year  should 
be  taken  out  The  first  settlement  was 
formed  in  the  summer  of  1604  on  the  island  of 
Sainte  Croix,  in  the  Bay  of  Funi^.  'The  Fort 
bee  [  De  Monti}  seated  at  the  end  of  the  Hand, 
opposite  to  the  place  where  he  had  lodged  his 
Canon,  which  was  wisely  considered  to  the 
end  to  command  the  river  tip  end  down.  And 
out  of  the  same  Fort  was  the  Switsers  lod^img, 
great  and  largc^  and  other  small  lo<^ings, 
representing  as  it  were  a  suburb.  Some  had 
housed  themselves  on  the  firmc  lande  neere 
the  bro<^  But  within  the  Fort  was  Monsienr 
de  Uonts  his  lodging  made  widi  very  faire  and 
artificiall  Carpentrie  woike,  with  the  Banner  of 
France  upon  the  same.  At  another  part  was 
the  store-bouse  wherein  consisted  the  safety  . 
and  life  of  everie  one,  likewise  made  with  faire 


sieur  Champdor^  and  other  n  „ 

Opposite  to  Monsieur  de  Monta,  his  9ud 
lodging,  there  was  a  galerie  covered  for  to 
exercise  themselves  either  in  ph^*  or  for  the 
workmen  in  time  of  raine.  And  between  the 
said  Forte  and  the  Platforme,  where  lay  the 
Canon,  all  was  foil  of  gardens  where  unto  everie 


:,  Google 


CANADA —  THE  SKA  OP  EARLY  DISGOTBXY  (3) 


one  exerdsod  himselfe  willinf^y.'  The  winter 
of  1604-05  proved  so  severe  on  the  exposed 
island  6f  Sainte  Croix,  the  soil  of  which  turned 
out  to  be  extremely  sandy,  that  in  the  following 
sunuuer  the  setdement  was  transported  across 
die  Bay  of  Fundy  to  the  harbor  of  Port  Royal 
{now  Annapolis  Basin),  where  the  building* 
were  put  together  in  the  foim  of  a  large  square. 
The  winter  of  1605-06  again  proved  a  hard 
<XK,  however,  and,  owing  to  UK  late  arrival 
of  the  company's  vessel,  not  only  were  all  the 
furs  taken  by  interlopers,  but  the  colonista 
tfaefBaelves  finally  embarked  in  two  small  boats 
in  order  to  find  s  fishing  vessel  willing  to  take 
tbem  back  to  France.  They  fortunately  met 
their  own  vessel,  in  which  thw  returned  to  Port 
Royal.  In  the  spring  of  1607,  however,  the 
company's  mxwopoly,  which  had  legally  seven 
years  more  to  nm,  was  suddenly  repealed 
through  the  intrigues  of  the  Hatters'  Cor- 
poration  of  Paris.  Nothing  remained  but  to 
send  out  a  vessel  to  bring  home  the  «4onistS  at 
Port  Rc^,  which  was  done. 

On  Champlain's  reoommcndation  De  UontS' 
now  tamed  lus  attention  to  the  Saint  Lawroice. 
In  order  that  he  might  retrieve  a  part,  at  least; 
of  his  losscB,  King  Henry  IV  allowed  him  a. 
monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  there  ior  one  year. 
In  the  mmmer  of  1606^  accordingly,  Champlain 
repaired  to  that  part  of  the  river  called  Quebec, 
or  «th«  Narrows,"  where  he  constructed  a  trad- 
ing-post It  was  hoped  that  diis  would  not  only 
^ve  them  an  advantage  over  the  other  compet- 
itors in  the  years  of^open  trade,  but  wojild  qlso 
hold  the  warlike  nation  of  the  Iroquois  m  check 
and  allow  the  Algonquins,  who  came  down 
every  summer  with  furs  from  the  upper  Ottawa, 
to  go  backward  and  forward  on  the  Saint  Law- 
rence in  all  security.  When  Hemy  IV  heard 
of  the  construction  of  De  Monts'  post  at  Quebec 
he  renewed  his  monopoly  for  another  year. 
Taking  advantage  of  this,  Oiamplain,  In  the 
summer  of  1609,  accompanied  the  Montagnais 
and  the  Algonqnins  on  die  warpadi  against  the 
Iroquois.  In  order  to  see  the  palefaces  of  which 
they  bad  heard  so  much,  and  also  to  have  their 
share  of  the  yictoiy  over  the  Iroquois,  the 
Hnrous,  who  dwelt  beyond  the  Algonquins  on 
the  shores  of  Georgian  Bay,  came  dov™  to 
Quebec,  for  the  first  time,  m  the  summer  of 
1609.  This  combined  expedition  stn^rised  a 
combined  force  of  200  Iroquob  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain.  At  the  sight  of  the  French  and  the 
report  of  their  firearms  the  enemy  broke  and 
fled.  TTie  Hurons  were  delighted,  and  prcnnised 
to  come  ddwn  henceforward  every  summer  to 
the  annual  barter.  In  this  same  year  (160Q) 
the  Sienr  de  Poutrincourt  (see  Biencook  de 
PouTBiNCOtiBT,  TeAn)  established  himself  wiHi 
his  fami^  in  me  building  formerly  occupied 
by  De  Monts'  colony  at  Port  RoyaT  He  con- 
tmuedi  to  reside  here  until  his  home  was  burned 
by  the  English  in  1613.  Although  during  the 
winter  of  1609-10  De  Monts  souf^  to  have  his 
monopoly  renewed,  or  at  any  rate  the  trade 
reserved  to  him,  in  the  region  explored  by 
Qiamplain  in  his  expedition  against  the  Iro- 
quois, all  was  to  no  purpose.  In  the  summer 
of  1610  the  fur  trade  was  thrown  open  to  the 
merchant  marine  of  France  to  the  same  extent 
as  the  cod,  whale  and  walnis  fishing.  The 
result  was  that  so  many  traders  resorted  to 
the  Saint  Lawrence  in  that  summer  that  there 
was  »  plethora  of  goods  and  many  ships  found 

vol..  5—20 


it  impossible  to  set  rid  of  even  a  portion  of    ■ 
their  cargoes.     'There  was  a  similar  inroad  in 
the  summer  of  1611.    The  results  of  this  com- 

B:tition  were  soon  apparent  among  the  savages, 
ot  only  did  they  ask  more  for  their  fure,  but 
they  also  besan  to  have  a  poor  opinion  of  the 
palefaces,  wmim  they  saw  even  strip  blood- 
stained  ins  off  the  corpses  of  dead  Indians. 
De  Monts  also  felt  it  to  be  unjust  that  lie  should 
be  pat  to  ihe  expense  of  keeping  up  the  post 
at  Quebec  when  no  advantages  were  accorded' 
him  in  return.  Daring  the  stmimer  of  1612 
Champtain  was  kept  in  France  by  a  fall  from  a 
horse,  and  he  improved  the  opportunity  by 
seeking  to  bring  about  a  better  order  of  oiings 
in  the  Saint  Lawrence.  Throimji  his  efforts 
the  ^tem  of  open  trade  was  bront^t  to  an 
end  in  the  autumn  of  1612. 

The  Fiiat  Pemuutent  ColouintlDn,  1619- 
32. —  In  order  that  the  licentiousness  of  a  few 
merchants  shouM  not  spoil  the  trade  in  the 
iq>per  Saint  Lawrence  and  ruin  the  prospects' 
of  exphwing,  with  the  help  of  these  Indians,  the 
regions  farthar  to  the  west,  Champlain  induced 
the  King's  unde,  the  Comte  de  Sofssons,  to 
apply  in  the  autumn  of  1612  for  a  monopoly  ol 
the  fur  trade  above  Quebec  This  was  granted 
mi  condition  that,  during  the  12  years  it  lasted, 
six  families  a  year  should  be  taken  but  by  the 
company.  Although  Soissons  died  a  few 
weds  later,  the  monopoly  was  transferred,  at 
Oiamplain's  request,  to  Soisson's  nephew,  the 
young  Prince  de  Condi.  Ai  no  time  was  left 
to  form  the  oompany  before  the  trading  season 
opmed,  Conde  merely  issued  licenses  to  seven 
mercfaajats  lo  barter  above  Quebec  They  were 
CAcb  to  place  four  men  at  Qnmplain's  disposal 
in  case  he  had  need  of  them.  On  account,  bow- 
ever,  of  the  licentiousness  of  someof  the  traders 
in  the  previous  summer  when  Champlain  was 
absent,  neither  die  Algongtmis  nor  the  Hurons 
put  in  an  appearance  in  1613  at  the  r«pids.  At 
this  ChampLun  set  off  up  the  Ottawa  with  a  few 
attendants,  and  by  bis  exertions  induced  over 
80  canoes  to  come  down  to  .the  barter.  In  the 
same  summer  of  1613  an  English  vessel  from 
Virginia  destroyed  De  Potttnncourt's  home  at 
Port  Jtoyal,  and  also  captured  a  French  vessel 
sent  out  by  tbe  Jesmts  to  form  a  colony  at 
Mount  Desert,  on  the  New  England  coast.  In 
the  summer  of  1614  Champlain  completed  the 
formatton  of  the  new  comiHin)>  for  trade  in  the 
Saint  Lawmce.  On  the  failure  of  the  La 
Rocfaelte  inerchants  to  aj^Mar,  the  whole  of  the 
shares  were  divided  among  the  traders  of 
Rouen  and  Saint  Malo.  On  reaching  the  annual 
barter  at  the   Laehine  Rapid  in   (he   spring  of 

1615,  Champlain  found  that  his  absence  in  the 
previous  summer  had  made  the  Indians  doubt 
his  friendship.  In  order  to  refpin  their  con- 
fidence, and  also  explore  the  rcgicMis  farther  to 
the  west,  he  set  out  with  the  Hurons  on  their 
return.  He  was  thus  able  during  the  winter  of 
1615-16  to  learn  mudi  of  the  geography  of  the 
present  western  Ontario  as  well  as  the  region 
about  Lddue  Ontario,  to  the  southern  shore  of 
which  he  accompanied  a  war  expedition  against 
the  IroquMS.  So  grateful  were  the  Hurons  for 
the  he^  thus  accorded  them  that  they  acoony- 
panfed  Champlain  in  great  numbers  on  bis  re* 
turn  to  the  Saint  Lawretice  in  tbe  spring  of 

1616.  For  Ais  reason,  also,  tbe  barters  ot  1617 
and  1618  were  extremely  well  attended.  Not- 
withstanding this  Increase  of  trade,  tbe«onq>any 


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CAMAX>A-  UNOBK  PKBMCH  BULB  (4) 


'  unfortunately  did  nothing  toward  establishing 
a  local  source  of  supply,  and  paid  aknost  no 
attention  to  colonization.  Only  one  family  was 
brought  out,  and  it  was  treated  in  au  extremely 
unjust  manner.  Not  only  were  none  of  its 
members  allowed  to  engasE  in  the  fur  trade, 
but  while  payins  very  higu  prices  for  all  the 
stores  bought  from  the  company  thev  were 
obliged  to  sell  their  own  produce  at  the  very 
low  priccg  current  in  >  France.  When  Cfaam- 
^ain,  as  the  representative  of  the  viceroy, 
sought  to  secure  the  fulfilment  of  these  condi- 
tions as  to  colouists,  defense  and  local  sources 
of  supply,  he  simply  made  himself  disliked.  In 
the  spring  of  1619  they  even  refused  him  a 
passage  to  Quebec.  At  the  King's  express 
Conunand  he  returned  there  in  1620,  only  to 
find  the  factory  so  tumble-down  that  the  rain 
came  in  on  every  ude.  When  this  was  ttatiAed 
to  the  admiral  of  France,  who  had  succeeded 
Cond^  as  viceroy,  he  at  once  revoked  the 
monopoly  of  the  company  and  gave  the  trade 
to  two  Huguenot  merchants,  William  and 
Emery  de  Caen.  The  old  company,  however, 
appealed  to  the  King.  Pendine  ots  decision 
both  parties  sent  out  vessels  in  the  summer  of 
1621  and  each  left  servants  of  its  own  to  winter 
at  the  factory.  In  the  course  of  the  winter  of 
1621 — 22  the  two  companies  amalgamated  with 
a  fresh  monopoly  which  was  lo  run  until  the 
year  1635.  Unfortunately  this  united  company 
neglected  colonization  and  local  sources  of  sup- 
ply as  much  as  its  predecessor.  The  result  was 
that  in  the  spring  of  1623  when  the  vessels 
arrived  late  they  found  that  for  some  months 
all  the  inmates  of  the  factory  had  been  Uvuig 
on  roots  and  berries.  The  same  state  of  affairs 
reoccurred  a  few  years  later.  Champlain,  who 
was  still  governor,  did  his  best  to  keep  this 
united  company  up  to  its  engagements,  but 
whenever  lie  returned  to  France  everything 
was  allowed  to  go  to  ruin.  Although  on  his 
departure  in  the  autumn  of  1624  he  left  the  new 
factory  almost  completed,  he  found  on  his  re- 
turn two  years  later  that  not  a  single  nail  had 
been  driven  in  since  he  went  away.  'It  could 
have  been  finished,*  said  Champlain,  'in -a 
fortnight,  had  they  been  willing  to  wori^  but 
that  is  just  what  they  will  not  do.*  As  little 
attention  was  paid  to  cultivating  a  local  source 
of  supply,  and  when,  b  the  summer  of  1627, 
the  pnncipaJ  supplv-ship  failed  to  appear,  the 
outlook  for  the  winter  was  far  from  brii^t. 
To  make  matters  worse,  war  broke  out  between 
England  and  France  in  the  Bprinjf  of  1628  and 
several  English  ships  were  sent  mto  the  Saint 
Lawrence.  Although  Champlain  bravely  re- 
fused to  surrender  the  factory,  the  fleet  sent 
out  to  Quebec  by  a  new  company  which  Riche- 
lieu had  formed  was  captured  below  Tadoussac 
At  the  same  time  a  Scottish  colony  was  founded 
at  De  Poutrincourt's  old  quarters  at  Port 
RovaL  In  the  winter  of  1628-29  these  Scottish 
ana  English  merchants  formed  thanselves  into 
one  compa:^  and  sent  out  two  fleets  in  the 
spring  of  1629.  While  one  brouf^t  fresh  stores 
to  Port  Royal,  the  other  entered  the  Saint 
Lawrence  and  summoned  the  factory  at  Quebec 
to  surrender.  As  no  help  of  any  sort  had  come 
since  1627  and  all  the  Inmates  had  been  living 
for  some  time  on  roots  and  berries,  Champlain 
was  obliged  to  comply.  On  22  July  1629  the 
English  flag  was  run  up  on  the  flagstaff.  The 
new  company  formed  By  Richelieu,  called  the 


Company  of  New  Frauce,  also  sent  out  a  fieet, 
however,  whidi  not  only  succored  the  small 
French  post  at  Cape  Sable,  below  Port  Rojnl, 
but  also  succeeded  in  dislodging  Lord  Odiiltree, 
who  had  formed  a  settlement  on  Cape  Breton 
Island.  He  and  his  people  were  taken  prisoners, 
and  out  of  the  material  of  their  buildings  a 
new  French  fort  was  constructed  i 


French  aiqdied  for  the  restitution  of  Quebo:, 
since  it  had  been  surrendered  after  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  on  29  April.  King  Cfaaries  I 
acquiesced,  but  the  negotiations  dragged  oa 
until  the  spring  of  1632.  In  the  meanwhile 
both  companies  sent  out  provisions  to  their 
posts;  the  Company  of  New  France  to  Cape 
Sable  and  Gtpe  Breton  Island,  and  the  EJiglish 
aud  Scottish  company  to  Port  Royal  and  Que- 
bec. Finally,  on  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty 
of  Saint- Gennain-cn-Laye  on  20  March  1632, 
the  post  at  Port  Royal  was  made  over  to  the 
Company  of  New  France,  white  the  old  United 
Company  was  allowed  to  enjoy  the  trade  at 
Puebec  for  one  year  in  order  to  lecnpenite 
Itself  for  its  heavy  losses.  In  the  summer  of 
1633  its  servants  retired  and  the  whole  of  New- 
France  passed  into  the  bands  of  the  Compaitf- 
of  New  France,  which  hdd  it  until  the  year 
1664. 

H.  P.  BicGA^ 
Author  of  ^Tkf  Early  Trading  Companies  of 
Nfw  Franct.' 

4.  UNDER  PRBNCH  RULE  (1632-1755). 
When  the  Treaty  of  Saint  Germain-eB-lay& 
(1632)  restored  to  France  (see  Francs  — Hu- 
(ory),  her  possessions  in  North  America. 
Acadia  and  Canada  were  still  savage  wastes. 
Prior  to  this  date  Port  Royal  and  Quebec  had 
hardly  advanced  beyond  the  status  of  con- 
venient landing  pointy  while  Tadoussac  and 
Three  Rivers  were  mere  rendezvous  for  barter. 
In  theory  the  profits  of  the  fur  trade  were 
enormous,  but  disaster  or  disappointment 
seemed  to  follow  each  venture  with  tUsmal 
regularity.  At  the  same  time  the  attempt  to 
establish  permanent  colonies  had  been  attended 
by  only  a  moderate  degree  of  success.  Louis 
Hubert  and  a  few  other  settlers  had  maintained 
themselves  at  Quebec  for  21  years  before  the 
surrender  of  that  place  to  me  Fjiglish,  but 
their  privations  were  constant  and  severe. 
Those  who  supported  themselves  by  agricul- 
ture were  less  than  a  score  and  the  total  popu- 
lation barely  passed  100.  As  for  the  missionary 
efforts,  which  constituted  a  third  form  of 
French  activity  in  Canada,  neither  Jesuits  nor 
RecoUets  bad  gained  more  than  a  handful  of 
converts  and  a  certain  amount  of  friction  be- 
tween the  two  orders  already  existed.  One 
hopeful  sign  was  indeed  visible,  for  in  1627  the 
Company  of  New  France  took  form  with 
Richelieu  (q.v.)  and  other  prominent  people  at 
its  head,  but  Uiis  organization  (better  known 
as  the  Company  of  the  Hundred  Associates) 
was  just  b^inning  to  show  signs  of  vitality 
when  Quebec  fell  (1629)  into  the  hands  of 
Kirke  (see  Kmke,  Sir  David).  The  general 
state  01  the  situation  can  be  described  in_  a 
single  phrase.  Though  individuals  had  dis- 
played great  enterprise  and  splendid  heroism, 
the  French  as  a  nation  had  not  impressed  them- 
selves deeply  upon  the  western  hemisphere. 


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CANADA— UNDER  FRBMCH  RULB  (4) 


Between  the  Treaty  of  Saint  Germain-en- 
Laye  and  Wolfe's  decisive  victoiy  over  Mont- 
calm (1759)  (see  Couinial  Wams  in  Axexica) 
lies  a  period  of  127  years  which  is  marked  m 
all  the  features  of  jg«maine  coloniEation.  It 
cannot  be  said  that  in  wealth  and  population 
New  France  kept  pace  with  the  EoKlisb  colonies 
from  Massachusetts  to  Georgia:  hut  while  the 
economic  basis  of  the  French  was  less  solid 
their  greographical  range  was  wider  and  their 
institutions  were  equally  distinctive.  For  a 
centnr^  and  a  quarter  France  continued  to  be 
an  active  corapeUtor  for  the  control  of  this 
continent  and  maintained  a  strong  foothold 
upon  it.  Moreover  the  Canadian  French,  the 
kahitanis,  developed  feelings  of  locaJ  pride  and 


final  settlement  in  one  part  at  least  of  the  New 
World.  Nicholson's  occupation  of  Port  Roy^ 
(which  he  rechristened  Annapolis,  1709)  to- 
gether with  Marlborough's  victories  in  Europe 
combined  to  secure  Acadia  to  England  by  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  {see  Utkecbt,  Peaci 
of).  But  even  then  the  triumph  of  the  English 
was  not  complete,  for  the  island  of  Cape  Breton 
'  '  L  the  hands  of  France  and  the 


..  srds   that  the  Atlantic   seaboard  would 

not  be  surrendered  to  England  without  a  fur- 
ther struggle.  In  marked  contrast  to  th^ 
precarious  hold  upon  Acadia,  the  French  built 
up  along  the  shores  of  the  Saint  I^wrence  a 


the  hbtorian  than  are  die  pride  and  pat 
of  the  English  in  America.  From  I6&  to  1759 
New  France  was  a  colony  peopled  by  vigorons 
and  resourceful  inhabitants.  Unfortunately  it 
possessed  a  defective  system  of  administration, 
but  its  annals  are  adorned  by  noble  deeds  and 
itt   life  represents  H  characteristic  form   of 

Of  the  two  regions  wUch  Fiance  regained 
in  1632,  Canada  was  destined  to  be  the 
more  important  and  to  be  held  upon  the  firmer 
tenure.  Acadia  with  its  long  frontier  of  sea- 
board lay  open  to  easy  attack  from  the  side  of 
New  England  and  after  1621,  when  JaiAcs  I 
gave  Sir  William  Alexander  the  charter  of 
Nova  Scotia  (see  Nova  ScaiiA  ~ History)  its 
population  contained  a  Scottish  element.  At 
the  moment  when  Port  Raval  fell  to  the  Eng- 
lish for  the  second  time  (1628)  the  ablest  and 
most  loyal  Frenchman  in  Acadia  was  ChaHes  de 
la  Tour,  but  an  the  formal  restoration  of  the 
colooy  four  years  later  Isaac  de  Raiilly,  a  rela- 
tive of  Richelieu,  was  appointed  royal  heuten- 
ant.     During,  his  lifetime  the  French  in  Acadia 

firoved  able  to  hold  their  own  against  Nn*  Eng- 
and  and  even  to*  destroy  posts  which  the 
English  had  established  on  the  coast  of  Maine. 
De  Razilly's  death,  however,  precipitated  an 
acute  quarrel  between  de  la  Tour  and  the  able, 
unscrupulous  Chamisay,  who  bad  come  to  Ae 
colony  with  de  Rarilly  in  1632.  The  prosecu- 
tion of  the  feud  between  these  rivals  led,  among 
other  things,  to  a  famous  sie^  of  Fort  Saint 
John  by  Oiamisay  and  a  spinted  but  fruitless 
defense  of  the  stronghold  h/  Mme.  de  la  Tonr 
in  her  husband's  absence.  'The  long  and  bitter 
broil  ended  peacefully  enough  in  the  marriage 
of  de  la  Tour  and  Mme,  Chamisay  after  the 
death  of  .Chamisay  and  Mme.  de  la  Tour,  but 
meanwhile  the  prosperity  of  Acadia  had  been 
seriously  hampered  by  a  domestic  feud  which 
unsettled  the  whole  administrative  system  and 
raised  the  issue  of  C^thoUc  versus  Huf[ueiKit. 
In  1654  Acadia  was  seized  by  the  Engl^  for 
the  third  time  and  held  till  1667,  when  France 
regained  it  by  the  Treahr  of  Breda  (see  Bieda, 
Treaty  of).  Daring  uie  greater  part  of  the 
next  20  years  peace  between  the  two  nations 
prevailed  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  broken  by 
occasional  bickerings  at  points  near  a  frontier 
whitJi  was  aJwmrs  in  dispute;^  but  with  the 
renewal  of  hostilities  in  the  reign  of  William 
III  Acadia  suffered  severely  and  had  not  re- 
paired ber  losses  when  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Successiod  (see  Succession  Wars)  br<4oB  out 
This  time  the  contest  for  supremacy  reached  a 


far  from  invulnerable,  as  the  capture 
of  Quebec  by  Kirke  had  already  proved  and  as 
its  siege  by  Phips  (see  Phips,  Sir  William) 
was  to  prove  once  more  in  1690;  but  long 
stretches  of  wilderness  separated  it  from  tbe 
English  settlements,  while  the  navigation  of 
die  river  presented  grave  dangers  to  a  hostile 
fleet.  The  fate  of  Sir  Hoveden  Walker,  whose 
powerful  fleet  was  shattered  among  the  shoals 
of  the  Egg  Islands  (1710),  shows  that  sea 
power  co^d  not  be  brought  to  bear  against 
Canada  so  readily  as  against  Acadia,  and  the 
fierce  raids  of  Frontenac  illustrate  with  equal 
force  the  abiliQr  of  the  French  to  defend  them- 
selves by  land.     French  rule  in  Canada  lasted 


Apart  from  military  history  and  the  pathos 
which  belongs  to  the  l6ss  of  an  empire,  the 
life  of  New  France  is  more  interesting  in  the 
17th  than  m  the  18th  century.  The  two  genera- 
tions that  elapse  between  the  return  of  C^am- 
plaim  (q.v.)  and  the  death  of  Fronteaac  (q.v.) 
(1633-98)  are  marked  by  a  series  of  striking 
exploits  and  the  establishment  of  fixed  institu- 
tions. Energy  and  enthusiasm  abound;  the 
explorer  and  the  missionary  are  lavishing  tfadr 
lives  on  causes  which  mean  infinitely  more  to 
them  than  any  form  of  personal  am,biiion;  the 
colonist  is  becoming  a  native,  a  habilatti,  whose 
concerns  are  increasingly  associated  with  Amer- 
ica; problems  of  Cburdi  and  stale  are  arising 
to  vex  the  souls  of  governors  and  quicken  the 
leaj  of  prelates.  On  eveiy  side  there  are  signs 
of  that  fresh  vigor  whioi  derives  its  impulse 
from  the  novelty  and  charm  of  the  wilderness. 
In  dealing  with  the  progress  of  Canada  during 
the  middle  and  latter  part  of  the  17th  century 
it  Is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  re- 
gions which  were  claimed  by  right  of  discovery 
and  those' which  were  effectively  occupied  by 
settlement.  Before  Frontenac's  death  lands  had 
been  cleared  and  rendered  fit  for  cultivation  at  a 
good  many  points  between  Tadpussac,  wheie  the 
Saguenay  enters  the  Saint  Lawrence,  and  Mon- 
treal. Above  Lake  Saint  Louis  there  were  forts 
at  important  strategic  points  like  Kingston  (then 
Fort  Frontenac)  and  Detroit,  but  for  agricul- 
tural purposes  the  colonial  zone  stopped  at  the 
Lake  of  Two  Mountains,  an  expansion  of  the 
Ottawa.  Beyond  the  island  of  Montreal  lay 
the  fays  d'tn  haul,  a  vast  territory  which  was 
repeatedly  traversed  by  the  pioneers,  whether 
adventurers,  traders  or  missionaries,  but  which 
remained  almost  destitute  of  settlers.  From 
the  Saint  Lawrence  the  French  were  led  inev- 


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CANADA— VMIIBS  FSBHCH  BOTAfi 


itaUy  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  thence  by  an  easy 
passage  to  the  Missiasippi  Thui  their  explora- 
tions belong  no  less  to  the  history  of  Illinois, 
Uichtgan  and  Wisconsin  than  to  that  of 
Canada.  In  the  Laurcntian  Valley  the  river  was 
another  Nile  with  a  further  clement  added,  since 
besides  beina;  the  great  local  thoroughfare  it  was 
a  hi^way  aat  opened  the  route  to  the  mother 
country.  If,  unlike  the  Nile,  its  waters  could 
not  be  made  to  produce  a  rice  crop,  they 
abounded  in  the  fish  which  were  so  necessary  to 
the  food  of  a  Catholic  comninnlty.  The  forni 
of  land  allotment  sprang  from  the  one  cardinal 
condition  of  life  on  the  banks  of  a  cent^ral 
stream.  Each  peasant  had  Us  strip  of  water 
frontage,  however  narrow,  and  was  able  at  a 
moioent's  notice  to  embark  in  bis  own  bateau  or 
canoe.  The  only  towns  of  Canada  were  Quebec, 
Three  Rivers  and  Montreal,  all  situated  on  the 
Saint  Lawrence,  and  no  pemiaeent  settlements 
were  made  in  any  part  of  the  country  unless 
within  easy  reach  of  it  or  its  tributaries.  TIk 
north  shore,  owing  to  its  rugged  chafacter, 
was  less  suited  to  farming  than  the  south,  and 
in  the  valley  of  the  Ridieheu,  the  outlet  of  Lake 
Champlain,  many  of  the  best  seigneurieG  sprang 
Op.  The  settlement  of  the  Richelien  Valley  v*fi 
also  intended  to  provide  a  bulwark  against  thie 

Closely  connected  with  the  distinction  whidi 
has  just  been  made  between  the  Laurentian  Val- 
ley and  the  back  or  upper  country  (payt  d'en 
haut)  is  the  contrast  between  peasant  and 
woodsman.  According  to  the  system  of  land 
tenure  that  prevailed  in  Cuiada  under  the  Old 
R^tme  rural  society  was  divided  betweeit  the 
ttigneurs  or  landlords  and  the  eentitairet  or 
tenants.  In  Canada,  as  in  France,  gentility  and 
the  possession  of  an  estate  went  together,  bat 
there  is  this  important  difference  between  the 
feudalism  of  the  mother  conntry  and  the  colony, 
that  whereas  in  France  tbe  peasants  bore  a^ 
prectable  burdens  during  the  l7th  century,  m 
Canada  no  eentitairt  could  be  seriously  crippled 
bv  the  taxes  or  services  to  which  he  was  bound, 
rendalism,  an  instittftion  of  the  9th  cent 


T& 


New  World  in  tlM  age  of  Louis  ^V.  The 
French  of  Normandy  and  Brittany  made  ad- 
mirable colonists,  when  once  they  had  been 
mduced  to  embark;  but  some  prospect  of  im- 
proved conditions  must  be  held  out  before  emi- 
grants would  come  forward.  Moreover  in  a 
country  of  virein  forest  it  was  impossible  that 
peasants  should  be  taxed  as  their  kindred  were 
in  a  land  of  ancient  cultivation.  In  view  of 
these  considerations  the  habitanti  received  their 
farms  on  very  reasonable  terms  How  moderate 
were  the  demands  of  the  sngtteur  may  be  seen 
from  a  single  instance.  A  deed  of  W  June 
1694  concedes  a  lot  of  land  three  arpents  in 
front  by  40  in  depth  (about  a  hundred  acres) 
•m  consideration  of  20  sous  and  one  good 
Bvc  capon  for  each  arpent  of  front  and  one 
sou  of  cens,  payable  at  the  principal  manor- 
house  of  the  seigneury  on  Saint  Martin's  day  In 
each  year  so  long  as  the  grantee  shall  occupy 
the  land."  The  habitant  had  in  a  certain  sense 
the  character  of  a  woodsman,  for  a  large  part 
of  his  time  was  devoted  to  hewing  down  ri»e 
forest,  bnt  he  was  not  a  woodsman  in  the 
fullest  sense  df  the  word.  Besides  the  slation- 
»ty  peasant  who  cultivated  his  stump  fields  in 
^K  valley  of  the  Saint  LawretH^,  the  population 


of  New  France  embraced  many  resUess  and 
adventurous  spirits  who  roved  the  woods,  traded 
io  beaver  skins  whenever  tbey  could  elude  the 
moDopoly,  intemarried  with  the  Indians  and 
evaded  the  restraints  of  civilization  without 
punishment  from  dvil  or  ecclesiastical  law. 
The  courew  dt  boit  ^'wood-nwmer'),  to  give 
this  type  of  colonist  his  generic  name,  was  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  adventurers  that  this 
continent  has  ever  seen-  Thou^  his  vices 
were  an  object  of  scandal  to  the  missionaries 
and  his  lawless  habits  an  iaconverneoce  to  the 
govemmenl,  he  ^o«sessed  the  virtues  of  fear- 
lessness and  initiative  to  an  exceptional  degree. 
The  comrades  of  Magellan  and  Drake  were  no 
more  daring  or  resourceful  than  the  toitreurt 
dt  boit  who  pressed  oo  frotn  the  valley  of  the 
Saint  Lawrerice  into  the  wilds  of  the  payi  d'eii 
hmit  and  found  amid  the  dangers  of  forest  or 

iirairie  the  fullest  excitements  of  a  nomadic 
ife.  Their  aamci^  for  the  most  part  have 
penshed:  but  legends  like  that  of  the  Chaise- 
gailerie  bear  witness  to  the  hold  they  preserve 
upon  the  nKBiory  of  French  Canada. 

Is  ^passing  from  these  general  st^Uemoits 
regarding  country  and  inhaMiants,  it  is  hard 
'to  say  whctbft  a  pface  of  greater  prominence 
abould  be  givea  to  the  government  or  to  the 
duirch.  One  should  be  careful  not  to  represent 
the  French  Canadians  of  the  17th  century  as 
slaws — ^B  loulency  too  current  among  Ei^tlish 
writecs  at  the  present  day.  The  feudalism  of 
New  France  was  feudalism  in  its  most  miti- 
gated form  and  the  habitant  winoiug  a  home 
tor  himself  by  courageous  Coil  seems  anything 
but  a  serf  by  instinct  Nevertheless  French 
Canada  was  overshadowed  by  two  institutions 
whidt  visibly  embodied  authority  as  authority 
was  not  visibly  embodied  in  New  Enzland  or 
New  Yoric.  Wbethcr  or  not  paternalism  was 
the  bane  of  Canada  is  an  open  question  to  be 
answtred  by  die  historical  student  in  accordance 
with  his  own  scheme  of  i^osop^.  The  broad 
fiict  is  that  the  Crown  and  the  Clergy  divided 
between  thetn  an  extremely  large  part  of  the 
worid  in  whidi  the  habiianl  lived.  From  1632 
to  1663  the>afiairs  of  Canada  wcire  controlled, 
under  the  Crown,  hw  the  Company  of  the  Hun- 
dred Associates.  Had  this  corpotation  been 
better  managed,  or  rather  had  it  been  actuated 
by  a  larger  ^int,  U  tnqcbl  have  gained  for  Itself 
a  distinguished  reputation  and  eventually  handed 
over  to  the  King  a  flourishing  possession ;  but 
looking  only  to  the  greatest  immediate  return  it 
wasted  a  fme  opjrartuni^  and  does  not  merit 
comparison  with  either  the  East  India  Company 
(see  East  Iniha  Coupamies)  or  th^  Hudsons 
Bay  Company  (q.v.).  After  1663  executive 
power  in  Canada  was  deputed  by  the  King  to 
the  governor  and  the  intendant,  with  whom 
were  associated  the  bishop  and  a  board  of  coun- 
dlloTs  varying  in  number  from  5  to  12.  The 
oovemor,  who  was  always  a  noble,  held  die 
highest  office  in  the  colony  though  he  did 
not  possess  so  much  real  power  as  the  intend- 
ant. He  conwianded  the  forces^  was  the  chan- 
nel of  diplomatic  intercourse  widi  the  English 
and  the  Indians,  occupied  the  coitral  place  in 
colonial  society  and  was  authorized  to  follow 
his  own  judgment  regarding  matters  of  emer- 
gency, With  finance,  however,  he  had  little  o 
nothing  t< 


o  do,  and  from  the  -wnole  field  of  dvjl 


t  his  side  0 


d=,  Google 


QAHADA-^OmrnKSSniDH  tt\SLX(A 


knged  onfiRBriljr  to  tin  middle' class  and  had 
been  trained  to  law  or  business.  The  Crown 
teems  to  have  acted  on  the  maxim  "Divide  and 
Rule."  Both  governor  and  intendant  were  re- 
quired  to  send  hooie  detailed  reports  wtndi 
always  included  a  large  amount  of  critidEm  and 
gossip.  The  intendaot  passed  ju(^ment  on  the 
acts  of  the  governor  and  the  governor  was 
not  slow  to  express  his  opinion  concerning  the 
admini  St  ration  of  the  intendant.  Neither  re- 
ceived untrammeied  authority,  for  an  antocnitic 
King  like  Louis  XIV  insisted  upon  reserving 
the  use  of  his  prerogative.  The  goveniment  ot 
New  France  was  less  rigid  and  cumbrous'  than 
that  of  the  Spanish  possesaons  under  PhiUplIy 
but  the  principle  of  alMolutism  carried  out  at 
tuch  a  distance  from  the  court  could  not  fail  to 
impair  the  efficiency  of  administratiaD. 

The  position  of  the  Church  in  New  France 
cannot  be  properly  described  tmless  a  reference 
ii  made  to  the  dominatir^  influence  whit*  con- 
trolled Europe  during  the  ase  of  coloniratioti. 
Seventeen  years  before  CartTer's  first  voyage  to 
the  Saint  Lawrence  (1534)  Luther  had  de- 
nonnced  the  sate  of  Indul^tKres  at  Wittenberg. 
In  the  interval  between  Girtier's  first  voyage 
and  his  last  (1541)  the  'Institutes*  of  Calvin 
(see  Calvin,  John)  was  becoming  the  founda- 
tion of  a  Church  and  the  Company  of  Jesus 
(see  Jesuits)  was  arising  to  stem  the  tide  oC 
hieresy-  Despite  the  wars  of  religion  and  the 
national  exhaustion  which  they  produced,  re- 
UgioR  was  still  the  reigning  issoe  in  France 
When  Champlain  sailed  westward  to  continue 
the  work  of  Carticr.  This  may  be  seen  cbie&y 
in  two  ways:  from  the  mis^onary  zeal  of  th£ 
religious  orders  and  from  the  anxiety  of  Frendi 
Cathtriics  that  New  France  be  kept  untatnttd 
by  Ht^uenot  misbelief.  With  De  Mont£  and 
Poutrtncourt,  Calvinism  made  its  tippearsntx  at 
Port  Rowl  and  a  little  larter  it  maintained,  ilsotf 
for  a  while  at  Quebec  under  the  protection  of 
WilKatn  and  Emery  de  Caen,  who  did  not  carry 
out  their  promise  10  exclude  heretics  from  the 
colony.  But  during  the  sway  of  Richelieu,  the 
Huguenot  cause  perishes  even  more  completely 
in  Canada  than  in  Prance,  and  a  way  is  left 
clear  for  the  unchecked  ascendency  of  Home. 
No  one  can  read  the  reKgiouB  Kteratnre  of  New 
France  without  red^nlxirig  the  sincerity  of 
motive  which  brought  Jcsmts,  R^olleTs,  Sul- 
picians,  Ursuline^  to  Quebec  and  Montreal. 
The  savage  races  of  America  had  excited  the 
imagination  of  all  Europe,  and  in  France  the 
desire  was  particularly  strong  to  rescue  these 
heathen  from  the  doom  of  the  unbaptized.  The 
Ki:eatest  nobles  in  the  reahn  subscribed  funds 
Tor  tbe  mission  and  acted  as  sponsors  at  the 
baptism  of  Micmac  or  Algonquin  converts. 
First  in  importance  among  the  religious  orders 
of  New  France  come  the  Jesuits,  whose  mis- 
sionary tradition  had  been  established  more 
than  half  a  century  earlier  by  Saint  Francis 
Xavier.  Entering  AcadJa  and  Canada  with  a' 
record  of  brilliant  success  to  give  them  con- 
fidence, they  prosecuted  their  tabors  amongall 
the  nations  from  the  Iroquois  to  the  IlhtKns 
and  from  the  Ottawas  to  the  Natchez.  Their 
most  heroic  deeds  of  self-sacrifice  are  bound 
up  with  theit  mission  to  the  Hnrons  (ending 
in  1649,  when  the  power  of  the  Hurons  was 
destroyed  bv  the  Iroquois)  and  with  their  mis-' 
ston  to  the  Iroquois  covering  the  third  qnarter 
of  the   17th  tentury.     It  was  always  the  dim 


of  the  Jesuits  to  turn  the  Indians  frotn  th'e 
nomadic  life  to  the  arts  of  civilization.  In  this 
attempt  tfaey  were  but  partially  auccessfid.  Al* 
tfaougn  certain  tribes  of  the  Algonquin  famibr 
yielded  themselves  wilHngly  to  Ok  guidance  oi 
the  missionaries,  the  total  number  of  converts 
was  far  smaller  in  New  Fratice  than  in  Paia- 


Prance    the   jes 

C'  'ished  in  Paris  an  annual  account  of  the 
rs  undertaken  by  members  of  their  order 
among  the  American  Indians.  These  'Rela- 
tiom'  (see  Jesuit  Relattons  aiid  Allied  Docu- 
icEKTa,  Ths>  are  the  best  single  source  of 
information  about  the  hahits  of  the  ^mrigines 
and  also  rank  high  in  the  list  of  our  authorities 
for  the  history  of  Canada.  Next  to  the  Jesuits 
in  order  of  pTOmtnence  stand  the  Sulpidan:^ 
whose  efforts  centred  chiefiy  in  Montreal  ana 
&e  neighboring  districL  The  fomding  of  Vtlle- 
Marie  de  Montreal  exemidifies  in  its  purest 
form  the  mood  of  devotion  that  prtnnpted 
Frenchmen  to  leave  the  civilization  of  Europe 
for  a  life  of  privation  among  the  barbarous 
heathen  of  Cairada.  Here  the  colonieing  im- 
pulse proceeded  solely  from  a  desire  to  spread 
the  faith.  With  Olier  and  Daovefsiire,  who 
founded  ihe  Society  of  Notre-Dame  de  Mon- 
trtol,  there  was  no  thought  of  gaining  wealth 
through  the  fur  trade.  The  charter  of  the  So- 
dety  expressly  states  (hat  its  members  detach 
themselves  from  all  i<eg3rd  to  temporal  interest 
and  take  fftr  their  one  purpose  the  conversion 
of  the  natives.  From  164?  to  the  dose  of  the 
century  Montreal  was  an  Oiftpost  of  civiliza- 
tion and  Christianiiy,  exposed  to  frightful 
dangers,  as  the  exploit  of  Dollard  (K60)  and 
the  Lachine  Massacre  (16S9)  testify,  but  de- 
fended by  men  who  cared  more  for  religion 
than  for  life.  In  the  relations  of  the  Chnrcfa 
with  the  kabitoHti  friction  sddom  arose.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Jesuits  tncurted 
soitie  unpopularity  because  they  did  not  favor 
the  appointrnents  of  cvris  in  the  outlying  dis- 
tricts, but  for  the  most  part  the  attitude  of  the 
peasatns  toward  the  clergy  was  one  of  complete 
deference.  Until  1665,  when  the  Carignan  Regi- 
ment came  to  Canada,  the  social  order  presented 
many  features  of  a  theocracy.  Religion  was 
supported  by  the  state'  and  derived  a  stronger . 
Support  still  from  the  energy  of  the  rdigious. 
The  prevalent  mood  was  pietlstie  atid  puHiC 
opinion  sanctioned  the  ecclesiastical  punish- 
ments which  were  called  forth  even  by  minor 
offenses  against  morals.  Apart  from  Church  ' 
festivals  the  routine  of  dally  life  at  Quebec  or 
Montreal  made  little  provision  for  relaxatloti 
or  entertainment.  Taverns  were  under  the  ban, 
dancing  parties  were  unknown  and  the  general 
demeanor  of  sobriety  would  have  met  favof 
in  the  eyes  of  a  New  England  Puritan.  The 
COmingof  the  Carignan  Regiment  broke  in  on' 
this  religious  Arcadia  and  proved  an  entering 
wedge  for  frivolity,  but  in  the  early  days  the 
temper  of  New  France  was  deeply  religious,  if 
riot  ascetic.  One  other  aspect  of  ecclesiastical 
affiirS  de.serves  emphatic  notice.  While  the 
clergy  had  to  do  with  a  docile  population  and 
were  animated  by  pure  enthusiasm  in  '  their 
work  among  the  Indians,  the  religious  life  of  the 
(Jolony  was  not  free  from  friction.  The  Rfcol- 
lets,  and  after  them  the  Sulpicians.  felt  that" 
their  interests  were  threatened  by  the  enmity 
of  the  Jcstdts.    The  Jesuits  in  turn  prevented 


Google 


CANADA— UKimt  PfiENCH  RUIJI<4> 


tile  Abbe  de  Queylus,  aa  able  Sul|»ician,  from 
being  made  bishop  of  Quebec,  castinft  their  ot< 
fliKDce  in  favor  of  Laval  (see  Laval-Mont- 
MOBBHCY,  FfiANas  Xaviee  dc),  who  became  the 
first  titular  bishop  in  New  France.  Laval,  once 
appointed,  quarreled  with  successive  sovemors 
on  (Ufferent  grounds  —  with  Argenson  (1661) 
on  the  question  of  precedence,  and  with  Avau- 
gour  (1662)  on  the  queition  of  telling  brandy 
to  the  Indians.  The  difficulty  over  precedence 
brought  in  the  whole  issue  of  Church  and 
state;  the  quarrel  over  the  brandv  question  was 
less  lofty  but  more  practical.  The  position  of 
the  Church  was  that  brandy  should  not  be  sold 
to  the  savages  under  any  circumstances.  The 
general,  though  not  the  invariable,  position  of 
Sie  eoveroment  was  that  if  the  Frendi  did  not 
sell  brandy  to  the  Indians  the  latter  would  buy 
nmi  from  the  Dutch  and  Enf^ish.  The  Church 
as  a  whole  and  the  habitants  as  a  Whole  lived 
on  excellent  terms ;  but  there  was  much  fric- 
tion between  the  religious  orders,  the  coureurs 
de  bois  were  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  clergy, 
«nd  a  Kovernor  of  secular  tastes,  like  Frontenac, 
might  Keep  up  a  running  feud  with  the  hierarchy 
for  years. 

The  mention  of  Frontenac's  name  recalls  a 
striking  personality,  for  of  all  the  goveniors 
who  were  sent  out  to  New  France  during  the 
long  reign  of  Louia  XiV  be  must  be  called 
the  ablest  and  most  forcible.  That  his  policy 
toward  the  Church  was  judicious  or  free  from 

?,rejudice  cannot  be-  maintained,  nor  can  it  be 
orgotten  that  his  memory  is  defaced  by  the 
stain  of  fearful  massacres.  But  he  was  bold, 
resolute  and  thoroughly  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  Canada.  Throughout  both  periods  of  his 
rule  (1672-82;  l6®-9e)  he  was  master  of 
the  situation  as  none  of  his  predecessors  had 
been,  and  during  the  seven  years  of  his  absence 
from  the  colony  the  failures  of  La  Barre  and 
Denonville  served  to  set  off  his  virtues  in  the 
strongest  light.  The  main  political  problems 
w«th  which  he  had  to  deal  were  the  enmity  of 
the  Iroquois,  the  aggressive  policy  of  die  Eng- 
lish as  suggested  by  (jovcmor  Dongan,  and  the 
extension  of  French  influence  from  the  Great 
Lakes  into  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  Speak- 
ing broadly  the  Iroquois  were  the  ijiief  menace 
of  Canada  in  the  last  part  of  the  17th  centuiy  as 
the  English  were  its  chief  menace  in  the  first 

Srt  oE  the  18th.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
suit  martyrs.  Jogues  and  Bribeuf,  met  death 
at  their  hanas ;  the  most  brilliant  deed  of 
courage  which  the  annals  of  New  France  con- 
tain was  Dollard's  fi^t  against  them  at  the 
Long  Saut ;  it  was  in  their  face  that  Madeleine 
de  Verchires  shut  the  door  of  her  father's  fort 
Whether  left  to  themselves  or  set  on  by  the 


took  for  weakness  and,  as  Frontenac  ! 
only  way  to  impress  them  was  by  a  show  of 
strength.  In  1696  he  ravaged  their  country 
more  thorou^y  than  De  Tracy  had  done  30 
years  earlier,  burned  their  palisades,  destroyed 
their  corn  and  convinced  them  that  he  bad  a 
power  which  they  must  respect.  The  next  year 
their  envoys  came  to  Quebec  speaking  the  lan- 
guage of  humility.  Frontenac's  attack  upon  the 
English  dates  from  the  beginning  of  his  second 
term  of  office.  Returning  to  the  colony  in  1689 
he  found  that  French  prestige  had  vanished 
almost  wholly  during  his  absence.    To  i 


the  Indians  and  terrorize  the  En^uh  be  flqivnied 
those  raiding  parties  whidi  carried  the  torch 
and  the  tomahawk  to  Schenectady,  Salmon 
Falls  and  Casco  Bay.  As  a  tovr  de  force  of 
endurance,  this  winter  campaign  of  the  French 
was  a  remarkable  feat,  but  the  atrocities  whidi 
accompanied  it  cannot  fail  to  awaken  the  deepest 
abhorrence.  Parkman  finds  extenuation  for 
Frontenac  in  the  standards  of  his  age.  *He  was 
no  wtut  more  ruthless  than  his  times  and  bis 
surroundings,  and  some  of  his  contemporaries 
find  fault  with  him  for  not  allowing  more  In- 
dian captives  to  be  tonured.  Many_  surpassed 
him  in  cntett^  none  equalled  him  in  capacity 
and  vigor.*  Everything  considered,  this  must 
be  called  a  mitigated  sentence,  and  apart  from 
all  considerations  of  humanity  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  Frontenac's  policy  of  carnage  was  a 
sound  one.  Its  momentary  success  in  impress- 
ing the  Indians  was  not  an  equivalent  for  the 
Sirit  of  vengeance  which  it  awakened  among 
e  English.  From  1690  forward  New  France 
and  New  England  have  their  rancorous  en- 
mities which  continue  to  exist  quite  irrespective 
of  ytaoK  or  war  between  the  mother  countries. 
FhipB  may  be  turned  back  from  Quebec  but  the 
memory  of  massacre  endures  until  French 
power  in  Canada  has  been  destroyed.  A  much 
brif^ter  feature  of  Frontenac's  regime  is  the 
progress  made  by  French  ex(>loration  in  the 
Far  West  While  the  famous  journey  of  Mar- 
quette (q.v.)  and  Joliet  (q.v.)  down  the  upper 
waters  of  tne  Mississippi  (1673)  may  be  more 
fitly  connected  with  the  names  of  Courcelle 
(q.v.),  Frontenac's  predecessor,  and  of  Talon 
(q.v.),  the  good  intendant,  the  picturesque  ex- 
ploits of  La  Salle  (q.v.)  and  Tonty  (q.v.)  fall 
within  the  period  of  Frontenac.  It  was  bjr 
favor  of  Frontenac  that  the  fort  at  Cataracoui 
(now  Kingston)  was  placed  in  La  Salle's 
hands,  thus  enabling  hun  to  establish  a  fixed 
base  'at  the  east  end  of  Lake  Ontario  for  his 
operations  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  beyond. 
As  far  as  the  Huron  country  the  French  had 
been  on  familiar  ground  ever  since  the  da^ 
of  Champ  lain,  but  their  chief  triumphs  in 
opetiing  up  the  Hinterland  were  won  under 
Frontenac. 

The  18tb  centiuy  opened  for  New  France 
with  bri^t  prospects'  which  were  destined  never 
to  be  realized.  The  war  that-  closed  at  the 
Peace  of  Ryswick  (1697)  had  just  demon- 
strated the  defensive  strength  of  Canada,  and 
though  D'Iberville's  (see  iBEaviiu;  SiEUc  d') 
conquests  in  Hudson's  Bay  were  restored  to 
England,  France  did  not  lose  Acadia.  Fron- 
tenac's chastisement  of  the  Iroquois  had 
brou^t  relief  from  an  ancient  scourge  and 
Callieres'  diplomacy  concluded  the  peace  which 


favorably.  The  success  of  Vaudreuil's  raids 
WRS  a  poor  equivalent  for  Marlborough's  vic- 
tories or  even  for  Nicholson's  capture  of  Port 
Royal.  France  lost  Acadia  and  was  thrown 
back  for  her  hope  of  an  Atlantic  dominion 
upon  the  single  fortress  of  Louisburg  (q-v.). 
The  Peace  of  Utrecht  (I7l3)  may  be  called  the 
beginning  of  the  e 


pointment.  France  lavished  upon  this  harbor 
m  Cape  Breton  as  much  money  as  it  would  have 
coat  to  erect  a  fortress  of  the  fint  class  in 


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Europe.  Until  1745  its  strength  remained  un- 
tested, but  the  French  themselves  thought  it  im- 
pregnable and  the  English  looked  u^on  it  with 
dread  The  political  eifect  o£  Louisborg  was 
two-fold.  Its  near  neighborhood  to  Acadia 
prevented  the  French  oi  that  province  from 
becoming  loyal  to  British  rule;  and  in  New  Eng- 
land it  was  regarded  as  a  permanent  menace 
to  peace.  When  the  War  of  the  Austrian  .Suc- 
cession offered  an  excuse,  Massachusetts  was 
ready  for  the  attack.  Governor  Shirley  (see 
Shimjiy,  Williak)  devised  the  plan,  which 
vas  daruMrly  executed  by  a  caloniaf  fleet  under 
William  Properell  (q.v.)  in  co-operation  with 
four  British  men-of-war.  The  capture  of 
Louisburg  by  a  militia  force  was  the  greatest 
hunuliatlon  which  France  had  suffered  in  Amer- 
ica and  its  restoration  by  the  Peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (1748)  (see  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Tbra- 
Toa  OP  Peace  Concluded  at)  came  to  New 
England  as  the  sorest  aflront  which  it  had  ever 
received  at  the  hands  of  the  home  Kovermnent. 
At  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  New  France  con- 
tained a  population  of  rather  more  than  25,000. 
In  1763  when  Canada  was  ceded  to  England 
the  number  of  inhabitants  had  advanced  to 
about  60,000.  It  is  obvious  that  this  rate  of 
increase  was  trivial  in  comparison  with  the  prog- 
ress of  the  English  colonies  durine  the  same 
period,  and  when  we  remember  the  unusual 
lecunoity  of  die  French  Canadians,  some  special 
reason  needs  to  be  assigned  for  the  slow  de- 
velopment of  the  colony.  The  cause  of  this 
strilang  phenomenon  will  be  found  in  the  fact 


18th  centuries,  and  partly  owing  to  gross  mift- 
mana^ement  of  colonial  affairs  by  the  court  of 
Versailles,  New  France  was  hanchcapped  in  the 
long  race  with  Us  southern  rivals.  This  fact 
must  be  brought  out  because  it  is  often  errone- 
ously stated  that  the  Frenchman  'has  never 
aaae  a  good  colonist.  The  biography  of  Can- 
ada from  (Thamplain  to  Montcalm  nves  the 
£rect  negative  to  such  an  idea.  Maladminis- 
tration, the  lack  of  local  self-government  and 
excess  of  loyalty  to  inherited  institutions  ac- 
count for  the  defeat  of  the  French  in  America 
rather  than  the  want  of  prom(*ness,  courage, 
industry  and  resource.  It  must  be  remembered, 
moreover,  that  die  English  colonies  took  root 
in  a  soil  which  was  fitted  to  stimulate  rapid 
ETowth.  The  long  calm  which  followed  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713-42)  was  often  broken 
1    of   acute   restlessness.     As   early   as 


ms'^c] 


basy  with  schemes  tor  keeping  the  Engiisli 
withit]  the  limits  they  already  occupied.  This 
meant  that  their  expansion  northward  should 
be  checked  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  (leorge  and 
dieir  ex^iansion  westward  by  the  range  of  the 
Atlef^nies.  Far  from  losing  their  love  of  ex- 
ploration, the  French  pushed  farther  and 
farther  westward  with  each  decade.  Michili- 
matJdnac  was  to  Verendrye  what  Cataracoui 
liad  been  to  La  Salle,  and  just  at  the  moment 
when  Maria  Theresa  was  preparing  to  recover 
Sileaia  from  Frederick  the  (rreat,  one  of  Veren- 
drye's  sons  caught  the  first  glimpse  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  America  the  hostilities  which 
Btwnipatjied  fte  Wftr  pf  Austrian  Succewion 


centred  at  Louisburg  and  accordingly  this  con- 
flict aSected  Canada  less  than  the  two  preced- 
.in^  wars  had  done.  But  ever);  man  of  colonial 
ongin,  English  and  French  alike,  saw  that  the 
Peace  of  Atx-la-Chapelle  was  merely  an  armis- 
tice. Unsettled  boundaries  suggested  endless 
friction^  especially  in  Acadia  and  the  Ohio  Val- 
ley. The  line  which  was  run  by  Ctioron  de 
Bienville  at  the  instance  of  France  aimed  at 
excluding  die  English  from  the  Oiiio  and,  ac- 
cording to  patriotic  opinion  in  such  colonies  as 
New  Vorl^  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  amounted 
to  a  conn  belli.  Before  the  development  of  the 
western  trade  the  English  and  French  had  been 
separated  by  a  wide  tone  of  wilderness.  The 
expansion  of  both  races  brought  them  face  to 
face  at  the  jtmction  of  the  Alleghany  and  the 
Monongahela.  Should  die  stronghold  built  in 
this  angle  be  called  Fort  Duquesne  or  Pitts- 
burgh? Here  was  an  issue  on  'which  hinged  the 
future  of  a  continent.  It  was  the  misfortune  of 
the  French  itoth  at  home  and  in  Canada  that 
their  administrative  system  suffered  from  the 
worst  evils  of  a  corrupt  absolutism.  At  Ver- 
sailles the  folly  and  extravAgance  of  Louis  XV, 
at  Quebec  the  unblemishing  thefts  of  the  In- 
tendant  Bigot,  were  but  a  poor  preparation  for 
war.  And  so  the  small  but  valiant  race  of  the 
Canadian  French  bore  the  burden  of  vices  not 
their  own  when  they  entered  upon  the  last  act 
of  an  irrepressible  conflict.  See  also  the  articles 
in  this  section  —  Gkeat  Bbiwin's  Fight  with 
France  fo»  North  America  ;  The  Clergy  Re- 
serves; Seignosml  Tenure. 

Charles  W.  Cjolby, 
Pormeriy  Professor  of  History,  McGUl  Uni- 

5.  OKBAT  BRITAIN'S  FIQHT  WITH 
FRANCE  FOR  NORTH  AMERICA  — 
17S3-e3.  For  several  years  previous  to  the 
formal  declaration  of  war  between  England  and 
France,  in  I7S6  (see  Canada  —  Undex  French 
Ruix),  the  stirring  events  in  the  Ohio  Valley 
and  in  distant  Arcadia  foreshadowed  a  great 
crisis,  during  which  territorial  disputes,  aggres- 
sions and  political  intrigues  would  be  lost  sight 
of  for  the  moment,  and  the  Question  paramount 
would  be  the  supremacy  of  France  or  of  Eng- 
land in  Nordi  AJtnerica.  The  policy  of  Frances 
as  dictated  from  Versailles,  had  not  been  broad 
enough  to  successfully  ifromote  colonization, 
in  the  sense  of  expansion,  or  even  to  maintain 
permanent  occupancy,  allhouf^  this  was  much 
desired.  And  the  honest  deugns  of  her  colonial 
administrator.  La  Galisaonniire,  to  increase  tho 
dominion  of  his  royal  master,  at  an  opportune 
moment,  met  with  no  responsive  aid.  The 
mother  country  was  wedded  to  schemes  of  ag- 
grantfiiement  at  home,  and  was  inclined  to 
leave  her  colony  to  work  out  its  own  future. 
Besides,  the  French  then,  as  now,  were  rather 
a  stay-at-home  people.  New  France  was  con- 
sequently weak  in  population,  and  not  in  a 
position  to  retain  her  empire  in  the  North,  and, 
moreover,  her  influence  was  iMnng  undermined 
by  ofKcial  corruption.  Great  Britain,  on  die 
odier  hand,  had  the  real  advantage  of  superior 
numbers  in  the  New  World,  although  she  had 
no  definite  colonial  policy,  and  was  already 
smarting  from  the  effects  of  an  earlier  admin- 
istration, due  rather  to  ignorance  than  to 
knavery.  The  disputes  toudliing  possessions  io 
Acadia  were  of  long  standing.     By  the  I2dl 


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CANADA— BiCITAIirB  FIOHT  POK  HOKTH  AHBKICA  (») 


article  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecbt  (see  Uikbcht, 
Peaoe  or).  Nova  Scotia,  within  its  aoicieiit 
boundaries,  had  been  ceded  to  the  Crown  of 
England.  A  controversy  soon  aroM  over  the 
interpretation  of  a  certain  clause.  Great  Brit- 
ain claimed  that  her  possessions  under  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  were  of  the  same  extent  as 
those  acquired  by  France  under  the  Trea^  of 
Breda;  but  France  protested  that  the  territory 
she  then  received  was  quite  distinct  from  the 
ancient  boundaries,  which  confined  Nova  Sco- 
tia to  a  portion  of  the  soutliem  peninsula.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Cha- 


rJle  (see  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Tkeaties  of 
UCE  CoMCLulKD  AT^,  when  Louisburg  (q.v.) 
s  restored  to  the  I^rench,  the  boundary  ques- 


tions were  referred  to  commissioaers,  each 
Court  agreeing  that,  until  a  decision  was 
reached,  no  fort  or  settlement  should  be  at- 
tempted upon  the  debated  ground.  But  the 
shrewd  La  GalisEonniert,  disregarding  the  stip- 
ulation, if  he  was  ever  omcially  acquainted  with 
it,  commenced  the  construction  of  forts,  and 
favored  settlement  upon  the  lands  claimed  by 
England.  The  importance  of  Nova  Scotia  in 
the  future  development  of  Canada  was  apparent 
to  each  nation,  both  from  a  strategic  and  com- 
mercial point  of  view,  but  neither  power  could 
furnish  from  its  colonial  resources  an  anny  of 
(ufiicient  strength  to  support  its  ambition.  The 
policy  of  Great  Britain  toward  Nova  Scotia 
was  most  short-sighted.  Instead  of  encourag- 
ing the  emigration  of  a  ilesirable  clas^  intended 
to  grow  up  with  the  Acadians  and  form  a 
united  and  loyal  people,  she  allowed  the  French, 
for  nearly  40  years,  to  regard  the  countr:^  in  the 
light  of  an  exclusive  settlement.  It  is  true 
dut  they  were  good  subjects;  but  they  were 
French  at  heart,  and  it  remained  to  be  proved 
whether,  under  extraordinary  pressure,  their 
sympathies  .would  incline  to  France  or  not 
The  possibility  of  such  a  contingency  was  for 
years  practically  isttored,  but  when  it  was  seri- 
ously considered  tne  methods  adopted  were  ill- 
advised.  The  lands  of  the  French  were  divided 
and  subdivided,  until  new  grants  were  neces- 
sary; but  Great  Britain  decreed  that  new  lands 
could  be  acquired  only  by  Protestants.  The 
question  of  religion,  therefore,  became  a  condi- 
tfon  of  tenure.  Siirley  (see  Shuley,  Wil- 
liam), the  energetic  governor  of  Massadiu- 
setts,  who  was  largely,  responsible  for  the  goiv- 
eimnent  of  Nova  Scotia,  was  firmly  convinced 
diat  until  French  influence  was  exterminated 
British  interests  could  not  flourish;  and  so  be 
endeavored  to  eflfect  the  conversion  of  the  in- 
habitants, suggesting  that  rewards  begiven  to 


enjoy  the  exercise  of  their  religion,  but  Shirl^, 
in  a  proclamation,  omitted  the  passage  as 
dasgerons.  The  home  goveniment  then  con- 
sented to  a  scheme  for  promoting  the  loyalty 
of  the  province  by  the  importation  of  foreign 
FrotenantSj  to  tniogle  with  the  Acadians  —  a 
fusion  possible  imder  the  British  flag;  but  doubt- 
ful at  such  a  critical  moment,  when  the  miUtary 
organization  was  insufEcient  to  protect  the 
frontier,  or  to  inspire  confidetice  in  the  stability 
of  British  institutions.  Government  agents  in 
Geneva,  and  elsewhere,  were  active  in  adver- 
tising in  the  pafkers  for  settlers,  and  baigaining 
with  poor  artisans.  But  the  scheme  fell 
throu^ ;  though  at  last  3,000  good  settlers  were 


landed  at  Chiboncto  Bay  in  1749,  from  wUch  at 
length  sprang  the  important  naval  post  of  Hali- 
fax (q.v.).  In  tlie  meantimt^  however,  a  great 
struE^e  was  impending;  which  led  to  the  dqor- 
tation  of  8,000  Acadians  (see  article  The 
AcAPLAH  Retucees),  whose  subsequent  misery 
and  su0ering  contribute  the  darkest  page  to  the 
history  of  Nova  Scotia.  A  new  oath  of  alle- 
giance was  demanded  by  (jovernor  Comwallis, 
which  from  time  to  time  was  deferred.  Whil^ 
on  the  other  hand,  the  fiery  zealot,  Le  Loutre 

isee  Le  Loutki,  Louis  Joseph),  backed  by  the 
ndians,  exercised  every  eSort  to  retain  in- 
fluence over  the  people.  -Le  Loutre  detested  the 
English,  and  was  generally  successful  in  per- 
suading the  unhappy  people  that  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  a  Protestant  monarch  was  very 
much  like  beinR  disloyal  to  their  faith,  the 
penalties  for  which  did  not  cease  with  their 
natural  existence.  But;  although  the  dark  deeds 
which  were  being  enacted  in  1753^  concerning 
Nova  Scotia,  had  a  distinct  bearing  upon  the 
approaching  conflict,  they  were  of  secondaiv 
inworiance  to  the  great  mass  of  the  Britisn 
colonists,  when  cornered  with  the  prize  which 
both  France  and  England  coveted  —  the  poSr 
session  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  details  of  the 
contest  in  this  section  cannot  be  given  here. 
(See  Brauxick,  Eowasd;  Colonial  Wars  is 
Auouca;  FntT  Necessity;  Pittsbukik,  His- 
tory; Washington,  George).  The  effect  of 
Braddock's  defeat  was  felt  in  the  expeditions  of 
Shirley  against  Oswego  (<^y.),  ana  in  that  of 
JofanGon  against  Crown  Point  (see  Crown 
"TT,  FoBTSEss  of).  ■  A  body  o(  provincials 


Point  But  Dieslrau  intercepted,  and  almost 
captured,  a  detachment  of  this  expedition.  Re- 
inforcements arrived  at  a  critical  moment,  and 
the  tables  were  turned  by  the  capture  of  Dies- 
kau.  This  circumstajice  was  made  a  great  deal 
of,  but,  nevertheless.  Crown  Point  was  unmo- 
lested, and  still  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 
War  and  bloodshed  had  desolated  the  homes  of 
the  colonists  and  destroyed  their  commerce, 
and  over  all  of  them  hung  the  dread  of  the 
tomahawk  and  the  scalping  knife  of  the  In- 
dian. Panic-strickeii,  mey  could  devise  no 
means  of  defense,  and  surrender  seemed  prefer- 
able to  fi^t.  Id  Acadia,  while  the  two  nations 
were  still  at  P^e,  the  determination  of  the 
British  had  driven  into  exile  the  unhappy 
Acadians.  But  their  own  position  there  was  Ig' 
no  means  to  be  envied.  British  prestige  was 
indeed  at  a  low  ebb  in  America,  when  the 
struggle  between  the  colonists  was  superseded 
by  a  contest  between  the  two  powers,  which 
commenced  officially  when  King  George  11 
ngncd  the  declaration  of  war  against  France 
in  May  1756. 

The  situation  in  New  France  was  indeed 
acute.  Agriculture  had  been  neglected,  graitf 
was  scarce,  horses  were  slaughtered  for  foo^ 
famine  was  imminent.  But  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this  deplorable  state  of  affairs 
was  not  the  inevitable  outcome  of  the  struggles 
throuf[b  whidi  the  country  had  passed,  but  a 
condition  actually  created  for  profit,  toiled  for 
and  plotted  for  bv  Bigot,  in  order  that  he 
might  appear  as  me  real  savior  of  the  dis- 
tressed colony.  The  advice  of  the  intendant  to 
his  somewhat  weak-kneed,  and  certainly  dis- 
honest, henchman,   Vergor.  to   *ciit  and   sUn 


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aa^  nakx  hay  while  dit  aun  shone,  in  order 
thai  he  mieht  nave  the  means  to  build  a  cbitcan 
in  Franc^'  was  bnt  an  indication  of  the  course 
he  intcsaed  to  follow  himself,  though  on  a 
grander  and  more  colostal  scate.  New  France 
was  to  be  lollaged.  The  people  nmst  be  sub- 
dued, and  bodily  luffeiiag  woidd  prove  effect- 
ive where  kss  persuasive  methods  mi^t  fail. 
New  life  was  given  to  the  colony  for  a  moment 
when  the  Marquis  de  Montcalm  (q.v.)  arrived 
in  Canada  in  the  spri°S  of  1756,  with  1,200 
troops  and  ample  supplies.  No  better  general 
could  have  been  chosen  dtan  Montcalm.  In 
fact,  men  of  bis  mold  were  just  what  New 
France  needed  most  at  dils  time.  He  was  an 
excellent  soltfier  and  had  already  won  renown. 
He  was  loyal  to  hii.sovereiKn,  at  a  time  when 
loTslty  was  not  profitable-  he  waa  brave  and 
courtconi,  and  he  dearly  loved  France.  Vau* 
dreuil,  the  governor,  was  a  Canadian,  and  at- 
tached to  tne  land  of  bis  bii^  but  he  despised 
every  form  of  interference  from  France. 
Hence  there  was  constant  friction.  Bigot,  tbe 
representative  of  the  King,  loved  his  master  and 
the  colony  only  in  proportion  to  the  measure 
in  which  they  contributed  to  his  needs;  and 
his  needs  were  of  abnormal  prc^»ortions.  The 
conduct  of  Montcalm  throughout  the  war, 
until  the  supreme  hour  when  he  yielded  up  his 
life  in  defense  of  die  colony,  forms  a  strucing 
and  pleasing  contrast  to  the  actions  of  Us  two 
colleagnet.  He  was  also  fortunate  in  the  chief 
officers  under  ' ' 


the  choice  of  the 
forces.  Lord  Loudon,  who  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  90O  regulars  sent  out  to  tiic  colooles, 
was  no  matcb  for  the  brilliant  Montcalm.  Ar< 
riving  in  Albany  two  months  after  he. was  ex- 
pected by  his  chief  officers,  Abercromby  and 
Webb,  Loudon  was  confronted  with  a  conditioB 
of  aflnirs  stmilar  to  that  with  which  Montcalm 
had  to  contend  —  jealousy  between  colonials 
and  re^^krs.  The  War  Office  had  decreed  that 
a  colonial  officer  could  not  rank  above  a  senior 
c^lain  of  regulars,  and  oonsequently  wdl-sea- 
toncd  officers,  experienced  in  the  methods  of 
the  enemy,  were  liable  to  orders  from  a  man 
who  had  never  been  onder  fire,  and  had  no 
knowledge  whatever  of  colonial  affairs.  The 
British  general  seemed  unable  to  decide  upon 
any  plan  of  actios,  and  much  valuable  time  was 
waued.  In  the  meanwhile,  disaster  had  over- 
taken the  British  at  Osweao.  By  ckver  tactics 
Montcalm  had  surprised  the  fort,  and  had  30 
guns  directed  against  it  before  the  commander 
was  aware  of  the  dan^r  v4icli  threatcntd  Um. 
There  was  little  effective  resblancev  and  owh- 
ulation  necessarily  followed;  1,600  men  were 
made  prisoners,  and  in  a  few  days  the  fort  was 
razed.  The  year  was  passing  away  without 
any  important  move  oa  the  part  of  tine  British. 
Loudon  desired  a  change  of  soene,  and  induced 
the  home  govcmmtnt  to  agree  to  an  expedition 
against  Louisburg.  Large  reinforcements  were 
sent  out,  and  in  the  month  of  June  1757  he  bad 
nearly  12,000  men  arrayed  against  that  stroi^- 
hold.  Still  unable  to  decide  upon  a  plan  of 
attack,  be  wasted  a  mouth  in  exerdsmg  the 
troof>G,  or,  as  Lord  Charles  Howe  said  *ln 
keeping  the  courage  of  His  Majesty's  soldiers 
at  bay,  and  in  ezpeoduBg  the  nation's  wealth  in 
making  sham  fi^ts  and  planting  cabb^^^es,  when 
they  ought  to  have  been  fighting  the  enemies  oi 


the  IGng  in  reality."  On  4  August  a 
was  set  on  foot,  but  intelligence  was  conveyed 
to  the  commander  that  the  French  expected 
reinforcements  and  were  eager  for  the  fncr- 
Therenpon,  the  noble  lord  abandoned  the  enter* 
prise  and  returned  to  New  York,  having  cov 
cred  himsdf  with  ridicule;  and  great^  anrnsed 
the  French. 

In  the  spring  of  1757,  the  region  of  Lake 
Champlain  was  the  iccn«  of  imnsual  activity. 
The  Indians  from  the  distant  shores  of  Lake  Su- 
perior, and  from  the  forests  bmnd  Lake  Erie 
were  rallynig  around  the  Fraich  standard ;  ana 
by  midsummer  a  restless  band,  eager  for  the  fray 
and  only  restrained  with  difficult,  gathered  at 
Fort  Cuillon  as  part  of  the  expedition  against 
the  British  strai^^ds  of  Fort  Edwaid  and 
Fort  William  Henry.  Montcalm's  army  con- 
sisted of  about  6,000  of  the  best  troops,  with 
the  addition  of  the  Indians.  The  British  force 
was  divided  between  the  two  forts.  Webb  was 
at  Fort  Edward  in  coaunand  of  3,500  men,  and 
Munro  had  2,000  tnen  in  Fort  William  Henry 
and  500  oitnncbed  upon  a  rising  ground  in  the 
rear  of  the  fort.  Montcalm's  first  move,  on 
apiiroacbinK  was  to  oocupy  the  route  commimi- 
cating  with  the  forts,  which,  at  the  same  timcv 
cut  off  the  British  troops  upon  the  firing 
ground.  This  was  accomplished  by  de  LMs 
with  3,000  men.  Uontcaun  strengthened  his 
position  and  soon  had  40  gtms  bearing  upon  the 
fort  From  the  first  it  was  dear  that  the 
British  position  was  untenable.  Munro  was 
twice  ottered  terms  of  capitulation,  but  he 
stubbornly  refused.  At  length  he  was  forced 
to  surrender,  and  the  garrison  nardied  out  of 
the  fort.  'Then  followed  a  fri^tfnl  scene, 
which  has  unjustly  tarnished  the  memory  of 
Montcalm.  'Hie  Indians,  disappointed  of  the 
^undcr  to  which  they  looked  forward  at  the 
tack  of  the  fort,  feU  upon  the  prisoners  with, 
fury,  and  horribly  massacred  nearly  100  before 


ibly  mass 

Did  be  1  

d  Uma  did  their  best  to  arrest  the 
fury  of  the  savage  hordes  and  saved  many 
Uves ;  but  tbe  mismcf  was  done,  and  dire  ven- 
gmnce  was  threatened.  Notwidistanding  the 
dismal  failure  of  Loudon,  Pitt  was  still  de- 
teimtned  to  reduce  LouisbnrK  which  was  to  be 
made  the  chief  objective  in  the  campaign  of 
1758.  Loudon  had  been  recalled,  and  the  com- 
mand was  entrusted  to  Amherst,  who  had  al- 
ready done  good  service  in  Germany.  IIm 
chief  officers  under  him  were  Lawrence  and 
WoUe;  The  force  consisted  of  about  12,000 
men.  On  the  2d  of  June  part  of  the  fleet 
andiored  in  Gabarus  Bay,  a  few  miles  from 
LouisbuTK  Boscawen  being  the  admiral  in  com- 
mand, 'nw  expedition  was  a  joint  one,  both 
naval  and  military.  Wolfe  was  the  most  con- 
spicuous figure  of  all  present.  His  brignde 
made  the  real  attack  from  the  boats,  wid\a 
Wfaitmore's  and  Lawrence's  supported  him  hy 
feints  in  other  places.  The  landward  siege  was 
well  pressed  home,  and  Lotmburg,  the  gate- 
way of  New  France,  toon  fell,  and  being  shortly 
after  razed  to  the  groand,  Uterally  became  a 
thing  of  the  past 

SucMss  had  attended  British  arms  in  other 
quarters.  Bradstrcet  at  the  head  of  3,000  men 
had  captured  Fort  Prontenac.  which  the  un- 
wisdom of  Vandreuil  had  left  inadequately  supr 
ported,  although  it  was  a  most  important  post 
commanding  Lake  Ontario  and  serving  U  a 


=,  Google 


314 


CANADA  — BRITAIira  FIOHT  POR  HORTH  AMXKICA  <S> 


bow  for  the  Ohio  forts.  De  Noyan,  the  piver- 
nor,  had  demanded  reinforcements,  but,  in  the 
place  of  troops,  Vaudreuil  had  ditpetched  a  one- 
armed  man  to  his  assistance,  and,  as  resistance 
was  futile,  capitulation  followed.  Fort  Du' 
quesne  had  also  become  a  British  post,  and  now 
bore  the  name  of  Fort  Pitt.  Forbe^  In  the 
face  of  great  difficulties,  had  endured  the  perils 
and  suffering  of  a  winter's  march  |  and,  when 
at  last  his  bravery  and  detenrnnation  had 
triumphed  over  every  obstacle,  and  the  fort  was 
in  si^t,  he  found  that  it  had  been  evacuated. 
While  Loudon  was  "planting  cabbages,"  a 
harmless  occupation,  Abercromby  was  makios: 
a  worse  mess  of  affairs  at  Ticonderoga  (q.v.)- 
The  French  had  been  expecting  an  attack  at 
this  vital  point,  which  commanded  the  route 
by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  threatened 
Uontreal.  A  large  body  of  men  had  been 
ordered  there  in  the  spring  by  Montcalm;  but 
the  withdrawal  of  so  many  troops  under  Lou> 
don  had  convinced  Vaudreuil  that  it  would  be 
an  otKiortune  moment  to  create  a  diversion  On 
the  Mohawk.  Montcalm  was  opposed  to  this 
enterprise;  consequently  Vaudreuil  insisted,  and 
1,600  men  were  oetaclied  for  the  purpose.  By 
the  middle  of  June  Montcalm  had  only  3,000 
men  at  Ticonderoga,  the  battalions  of  La  Sane, 
Languedoc,  B^m,  Berri,  Guienne  and  RoyftI 
RoussilloQ,  with  two  good  engineers.  The 
^ce  was  by  no  means  strong^ly  fortified,  but 
works  were  hastily  thrown  up  in  advantageous 
positions.  In  the  meantime  the  formidable 
army  under  Abercromby,  consisting  of  regulars 
and  provincials,  in  all  15,000  men,  was  en- 
camped about  half  a  mile  from  the  fort.  But 
the  real  head  of  the  army,  I,ord  Howe,  the  best 
soldier  in  America,  as  Wolfe  had  said,  had  been 
killed  in  a  preliminary  skirmish,  and  the  com- 
mander was  powerless  to  act.  Something  had 
.to  be  done,  however,  and  Abercromby  moved 
bis  whole  force  against  Carillon.  Montcahn's 
arm^  had  been  increased  by  500  men  under  de 
Uvts;  and  after  a  seven  honrs'  blundering  as- 
sault Abercromby  was  completely  outgoicr- 
alled,  and  k)5t  no  less  than  ^000  men.     This 


is  frequently  referred  . 

Ion."     But    although  he   had 

French  arms,   the   victory 


.    glory    for 


I  blow 


>  the 


jealous  Vaudreuil,  and  signalized  the  farther 
accentuation  of  discord  which  produced  serious 
results  in  future  operations. 

In  1759  Pitt  was  at  last  in  a  positiott  to  put 
his  greater  scheme  into  practice.  The  tide  of 
war  was  almost  on  the  turn,  and  he  seized  09- 
portunity  beforehand.  The  Seven  Years*  War 
(q.v.)  was  being  waged  in  many  parts  of  tho 
world;  in  fact,  in  a  purely  military  sense,  there 
were  several  different  wars  going  on  at  the 
same  time.  But  there  was  one  great  connectiTe 
force  which  made  them  one,  and  that  was  the 
British  navy.  France  and  Ejigland  were  now 
in  the  very  middle  of  their  great  imperial  war, 
v^ich  began  after  the  fall  of  the  Stuarts  in 
1686,  and  was  continued  as  one  single  age-long 
and  world-wide  struggle  for  the  over-sea  do- 
minion  of  the  world,  down  to  Trafalgar  and 
Waterloo.  The  Seven  Years'  War  was  the  most 
distinctively  imperial  phase  of  the  whole  of  this 
vast  conflict;  the  heart  of  it  lay  in  the  fight  for 
American  dominion;  and  the  central  episode  of 
this  tight  itself  is  to  be  foond  in  the  expedition' 
against   Quebec,  which  culminated  in  the  re- 


nowned battle  of  the  Pbins  of  Ahrabam.  TIk 
four  real  conqiMTors  of  New  France  are  Fitt 
Anson,  Saunders  and  Wolfe  The  names  of 
Pitt  and  Wolfe  have  always  been  on  evenr 
tongue;  but  the  eaually  imDortant  ones  of 
Anson  and  of  Saunaers  have  oeen  unduly  for- 
gotten. Pitt,  of  course,  was  the  originator;  and 
in  himself,  the  most  important  of  the  four. 
But  as  the  whole  fortimes  of  the  war  were 
really  determined  by  the  British  command  of 
the  sea,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  understand 
the  naval  side  of  the  campaign,  not  otilv  for  itj 
own  sake,  but  also  to  fully  appreciate  me  wodi 
of  the  army.  In  the  ever-memorable  year  of 
1759,  it  was  entirely  due  to  the  navy  that  Eng- 
land remained  safe  at  home,  and  it  was  more 
than  half  due  to  the  navy,  that  she  emerged  as 
a  cooqueror  abroad  France  had  prepared  a 
gigantic  scheme  of  invason.  One  fleet  was  to 
sail  for  Ireland,  where  the  troops  were  to  be 
met  on  laifting  b^  a  geneial  n»n^  in  their 
favor.  The  Jacobites  were  to  be  stirred  into 
insurrection  by  another  Frendi  fleet  destined 
for  Scotland;  whilst  their  third  fleet,  lar^r 
than  both  the  others  united,  was  to  convoy  la- 
numeraUe  troop-boats  across  the  Channel,  as 
tb^  made  a  daah  for  the  south  of  England  To 
guard  against  this  national  danger  the  navy 
then  developed  the  first  reguhir  syston  of 
blodcade  ever  known.  Boscawen  blockaded 
Toulon,  Hawke  blockaded  Brest,  Rodney 
cruised  ofi  Havre  and  Admiral  Smith  kept  ihe 
reserve  fleet  always  ready  in  the  Downs. 
Meanwhile,  however,  Pitt  was  prqBrins  a 
counlerstroke ;  not  at  France  herself  —  where 
she  would  be  stronger  than  England  in  a  cam- 
paign fought  out  on  her  own  home  base  — but 
at  her  over-sea  possessions  in  Canada,  from 
which  she  was  separated  by  those  3,000  miles  of 
hostile  waters,  wnicfa  the  British  command  of 
the  sea  had  ptactically  made  a  British  pos- 
session. Thus  Montcalm  had  to  await  attack  in 
iMter  isolation,  on  the  far  side  of  an  immense 
stretch .  of  territorial  watem,  across  which 
Wolfe  advanced  in  perfect  safety  to  meet  him. 
And  it  must  be  remembered  uiat  Saunders' 
squadron  was  not  only  a  strong  one,  for  it 
comprised  a  full  quarter  of  the  whole  navy, 
but  that  it  was  playing  an  integral  part  in  a 
universal  scheme  of  strategy  —  for  alt  seas  aie 
strategically  one — whilst  Wolfe's  little  army 
was  only  a  landing-party  on  a  targe  scale. 
'niere  were  twice  as  many  seamen  as  landsmen 
engaged  in  the  taking  of  Quebec  Saunders  had 
over  18,000  sailors,  more  than  two-tbirds  of 
iriiom  belonged  to  the  navy,  while  Wolfe  had 
less  than  9,000  siddiers.  The  total  Britisb 
force,  therefore,  amomited  to  27,000  men. 
Sanndcrs  and  Wolfe  received  their   secret  in- 


final  rendezvous  was  Louisbttrg,  where  1 
&000  men  were  assembled  m  May.  On  I  June 
the  fleet  began  its  dangerous  voyage,  with  no 
less  than  200  vessels  of  all  sorts  and  sizes.  It 
was  navigated  in  perfect  safety  to  At  Island  of 
Orleans,  whefe  it  arrived  on  27  June,  and  wa? 
not  injured  by  a  tremendous  gale  a  day  or 
two  later,  nor  hy  the  costly  display  of  fireworks, 
in  the  slnipe  of  fire  ships,  destined  to  woik  its 
destruction.  The  picket  boats  met  the  attack 
well  up  stream,  and,  'taking  bell  tn  ti      -       - 


!,  wfaere  th^  fnirat  thtm- 

vGooglc 


CANADA— BRITAIN'S  FIOHT  FOR  NORTH  AISBRICA  (S) 


selves  out.  Wolfe  established  three  caiapt. 
The  principal  one  was  at  Montmorency,  just 
b^vnd  the  falls.    Tlie  second  was  on  die  Island 


very  __ _       ,         ..   _  _ 

third  was  at  Point  Levis,  which  Vaudreuil  fool- 
i^ly  refusnj  to  occnpy,  in  spite  of  Montcalm's 
sensible  advice,  and  which  was  consequently 
left  open  for  Wolfe  to  build  his  battenes  on. 
These  batteries  literally  pounded  the  town  to 
pieces^  as  a  manuscript  note  on  a  plan  of  the 
siege  in  the  French  War  Office  truly  remark^ 
'  e  tK  fvl  pas  wn  siigt,  mail  wi  bombardeuiml.' 


vantage.  Montcalm's  position  was  stiU  im- 
mensely stroi%  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  the  Levis 
Heights.  The  upper  town  of  Quebec  is  built 
upon  the  extremity  of  a  long  promontory  which 
is  bounded  on  the  south  by  steep  clifFs,  200  or 
SX>  feet  ^eer  up  above  the  Saint  Lawrence,  and 
on  the  north  bv lower,  but  stilt  «asily  defensible, 
cliffs  overlooldng  the  valley  of  the  Saint 
Charles.  The  town  was  held  by  2,000  men 
under  de  Ramesay.  It  had  a  double  tier  of  bat- 
teries, one  on  tbe  top  of  the  cliffs,  the  other 
along  die  water  front  below  them.  Ther  only 
open  ground  in  the  vicinity  was  round  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Charles.  But  this  was  well 
entrencheA  and  the  trenches  were  carried  on 
continuouslv  for  seven  miles  along  the  Beauport 
shore   to  the  Montmorency,  opposite  Wolfe's 


"^o, 


'01(6*3  first  attempt  to  brealc  through  was 
made  some  distance  uji  the  Montmorency, 
where  he  tried  to  force  his  way  across  the  fords 
and  so  attack  the  entrenchments  in  the  rear. 
But  he  was  repulsed  with  loss,  in  a  bush-fight 
in  which  his  regulars  were  at  a  great  di^d- 
vantage.  His  second  attempt  was  a  more 
serious  one.  On  31  July  he  tried  to  carry  the 
Montmorency  Heights  1^  stonn,  a  mile  on  the 
Quebec  side  of  the  falls.  But  as  his  troops  had 
to  be  collected  from  several  quarters,  in  full 
view  of  the  French,  Mwitcalm  easily  antici- 
pated htm  at  the  right  spot,  before  he  could 
deliver  the  assault.  Besides  the  faulty  British 
plan  could  not  be  carried  out  even  according  to 
Wolfe's  intentions,  because  the  grenadiers,  1,000 
strong,  suddenly  broke  into  a  wild  charge 
before  being  properly  formed  up,  and  lost  nearly 
half  their  numbers  in  a  fruitless  effort  to  scale 
the  heights.  Then  a  terrific  thunderstorm 
burst  on  the  scene  of  carnage,  makinK  ttte 
heiglits  more  slippery  than  ever,  and  so  he  had 
no  choice  but  to  call  off  his  men  at  once.  After 
this  repulse  Wolfe  fell  seriously  ill,  and  toward 
the  end  of  August  be  gave  his  brigadiers, 
Monckton,  Townshend  and  Murray,  a  memo- 
randum of  three  oiber  plans  for  assaulting  the 
trenches  and  asked  them  "to  consult  together 
for  the  puUic  utility."  Their  council  of  war 
resulted  m  a  complete  rejection  of  all  his  sug- 
gestions ;  because,  as  they  well  remarked,  the 
storming  of  such  worics  from  open  ground 
would  certainly  be  both  difficult  and  dangerous. 
Moreover,  even  if  the  works  themselves  were 
carried,  there  would  still  remain  the  fortified 
line  of  the  Saint  Charles,  as  well  as  the  heights 
of  the  promotory  beyond,  to  keep  him  out  of 
Quebec,  imtil  the  lateness  of  the  season  would 
compel  him  to  raise  the  siege.  Their  own  plan 
was  to  take  all  the  available  men  up  the  Saint 
',  and  land  at  any  suitable  point  be- 


tween Cap  Rouge,  which  was  nine  miles,  and 
Pointe  atui  Trembles,  which  was  22  miles,  above 
Quebec.  Wolfe  informed  Pitt,  in  a  dispatch 
written  on  2  September,  that  he  had  acquiesced 
in  this  plan,  and  intended  to  put  it  into  oper- 

The  Montmorency  camp  was  cleverly  evacu- 
ated, without  the  loss  of  a  tnan,  by  a  general 
naval  and  military  demonstration  against  the 
entrenchments,  wnicfa  made  the  French  feel 
sure  that  another  ailempt  to  storm  the  posi- 
tion there  was  about  to  take  place.  From  7  to 
10  September  the  rain  suspended  all  operations; 
and  on  10  September  Wolfe  made  his  .final 
reconnaissance.  He  was  already  well  pasted 
on  the  lie  of  the  land  in  every  direction,  and 
die  idea  of  attacking  above  Quebec  was  thor- 
oughly familiar  to  his  mind  long  before  it  was 
mentioned  by  his  brigadiers.  On  19  May  he 
had  said  to  his  uncle,  that  he  'reckoned  on  a 
smart  action  at  the  passage  of  the  Saint  Charles 
unless  we  can  steal  a  detachment  up  tbe  river 
and  land  it  there,  four,  five  miles,  or  more  above 
Quebec.*  This  plan  was  better  than  die 
brigadiers',  as  it  contemplated  seizing  the 
ground  much  closer  to  Quebec  than  the  nearest 
objective  point  they  proposed  trying.  At  the 
final  recotmaissance  he  chose  the  Foulon,  where 
a  path  led  up  to  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  within 
two  miles  of  the  walls.  If  he  could  get  up 
there  without  any  serious  check,  he  saw  that 
he  could  forestall  Montcalm  by  forming  a  line 
less  than  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  city, 
where  the  promontory  was  narrow  enough  to 
be  commanded  by  his  small  army,  and  where 
tbe  mixed  regulars  and  irregulars  of  New 
France  would  be  fotxxd  to  meet  his  homo- 
geneous British  red-coats  on  a  flat  and  open 
ground.  The  French  were  on  the  alert  every- 
where along  the  north  shore,  from  the  falls  up 
to  Pointe  aux  'Trembles,  a  distance  of  29  miles 
—  except  just  at  the  Foulon  itself.  They  could 
not  tell  what  Wolfe  was  about,  nor  where  the 
bulk  of  his  men  were,  behind  the  impenetrable 
screen  of  the  ubiquitous  British  fleet.  They 
were  naturally  very  apprehensive  of  another 
desperate  attack  on  their  trenches;  they  were 
well  prepared  against  an  assault  upon  the  town, 
which  was  so  strongly  fortified  by  nature ;  while 
the  constant  movement  of  the  neCt,  and  occa- 
sional landings  from  it,  in  the  vicini^  of  Pointe 
aujc  Trembles,  22  miles  up,  made  them  think 
that  any  new  plan  would  probably  take  the  form 
of  an  advance  in  force  by  land  from  somewhere 
thereabouts.  One  man,  indeed,  besides  Wolfe, 
was  thinking  of  the  Foulon,  and  that  man  was 
Montcalm.  On  5  September  he  had  sent  the 
regiment  of  Guienne  to  the  Heights  of  Abra- 
h^,  but  Vaudreuil  withdrew  it  on  7  Septem- 
ber, and  left  no  defense  there,  except  the  pun^ 
Samos  battery  near  Sillery  Point,  and  100  mili- 
tiamen at  the  top  of  the  Foulon,  tmder  the 
treacherous  Vei^r.  Even  on  12  September, 
the  vety  eve  of  the  battle,  Montcalm  had  again 
ordered  the  same  regiment  back,  this  time  to 
the  Foulon  itself.  However,  Vaudreuil  had 
again  countermanded  the  order,  saying,  'We'll 
see  about  it  to-morrow.*  But  Wolfe  himself 
was  up  there  on  that  morrow !  IFor  some  ac- 
count of  the  battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham, 
see  Ccn.oNiAL  Waks  iif  Auekica;  Montcalh; 
Quebec;  Woue-J 

The  winter  at  Quebec,  after  its  capture,  wa» 
a  terribly  trying  one  for  &e  little  British  gar^ 


V  Google 


CANADA— UHDEE  BRITISH  RULB  TO  COMraDBRAVKW  <6) 


rison;  and  so  manv  men  died  of  icurvy  that,  in 
the  following  April,  when  de  Ltvis  marched  out 
of  Uontreal  with  7,260  men,  expecting  several 
thousand  more  to  join  him  on  the  vay,  Murray 
could  only  muster  3386  effectives.  There  was 
a  second  battle  of  the  Plains,  in  which  LMs 
defeated  Uurnijr,  who  in  less  than  two  hours 
lost  over  one-tlurd  of  his  men.  A  second  in- 
vestmeiit  followed,  and  L£vis  was  in  the  act  of 
advancing   to  storm   the  walls,  when   the  van- 

Sard  of  (he  British  fleet  suddenly  entered  the 
rbor.  The  French  had  now  no  choice  of 
action.  They  hurriedly  abandoned  their  camp, 
and  retreated,  in  all  haste,  on  Montreal,  both  by 
land  and  water.  Then,  step  by  step,  the  final 
British  advance  converged  on  the  (loomed  col- 
ony. Murray  came  up  steadily  from  Quebec,  in 
close  touch  with  Lor<j  Colville's  squadron,  which 
the  French  had  absolutely  no  means  of  resisting. 
Haviland  advanced  from  the  south  by  way  of 
Lake  Champlain ;  while  Amherst,  with  the 
main  army,  came  down  the  Saint  Lawrence 
from  the  Lakes.  When  the  united  British  army, 
17,000  stron?,  actually  landed  on  the  Island  of 
Montreal,  the  few  remaining  Canadians  de- 
serted L^vis  in  a  body,  and  he  found  hhnself 
left  with  only  some  2,000  of  the  faithful- French 
regulars.  The  capitulation  of  New  France  oc- 
curred two  days  later,  on  8  Sent.  1760.  The 
French  troops  were  deported.  The  Canadians 
had  already  dispersed.  The  American  militia 
went  back  to  ueir  homes.  The  fleet  sailed 
away  to  their  stations.  The  British  regulars 
took  up  their  winter  quarters.  And  the  New 
Rigime  began.  The  Seven  Years'  War  wa.s  one 
of  the  most  pregnant  events  in  history;  and  its 
results  have  continued  to  exert  a  vast  determin- 
ing influence  on  the  fortunes  of  every  world 
power,  down  to  the  present  day.  In  Europe  it 
foretold  the  ultimate  decline  of  France  and 
Anstria,  and  the  ultimate  rise  of  PmssiA  to  the 
leadership  of  Germany.  But  its  significance 
for  the  Cnglhh-speaking  people  lies  mainly  in 
the  fact  that  it  was  the  most  truly  imperial  waf 
tbcy  ever  waged;  and  its  most  dramatic  episode 
—the  battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham  — will 
serve  to  mark  forever  three  vital  stages  in  three 
great  epochs  of  modem  times  —  the  passing  of 
Greater  France,  the  coming  of  age  of  Greater 
Britain  and  the  birth  of  the  United  States. 

Arthub  G.  Doughty, 
Dovtinion  Archivist ;  Author  of  'The  Battle  of 
the  Plains,'   etc, 

6.  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE  TO  CON- 
FEDERATION (1760-1864).  At  the  mo- 
ment when  Vaudreuil  fsee  VAtniREU]i/-CAVAa- 
HAL,  FiistRB)  capitulatea  to  Amfaerst  (Septem- 
ber V6D)  (sec  liOHytiXAi.  — History)  there 
were  no  English  in  Canada  save  the  tooops  and 
a  few  civilians  who  had  come  with  them.  But, 
outwardly  at  least,  (his  act  of  surrender  placed 
the  French  Canadians  and  the  English  colonists 
in  America  on  the  sanae  basis  as  subjects  of  the 
British  Crown,  One  sovereignty  was  thus  es- 
aUished  over  a  vast  area  where  dwelt  two 
races  whose  origin,  sentiments,  faith  and  insti- 
tutions marked  them  off  from  each  other  in  the 
sharpest  contrast.  A  century  later  the  face  of 
llie  situation  was  profoundly  changed.  The 
American  RevcJution  had  created  a  second 
soverei^ty  in  this  region  at  a  time  wlien  the 


had  come  to  otttnumber  the  Canadian  French. 
The  maintenance  of  the  bond  with  Great 
Britain,  the  rise  of  the  Uidted  SUtes  and  the 
influx  of  English  settlers  ate  the  hroad  con- 
ditions which  have  afiected  the  progress  of 
Canada   since  the  cession. 

Three  years  elapsed  between  Vaudreuil's 
surrender  and  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  which  coo- 
finned  Great  Britain  in  the  possession  of  her 
American  conQueats.  E>uring  this  interval  the 
country  remained  wider  military  rule,  -  and 
though  General  Murray's  relations  with  the 
subject  population  were  marked  by  sympatiiy 
and  tact,  it  was  impossible  that  a  sense  of 
permanence  should  be  inspired  by  suc^  a  docu- 
ment as  the  Act  of  Capitulation.  The  text  of 
the  tieaQr,  in  its  turn,  left  many  essential  points 
unsettled,  especially  in  the  domain  cif  law.  and 
not  until  l774v  iriien  the  Quebec  Act  was  passed, 
did  French  Canada  receive  from  the  British 
Crown  and  Parliament  a  charter  upon  which  it 
could  rely.  The  first  14  3'ears  of  British  rule 
were,  however,  a  time  of  great  importance  in 
that  the  experience  gained  during  this  period 
suggested  le^slation  which  continues  in  force 
at  the  present  day.  The  mass  of  the  French 
population,  jeignemrs  and  habitants  alflce,  ac- 
cepted the  change  of  masters  in  a  spirit  of  resig- 
Tbcir  courageous  support  of  Montcalm 


-„  .  -  the  French  regulars,  together 
superior  knowledge  of  the  country  and  a  better 
^rasp  of  the  tactics  which  were  suited  to  Amer- 
ican warfare^  That  the  deportation  of  the 
Acadians  bad  stimulated  their  resistance  to  the 
British  is  more  than  probable,  but  in  any  case 
loyalty  and  patriotism  would  have  led  tlKm  to 
make  a  biave  defense.  Once  beaten,  they  ac- 
cepted the  situation  franUy  and  were  not  en- 
couraged, to  rebel  by  that  restlessness  of  the 
Indian  tribes  which  took  fonn  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Pontiac  (1763-64)  (see  Pontiac).  The 
CMttrast  between  their  docUity  and  the  growing 
disaffection  of  New  England  and  Virgmia  did 
hot  fail  to  leave  an  impression  on  the  official 
mind  both,  in  Quiebec  and  Loildon.  The  result 
was  that  when  difficulties  arose  between  tbem 
and  their  En^ish  fellow-subjects  the  govern- 
ment was  not  disposed  to  espouse  the  cause  of 
the  latter.  Apart  from  the  retention  of  their 
property,  the  guarantee  of  their  religious  institu- 
tions was  the  question  which  came  nearest  to 
the  hearts  of  the  French  Canadians.  By  Article 
27  of  Vaudreuil's  Capitulation  it  was  agreed 
that  "the  free  exercise  of  the  Catholic,  Apostolic 
and  Roman  religion  shall  subsist  entire,  m  such 


.  churches,  and  to  fre 
heretofore,  witbotit  be- 
,  laoner,  <Ur«Ctly  <w  in- 
directly.' This  clause  of  the  capitulation  was 
confinned  at  the  Treaty  of  Pans  (see  Paws, 
Treaties  of)  with  the  conditkm  "as  far  as  the 
laws  of  Great  Britain  pemit,"  but  any  restriction 
which  might  seem  to  be  placed  upon  relig^us 
toleration  by  the  foregoing  phrase  wa&  nominal 
rather  than  real.  The  oowmonities  of  nuns 
were  not  disturbed  even  at  first,  and  after  a  few 
years  of  deprivation  large  estates  were  resior^ 
to  the  Sulpicians.  The  Jesuits  also  would  prob- 
ably have  received  a  confirmation  of  title  but 
for  the  special  circumstances  ajltending   tbeir 


d=,  Google 


CANAcDA— UHOBRBBITISH  RULB  TO  CONFSINBRATION  («> 


817 


Ai  it  was,  the  tcrupulous  care  with  whtcli  gov- 
cntvrs  Udc  Hurray  and  CarleCon  (see  Caslb- 
Tiw,  Sn  Guvi  carried  out  the  policy  of  tfJeia- 
tion  reaasurco  the  biemchy  Had  aade  it  a  firm 
Kipporter  of  British  rule. 

Had  there  been  do  other  factors  in  the  pcditi- 
tal  life  of  the  country  thui  the  KOvcrament  and 
the  French  Canadiuia,  the  first  jcars  of  the 
new  order  wQuld  have  been  i>eaceful  enou^ 
It  is  true  that  the  oMBmisuon  of  Govetnor  Mur- 
r^  (1763)  was  itttrked  1^  ill-advised  exwesr 
siont.  For  eKft—plft  tibc  nembers  of  smu  an 
astentbly  as  mi^U  heT«»flKr  be  convened  by  the 
Covemor  and  council  ^sball,  before  their  sitting, 
take  tile  oaths  vimlioned  in  the  act  entitled  'An 
Act  for  die  further  security  of  his  Majesty's 
person  and  fovenuDeat,  ana  the  succession  o£ 
the  Crown  in  the  heirs  oi  the  late  Princess 
Soi^a,  being  Protestants,'"  etc.  la  other 
wards,  every  French  Canadian  who  aspired  to 
sit  in  the  assemUy  of  the  colony  must  sub- 
scribe  a  dudaruiltta  against  trans  ubstantiatioiL 
tiM  adoration  of  the  Vu^  and  the  sacrifice  of 
tbe  BUBS.  Such  UitsUMn  (borrowed  frcnn  the 
laws  of  Encland)  woula  have  seemed  offensive 
had  political  &fe  becooje  actiyc  in  tbe  colony, 
bat  as  no  asacmbly  wae  cgpvened  till  1791  it 
ranaincd  shorn  of  practical  significance.  Real 
difficulty  Sprang  less  from  the;  disaffection  of 
the  "new  aubiects'  than- from  tbe  presence 
in  Canada  «f  certain  'old  subjecU,^  that 
is  to  say,  of   the  English  who  bad  come  to 

gitebec  and  Montreal  at  the  close  of  the  war. 
ere  was  a  tmh  element  in  tbe  ponulation, 
small  but  acbve  and  bitterly  opposea  to  the 
recogntiion  of  Frcndi  institutions.  Prior  to  thv 
outbreak  of  tbe  Revolution  an  influential  pfo< 
poitioa  of  the  ^iglish  living  in  Canada  were 
natives  of  the  Americaii  colonies  who  had  moved 
to  the  northern  part  of  the  Briti^  dMainions 
with  the  dBsiffD  of  enriching  thetnielves  throuflii 
tbe  fur-tnde.  Their  antagoniam  to  the  French 
was  prompted  partly  by  race  and  reli^oo  but 
also  by  dislike  of  French  law  and  contempt  for 
die  conMrvatisni  of  French  character.  Tb«if 
plea  was  that  since  the  fate  of  w'ar  faad'fiiveii 
Canada  to  the  Engtirii  tbe  tountry  should  be 
Biatle  in  die  lulleet  sense  a  British  possession. 
These  "old  ■nhfccts,''  but  just  arrived  in  tbe 
colony,  would  have  uprooted  French  law,  -  dis- 
couraged the  nse  of  the  French  language,  de- 
stroyed or  fettered  the  hierarchy,  and  iaadeib 
tally  have  made  themselves  a  <kiininant  clast> 
At  no  ttaie  before  the  passage  of  the  Quebec 
Act  could  Aty  have  fonned  more  than  a  hftietfa 
part  o>f  tbe  p<niulation,  but  owing  to  tbe  stren^ 
with  which  they  raised  tbe  cry  of  the  rulutg 
race,  they  enjoyed  a  position  of  great  pFomi- 
nence.    Unfortunately  for  the  succeu  of  tbeh- 


uttaance  and  demeanor.  Carlcton,  in  particu- 
lar, disoountcnaoccd  them  and  held  them  to  bc 
infected  with  the  mutinaus  views  which  were 
becoraang-  so  inoeasingly  prevalent  in  the  Ens- 
lisb  oolomes. 

Sir  Gitiy  Carleton,  afterward  Lord  Dor- 
chester, is  (be  most  striking  figure  in  Cana- 
d^n  history  from  the  Conmicst  to  the  days  of 
resptmslble  govemment.  The  close  friend  and 
comidBnt  of  'Wolfe,  he  began  his  carter  as  a 
M>l<ll«r.    CSrcamitances  tnaOeiiim  an  adminisi- 


tratoraadheended  by  reaching  the  full  stature 
of  a  slatesman.  Those  who  approve  the  policy 
embodied  in  the  Quebec  Act  wilL  of  course, 
raxik  him  higher  than  he  will  be  ranked  by  those 
who  deny  the  wisdom  of  that  far-reaching 
measure,  but  regarding  the  quality  of  his  min£ 
the  tirmness  of  his  temper  and  the  justice  oi 
his  intentions,  opinion  is  nndividcd.  After  serv- 
ing jvith  dbtinclion  in  the  campaigns  of  1759 
and  1760  be  relumed  to  Canada  as  administra- 
tor of  the  government  in  1766.  In  1769  he  be- 
came eovemor- in-chief ;  and  from  this  date 
until  bis  final  surrender  of  office  in  1796  he  re- 
mained aroong  all  Engli^junen  tbe  leading  au- 
thority on  Canadian  affairs.  The  Quebec  Act 
was  toe  fruit  of  information  and  advice  wbidi 
be  supplied;  it  was  he  who  repelled  Mont- 
gometys  invasion,  and  the  Cx)nstitutional  Act 
of  1791  which  gave  tbe  colony  its  first  training 
in  self-government  was  largely  his  work.  Dur- 
ing a  formative  period  of  30  years  his  policy  o£ 
generosity  toward  the  defeated  race  was  the 
policy  of  the  British  govenunent  Murray, 
whose  language  reflects  personal  resentmoit, 
says  of  the  'old  subjects' ;  "1  report  them  to  bc 
in  general  tbe  most  immoral  collection  of  men 
I  eyer  knew.*  (^leton,  though  less  severe  in 
bis  strictures,  formed  a  hignly  unfavorable 
opinion  of  them  and  expressed  his  preference 
for  the  French  Canadians  with  perfect  freedom. 
AcGordirw  to  his  forecast,  which  in  this  respect 
has  not  been  altogether  justified,  tbe  valley  of 
the  Saint  Lawrence  was  unlikely  to  be  inhabited 
by  any  large  number  of  Englishmen.  Most  of 
the  English  who  were  then  resident  in  Montreal 
and  Quebec  had  come  in  tbe  train  of  tbe  troops 
and  would  probably  return  with  them.  The 
traders  l»d  not  been  successful  and  would  soon 
disappear.  To  quote  his  own  words,  it  remained 
that  "barring  a  catastrophe  too  shocking  to 
think  of,  this  country  must  to  tbe  end  of  time 
be  peopled  tiy  -the  Canadian  race."  The  (Ra- 
dians, he  continues,  "are  not  a  migration  of 
Britons,  who  brought  with  them  the  laws  of 
England,  but  a  populous  and  loiu-eslablishcd 
colony.*  Thus  believing  that  the  French  could 
nerer  be  supplanted  he  concluded  that  their 
customs,  ecclesiastical  and  legal,  should  bc  re- 
tained. A  detailed  statemoit  regarding  the 
Quebec  Act  will  be  found  elsewhere  (see  tbe 
article  The  QueeBc:  Act).  Here  it  need  only 
be  said  that  its  territorial  provisions  were  ex- 
tremely distasteful  to  the  EngUib  colonies  and 
that  its  concessions  to  tbe  French  Canadians 
have  supplied  a  solid  ground  work  for  their 
loyal V  to  tbe  British  Crown.  Whether  Sir 
Etienoe  Tach^  was  correct  when  be  said,  <'The 
last  gun  that  will  be  fired  for  British  supremacy 
HI  America,  will  be  fired  by  a  French  Canadian,? 
must  be  tenned  matter  of  conjecture  ^  but  *the 
sentimeat  which  prompted  him  to  speak  so 
fervently  was  gratitude  for  the  Quebec  Act 
This  wasure  provided  an  unobjectionable  oaHi 
of  allegiance,  sanctioned  the  Roman  Catholic 
reltgion  in  so  far  as  it  did  not  conflict  with  the 
King'*  supremacy,  and  ordained  that  *in  aU 
matters  of  controversy  relating  to  pn^terty  and 
dvS  rigjtts,  resort  jhall  be  had  to  the  laws  of 
Canada  as  the  rule  for  the  dedsion  of  the 
same.*  Hence  English  criminal  law  and  French 
«ivil  law  were  established  side  by  side  in  the 
regions  covered  by  the  act.  When  Upper 
Canada  was  constituted  ui  1791  it  received  the 
-common  law  of  England  uonodificd  and  un- 


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S18 


CANADA  — UNDBR  BRITISM  RUUt  TO  CONPBDBRATKHI  <6) 


limited,  but  French  civil  law  still  survive*  in 
the  province  of  Quebec. 

At  the  same  moment  when  Great  Britain  was 
endeavoring  to  meet  the  wishes  of  ber  French 
BwbjectB,  the  question  of  Canada  was  becoming 
an  additional  source  of  friction  between  the 
mother  country  and  her  older  colDnies  in  Amer- 
ica. Not  only  did  the  English  colonies  dis' 
approve  a  policy  which  heaped  such  favors 
upon  the  French,  but  some  of  them  re- 
sented the  Kinf^s  disposition  of  the  re- 
cently acauired  territory  to  the  west  of 
the  Alleghaniea.  In  the  royal  proclama- 
tion of  1763  nothing  was  said  concerning 
the  government  of  this  valuable  region,  an 
omission  which  disappointed  Virginia  and  other 
colonies  ambitious  of  expansion.  Worse  still, 
the  Quebec  Act  handed  over  the  western  coun- 
try to  Canada,  shutting  out  the  older  colonies 
and  rendering  an  immense  area  subject  to  the 
operation  of  French  civil  law.  At  any  time 
such  action  would  have  provoked  remonstrance: 
in  1774  it  quickened  the  resentment  which  had 
been  gathering  force  ever  since  the  pass^e  of 
the  Stamp  Act.  How  prominent  Canada  was 
In  the  eyes  of  the  Continental  Congress  may  be 
inferred  from  the  decision,  speedily  formed,  to 
gain  control  of  it  by  force.  The  sequel  was  a 
severe  blow  to  the  Rerohitionary  cause.  Mont- 
^mery  (see  Montcomest,  Richabd),  advanc- 
ing by  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Richelieu,  occu- 
pied Monireal  and  nearly  succeeded  in  captur- 
ing Carleton,  who  was  the  head  and  front  of  the 
defense.  Simultaneously  Benedict  Arnold 
(q.v.)  made  his  way  through  the  woods  of 
Maine  to  ihe  valley  of  the  Chaudiire  and  de- 
Spite  dreadful  privations  appeared  before  the 
walls  of  Quebec  On  the  arrival  of  Hont- 
zomery  from  Montreal  a  siege  was  commenced, 
but  the  sufferings  of  the  troops  proved  so  in- 
tolerable that  it  was  decided  to  carry  the  town 
by  assault.  On  31  Dec  177S,  the  two  generals 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  force  a  passage 
through  the  streets  of  the  Lower  Town.  Dur<~ 
ing  the  fight  which  ensued  Montgomery  was 
killed  and  after  a  sharp  encounter  Carleton 
drove  out  the  invaders  with  heavy  loss.  The 
war  in  Canada  dragged  on  during  the  greater 
part  of  1776  but  before  the  close  of  that  year 
the  Americans  had  been  repulsed  at  all  points 
and  the  issue,  so  far  as  it  affected  Quebec,  was 
decided.  On  the  British  side  the  hero  of  this 
campaign  is  undoubtedly  Carleton.  who  main- 
tained his  position  against  heavy  oods;  but  con- 
sidered historically  the  attitude  of  the  French 
Canadians  is  no  less  interesting.  The  clergy 
and  the  seigneurs  used  their  influence  active^ 
on  behalf  oi  the  British ;  the  futbitatits  remained 
neutral.  It  seems  clear,  however,  that  without 
the  aid  which  he  received  from  Canadian  volun- 
teers, Carleton  would  have  been  beaten,  and  it 
is  also  manifest  that  the  French  peasantry  did 
not  respond  with  any  heartiness  to  the  appeals 
of  the  Continental  Congress. 

While  Montgomery's  invasion  is  an  exciting 
and  critical  episode,  the  Revolution  kRected 
Canada  still  more  profoundly  Ir^  causing  the 
emigration  of  the  United  Empire  Loyalists 
(see  AUERICAN  LOYALISTS).  Into  the  nature  of 
their  differences  with  the  American  patriots  it 
is  not  necessary  to  go,  beyond  stating  that  each 
party  represented  a  definite  point  of  view 
and  was  separated  from  its  opponents  by  the 
wide  gulf  of  contrasted  ideals.     The  Loyal- 


ists represent  the  conservatiTe  element  in  (he 
13  colonies  and  undoubtedly  anbraced 
within  their  ranks  a  large  proportion  of  dis- 
tingui^ed,  educated  men.  Including  those  who 
left  their  homes  while  the  war  was  in  progress 
and  those  who  came  northward  after  its  dose, 
we  may  place  the  total  number  of  Loyalist  emi- 
Erants  in  British  North  America  at  nearly  40;00D. 
More  than  half  of  these  newcomers  settled  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  particu- 
larly in  the  region  which  now  forms  the  prov- 
ince of  New  Brunswick,  bat  at  least  t(^000  of 
them  made  their  way  to  Cawada.  It  is  at  this 
I>eriod'  that  important  setdements  are  first  estab- 
lished upon  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  On- 
tario, where  a  population  exclusively  English 
possessed  itself  of  lands  which  the  Frcndi  had 
e:q)lored  but  never  colonized.  The  populanon 
of  Canada  was  further  modified  between  17&3 
and  1800  by  the  opening  up  of  the  Eastern 
Townships,  a  district  situated  on  the  northcra 
border  of  New  Hai^Mhire  and  Vennont,  with 
a  short  frontier  on  the  northeaitcm  coTTwr  of 
New  York.  Here  the  original  settlements  were 
made  in  part  by  LoyaUsts  but  more  largely  t» 
emigrants  from  New  En^and  who  moved  north 
in  quest  of  cheap  land.  At  the  close  of  the 
Revolution,  then,  the  race  miestion  in  Canada 
begins  to  assiune  a  very  different  aspect  from 
that  which  it  had  worn  before  the  passa^  of  the 
Quebec  Act  Then  the  Eni^ish  t>opulation  con- 
stituted a  mere  handfuL  Now,  tbrougfa  the 
steady  influx  of  immigrants  from  the  United 
States  fresh  portions  of  the  country  are  de- 
veloped and  a  nncleus  is  formed  round  whtch 
later  accessions  of  English-speaking  colonists 
will  range  themselves.  As  the  bidk  of  tihe  new 
population  professed  the  deepest  affection  for 
Gnat  Britain,  a  separatist  movement  was  not 
to  be  diot^t  of,  hut  it  was  equally  certain 
that  dis^reement  would  arise  within  Canada 
over  the  issne  of  legal  and  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions. As  early  as  1785  the  Loyalists  resident 
on  and  near  Lake  Ontario  sent  a  petition  to 
En^and  praying  that  they  mi^t  enjoy  'the 
Uesaings  of  British  laws  and  British  govern- 
ment  and  of  exemption  from  French  tcnore  of 
pro^rty.*  Carleton,  now  Lord  Dorchester,  was 
emmently  stilted  to  effect  an  arrangement  be- 
tween the  Loyalists  and  the  French  f^^^Mmtt^ 
toward  both  of  wbiMn  he  was  drawn  fay  feeli^ 
of  strong  sympathy.    After  estabfishing  in  1788 

aecial  regulations  for  the  administration  of 
stricts  inhabited  by  Loyalists,  be  assisted  in 
the  preparation  of  Ae  Constitutional  Act  (1791), 
a  measure  which  was  designed  to  do  away  widi 
the  grievances  of  the  Lt^aJists  without  creating 
a  sense  of  grievance  among  the  French.  Under 
the  Constitutional  Act,  which  in  the  British  Par- 
liament received  support  from  Pitt  and  Bnrke,  a 
division  was  made  between  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada.  For  each  of  these  provinces  die  act 
created  a  legislative  council  and  an  assemUy, 
but  no  independent  power  with  respect  to  tariff 
legislation  was  granted.  Qergymen  of  what- 
ever denomination  were  declared  inelioiUc  to 
sit  eidier  in  the  comidl  or  the  assembly,  but 
freedom  of  worship  was  guaranteed  to  the 
Catholics  in  perpetuity  and  the  Protestant  dergy 
received  as  an  endowment  one-seveiith  of  all 
waste  lands  belonging  to  the  Crown.  Some  idea 
of  the  relative  importance  of  the  two  provinces 
at  this  date  may  be  gathered  from  die  fact  that 
in  Lower  Canada  Ibe  tegislatiTe  oouocQ  wu  to 


,  Google 


CAHAbA  —  tmi>^  BRrnBH  BULB  TO  COHraHHtRATION  (6) 


et0 


consist  ot  not  leas  Ihan  15  members,  while  in 
Upper  Canada  the  minimnm  number  was  placed 
at  seven.  A  still  greater  dispropartion  existed 
between  the  number  of  members  in  the  assem- 
bly—the  minimum  of  SO  In  Lower  Canada  u 
opposed  to  a  minimum  of  16  in  the  other  prov- 
bce.  Although  ^rave  troubles  afterward  arose 
under  the  operation  of  the  Constittttioital  Act, 
Ibe  measure  seems  to  have  encountered  Uttle 
opposition  in  Canada  save  from  tho  Englidi 
minority  in  Quebec,  whose  leaders  looked' foe- 
ward  with  discontent  to  the  prospect  of  political 
inferiorilT.  No  tests  eicluded  Roman  Catholics 
from  die  counci]  or  the  assembly,  and  after  the 
elections  of  1792  the  latter  body  in  Lower 
Canada  contained  34  French  as  against  16 
English  members. 

Within  six  months  from  the  day  when 
the  first  Canadian  legislature  met.  Great  Brit' 
ain  joined  Austria  and  Prussia  in  their  war 
against  revolutionary  France.  While  British 
North  America  was  not  drawn  into  the  vortex 
of  England'*  contest  with  the  ConventicHi,  the 
Directory  and  the  Napoleonic  empire;  it  felt 
the  influence  of  that  long  struggle  in  more  ways 
than  one.  Besides  Canada's  part  in  the  War  of 
1812,  which  was  a  by-product  of  the  larger 
strife,  one  must  mention  the  attempt  of  Frend 
republicans  to  make  trouble  for  England  in 
Lower  Canad^  and  a  ccrtam  neglect  of  CaaUr 
dian  issues  by  the  home  government  which  imy 
be  ascribed  to  the  pressure  of  more  critical 
questions  in  Europe;  At  aboot  die  saine  time 
when  Genet  was  endeavoring  to  raise  tbc 
United  States  against  Great  Britain,  agents  of 
the  National  Convention  soi^t  to  provoke  a 
disturbance  among  the  habilantg  of  Qncbec 
The  execution  of  McLane  and  the  impriaoii' 
mcnt  of  Frechette  for  life  are  the  diief  'wd^ 
dents  in  this  abortive  imdertaldug.  Of  mttch 
more  consequence  was  the  failure  of  the  col<»- 
nial  office  to  watch  the  working  of  the  CoiiBtir 
tulional  Act  in  Lower  Canada.  The  council, 
whose  members  were  appointed  by  Ae  gover- 
nor, speedily  became  a  stronghoW  of  miglish 
interests.  The  assembly,  whose  members  were 
chosen  by  popular  vote,  assumed  no  less  speed- 
i^  a  French  complexion.  As  the  council  con- 
sidered itself  to  represent  the  dominant  {)ower 
and  was  quite  free  from  the  control  of  die 
assembly,  it  tended  to  assume  a  tone  which 
was  extremely  offensive  to  the  French  majority 
in  the  other  house.  The  Constitational  Act 
gave  representation  but  did  not  recognise  the 
principle  of  ministerial  responsibility  to  the 
popular  branch  of  the  leffslature.  In  an  age 
of  mounting  democracy,  this  type  of  goven>- 
ment  was  open  to  fierce  attack,  espedally  when 
the  question  was  complicated  by  racial  preju- 
dice. Between  1791  and  1812  the  most  mala- 
droit governor  of  Lower  Canada  was  Sir  Js 


had  recourse  to  a  coup  d^itat.  In  his  assauU 
upon  the  Conadien,  a  Nationalist  newspaper, 
he  unwarrantably  arrested  Bedard  as  the  pub- 
lisher of  treasonable  articles,  dismissed  Pallet, 
the  speaker  of  the  assembly,  from  the  militia, 
and  eventually  imprisoned  Mx  of  the  leading 
members  of  uie  assembly.  Craig's  action  wae 
due  to  a  sincere  belief  that  the  French  Cana- 
dians were  disloyal  because  they  criticized  the 
counci],  but  the  effect  of  his  meMures  was 
most   onfoitnnate,   since   the   ColoasaJ.  Office 


eonid  not  ful  to  be  identi6ed  with  them  in  the 
ptiblic  mind.  The  political  life  of  Upper 
Canada  during  the  same  period  was  unmarked 
1^  any  notable  disociwions.  Through  no  fault 
01  her  own,  and  sitaply  by  virtue  of  being  a 
Briti^  possession,  Canada  was  drawn  into  the 
War  of  1812  (see  Umitoi  Statxs  — Thi  Wax 
or  1812).  Among  the  causes  of  the  war,  the 
only  one  which  concerned  her  directly  wm  the 
ifl'founded  contention  that  English  '  officials 
were  trying  to  stir  up  an  Indian  attack  u|)on 
the  American  colonists  in  the  West  From 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  bll  the  conclusion 
»t  peace  Canadians  of  both  provinces  con- 
ducted the  defense  of  their  country  in  a  truly 
patriotic  spirit.  The  Loyalists  were  stimulated 
fay  die  memory  of  their  expatsiation  and  fought 
enthusiasticallv  for  the  British  cause  under 
Brock  and  SheafFe.  The  French  Canadians 
guided  by  Bishop  Flessis  f  see  Plesbis,  JotxrH 
Octave)  of  Quebec,  himself  the  descendant  of  a 
New  Engioiid  captive,  displayed  an  attachment 
to  En^and  which  had  not  been  so  clearly  appar- 
ent at  die  time  of  Montgomery's  invasion.  I^ 
Salsberry's  victory  at  Cbateanguay  showed  that 
the  French  peasants  had  not  lost  their  ancestral 
GOtiEage  or  tbdr  knowledge  of  the  methods  to 
he  pursued  in  guerilla  warfare.     At  Quecfis- 


alists  acquitted  themfielves  well  in  the  oftn 
field.  The  Warof  1812  contributed  much  to  the 
formation  of  a  patriotic  sentiment  which  wns 
indCTcndent  of  provincial  bounds. 

The  polilicaf  unrest  which  affected  most 
civilized  countries  in  the  generation  following 
■tite  battle  of  Waterloo  appeared  in  Canada 
under  an  acute  form  and  was  not  quieted  until 
after  the  rebellion  of  1837.  The  Upper  Prov- 
ince, free  frosn  the  problem  of  a  mixed  natlon- 
aStyr  had  hitherto  been  undisturbed  by  violent 
disputes,  but  as  time  w<nt  on  the  Constitutional 
Act  was  found  unsatisfactory — or  rather,  tbf 
act  gave  so  redress  of  the  grievances  which 


assembly  found,  an  eloouenl  chaaifvoa  ii   

.JoBC(>h  Papineau  (qv.),  the  most  prottiinett 
French  Qmadian  of  his  ^eneralion.  It  should 
be  dearly  pointed  out  that  tlK  grounds  oi  dis- 
'cord  were  di&artnt  in  the  two  provfncei;  but 
the  devel<^>meiU  of  agitation  went  on  simulta- 
neoudy  and  the  two  movaneots,  each  proceed* 
big  from  its  own  set  of  conditions,  reacted 
«trongly  on  each  other.  Fa^sh  radical*  and 
f  rendi  nidicala  were  brought  iato  dose  eytnp 
patiw  as  agitators  by  tbeir  comaaon  opposition 
to  the  establisbcd  order.  In  both  cases  there 
Nirerc  ihittorities  whose  privileras  depended  upoa 
the  maintenance  of  the  constitution  and  the  bit- 
terness of  the  stmgKle  for  re4>onsible  govern- 
ment wa«  intensified  by  the  presence  of  these 
vested  interests.    In  Upper  Cjinada  the  contest 


ment  wa«  intensified  by  the  presence  of  these 
vested  interests.  In  Upper  Cjinada  the  contest 
between  ofiiciaUsm  and  reform  did  not  centre 
round  the  first  principles  of  politics  so  much 
as  it  did  round  the  exercise  of  power  by  cer- 
tain individuals,  llie  main  strife  was  one  of 
old  settlers  against  new.  with  several  minor 
issues  coming  in  to  complicate  the  situation  and 
render  it  duagreeable,  A  few  famihes  of 
Loyalist  stock  constituted  a  local.  oUetrchy 
from  which  wera  dnwH  the  chief  (rfficials  oi 
the  colony.  As  the  members  of  this  .ruling 
. class  bekwged  almost  wholly  t4  tbe  Andean 


d  by  Google 


CAHADA— VNDBR  BSIIISH  RULB  TO  CONFBDBRAlipil  <6} 


Qniich,  and  nsed  their  influence  fredy  to  bcDC- 
fit  the  Anglican  clergy,  they  provoked  the  op- 
poBtton  oi  the  diisenters  who  formed  a 
majorih^  of  the  more  recent  JBimigrants.  The 
political  solidari^  of  Anglicanism  and  the 
■Family  Compact*  led  both  to  be  denounced  by 
the  clumpiona  of  re^tonsible  govemment  — 
Robert  Gourlay,  WilUam  Lyon  UAckeniie,  Dr. 
Roljdi  and  Egerton  Ryenon.  The  dersy  re- 
terves  were  represented  as  a  symbol  of  gov- 
eminent  by  privilege  and  Roman  Catholics 
united  with  Protestant  dissenters  to  demand  the 
apidication  of  their  proceeds  towaitl  the  sup- 
port of  schools.  It  will  be  seen  that  ibese 
sources  of  discontent  were  hardl;r  of  a  fonda- 
mentat  character,  but  the  population  of  Upper 
Canada  was  not  one  to  bear  political  grievances 
K^tly.  In  Lower  Canada  the  situation  was 
more  intricate  and  more  serious.  When  the  ex- 
citement  caused  by  the  War  of  1812  had  died 
away,  the  relations  between  council  and  assem- 
bly resumed  their  former  rancor,  wlule  the  as- 
sembly and  the  executive  became  involved  in  a 
protracted  disjHite  over  the  power  of  the  purt& 
By  the  financial  provisions  of  die  constitutioa 
certain  revenues  were  at  the  disposition  of  the 
Crown  and  the  assembly  had  control  of  certain 
other  revenues  which  originally  were  much 
smaller.  Through  the  developuient  of  tfat 
colony,  the  assembly's  share  of  the  revenue 
kept  growing  larger  in  proportion  to  that  of 
the  Crown,  and  at  he  same  time  the  Kadicab 
discovered  that  they  could  place  the  gareni- 
ment  in  a  very  awkward  position  by  refnung 
thm  assent  to  appropriations.  Hie  advanta^ 
which  the  assembly  possessed  ihrongfa  its 
power  to  keep  up  a  perpetual  dispute  over  fiscal 
matters  was  used  with  mnch  tactical  devemes^ 
though  perhaps  with  less  genuine  patriotism 
than  might  have  been  desired.  The  fi^t  against 
privilege  (and  there  can  be  no  donbt  Aat  du 
council  had  excessive  privileoes)  was  accom- 
panied by  a  revival  of  racial  fcelmg  among  the 
French  Canadians.  With  Papmeaa  for  their 
leader  the  Nationalist  majoritr  in  the  assemblj 
used  lat^nage  wluch  showed  tnat  their  bri^test 
ideal  was  not  summed  up  in  subjection  to 
British  sw^.  Gradually  die  En^i^  elanent 
was  eliminated  from  ne  ranks  of  the  re- 
formers, and  though  a  few  politicians  of  Eng- 
lish and  Irish  name  supported  Papineau  during 
the  disturbances  of  183/  his  sole  hope  of  suc- 
cess lay  in  the  support  of  the  Frendi.  Under 
such  a  system  of  govemment  as  was  provided 
by  the  O>nstitutional  Act,  the  rile  of  the  gov- 
ernor assumed  a  degree  of  importance  whidi  it 
does  not  possess  at  present  in  any  setf-^ovcm- 
ing  colony  of  the  Briti^  Emmre.  Had  abter 
men  than  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head  and  Lord 
Gosford  represented  the  Crown  in  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  during  the  acrimonious  debates 
of  1836,  there  might  have  been  no  breach  of  the 
peace.  As  it  was  risings  took  place  in  lutii 
provinces,  the  Radicals  of  Upper  Canada  being 
cncour^ied  by  some  initial  successes  which  the 
parn  ot  Papmeau  had  gained  in  the  autumn  of 
1837.  The  rebellion  cannot  be  dignified  by  the 
name  of  a  war  since  the  engagements  were  ac- 
companied by  sli^t  fatalities  and  the  issue 
was  never  in  doubt.  The  French  Canadian 
peasants  who  took  the  field  were  defeated  at 
Saint  Charies  and  Saint  Eustadie,  and  in 
Upper  Canada  the  appeal  to  force  collapsed 
«fter    a    fwocal    skinntsh    at    Utmtgataeiy't 


Tavern,  near  Toronto.  In  1838  freA  disturb- 
ances occurred  at  a  few  places  in  Lower 
Canada,  tmly  to  be  repressed  with  a  promptness 
which  showed  the  fuulity  of  further  resistance. 
Apart  from  ttie  domestic  bitterness  occasioned 
b^  these  outbreak^  Ouy  were  the  cause  of  a 
diplomatic  crisis,  in  that  the  activity  of  Mac- 
kenzie's American,  sympathizers  led  to  strained 
rdations  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  The  buming  o£  the  Carelmt  (q-v.)  and 
the  fight  at  Pelee  Island  (<]■¥.)  were  interna- 
tional episodes  of  the  fint  importance. 

Ilw  beat  £mit  of  the  rebellion  was  Lord 


1S38  the  Earl  of  Durham  (see  Diirham.  J. 
G;  L.,  Eabl  of)  was  sent  to  Canada  as  gov- 
emor-goieral  and  gtven  a  oommission  to  in- 
vestigate the  state  of  the  country.  The  blue- 
book  in  which  be  described  the  causes  of  the 
rebellion  and  suggested  remedies  for  obvious 
evils  is  held,  by  common  consent,  to  rank  first 
among  the  documents  of  the  Colonial  OfHce. 
Whether  die  text  was  written  by  Durham  or 
Ourles  Bullei^  or  bv  both  in  conjunction  with 
Gibbon  Wakeneld,  tne  report  as  it  stands  is  a 
dassic  in  political  literature.  The  two  essential 
recommcndMkMU  which  it  makes  are  that  re- 
aponnble  government  be  freely  conceded  and 
tfat  the  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada 
be  reunited  with  a  view  of  ailing  (he  racial 
discord  which  had  raged  so  fiercely  in  Quebec 
mider  the  Constitutioiia]  Act.  The  Union  Act 
of  1840  was  the  imiBc<tiate  seqttd  of  Lord 
Durham's  proposals  and  a  first  step  toward 
the  (mlitical  CMisolidation  of  British  North 
America.  The  saUent  feature  of  this  constitu- 
tion may  be  defined  as  the  transfer  of  political 
power  to  an  assembly  which  was  chosen  on  a 
venr  donocratic  bams,  though  not  by  universal 
auBrage.  The  legislative  council,  with  members 
appointed  by  the  Crown,  was  retained,  but  real 
authority  centred  in  the  popular  branch  of  the 
legislature.  To  the  assembly  each  province  con- 
tnbuted  42  members  and  it  was  provided  that 
a  general  election  should  be  held  every  four 
years,  subject  to  the  chance  of  a  dissolution 
by  the  governor-general  during  the  interval 
'Ibe  Union  Act  had  imperfections  and  incon- 
veniences which  finally  furnished  a  strong 
argument  in  favor  of  confederation,  but  under 
it  (1840-67)  Canada  gained  a  political  training 
which  was  iuvalnable  and  eaoiped  from  the 
worst  of  die  anomalies  that  had  provoked  the 
rebellion.  At  first  the  act  seeaied  to  favor  the 
En^ish,  inasmuch  as  French  ceaacd  to  be  an 
official  language ;  but  in  1848  it  was  restored  to 
its  former  position  of  pari^.  With  the  estab- 
hshmcnt  of  democratic  principlea  the  party 
system  reached  a  maturi^  which  before  had 
been  unknown  in  Canada.  Lafontainc  (see 
Lavontaine,  Sir  Louis  H.),  Baldwin  (see 
Bauwut,  Robett),  McNab  (see  UcNab,  Sot 
AuN  N.),  Macdonald  (see  Uacdohaui,  Sot 
JoBN  A.),  Brown  (see  Bbown,  Gb(»ge),  Carrier 
(see  CARnec,  Sii  Gboice  £.),  and  many  other 
accomplished  politicians  found  free  scope  for 
their  talents  in  the  ranks  of  Reformers  or 
Conservatives.  Mudi  of  Ibe  legislation  which 
marks  this  period  (for  example,  the  abohtion 
of  seigniorial  tenure  in  1854)  was  deaigned  to 
adjust  the  life  of  Canada  to  modem  conditions, 
even  at  the  cost  of  parting  wilh  a  picturesque 
insdtutioa  or  discardiwg  an  pacteat  vinr  of  the 


[I  git  zed 


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CANADA  — THS  HARITIHB  PROVINCES  TO  CONFBDBRATION  (7)       801 


relations  which  ahonld  subsist  between  church 
and  state.  The  Reformers,  however,  had  no 
exclusive  possession  of  the  liberal  spirit,  for  it 
was  a  Conservative  administration  which 
abolished  the  clergy  reserves.  Education  in 
both  provinces  began  to  receive  an  amount  of 
attention  which  had  not  been  paid  to  it  hitherto. 
Judged  also  by  economic  results  the  progress  of 
Canada  under  the  Union  Act  was  extremely 
satisfactory. 

As  the  confederation  movement  is  consid- 
ered separately  (see  the  article  on  The  Con- 
federation), It  will  be  unnecessary  to  discuss 
here  the  causes  which  suggested  to  Canadians 
s  larger  political  concnition  than  is  represented 
by  the  Union  Act  But  in  conclusion  some 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  progress  of 
Canada  as  affected  by  its  relations  with  Eng- 
land on  the  one  hand  and  with  the  United 
States  on  the  other.  From  1840  onwards  the 
country  enjoyed  self-government  in  all  matters 
of  a  local  or  domestic  character,  but  it  re- 
mained a  colony  and  never  considered  itself  to 
be  s  co-ordinate  part  of  the  British  empire. 
In  the  second  quarter  of  the  l9th  century  the 
fixed  belief  of  English  ministers  was  that 
colonies  are  a  kind  ot  fruit  which  drops  off  the 
parent  tree  when  it  has  become  ripe.  The 
rebellion  of  183?  coming  when  liberal  principles 
were  triumphant  in  the  mother  country 
prompted  the  adoption  of  a  generous  colonial 
policy  which  has  never  been  abandoned,  but  its 
effect  upon  the  rise  of  imperial  sentiment  .was 
only  inifirect.  Vet  notwithstanding  the  absence 
of  a  full  partnership  between  Canada  and  Eng- 
land, the  loyalty  of  the  colony  was  signally  il- 
lustrated during  the  first  century  of  Bntish 
rule.  Despite  friction  between  races,  the 
pressure  of  forei^  invasion  and  the  existence 
of  political  privilege  in  both  provinces,  the 
attachment  of  an  overwhelming  majorihr  of 
the  population  to  British  institutions  and  the 
British  connection  remained  firm  even  &rouB;h- 
out  the  decade  that  preceded  the  rebellion.  The 
division  which  the  American  Revolution  created 
between  the  United  States  and  British  North 
America  could  not  fail  to  affect  the  fortunes 
of  Canada  in  the  most  vital  manner.  Apart 
from  the  importance  of  Ac  Loyalist  immigra- 
tion, the  rise  of  a  new  and  powerful  state  on 
the  southern  frontier  brou^t  into  being  con- 
ditions which  thenceforth  could  never  De  ig- 
nored. As  early  as  1775  a  small  but  active 
minority  would  have  preferred  membership  in 
the  band  of  revolted  colonies,  and  ever  since 
there  have  been  individual  advocates  of  an- 
nexation. _  _  But    this    propaganda    has    never 


and  the  irritation  caused  by  the  filibuster- 
ing raids  of  1838,  the  question  of  boundaries 
was  for  long  periods  together  unpleasantly 
prominent  "flie  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty  of 
1842,  though  it  was  received  with  great  dis- 
satisfaction in  New  Brunswick  and  Quebec,  did 
good  rather  than  harm  by  settling  an  irritating 
dispute.  The  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1854,  which 
was  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  Lord  Elgin, 
brought  the  two  countries  into  more  direct  con- 
tact than  ever  before,  promoted  friendly  inter- 
course and  was  a  source  of  prosperity  to 
Canada  during:  the  13  years  of  its  existence 
(1854-67).  Its  repeal  by  the  United  States 
was  in  large  measure  due  to  a  resentment  which 


had  arisen  from  Great  Britain's  attitude  during 
the  American  Civil  War.  The  fact  remains 
that  in  its  birth  year  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
was  excluded,  by  action  not  its  own,  from 
redprodt^  in  natural  products  with  the  United 
States.  See  the  articles  Ukdoi  French  Rule; 
The  Clexgy  Reserves;  Seigniorial  Tenube. 
Charles  W.  Colby, 
Formerly   Proftssor   of   History,   McGill   Utti- 

7.  THE  MARITIME  PROVINCES  TO 
CONFEDERATION.  The  early  history  of 
the  three  eastern  seaboard  provinces  of  Canada 
b  an  important  incident  in  the  long  dramatic 
stniKgle  between  France  and  England  for 
worlo-empire.  Their  place  on  the  map  linked 
their  destinies  with  those  of  New  France  on 
the  one  hand,  and  of  New  England  on  the 
other.  The  tale  of  their  settlement  and  or- 
ganization into  communities  is  part  of  a  greater 
story,  the  overflow  of  European  peoples  into 
the  New  World.  They  have  been  profoundly 
affected  by  great  events  outside  their  borders, 
European  wars  and  political  changes  on  this 
continent;  and  if  they  have  not  as  yet  reacted 
on  the  history  of  the  world,  as  a  nation  they 
are  young;  their  history  is  yet  to  m^e. 

Nova  Scotia.— In  1604,  Sieur  de  Monts,  a 
Huguenot  gentleman  adventurer  and  trusted 
soldier  of  Henry  IV,  made  a  voyage  to  the 
great  Atlantic  peninsula,  which  is  now  called 
Nova  Scotia  (q.v.).  He  was  to  found  a  colony 
in  return  for  his  broad  patent  to  trade  in  furs. 
After  exploring  the  rugged  eastern  and  south' 
em  coast-line,  he  discovered  the  beautiful 
Annapolis  Basin,  and  wintered,  suffering  ter- 
ribly, on  the  island  of  Saint  Croix.  The  next 
year,  after  searching  as  far  south  as  Cape  Cod 
for  a  suitable  place,  he  turned  back  to  the 
Annapolis  Basin,  and  planted  his  colony  on  its 
shores,  naming  the  cluster  of  huts  Port  Royal. 
The  colony   did   not  flourish,   and,   in   1613,   it 


The  French  name  for  the  country  was  Aca~ 
die,  a  musical  native  word,  often  mistaken  for 
Arcady.  It  means  '■abounding  in,'  as  in  Shu- 
benacadie,  and  covered  an  ill-denned  tract  of 
wilderness,  comprising  what  is  now  Nova  Sco- 
tia, New  Brunswick  (q.v.)  and  part  of  Maine. 
In  1621,  this  territory  was  granted  by  James  I 
to  Sir  William  Alexander  (q.v),  a  Scottish 
gentleman,  to  be  colonized  on  a  plan  distinctly 
mediseval.  Alexander  was  to  {Ntfcel  out  his 
province  in  "baronies,'  six  miles  long  by  three 
deep,  to  gentlemen,  who  were  to  "plant*  them 
with  settlers.  Each  baronet  was  to  have  almost 
re^l  powers  within  his  own  domain,  even 
striking  his  own  coinage,  and  *reptedgtng> 
criminals  from  the  King's  courts  of  law  to  his 
own.  The  colony  was  to  be  a  new  Scotland, 
even  by  a  legal  fiction,  part  of  the  county  of 
Edinburgh.    One  small  settlement  was  actually 


the  ^nnapolis  Basin 

nothing,  and  the  whoh         .  .  __ 

handed  back  to  France  in  1632,  by  the  treaty 
of  Saint  Germain-en- Laye.  Still,  to  this  day, 
the  baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  form  a  distinct 
order  in  the  British  aristocracy,  and  the  provin- 
cial flag  bears  the  azure  saltire  of  Sir  William 
Alexander  and  the  ruddy  lion  of  Scotland 
ramping  in  gold. 

For  22  years,  the  French  Ind  otKfinmted 


[ig 


V  Google 


8S8      CANADA  —THE  BIAKITIICB  PROVINCES  TO  CONFEDBSATIOH  (7) 


possession,  and  succeeded  in  pliuiting  a  colony 
on  the  feudal  pattern,  as  far  removed  as  pos- 
sible in  principle  from  republican  New  Eng- 
laad  The  government  was  military  and 
paternal ;  the  land  was  held  by  sei^iors  and 
tilled  by  a  docile  tenantry.  The  kabttanlt  were 
chiefly  unlettered  peasants  from  the  country 
about  Rochelle.  In  Acadie,  they  found  broad 
marsh  lands  beside  tidal  waters,  resembling  the 


r  peacefully  cultivated  the  rich  fields  the 
salt  tides  fertilized.  Population  grew  slowly. 
In  1671,  there  were  378  persons  in  the  colony; 


the  families,  acres  of  cleared  ground,  boj;s, 
girls,  fusils,  homed  cattle,  swine  and  sheep  in 
eadi.  The  papulation  had  g^own  to  915,  in- 
cluding 30  soldiers  at  Port  Royal.  Although 
thickest  about  the  seat  of  government,  tiie 
Acadians  had  spread  along  the  coasts  and  so 
far  as  Beaubassin  at  the  bead  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  They  were  a  race  of  husbandmen, 
growmg  wheat,  pease  and  rye  and  raising 
cattle,  ^cep,  swine  and  poultrjr;  they  also  built 
unall  boats  for  the  shore  fisheries.  An  obsei^er 
relates  that  when  the  manure-heaps  beside  their 
barns  grew  unmanageable,  they  moved  the 
bams.  Few  women  came  with  the  first  settlers, 
who  married  with  the  Indians,  and  always 
lived  on  friendly  terms  with  them.  Priests  of 
the  Sulpicians  and  Missions-Etrangires  were 
their  trusted  guides  both  before  and  after  the 
English  conquest     See  article  Acadian  Ret- 

ThrouBJiotit  this  period,  the  chief  interest 
lies  in  the  shifting  fortunes  of  one  family. 
Qaude  de  St  Etienne,  Sieur  de  la  Tour,  a 
ruined  '  Huguenot  gentleman  of  Champagne 
came  out  early  in  the  17th  century,  with  his 
son,  Charles  Amador,  a  boy  of  14,  to 
better  himself  in  the  new  colony.  After  Argall's 
raid,  the  two  lived  for  years  like  Indians  among 
the  Indians.  Their  stronghold  was  Fort  Saint 
Lotos  at  Cape  Sable,  on  the  inlet  now  known  as 
Fort  Latour.  In  1627,  Charles  petitioned  Louis 
XIII  to  be  made  commander  of  the  coasts  of 
Acadie,  and  his  father  took  the  petitioD  to  the 
French  Court.  On  his  return  voyage  the  next 
year,  he  was  captured  by  Kirk's  fleet  and  taken 
prisoner  to  England.  Here  he  becaii>e  a  friend 
of  Sir  William  Alexander,  married  a  maid  of 
honor  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria  and  was  made 
a  baronet  of  Nova  Scotia,  as  well  as  his  son, 
with  large  grants  of  land  to  support  their  titles. 
With  two  men-of'War,  he  came  back  to  Cape 
Sable,  where  Charles  held  the  one  solitary  post 
for  France  in  Acadie.  By  persuasion,  and  al 
last  by  force,  he  strove  to  win  his  son  over. 
Failing  in  both,  he  begged  permission  to  live 
in  Acadie,  rather  than  return  to  England  in 
shame,  or  to  France  and  lose  his  head.  This 
Charles  granted,  and  Qaude  mth  his  bride,  his 
effects,  two  valets  and  two  femmes  de  chambrt 
disembarked  In  1635  Denys  the  historian 
found  them  living  there  in  comfort. 

Louis  XIII  rewarded  Charles'  loyalty  by 
making  him  his  lieutenant-general  in  Acadie. 
In  1632,  Isaac  de  Ratilly  took  possession  of  the 
province  in  the  name  of  France;  lus  chief 
officers  were  La  Tout  the  yotmger  and  D'Aul- 


nay  Chamtzay.  On  the  death  of  de  Razilly  in 
1636,  the  territory  was  divided  between  the 
two;  La  Tour  established  himself  in  baronial 
state  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John,  with  his 
Huguenot  bride,  while  D'Aulnay  made  Port 
RoyaL  across  the  ba^,  his  headquarters. 
D'Aulnay  intrigued  against  his  rival  at  the 
court  ot  France  and  procured  his  recall  to 
answer  charges  of  fraud  upon  de  Biencourt, 
his  former  commander.  La  "Touf  refused  to  gfi 
to  France,  and  tried  to  enlist  the  Puritans  of 
Boston  on  bis  side.  Failing  them,  he  obtained 
help  from  Rochelle;  the  'proud  city  of  the 
waters*  sent  him  suppUeSj^  munidons  of  wai 
and  140  soldiers  in  the  Clement.  When  tbe 
Clement  arrived  in  the  spring  of  164^  she 
found  Fort  Saint  John  closely  beset  hv 
D'Aulnay  and  500  men.  Being  closely  pressed. 
La  Tour  and  his  devoted  wife  slipped  througfa 
the  blockade  by  night,  reached  Boston  safely, 
returned  with  reinforcements  and  drove  D'Aul- 
nay back  to  Port  Royal.  But  D'Aulna/s  hate 
was  not  easily  tired  He  went  to  France  to 
raise  another  force  against  his  enemy.  At  the 
same  time,  Madame  La  Tour  went  to  Rochell^ 
to  gather  aid  for  her  husband.  D'Aulnay  heard 
of  her  presence  there  and  tried  to  have  her 
arrested,  but  she  escaped  to  England.  On  her 
return  voyage,  she  almost  fell  into  his  huids  a 
second  dme,  but  at  last  she  reached  Saint  John 
a^ain  in  safety.  In  April  1645  D'Aulnay  be- 
sieged her  here,  while  La  Tour  was  in  Boston. 
After  a  gallant  defense,  the  fort  was  taken  by 
treachery.  D'Aulnay,  to  his  everlasting  shamc^ 
broke  the  terms  of  surrendetj.  hanged  me  garri- 
son and  forced  Madame  La  "Tour  to  witness  the 
death-stn^gles  of  her  faithful  soldiers,  with  a 
rope  about  her  neck.  Three  weeks  later,  tbe 
heroine  died  of  a  broken  heart.  La  Tour 
became  a  wanderer  on  the  face  of  the  earth, 
exijlorin^  and  border-fitting  in  New  Franct 
while  his  rival  ruled  his  province  uuchet^ed 
and  built  it  up  with  a  strong  hand  until  he 
was  drowned  m  the  Annapolis  River  in  165ft 
La  Tour  hastened  to  France,  confuted  the  old 
charges  against  him  and  obtained  his  former 
possessions  in  Acadie.  Returning  he  married 
the  widow  oL  D'Aulnay  and  seemed  about  t 


fleet,  in  1654.  Undismayed  hg  the  sudden 
change  of  fortune.  La  Tour  sailed  for  England 
and  secured  a  joint  grant  of  the  territory  with 
two  English  colonels,  Crowne  and  Temple,  to 
whom  be  soon  sold  out  his  interests.  At  the 
Restoration  he  was  made  a  baronet  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  dosed  his  chequered  and  adventur- 
ous career  in  1672. 

In  1667  Acadie  was  arain  restored  to 
France  by  the  Treaty  of  Breda.  The  story  of 
the  French  administration  is  not  a  pleasant  one. 
It  is  a  tale  of  incompetence,  corruption,  petti- 
ness and  is  told  at  length  in  the  pages  of  Park- 
man.  The  priests  accuse  the  officials,  the 
officials  accuse  the  priests.  The  luckless  colony 
was  raided  time  and  again  by  pirates,  and  1^ 
expeditions  from  New  England  to  avenj^  the 
Haverhill  and  Deerfield  massacres.  <!^nada 
could  only  be  reached  by  long  and  dangerous 
traverse  of  the  wilderness,  but  Acadie  was  only 
a  few  days'  sail  from  Boston. 

French  rule  came  to  an  end  during  Marl- 
borough's wars.  In  September  1710  a  force 
from  Boston,  chiefly  of  provindal  troops,  tmder 


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CANADA  — THK  UARITIUB  PROVINCES  TO  CONFEPBRATION  (7>      aas 


G>L  Francij  Nldiolson,  took  Port  Royal  after 
a  brief  but  gallant  defense  by  Subercase.  Fort 
Royal  at  once  became  Amiapolis  Royal,  in 
honor  of  the  reigning  sovereiffti,  but  it  was  not 
until  1713,  by. the  Treati'  of  Utrecht  (a.v.),  and 
sorely  at^nst  the  wi£  of  Louis  XIV,  that 
Acatue   became  finally  a  part  of   the  British 

From  1710  to  1749  a  small  British  garrison 
al  Annapolis  Royal  held  the  province  tena- 
riouslv  for  Enzland.  The  fort,  though  well 
placed  iind  a  Vauban  pJan,  was  luinousi  the 
earthen  walls  were  always  crumbling  into 
breaches ;  the  gim-carriages  would  not  b^r  the 
guns ;  the  barracks  were  roofless :  for  years 
the  men  were  without  bedding,  stoclon^  great- 
coats or  medicines.  Supply-snips  from  Etigland 
came  once  a  year  and  brought  provisions  for 
nine  months  instead  of  12.  The  hostile 
population  would  not  take  New  England  money 
for  their  com  and  cattle;  the  home  authorities 
would  not  honor  the  governor's  drafts;  the 
Boston  merchants  refused  credit  During 
Walpole's  long  peace  Eln^lajid  seemed  to  forget 
the  lonely  garrison,  while  the  French  priests 
were  agents  of  the  French  government,  under- 
mining English  authority.  From  1/20  on. 
Louisburg,  the  new  French  city  on  the  island 
of  Cape  Breton,  was  yearly  growing  in  power, 
millions  of  livres  were  spent  on  its  defenses, 
for  France  was  bound  to  win  hack  her  lost 
province.  All  the  time,  convinced  of  itsim- 
portance  to  the  empire,  one  discoi 
lish   governor  after  another  held 

The  government  was  nulitary,  not  civil,  for 
the  Acaoians  being  Roman  CadioUcs  were,  by 
the  laws  of  England,  incapable  of  voting;  but 
at  least  one  omcial  regretted  that  they  could 
not  be  given  representation.  They  were  gov- 
erned by  their  deputies,  the  "ancientest'  and 
most  reputable  men  of  each  parish,  chosen 
every  year  on  or  about  H  October.  These 
were  responsible  for  the  good  behavior  of  their 
distri'cts  and  for  the  execution  ot  orders  trans- 
mitted W  the  gavernor-in<council.  Fhilipps, 
colonel  of  the  20th  regiment  was  governor  tor 
almost  this  entire  period.  He  visited  the  prov- 
ince twice,  but  resided  mainly  in  London,  while 
lieutcnant'govemors,  chiefly  regimental^  ofHcers. 
Armstrong,  Cosby,  Mascarene,  administered 
the  colony.  The  governor  was  supreme;  but 
to  assist  him,  he  had  a  small  council,  whose 
functions  were  advisory  and  executive.  These 
officials  did  their  best  to  advance  British  in- 
terests, giving  the  litigious  Acadians  justice  in 
their  endless  disputes,  and  making  wise  sug- 
gestions for  the  improvement  of  the  colony, 
which  must  have  been  doomed  to  gather  dust 
in  the  Duke  of  Newcastle's  closet  oi  unopened 
dispatdies- 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  (see  Succession  Wabs)  the  men  of 
Massachusetts  rose  and  by  splendid  audacity 
struck  down  the  stronghold  of  French  power, 
Louisburg ;  but  that  s^orious  adventure  be- 
longs to  the  annab  of  New  England  rather  than 
of  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  summer  of  1744,  ^ant 
old  Mascarene  sustained  two  hot  sieges  in  his 
ramshackle  fort  of  AnnapoUs  Roval ;  the  firs^ 
force  was  led  by  young  Belleisle  and  other 
Acadians ;  the  second,  by  Du  Vivier,  a  descend- 
ant of  Charles  de  la  Tour.  In  1746,  Ramezay 
encamped  against  him,  awaiting  D'Anville's  ar- 


mada, but  did  not  fight.  The  same  winter,  he 
surpnsed  Noble's  force  at  Grand  Fr^  and 
lolled,   wounded  or  took  prisoner  nearly  200 

When  the  war  ended  hy  the  Treaty  ot  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  in  1748;  Cape  Breton  was  restored 
to  FraiKe,  and  Louis  Durg,  the  Dimkirk  of 
America,  resumed  its  old  attitude  of  menace  to 
the  very  Hfe  of  the  English  colonies.  Then 
at  last  sluggish  Elngland  moved  to  save  the  key 
to  her  possessions  over-sea.  Nova  Scotia  was 
to  have  an  effective  garrison  to  counter-check 
Louisburg.  In  June  1749  a  fleet  of  U  trans- 
bearing  some  3,000  colonists,  and  escorted 


excellence  to  French  and  English  n 
The  leader  of  th«  expedition  was  Col.  Edward 
Comwallis,  twin  brother  of  the  gay  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  uncle  of  the  Lord  Comwal-. 
lis,  who  surrendered  at  Yorktown.  He  had 
seen  service  at  Fontent^  and  Preston  Fans,  and 
although  his  military  reputation  was  afterward 
clouded  by  his  share  in  the  Rocbefort  and  Mi- 
norca fiascos,  he  did  his  work  as  a  city-buitder 
well.  The  new  military  post,  Halifax  (q.v.), 
was  quickly  laid  out,  the  land  cleared,  the 
jwpulation  organized  into  a  militia  and  a  rough 
line  of  stockade  and  block-house  run  around  tibe 
streets  of  tents  and  log-huts.  In  spite  of  the 
character  of  the  settlers,  trade-fallen  soldiers 
and  sailor^  and  the  plague  that  carried  them 
off  in  hundreds;  in  spite  of  Indian  massacres, 
opposition  from  local  smugglers,  extortions  of 
Boston  merchants,  discour^ements  from  the. 
home  government,  Comwallis  made  Halifax  a 
place  on  the  tnap  of  the  world.  The  foimding 
of  Halifax  brought  about  the  second  capture  ot 
Louisburg,  leaving  the  way  free  for  Queber 

&'.)  and  the  downfall  of  the  French  power  in 
erica.  Emigrants  from  Old  and  New  Ea^ 
land  fiocked  to  the  new  city.  In  1750  and  again 
in  1752,  some  hundreds  ai  settlers  came  from 
the  Paktinate.  After  a  brief  stay  in  Halifax, 
they  were  transferred  to  the  island-studded  bay 
of  the  La  Heve,  the  old  headquarters  of  ok 
Razilly,  where  they  have  grown  into  a  race  of 
hardy  fishermen,  whose  town,  Lunenburg,  is  the 
Gloucester  pf  Canada. 

In  1752,  Comwallis  returned  to  England 
crippled  by  rheumatism,  but  his  successors, 
Hopson  and  Lawrenc^  built  strongly  on  the 
foundation  he  had  laid  Their  ^reat  problem 
was  the  growth  of  French  power  in  the  fortresp 
of  Louishurg  and  in  the  Acadian  population. 
Under  English  rule,  the  htAitants  were  far  hap- 
pier than  under  their  old  masters.  The  nomiiuJ 
government  at  Annapolis  Royal  had  been 
powerless  for  good  or  evil.  Its  authority  did 
not  extend  beyond  a  cannon-shot  from  the  walls 
of  Fort  Anne.  It  was  precisely  under  English 
rule  that  the  Acadians  increased  and  multiplied 
and,  beginning  to  press  uix>n  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence, spread  outwarfl,  round  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  to  the  marsh-lands  on  the  further  shore. 
Their  law-suits  were  nearly  always  over  dis- 
puted land^  or  boundaries.  In  1755,  they 
numbered  about  10,000  persons.  England  and 
France  were  then  mustering  all  their  forces  for 
the  coming  struggle  known  to  history  as  the 
Seven  Years'  War.  Noone  could  foretell  that 
it  would  be  final  or  which  countiy  would  win. 
England  seemed  to  be  at  the  lowest  ebb  of 
fortune  and  spirit     Brown's  lugiibriooa  Eili- 


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3S4      CANADA— THE  HASITIHB  PROVINCES  TO  COHPBDBRATION  (7) 


male  predicted  her  immediate  downfall. 
France  seemed  strong  in  the  New  World ;  she 
had  hemmed  the  disunited  English  colonies  in 
with  a  chain  of  posts  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  to  Louisburg.  She  had  never 
ceas«d  to  regret  the  loss  of  Acadie  or  to  ^lan 
for  it)  recovery.  The  province  was  the  pivot 
of  the  whole  situation  in  the  east.  In  these 
circumstances,  the  presence  of  the  aUen  French 
population  in  it  constituted  a  grave  danger. 
The  daim  has  been  set  up  that  they  were 
neutrals;  they  had  this  idea  themselves;  but 
this  strange  notion  was  simply  due  to  the  im- 
potence of  the  British  government  They  were 
no  more  neutrals  than  the  people  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  were  after  their  transfer  to  Germany 
in  1871.  They  were  British  subjects  by  con- 
quest, by  treaty,  by  the  formal  taking  of  an 
oath  of  allegiance  and  by  the  common  law  of 
nations,  but  they  refused  to  consider  themselves 
as  such.  They  might  be  French  subjects  again 
bv  another  war,  or  the  return  of  the  Pretender, 
whether  they  left  the  province  or  remained  in 
it  was  not  a  matter  of  indifference.  If  they 
stayed,  they  afforded  a  shield  to  hostile  opera- 
tions; if  they  were  free  to  ^o,  th^  would 
strengthen  and  feed  the  gamson  of  Louis- 
bu^.  In  this  dilemma,  the  old  pro^sal  of 
Shiriey's  was  renewed,  their  dmirtation.  In 
the  autumn  of  175S,  after  Braddock's  defeat 
fcave  the  signal  for  war,  this  was  done.  The 
idea  ori^nated  in  New  England  and  was  car- 
ried out  by  New  England  men,  acting  under 
the  orders  of  Governor  Lawrence.  At  Grand 
Pr^  Pisiquid,  Chignecio  and  Annapolis  Royal, 
the  men  were  called  together  and  made  prison- 
ers, and  filaced  on  board  the  transports;  their 
families  followed  them.    The  embarkation  con- 


sumed long  weeks.  Finally  the  ships  sailed  and 
distribntea  the  unhaimy  people  among  the  At- 
lantic colotries.    In  all,  some  7,000  persons  were 


_n  this  way  removed  from  the  province.  Opin- 
ions differ  as  to  the  measure.  The  French 
theory  is  the  natural  brutality  of  the  English; 
one  writer  finds  his  reason  for  it  in  the  greed  of 
Lawrence  to  seize  on  the  belongings  of  the 
poor  peasantry.  The  general  English  view  is 
that  it  was  a  war  measure,  cruel  as  all  war  is, 
but  imperative  for  self-preservation;  and  this 
theoty  has  the  support  of  Parionan. 

With  the  deportation  of  the  Acadians  came 
peace  with  the  Indians.  In  1761,  Argimoosh, 
•the  great  witch,*  and  his  braves  buried  the 
hatchet  in  Halifax  and  washed  the  war  paint 
from  their  bodies.  Now  for  the  first  time  set- 
tlers were  safe  outside  the  pickets  of  the  city; 
and  the  country  began  to  fill  up.  Emigrants 
from  Connecticut  occupied  the  waste  lands  of 
the  Acadians.  Highlanders  from  Caithness  and 
tiie  Western  Isles  settled  about  Pictou  harbor. 
Presbyterians  from  the  north  of  Ireland  found 
homes  in  Colchester.  Before  and  after  the 
Revolutionary     War,     thousands     of     devoted 

some  to  pass  on.  Shelbume,  a  city  of  these 
exiles,  numbering  10,000  at  one  time,  passed 
away  like  a  gipsy  encampment.  The  long  wars 
of  peace  began  with  countless  inroads  upon  the 
wilderness.  In  a  century  the  Acadians  had 
scarcely  cleared  300  acres.  Now  farms  and  set- 
tlements were  eating  into  the  forest,  and  ham- 
lets were  springing  up  beside  the  empty  harbors. 
Before  the  end  of  the  century,  the  great  indus- 
tries of   shipbuilding  and   the  fishery  were   in 


thdr  vigorous  infancy.  The  American  Revolu- 
tion left  tew  marks  on  the  history  of  the 
province :  efforts  were  made  to  bring  the  colony 
mto  revolt  with  the  rest ;  one  daring  man 
planned  the  capture  of  Halifax,  and  some  sym- 
pathizers with  the  rebels  were  tried  for  treason. 
There  was  even  something  Uke  a  tea  not  in 
Hahfax;  but  the  conservative  forces  held  the 
province  Arm.  Halifax  prospered,  as  it  always 
did  in  war-times,  through  supplying  the  army 
and  navy,  and  the  sale  of  the  many  prizes 
brou^t  to  port.  With  the  return  of  peace,  the 
tide  of  prosperity;  promptly  ebbei  In  three 
great  wars  since  its  founding,  Halifax  was  a 
nest  of  privateers,  which  brou^t  large  returns 
to  thdr  owners. 

Colonial  government  was  at  first  military. 
All  i>ower  was  vested  in  one  man,  the  governor, 
or  his  lieutenant-governor,  who  was  usually  a 
soldier.  To  advise  him,  he  had  a  coundl,  and 
his  instructions  contemplated  a  legislative  as- 
sembly. As  the  Acadians  were  incapable  of 
representative  institutions,  they  were  governed 
throu^  their  deputies.  Members  of  the  old 
council  were  sworn  into  the  new  one  by  Com- 
wallis,  when  Halifax  became  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment. His  large  instructions  empowered 
him  to  summon  assemblies  and  make  taws;  but 
the  first  assembly  was  not  elected  until  1758. 
From  this  time,  the  chief  power  passed  from 
the  governor  to  the  coundl,  a  small  coterie  of 
Halifax  offidals  and  merchants,  appointed  for 
life,  who  sat  in  secret  session  and  were  not 
responsible  to  the  people.  The  powers  of  the 
assembly  were  curiously  limited,  and  friction 
between  the  two  bodies  was  constant.  Gov- 
ernor succeeded  governor,  almost  always  an  . 
army  officer  with  high  Tory  views  of  preroga- 
tive and  militaiT  conceptions  of  his  ofiice.  He 
was  gently  guided  through  his  imfamiliar  dvtc 
part  by  permanent  officials  in  the  coundl  like 
Richard  Bulkeley,  who  came  out  as  aide  to 
Cornwall  is  and  died  provincial  secretary  in 
1800.  The  tone  of  society  as  well  as  govern- 
ment was  conservative,  not  to  say  reactionary. 
This  state  of  things  lasted  until  well  into  the 
fourth  decade  of  the  19th  century.  With  its  large 
rtlilitary  and  naval  population,  and  the  mer- 
chants who  lived  by  supplying  them,  Halifax 
was  in  many  respects  an  English  garrison  town 
in  America.  In  the  first  sessian  of  the  House 
of  Assembly,  the  Church  of  England  was  estab- 
lished by  law;  the  first  college  was  modeled  on 
OxfordT  and  its  statutes  required  subscription 
to  the  Thirty-nine  Artides  both  at  matriculation 
and  on  taking  a  degree. 

The  agitation  for  reform  began  outside,  for 
the  country  was  intted  against  the  dty.  Jotham 
BlancharcL  editor  of  the  Coloniat  Patriot,  was 

¥;rfaaps  the  first  critic  of  the  existing  order, 
he  Rev.  T.  UeCulloch,  the  Scottish  «Seceder* 
missionary,  who  founded  Pictou  Academy  and 
became  the  first  president  of  Dalhousie  Collie 
(q.v.),  was  another  early  reformer.  But  the 
man  who  brou^t  reform  to  pass  was  Joseph 
Howe  (q.v.).  Nova  Scotia's  darling  son,  per- 
haps the  most  interesting  personalis  in  Cana- 
dian history.  He  was  bom  at  Halifax  in  1804 
of  Loyalist  stock.  Hts  father  was  King's 
printer,  and,  after  some  scanty  schoohng,  fae  was 
apprenticed  to  his  father's  trade.  In  1835  he 
was  editor  and  owner  of  the  Nova  Scotian 
newspaper.  On  New  Year's  day  it  contained  a 
letter  signed  'The  People,*  accusing  the  Hali- 


CANADA  — THB  HARITUOB  PROVINCES  TO  CONFEDERATION  (7>       85tB 


fax  magistrates  in  plain  terms,  of  pocketing 
*  public  money.  Their  iadi^nation  was  extreme 
and  tbey  began  a  libel  suit  against  the  daring 
editor.  If  truth  is  Ubel,  Howe  oad  no  case ;  and 
no  lawyer  would  undertake  it  Howe  conduettA 
his  own  defense,  and  by  a  brilliant  address  to 
the  jury  secured  a  triumphant  acquittal  From 
that  hour  he  was  the  idol  of  the  people,  whose 
cause  he  bad  espoused.  On  the  other  hand, 
several  hot  upholders  of  the  existing  order  chal- 
lenged him;  he  fought  one  duel,  and,  having 
proved  his  courage,  wisely  declined  further 
argument  l^  idstoL  Howe  was  a  good  example 
of  the  popular  tribune,  emotional,  eloquent, 
social,  with  the  faults  of  sucb  a  nature,  but  pos- 
sessing tact  withal  and  the  statesman  s  insist 
into  great  problems  far  beyond  the  ken  of  pro- 
vincial politicians.  On  such  questions  as  the 
union  of  (he  remaining  British  American  colo- 
nies, communication  between  them,  the  feder- 
ation of  the  empire,  Howe  was  far  in  advance 
of  his  time,  and  his  ideas^  were  formative. 
Henceforth,  his  career  was  in  politics,  rather 
than  in  journalism.  Elected  member  for  Hali- 
fax in  1836,  he  at  once  attacked  existing  abuses 
in  a  series  of  resolutions,  which  served  chiefly 
as  a  program  of  reform.  Soon  afterward  he 
began  an  important  correspondence  with  Lord 
John  Russell,  the  colonial  secretary,  on  the  diffi- 
culties of  local  government.  As  a  result,  the 
latter  instructed  Sir  0>lin  Campbell  the  gover- 
nor, to  introduce  certain  of  the  changes  sug- 
gested by  Howe.  This  Sir  Colin  refused  to  do, 
and  Howe  began  an  agitation  which  led  to  his 
recalL  He  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Falkland, 
whose  remedy  for  the  trouble  was  coalition  in 
the  coimdL  Four  of  the  old  council  were  dis- 
missed, and  four  Liberals,  Howe  among  them, 
took  their  place.  But  the  (wo  interests  were  ir- 
reconcilable: Howe  and  his  friends  soon  re- 
sided, and  began  to  lav  before  the  peoi^e  the 
evils  of  the  irresponsible  system.  In  the  elec- 
tion of  1847  Howe  and  his  party  swept  the 
country.  The  new  assembly  passed  a  vote  of 
want  of  confidence  in  the  council,  which  there- 
upon resided  in  dis^st  A  cabinet  was  formed 
of  the  inumpbant  Liberals  and  the  principle  of 
insibte  government  was  established, 

t  colonies  remaining  to 
tintain  on  tuis  contment  in  the  first  half  of  the 
19th  centuiv  was  not  cheering.  Upper  Canada 
was  largely  virgin  forest,  with  struggling 
towns  and  widening  clearing :  Lower  Canada 
was  alien  in  speech  and  reUeion;  both  pasted 
throu^  the  throes  of  rehellion.  The  great 
West  was  supposed  to  be  uninhabitable.  The 
provinces  by  the  sea  were  poor,  thinly  settled, 
each  with  its  own  government  and  its  own  tarift 
wall  against  the  rest.  The  20th  century  dawns 
on  a  united  and  prosperous  country  stretching 
'  the   Atlantic   to   the   Pacific.     For  years 


the  case  of  the  13 
colonies,  before  and  after  they  achieved 
their  independence,  each  province  had  its  own 
pride,  interests  and  jealousies.  Besides  these, 
the  geoKraphical  barriers  to  union  seemed  insur- 
mountaole;  but  the  locomotive  engine  changed 
the  face  of  affairs  and  provided  the  solution  of 
the  problem.  The  universal  fever  for  building 
railways  reached  the  provinces.  The  first  rail- 
way in  Nova  Scotia  united  Windsor,  Halifax 
and  Truro ;  the  first  in  New  Brunswick,  Saint 


John  and  Sbediac  A  bolder  idea  was  to  join 
the  provinces,  inland  and  seaboard,  by  an  inteT- 
colooial  railway.  If  united  for  commerce,  why 
should  not  the  colonies  be  united  for  govern- 
ment? 

It  cannot  be  said  that  anywhere  in  the  Mari- 
time Provinces  was  there  a  popular  movemeat 
in  favor  of  imioo.  It  was  the  thought  of  a  few 
strong,  far-seeing  men,  with  powers  of  persua- 
sion, like  Uacdonald  in  the  West  and  Howe  in 
the  East.  Nova  Scotia  has  the  honor  of  leader- 
ship in  bringing  about  the  Charlottetown  confer- 
ence. When  the  question  came  up  in  1867,  Howe 
was  in  opposition,  and  Tupper  carried  the  reso- 
lution through  the  House.  By  a  curious  irony 
of  fate,  Howe  was  now  led  to  combat  the  yeiy 
measures  he  had  fought  for  so  long.  He  took 
advanta^  of  his  opponent's  failure  to  submit 
such  an  Important  measure  to  the  verdict  of  a 
popular  election  and  be  roused  the  people  into 
fuiy  against  confederatioa  They  were  bought 
ana  sold,  he  told  them,  *for  80  cents  a  head,  the 
price  of  a  sheepskin."  In  the  next  election,  the 
great  issue  was  repeal  of  the  union,  Howe  car- 
ried the  country,  and  Tupper  was  the  only 
conservative  returned.  Howe  tried  evety  legal 
means  to  detach  his  province  from  the  union, 
but  the  British  government  refused  t 


stder  the  measure  it  had  just  sanctioned,  and 

' '         appeal  to  Washington,  or  have 

He  sought  "better  terms*  for 


Howe  would  not  appeal  t( 


tVashlngton,  or  have 
_it  "better  terms*  for 
his  province  from  the  Dominion  government, 
and  entered  the  Macdonald  ministry  to  assist  in 
workii:^  out  the  problems  of  the  new  experi- 
ment in  government,  Tboi^h  not  a  consistent, 
Howe  was  a  great  roan;  with  all  his  faults,  he 
loved  Nova  Scotia  well,  and  Nova  Scotia  wlU 
long  cherish  his  memory. 

New  Bruniwick.— The  waterway  of  the 
Saint  John  as  a  greater  Indian  road,  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  French  fur  traders  early  in 
the  17th  century.  La  Tour  fixed  his  headquar- 
ters at  its  mouth.  It  is  still  the  main  artery  of 
the  province.  There  were  also  French  settle- 
ments on  the  rivers  and  harbors,  such  as  the 
Miramichi,  the  Restigouche,  Baie  Verte.  Petite 
Rochellc  was  partly  rortified;  the  town  at  Beau- 
bien's  Point  had  21X1  houses  and  a  chapel.  These 
settlements  were  not  permanent.  There  was  a 
small  colony  from  Massachusetts  at  Mauger- 
ville  on  the  Saint  John  in  1760;  but  the  history 
of  New  Brunswick  as  a  political  imihr  be^ns 
with  the  close  of  the  American  Revolutionary 
War. 

In  some  respects,  the  struggle  of  the  13 
colonies  for  independence  was  a  civil  war:  for 
all  the  colonists  were  not  of  the  same  mind. 
Some  of  the  best  re^rimenis  on  the  Kind's  side 
were  raised  In  Amenca,  For  instance.  Fanning, 
the  second  governor  of  Prince  Edward  Island, 
at  one  time  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
North  Carolina,  raised  and  commanded  *The 


en  soldiers,  impoverished  by  eight  years 
of  war,  could  not  or  would  not  live  under  the 
new  government.  Many  of  the  official  class, 
the  E^scopal  clergy  and  their  humble  followers 
were  ^so  on  the  lo«ng  side.  For  the  defeated, 
there  was  no  merCT ;  the  fierce  republicans . 
would  not  let  them  five  in  the  country,  Afte»- 
the  surrender  at  Yorktown  (q.v.)  thousands  of 
these  unfortunates  flocked  to  New  Yoric  and 
other  seaports.     No  provision  was  made  for 


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306       CANADA  —THE  MARITIME  PROVIHCBS  TO  CONFEDERATION  (7) 


them  in  tbe  tenns  of  peace;  but  pubKc  sympathy 
was  aroused  on  their  behalf,  the  British  Parlia- 
ment took  generous  measures  for  their  relief, 
Sir  Guy  Carleton  stood  their  friend  Ships  were 
provided  to  carry  them  away,  targe  grants  of 
Land  were  made  to  them  in  the  Icnal  colonies, 
with  toots,  supplies  and  provisions  for  one,  two, 
or  three  years.  Some  went  to  England,  but  the 
great  majority  found  homes  in  the  northern 
wildernesses.  There  some  30,000  exiles,  many 
of  the  educated  and  cultured  classes,  found 
refuge.  In  American  history  these  are  the 
Tories,  traitors  to  their  country;  in  Canadian 
history,  they  are  the  United  Empire  Loyalists, 
the  maJcers  of  the  new  Dominion.  More  than 
any  .  other  class  of  emigrants,  they  formed 
present  Canadian  sentiment  and  institutions. 

The  great  emigration  took  place  in  1783.  On 
16  May  a  fleet  of  19  transports,  with  some  3,000 
Loyalists  on  board,  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
Samt  John.  Here  a  great  stream  of  450  miles 
pours  through  a  narrow  breach  in  the  rocks  into 
a  small  harbor,  where  the  flood-tide  rises  26 
feet,  and  ebb  leaves  the  great  ships  aground. 
All  round  are  desolate  hills  masking  the  fertile 
region  beyond.  This  unpromising  site  the 
Loyalists  chose  for  their  city.  They  were  men 
of  the  8th,  98th,  194th  regiments,  the  New  Jersey 
Volunteers,  and  the  Queen's  Rangers.  The 
grantees'  list  show  good  substantial  English 
names.  The  "fall  fleet*  brought  1^  mort  and 
Parrtown,  ao  called  in  honor  of  Governor  Parr, 
of  Nova'  acotia,  began  its  career  with  a  popula- 
tion of  5^000.  Politically,  it  was  situateid  in 
Sunbury  County,  Nova  Scotia.  Soon  the  Loyal- 
ists showed  active  discontent  at  Governor  Parr's 
delay  in  making  out  their  grants,  and  in  giving 
them  representation  in  the  House  of  Assemhlv 
and,  in  spite  of  his  opposition,  they  succeeded 
in  persuading  the  British  government  to  erect 
their  county  into  a  separate  province  with  a 
royal  govemor,  council  and  House  of  Assembly 
of  their  own.  This  was  done  in  1784,  and  die 
province  of  New  Brunswick  was  created  by 
royal  charter,  with  Col.  Thomas  Carleton, 
brother  of  the  famotis  Sir  Guy  Carleton  (q.v.) 
for  governor.  His  commission  and  instructions 
were  practically  the  same  as  those  given  to 
Comwallis  in  1749.  This  cotmcil  of  12  members 
exercised  both  executive  and  legislative  func- 
tions. The  first  House  of  Assembly,  of  26  mem- 
bers, was  elected,  not  without  riot,  in  178S,  and 
met  for  the  first  time  in  the  following  January. 
In  this  yeir,  Parrtown  was  incorporated  as 
Saint  Jotui  (q.v.);  it  was  the  first  city  in  British 
America  to  receive  a  charter.  It  is  modeled  on 
the  charter  of  New  Yorkj  and  gives  the  mayor 
the  office   of  garbling   spices   and   the   right  to 


t  obtaining  tiie  freedom  of  the  city.     From 

the  founding  of  the  province  until  1832,  no 
changes  were  made  in  the  constitution.  As  in 
Nova  Scotia,  the  prevailing  ideas  were  high 
Tory;  and  popular  rights  received  little  atten- 

New  Brunswick's  chief  wealth  is  her  great 
forests ;  and  her  two  chief  industries,  lumbering 
and  ship-building,  soon  sprang  up:  but  agricul- 
ture languished.  Population  followed  the 
waterways,  the  natural  timber  roads  from  the 
interior.  Down  to  the  time  of  the  Crimean 
War,  the  timber  trade  was  fostered  by  British 
legislation.    The  province  grew,  but  not  stead- 


ily; periods  of  prosperity  were  followed  by 
periods  of  depression.  Manj|  emigrants 
brought  out  by  uie  timber-ships  simply  passed 
through  to  the  United  States,  The  Reciprocity 
Treaty  of  1852  was  a  boon  to  the  Maritime 
Provinces:    its  abrogation  injured  trade. 

During  the  War  of  1812,  the  provinces  were 
harried  by  privateers;  but  they  were  not  in- 
vaded, Hke  Upper  Canada,  because  New  Eng- 
land was  opposed  to  the  war.  In  the  provincial 
sea-ports  privateering  also  throve,  DalhousJe 
College  was  founded  with  customs  money  taken 
at  Castine  by  an  expedition  from  Halifax. 
After  1815,  settlers  from  the  United  SUtes  be- 
gan to  occupy  disputed  territory  between  New 
Bruniwicli  and  Maine.  The  boundary  between 
the  two,  left  vague  by  the  treaty  of  1783  almost 
led  to  war.  The  northwest  line  was  to  run  due 
north  from  the  source  of  the  Saint  Croix  River 
to  the  hei^t  of  land  between  the  Saint  Law- 
rence and  the  Atlantic.  Instead  of  one  chain 
of  high  landsj  there  are  two  chains :  between 
them  lay  the  disputed  territory,  comprising  si 


the  line.  The  Americans  wished  to  extend  the 
due-north  line  to  the  Mtth  River  in  Quebec: 
the  British  wished  to  make  Mars  Hill  the  limit, 
and  they  could  not  agree.  Another  attempt  at 
settlement  was  made  by  the  Treaty  of  Ghent. 
The  King  of  the  Netherlands  was  appointed 
arbitrator,  but  bis  award  was  not  accepted.  In 
1839,  the  difficulty  became  acute.  Some  lumber- 
thieves  cut  timber  on  the  debatable  land;  ibe 
Sovemor  of  Maine  sent  3  sheriff  and  posse  to 
rive  them  out,  and  New  Brnnswick  lumbermen 
resisted  the  omcers  of  the  law.  The  squabble 
roused  intense  feeling  on  both  sides.  The  gov- 
ernor of  Maine  called  for  10,000  troops  to  guard 
the  State's  rights.  The  governor  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, Sir  John  Harvey,  sent  two  line  regiments 
with  artillery  and  volunteers  to  the  scene  of 
action.  Nova  Scotia  voted  all  her  militia  and 
£100,000  to  aid  tbe  sister  colony;  the  Canadas 
also  proffered  help.  Gen.  Winfield  Scott  took 
command  of  the  American  forces.  He  and  Sir 
John  Harvey  had  fought  against  each  other  in 
the  War  of  1812.  They  agreed  to  a  joint  occu- 
pation of  the  disputed  territoty;  and  the  war- 
cloud  blew  by.  In  1842,  Mr,  Baring  for  Eng- 
land, and  Webster  for  the  United  States, 
negotiated  a  treaty  that  at  last  delimited  the 
frontier.  On  the  disputed  territory,  Maine  got 
7,000  and  New  Brunswick  5,000  square  miles. 
Mr.  Baring  was  made  Lord  Ashburton  for  his 
success,  and  the  treaty  is  known  by  bis  title. 

One  peculiarity  of  the  colonial  status  was 
the  appointment  of  colonial  officials  by  the  home 
government.  New  Brunswick's  case  is  typical. 
The  Kovemor,  the  attorney-general,  the  pro- 
vincial secretary,  the  judiciary,  the  customs  and 
Crown  land  officials  were  all  appointed  from 
England  and  paid  out  of  the  revenues  arising 
from  the  customs  and  Crown  lands.  In  1825, 
the  Legislature  was  given  control  of  the  cus- 
toms, when  it  -soon  discovered  that  nearly  all 
the  revenue  went  out  in  salaries.  Not  until 
1848  did  the  province  both  receive  the  revenues 
and  fix  the  salaries  of  this  department.  In  1837, 
the  province  took  over  the  revenue  arising  from 
the  Crown  lands  on  condition  of  paying  the 
governor,  the  judiciary  and  the  other  govern- 
ment officials.  The  last  department  to  come 
under  provincial  control  was  die  post  office^ 


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CANADA— THE  MABmHB  PROVINCES  TO  COHFBDERATfON  (7>        397 


Aa  in  other  colonies,  the  irreaponsible  coun- 
cil became  an  abnw,  and  nuuiy  were  the  am- 
tests  between  it  and  the  assemb^.  In  1S32,  a 
second  conncil  was  established  with  executive, 
but  not  t^slative  fiinctiacs.  This  waa  done  by- 
the  home  government  in  its  desire  for  unifomt- 
ity  in  the  col<»)ial  governments;  but  the  parlis' 
mentary  principle  of  majority  rule  with  an 
execntive  council  or  cabinet  to  carry  out  the  wilt 
of  the  majority  were  slow  in  being  understood. 
It  was  six  years  later  before  the  executive  in- 
cluded a  member  of  the  elected  assembly. 
Slowly  the  province  worked  out  Uie  problem  of 
self-govertunent  tn  1839,  when  Sir  John 
Harvey  read  to  his  legislature,  Lord  lohn 
Russell's  despatch  on  tenure  of  qflice,  ana  un- 
like the  governor  or  Nova  Scotia  was  in  accord' 
with  its  proposals,  the  assembly,  after  full  de- 
bate, actually  refused  the  boon  of  responsiUe 
government.  In  1M8,  however,  the  modem 
system  was  in  essential  particulars  recogniied 
^  formal  resolution.  Charles  Fisher,  and  L. 
A.  Wilmot,  afterward  judge  and  lieutenant- 
governor,  were  the  leading  reformers,  and  two 
oi  the  r^al  governors,  Sir  Howard  Douglas 
and  Sir  John  Harvey,  were  in  complete  sym- 
pathy with  the  popular  movement. 

New  Brunswick  was  represented  at  the 
Charlottetown  conference,  where  the  prelimin- 
aries of  confederation  were  discussed.  At  the 
Quebec  conference,  the  leading  men  of  the  op- 
position as  well  as  of  the  party  in  power  were 
delegates.  The  72  resolutions  then  agreed  upon 
were  to  be  suWitted  to  the  varions  legislatures 
for  their  approval.  Before  the  New  Brunswick 
assembly  could  vote  on  them,  it  was  dissolved; 


to  withhold  the  resolutions,  as  no  vital  _  

conid  be  effected  with  the  upper  provinces  that 
left  out  New  Brunswick.  However,  when  the 
House  opened  in  1866,  the  majority  committed 
themselves  to  the  policy  of  union  in  the  speech 
from  the  throne.  The  House  dissolved  on  the 
issue,  and.  sentiment  having  changed,  in  the  new 
election,  the  unionists  were  returned  by  a  large 
majority.  New  Brunswick  is  one  of  the  four 
original  members  of  confederation.  Sec 
article  Con  federation  ;  also  New  BnuKSwrcK. 
Prince  Edward  Island.^  The  large  cres- 
cent-shaped island  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  is  supposed  to  have 
been  discovered  by  Cabot,  and  afterward  by 
Cartier,  who  named  it  Isle  Saint  Jean.  After 
the  conquest,  it  was  still  called  Saint  John's 
Island  until  1780.  when  the  local  legislature 
named  it  New  Ireland,  an  act  disallowed  by  the 
British  government.  In  1794,  it  was  renamed 
Prince  Edward's  Island  in  compliment  to  the 
Duke  of  Kent,  the  father  of  Queen  Victoria. 
After  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  Acadians  from  the 
main  land  settled  at  the  southern  central  harbor 
and  named  it  Port  La  Joie,  the  present  Char- 
lottetown. It  was  governed  from  Louisbourg. 
In  1752  the  population  was  1.3S4.  Three  years 
later,  after  the  fall  of  Beaus£jour  and  the 
expulsion  of  the  Acadians,  many  took  refuge 
there.  At  the  fall  of  Louisbourg  in  17S8,  the 
population  was  at  least  4,000  souls,  in  four 
thriving  parishes.  The  fertile  'GarCen  of  the 
Gulf,'  as  the  islanders  love  to  call  their  little 
sea-girt  province,  was  even  then  worthy  of  the 
name.  Caserain  calls  it  a  second  Acadie;  for 
hence  also  the  AcaiKans  were  expelled.    \^en 


Captain  Holland  made  his  survey  in  1764,  he 
found  only  30  Acadian  families  "on  the  footing 
of  prisoners,"  and  a  tiny  British  garrison  in  a 
miserable  fort 

In  1763,  the  year  of  its  cession  to  England, 
L.ord  Egmont  proposed  a  plan  of  settlement 
worthy  of  Sir  William  Alexander  in  its  feudal 
character.  One  feature  was  a  chain  of  baronial 
castles  from  one  end  of  the  island  to  the  other; 
but  the  plan  was  never  carried  out.  In  1767, 
the  entire  island  was  divided  into  67  lots  or 
townships,  of  some  20,000  acres  each,  and 
granted,  l^  lot,  in  one  day  to  a  number  of  influ- 
ential Englishmen,  on  the  old  condition  of  set- 
tling so  many  emigrants  within  a  certain  time; 
they  were  to  pay  a  perpetual  quit-rent,  or  land- 
tax.  Here  began  the  curse  of  the  absentee 
landlord,  which  laid  the  island  under  a  bligfat 
for  more  than  a  century.  At  first,  it  was  an- 
nexed to  the  government  of  Nova  Scotia,  but 
in  1768  it  was,  on  the  petition  of  a  majority  of 
the  proprietors,  erected  into  a  separate  province. 
In  1770,  the  first  rcryal  pvemor  Colonel  Pat- 
terson, arrived  with  his  olfidaf  staff,  whose 
salaries  were  to  be  paid  from  the  quit-rents. 
The  formative  ideas  here  were  also  high  Tory. 
Roman  Catholics  were  not  permitted  to  settle; 
no  schoolmaster  from  England  might  teach 
ithout  a  license  from  the  Bishop  of  Londot 


firm  all  the  past  proceedings  of  the  governor 
and  the  council. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionan'  War, 
two  American  vessels,  sent  to  cruise  in  the  Gulf 
for  British  ordnance  store  ships,  raided  Char- 
lottetown and  carried  away  some  prominent 
officials.  For  this  Washington  cashiered  the 
delinquent  officers  and  released  the  prisoners 
with  expressions  of  regret.  Another  raiding 
expedition  from  Machias  came  to  nothing,  and 
the  island  remained  free  from  molestation  till 
the  close  of  the  war.  In  1781,  proceedings  were 
be^n  in  die  Supreme  Court  against  the  town- 
ships in  arrears  with  quit-rents,  and  various 
holdings  were  escheated  and  sold,  it  was 
though^  without  due  notice  to  the  landholders. 
The  unimproved  waste  land  was  an  obstacle  to 
colonization ;  the  owners  neither  planted  settlers 
nor  paid  the  quit-rents,  on  which  the  revenue 
depended  The  landlords  argued  for  the  de- 
fense, that  some  of  them  were  officers  on  active 
service,  that  the  war  had  prevented  settlement, 
and  that  the  lands  were  sold  to  persons  on  the 

Kund  at  absurdly  tow  prices.  In  rebuttal, 
terson  urged  that  in  the  midst  of  a  dis- 
astrous warj  Doth  money  and  purchasers  were 
scarce ;  the  island  might  have  been  captured  or 
ceded  back  to  France.  He  admitted  that  he 
bought  up  escheated  lands,  but  held  he  was 
within  his  rights  as  a  citizen  in  doing  so;  he  had 
also,  at  his  own  risk,  saved  out  of  the  sates, 
various  lots  for  the  absentee  owners.  In  re- 
sponse to  various  petitions  from  the  proprietors, 
the  home  government  granted  them  refief,  and 
sent  3  draft  bill  to  Governor  Patterson,  making 
the  sales  voidable.  This  he  was  to  submit  to 
the  assembly,  but  he  oUppressed  it  for  two 
years.  A  new  assembly  was  elected  in  1784. 
It  resolved  to  complain  to  the  King  against  the 
governor  for  disposing  of  the  lands  so  hastily, 
when  he  (Sssotved  it. 


d=,  Google 


CANADA— THE  MARITIHB  PROVIHCBS  TO  CONVEDSRATIOH  (7) 


le  des         _ 

__.j  his  pwn  province.     Many  LoyaL._ 

came;  by  special  favors  he  secured  them  to  his 
interest,  settled  some  of  them  on  the  lands  sold 
in  1781,  and  in  1785,  secured  an  assembly  cer- 
tain to  support  him.  It  passed  an  act  approving 
.  his  conduct  in  escheating  the  unimproved 
estates,  but  the  home  government  disallowed  the 
act  and  recalled  the  disobedient  official.  In 
1786,  the  governor  submitted  at  last  the  English 
Draft  Act,  alread);  mentioned,  to  the  assembly, 
which  passed  it  with  haste,  as  also  another  act 
of  the  govemor'a  framing  restoring  the 
escheated  lands  to  the  rightful  owners,  but 
saddling  them  with  heavy  expenses;  this  the 
home  gavermnent  disallowed  and  dismissed 
the  members  of  the  council  concerned  in  it. 

The  new  governor,  Edmund  Fanning  (q.v.) 
arrived  in  November,  but  Patterson  refused  to 
vacate  his  ofBce,  ana  the  winter  was  spent  in 
the  quarrels  of  these  two  Kings  of  Brentford: 


quiet  possession  of  their  purchasers,  some  of 
whom  came  to  terms  with  the  original  gi^ntees. 
Fanning  was  a  native  of  New  York  a  graduate 
of  Yale,  and  a  D.C.L.  of  Oxford.  Tbrourfi 
the  Revolutionary  War,  he  commanded  the 
King's  American  Regiment  and  was  twice 
wounded.  In  his  administration,  the  land 
question  smouldered.  The  chivalrous  Earl  of 
Selkirk,  who  also  planted  settlements  in  Upper 
Canada  and  the  Northwest,  brought  out,  in  1603, 
800  of  the  Clan  Ronald  Macdonalds  and  settled 
them  about  Point  Prim. 

Fanning  was  succeeded  by  Des  Barres,  a 
Swiss  officer  in  the  British  service,  famous  for 
hia  surveys,  his  amours  and  his  great  age;  he 

1'umped  over  a  settle  when  he  was  more  than  a 
lUndred  years  old.  His  administration  was 
uneventful,  but  not  so  that  of  his  successor. 
Charles  Douglas  Smith,  brother  of  the  famous 
Sir  Sidney,  who  foiled  Napoleon  at  Acre,  was  a 
fine  example  of  the  old-fashioned  hif^  Tory 
royal  governor.  His  first  address  to  the  as- 
sembly, when  it  met  in  November  1813,  was 
insolent  and  dictatorial.  In  the  following  Jan- 
uary he  prorogued  it  and  did  not  convene  it 
agam  until  1817.  Between  this  and  1820  the 
legislature  was  three  times  assembled  and  dis- 
solved, after  short  sessions,  b^  this  exponent  of 
personal  rule.  His  proceedmgs  in  regard  to 
the  quit-rents  were  also  oppressive.  In  1818,  in 
opposition  to  the  express  commands  of  the 
home  government.  Smith  enforced  the  payment 
of  miit-renls  in  arrears.  His  action,  however. 
the  British  government  disallowed,  and  ordered 
part  of  the  exactions  to  be  refunded-  Then,  for 
three  years,  no  attempt  was  made  to  collect  the 
odious  tax ;  in  some  instances  payment  was 
refused  by  the  receiver-general.  In  1823  an- 
other effort  was  made  by  the  governor  to 
enforce  paymenL  The  Gslic- speaking  High- 
landers of  King's  County  were  required  to  pay 
dues  that  seemed  obsolete,  or  give  promissory 
notes  at  10  days.  In  the  depth  of  winter,  they 
must  haul  their  farm  produce  to  Charloltetown 
and  sell  at  a  sacrifice  to  meet  these  demands. 
Without  a  legislature,  the  people  petitioned 
High  Sheriff  MacGregor  to  call  public  meetings 
for  the  discussion  of  grievances.  The  gather- 
ing at  Charloltetown  drew  up  an  address  to 


the   1        ,  „ 

against  tKe  gaveraor,  and  tequesliiig  his  ret^lL 
^litb  retorted  by  opening  a  libel  suit  in  the 
Court  of  Chancery,  over  which  he  himself  pre- 
sided, against  the  comminee  on  the  King's  ad- 
dress in  Queen's  County.  His  object  was  to 
prevent  the  petitions  reaching  England,  but  the 
custodian  of  them,  escaped  to  Nova  Scotia.  For 
merely  publishing  an  account  of  the  proceedings 
the  editor  of  the  local  paper  was  hrouf^t  i  '~ 


admonished  by  the  chancellor-governor  in  the 


hiy  and  gave  him  three  minutes  by  the  watch 
to  adjourn  the  House,  was  recalled  in  1824, 
when  he  had  brouj^t  his  long-suffering  prov- 
ince to  the  verge  of  rebellion. 

Governor  succeeded  governor;  the  island 
grew  in  population  and  prosperity;  fisheries  and 
husbandry  throve ;  but  me  land  question  was  an 
open  sore^  It  had  now  become  complicated  by 
the  fact  that  the  original  proprietors  had  died 
and  bequeathed  or  had  transferred  their  ri^^ts 
in  the  island.  In  1859  Sir  Samuel  Cunard 
(q.v.),  the  Halifax  merchant  who  founded  the 
famous  line  of  steamers  bearing  his  nam^  pro- 
posed that  the  whole  question  be  referred  to  a 
commbsion  of  three  members,  one  to  be  ap- 

Eointed  by  the  Crown,  one  by  toe  island  Assem- 
ly  and  one  by  the  proprietors.  To  this  all 
Screed.  Howe  was  the  nominee  of  the  Assem- 
y.  The  commission  sat  in  the  Colonial  Build- 
ing in  Charlottetown,  examined  many  witnesses, 
thougli  not  on  oath,  and  heard  counsel  on  be- 
half of  both  parlies.  They  afterward  visited 
the  shire  towns  and  acquired  a  vast  amount  of 
information  on  the  difficulties.  Their  report  is 
dated  18  July  1861.  It  condemns  the  original 
method  of  grafting  the  island,  commends  the 
land  purchase  act  by  which  the  Selkirk  and 
Worrell  estates  had  been  acauired  for  the 
people,  and  considers  some  such  system  to  be 
the  solution  of  the  vexatious  problem.  It 
recommends  the  British  government  to  guar- 
antee a  loan  of  £100,000,  which  would  enable 
the  local  government  to  enter  the  open  market 
for  the  purchase  of  estates.  But  the  home  gov- 
enunent  refused  the  loan,  and  the  landlords 
refused  to  be  bound  by  the  finding  of  the 
commission.  The  old  difficulty  remained  until 
the  island  came  into  the  Confederation  in  1873, 
when  the  Dominion  government  placed  $800,000 
to  the  credit  of  the  province  for  the  purchase 
of  estates  and  the  local  legislature  made  the  sale 
of  estates,  on  evaluation  of  commissioners,  com- 
pulsory. 

Charlottetown  was  the  scene  of  the  historic 
conference  of  delegates  from  the  maritime  prov- 
inces to  discuss  union,  when  the  representatives 
of  the  Canadas  came  knocking  at  Uie  door,  but 
the  islanders  were  not  in  favor  of  any  change  in 
their  status.  There  was  prejudice,  the  concep- 
tion of  a  new  nation  was  hard  to  grasp  and 
the  main  issue  was  befogged  by  paridi  politics. 
Although  islanders  took  part  in  the  Quebec  and 
London  conferences  also,  the  island  remained 
outside  Confederation  until  1873,  when  the 
crippling  of  the  provincial  means  by  extensive 


of  the  t 


e  people 

The  Do. 


immion  govers- 
_  .the  little  prov- 

ince, while  losing  nothing  of  autonomy,  entered 


:,  Google 


CANADA— COHFBDBRATION  (8) 


into  a  larger  national  life.  See  articles  in  this 
series  on  Confederation;  Since  Confedera- 
tion; Constitution;  Agriculture;  Fisheries; 
iJUiiVrACTVMBS;  The  Forests  and  Lumber  In- 
dustry; Minerals;  Geografhy;  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island. 

Archibald  MacUechan, 
Professor  of  B»gluk  Literatufe,  Dalhoutie  Col- 
lege. Halifax. 

8.  COHFEDBRATIOH.  In  1837  there 
look  place  two  rebellions:  one  in  Upper  and 
British,  the  other  in  Lower  and  French,  Can- 
ada, simultaneous,  but  almost  unconnected, 
and  scarcely  united  in  sympathy,  since  the  Brit- 
ish Protestants  of  the  upper  province  were  by 
no  means  fraternally  linked  with  the  French  of 
the  lower.  In  Upper  Canada  the  rebellion  was 
a  rising  of  a  democratic  parly,  including  many 
of  the  most  recent  colonists  and  some  from  the 
United  States,  against  the  personal^  rule  of  the 
imperial  governor  and  the  domination  of  a  po- 
litical circle  nicknamed  the  Family  Compact, 
and  consisting  largely  of  U.  E.  Loyalists,  Which 
monopolized  public  otiiccs  and  emoluments.  Its 
leader  was  Lyon  Mackenzie,  a  man  honest  and 
right  in  his  main  aim,  if  responsible  govern- 
ment is  right,  but  wanting  in  wisdom  and 
capacity  as  a  leader.  The  object  of  the  extreme 
wing  was  an  independent  republic  or  annexa- 
tion to  the  United  States.  That  of  the  less 
extreme  wing  was  responsible  government  on 
the  British  model.  The  political  crisis  and  the 
outbreak  of  civil  war  were  brought  on  by  the 
indiscretion  of  an  inexperienced  ftovemor.  Sir 
Francis  Bond  Head,  who  (1836-38)  threw  him- 
self into  the  arms  of  the  Family  Compact  and 
the  Toiy  party.  In  Lower  Canada  the  rebellion 
was  a  nsing  of  the  French,  the  conquered  race, 
who  fomied  the  great  majorih-,  j«ainst  the 
monopoly  of  office  and  power  by  the  British 
and  conquering  race,  exercised  largely  through 
a  council  appointed  by  the  imperial  governor. 
Its  object  was  the  assertion  of  French  equality 
and  right.  It  had  been  preceded  by  a  series 
of  angry  controversies  between  the  French 
patriots  and  the  governor  with  his  British 
councillors  and  the  Colonial  Office  at  their 
back.  Both  rebellions  were  quelled  (1838)  with 
ease  and  without  much  bloodshed ;  that  in 
Upper  Canada  by  the  loyal  militia,  that  in 
Lower  Canada  by  the  Queen's  troops.  There 
were  few  executions,  but  some  of  the  leading 
insurg;ents  were  driven  into  exile.  The  consti- 
tution of  Lower  Canada  was  suspended,  but 
that  of  Upper  Canada  was  not. 

The  Liberal  party  in  the  mother  country  was 
now  in  the  ascendant,  having  carried  Par- 
liamentary reform.  It  looked  with  sympathy_  on 
the  struggle  of  the  Canadians  for  free  institu- 
tions. '  Lord  Durham  (q.v.),  son-in-law  of  the 
Whig  Prime  Minister,  Earl  Grey,  and  though 
an  aristocrat  a  strong  Liberal,  was  sent  out 
(1838)  to  study' the  situation.  In  a  report  of 
remarkable  ability,  which  has  been  regarded  al- 
most as  the  gospel  of  colonial  liberty,  he  de- 
cided in  favor  of  extending  to  Canada  respon- 
sible government  on  the  British  model, 
requiring  the  governor,  instead  of  ruling  per- 
sonally, to  be  guided,  lifce  the  British  sovereign, 
by  the  advice  of  responsible  ministers,  who 
were  to  be  desigriated  by  the  choice  of  the 
people.  The  report  at  the  same  time  recom- 
mended the  reunion  of  the  two  provinces,  a 


_,  sure  result  of  which  its  author 

imagined  to  be  the  complete  ascendency  of  the 
more  powerful  race,  the  destined  heir,  in  his 
ojiinion,   of   the  whole  North  American  con- 

Diirham.  having  exceeded  the  limits  of  his 
power,  and  incurred  censure  by  condemning 
some  ex-rebeis  to  banishment  of  his  own  au- 
thority, his  mission  was  cut  short  (1838)  but 
his  main  recommendations  were  carried  into 
effect  (1839).  The  provinces  were  reunited, 
the  measure  being  carried  in  the  lower  prov- 
ince, the  constitution  of  which  had  been  sus- 
pended by  the  fiat  of  the  Crown;  in  the  upper 
province,  after  some  debate,  by  a  vote  of  Par- 
liament. Responsible  government  was  intro- 
duced. The. governor  was  instructed  thence- 
forth to  be  guided,  like  the  British  sovereign, 
by  the  advice  of  his  ministers,  who  were  to  be  ' 
responsible  to  the  people. 

In  a  dispatch  from  Lord  John  Russell  (q.v.) 
(5  Feb.  1841)  the  govern  or- general  was  in- 
structed to  call  to  his  councils  'those  persons 
who,  by  their  position  and  character,  have 
obtained  the  general  coniidence  and  esteem  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  province,"  and  "only  to 
oppose  the  wishes  of  the  Assembly  when  the 
honor  of  the  Crown  or  theinterest  of  the  empire 
is  deeply  concerned."  There  soon  followed  a 
general  amnesty,  wih  return  of  exiles,  and 
Lyon  Mackenzie  sat  in  Parliament  under  the 
new  regime. 

About  the  same  time,  and  by  the  action  of 
the  same  general  forces,  including  the  ascend- 
ency of  the  Liberal  party  in  Great  Britain, 
responsible  ^verriment  on  the  same  model  was 
introduced  in  the  maritime  provinces.  In  Nova 


the  eloquence  ofthe  patriot  leader  Joseph  t 
U.vJ    (1838). 

llie  transition  was  smoothed  by  the  wisdom 
of  the  new  governor,  Poulett  Thompson,  Lord 
Sydenham  (1839-42),  a  man  of  business,  trained 
in  commercial  life,  who  adapted  himself  steadily 
and  with  general  success  to  the  introduction 
and  working  of  the  new  system.  Sir  Charles 
Bagot,  who  followed  (1842-43),  though  a  Con- 
servative, took  the  same  line.  But  the  idea 
of  colonial  self-government  had  hardly  taken 
root  in  the  policy  of  the  Colonial  Office  or  in 
the  minds  of  British  statesmen.  Sir  Charles 
Metcalfe  (1843-45'),  the  next  governor,  had 
been  trained  in  tne  imperial  government  of 
Hindustan,  and  brought  with  him  the  impres- 
sion that  in  every  dependency  the  governor  was 
stilt  personally  supreme  and  responsible  for  the 
choice  of  his  ministers  and  for  their  policy. 
Acting  upon  this  principle,  he  attempted  to 
form  a  ministry  (1843)  of  his  own  without 
regard  to  party  designation.  A  political  storm, 
with  furious  pamphleteering  and  ministerial 
interregnum,  were  the  results.  The  upshot  was 
failure  on  the  governor's  part  to  form  an 
effective  ministry,  and  his  consequent  defeat 
The  Colonial  Secretary,  Lord  Stanley,  how- 
ever, emphatically  endorsed  the  governor's  con- 
duct, ana  was  authorized  with  his  own  appro- 
bation to  convey  the  personal  approbation  of 
the  Queen. 

The  new  system  was  finally  installed  and 
brought  into  order  by  Lord  Elgin  (q.v.) 
(1847-55),  one  of  th£  best  and  wisest  servants 
of  the  empire,  who  entered  fully  into  the  spirit 
of  responsible  government,  contenting  him- 


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CANADA  — CONPBDSRATION  (8) 


self  with  tile  exercise  of  an  informal  influence, 
rendered  important  by  his  charscter  and  ability. 
He  couM  even  flatter  himself  that  he  did  more 
in  this  way  than  he  could  have  done  with  the 
formal  powers  of  the  governor.  He  caiae  in, 
however,  for  the  last  of  the  storm.  The  Liberal 
rarty,  now  in  power,  passed  an  act  called  the 
Rebellion  Losses  Act  (1849),  indemnifying 
those  who  had  suffered  losses  by  the  des  I  ruc- 
tion of  their  property  in  the  suppression  of  the 
rebellion.  This  the  Tories  regarded  as  the 
indemnification  of  the  rebels.  Their  cry  was 
taken  up  by  the  Tory  party  in  Great  Britain. 
El^n  gave  his  assent  to  the  act,  reluctantly  it 
seems,  in  compliance  with  the  rule  which  re- 
tjuired  him  to  be  guided  by  the  vote  of  Par- 
liament and  the  advice  of  his  responsible  min- 
isters. The  Tories,  now  playing  the  part  of 
insurgents  in  their  turn,  rose,  burned  the  Par- 
liament House  at  Montreal  (1849),  with  its 
irreplaceable  arditves,  and  stoned  the  governor- 
general,  who  had  a  narrow  escape  from  their 
fuiy.  Elgin,  however,  remained  firm  and  was 
supported  by  the  home  government.  After 
this  his  reign,  or  rather  his  term,  was  peaceful 
and  generally  popular,  though  more  popular 
with  the  Liberals  than  with  the  Tories.  The 
triumph  of  the  free  trade  policy  in  Great 
Britain,  depriving  Canada  of  her  colonial  privi- 
leges, while  she  remained  fettered  by  the  Navi- 
gation Laws  and  was  Excluded  from  the  market 
of  the  United  States,  bred  commercial  depres- 
sion and  discontent.  The  consequence  was  a 
manifesto  signed  by  leading  commercial  men 
and  pointing  to  umon  with  the  American  re- 
public as  a  remedy  in  the  last  resort.  To  put 
an  end  to  tfiis  movement  by  removing  its  cause. 
Lord  Elgin  went  to  Washington  and  negotiated 
a  reciprocity  treaty  with  the  United  States 
(1854).  This,  following  the  repeal  of  the  Navi- 
gation Acts  and  the  release  of  the  Canadian 
trade  from  the  fetters  which  they  imposed, 
restored  prosperity,  allayed  discontent  and  put 
an  end  to  the  desire  of  annexation. 

After  the  Rebellion  Losses  Bill,  the  most 
botly  debated  of  the  political  questions  was  that 
of  the  secularization  of  the  clergy  reserves 
( 1854)  (see  Canada  —  Clergy  Reserves), 
tracts  of  land,  which,  before  the  revolution  of 
1837,  when  the  Church  of  Eogfand  was  estab- 
lished in  Canada,  had  been  set  apart  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  clergy  of  the  state  church. 
After  a  long  struggle  secularization  was  car- 
ried, and  the  state  church,  with  its  privileges, 
ceased  to  e^ist.  King's  College,  Toronto,  which, 
so  far  as  the  teachine  staff  was  concerned,  had, 
like  Oxford  and  Cambrid^,  been  Anglican,  was 
turned  into  the  University  of  Toronto  (see 
Toronto,  UNiYERsirr  or),  and  thrown  entirely 
Men  to  all  denominations.  Under  Bishop 
Strachan,  the  powerful  Anglican  leader  of  the 
day,  high  Anglicans  seceded  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Toronto  and  founded  the  University  of 
Tnnity  College  (1852).  Other  churches,  dur- 
in^  the  continuance  of  the  exclusion,  had  ob- 
tained charters  for  universities  of  tneir  own, 
and  dissipation  of  resources  not  more  than 
sufhcient,  if  collected,  to  maintain  one  great 
university,   was   the   result 

The  abolition  of  the  seigniories  (1854)  in 
French  Canada  [see  articfe  SwcmoRiAL  Ten- 
ure), relics  of  the  old  Bourhon  regime,  with 
the  oppressive  privileges  of  the  seignior,  was 
another  change  obviously  demanded  by  the  new 


order  of  things.  It  was  accomplished  peace- 
fully, without  violation  of  the  ngfals  of  prop- 
erty, and  with  entire  success.  Another  nec- 
essary change  was  the  abolition  of  the  aristo- 
cratic custom  of  prhnogeniture  in  succession 
to  land,  for  which  was  substituted  the  demo- 
cratic principle  of  equal  partition,  *gavel-kind,* 
as  the  movers  called  it.  The  Tory  party,  sym- 
pathizing with  aristocracy,  faintly  resisted  the 
change.  The  progress  of  democracy  was  fur- 
ther marked  by  a  change  in  the  constitution  of 
the  Legislative  Council  which  formed  the  Upper 
House  of  Parliament,  Instead  of  being  nom- 
inated by  the  Crown,  as  it  had  hitherto  been, 
it  was  in  1856  made  elective. 

The  party  system  of  government  was  now 
in  full  play,  but  the  principles  and  relations  of 
parties  were  far  from  being  definite  or  stable. 
There  was  a  Toiy  party  representing  the  U,  E. 
Loyalists,  and  Itte  traditions  ot  3ie  Family 
Compact  under  the  leadership  of  Sir  Allen 
MacNab,  who  opposed  the  secularization  of  the 
clergy  reserves  and  the  abolition  of  primogeni- 
ture. There  were  on  the  other  side  moderate 
Liberals  under  Baldwin  and  more  advanced 
Liberals  under  Hincks,  But  the  lines  of  oohti- 
cat  party  were  crossed  and  perplexed  by  the  na- 
tionality of  French  Quebec.  The  French  Cath- 
olics, instead  of  succumbing  politically  to  Brit- 
ish predominance  as  Durham  had  ima^ned  that 
they  would,  closed  their  ranks,  showed  their 
force,  played  on  the  balance  between  the  Brit- 
ish parties  and  put  a  Frenchman,  in  the  per- 
son of  La  Fontaine,  at  the  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment. For  a  time  it  became  an  understand- 
ing that  a  government,  to  hold  its  ground,  must 
have  a  double  majority;  that  is,  a  majority  both 
in  the  British  and  the  French  province.  The 
act  of  reunion  had  ffiven  to  the  provinces  gen- 
eral representation  in  Parliament,  though  the 
population  of  the  French  province  was  much 
larger  than  that  of  the  British.  Presently  the 
balance  of  population  turned  in  favor  of  the 
British  province.  The  Liberal  leaders  of  the 
British  province  the  most  pronounced  of  them 
at  least,  then  demanded  a  rectification  in  its 
favor.  With  the  political  strife  about  repre- 
sentation by  population,  'Rep.  I^  Pop.,"  as  it 
was  called,  mingled  the  religious  antagonism 
of  the  British  Protestants  of  the  upper  prov- 
ince to  the  Roman  Catholics  of  the  lower.  The 
great  advocate  of  representation  by  population, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  extreme  exponent  of 
the  feelings  of  the  Protestants  against  the 
Catholics,  was  George  Brown  (qv),  a  Scotch 
Presbyterian,  and  founder  of  the  Toronto 
Clobf,  the  most  powerful  organ  of  the  British 
Canadian  press  in  those  days.  On  the  other 
side  appeared  Mr.,  afterward  Sir,  John  Mac- 
donald  (q.v.),  one  remarkably  gifted  with  the 
arts  of  party  management,  and  with  an  address 
in  dealing  with  men  which  in  his  chief  antagon- 
ist, George  Brown,  was  wanting.  Macdonald 
supplanted  in  the  leadership  of  his  party  the 
old-rime  Tory,  Sir  Allan  MacNab  (q.v.),  Ub- 
eralized  it,  and  set  it  free  from  all  incum- 
brances in  the  way  of  reactionan'  principle  by 
which,  up  to  tiiis  time,  it  had  been  weighted 
in  the  struggle  for  place.  It  was  a  stroke  of 
strategy  something  like  that  performed  in  Eng- 
land by  Sir  Robert  Peel  (q.v.)  when  accepting 
the  consequences  of  the  Reform  Bill,  he  changed 
his  party  from  Tory  to  Conservative,  Between 
Macdonald  and  Brown  there  was,  and  to  tiie 


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CANADA  ~raHCB    CX>NTBDBRATION    (9) 


881 


end  cootinned  there  to  be,  enmitj,  personal  as 
well  as  political.  But  Brown  was  no  match  for 
Macdonald  in  playing  the  party  game.  Once 
for  a  moment.  Inr  a  carnal  defeat  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  wnich  his  rival  waa  a  member,  he 
Kt  hb  foot  on  the  steps  of  power  (1858)  -  but 
be  immediately  fell  again,  Sir  Edmund  Head, 
then  governor-general  (1855-61).  having,  by  an 
nnwcmted  exercise  of  the  prerogative,  which 
Brown  furiously  resented,  refused  him  the  dis- 
sohitioii  and  appeal  to  the  country  which  he 
demanded  (1858).  Qucstioni  and  principles  of 
all  kinds  were  crossed  hy  personal  ambitions 
and  connectioina,  as  well  as  fay  the  national 
sensibilities  of  Quebec,  which  naturally  carried 
her  to  the  side  of  the  Conservatives  rather  than 
to  that  of  the  advocates  of  representation  by 
population,  the  hot  Protestants  and  the  Orange- 

The  end,  after  a  rapid  succession  of  changes 
of  ministry,  produtdn^  a  total  instability  of  gov- 
eismeit,  was  a  ministry  with  a  majority  so 
narrow  that  it  was  said  that  the  life  of  the  gov- 
emment  depended  on  the  success  of  a  pa^  in' 
finding  a  member  at  the  moment  of  critical 
division.  The  upshot  was  a  deadlock.  The  re- 
httion  between  the  two  i^ces,  owing  to  the  per- 
nstent  attacks  of  George  Brown's  i»ny  on  the 
French  Catholics,  had  at  the  same  time  become 
critical  and  dangerous.  From  this  position  an 
escape  was  sou^t  by  merging  the  antagonism 
of  British  and  French  Canada  in  a  confedera- 
tion of  all  the  British  colonies  in  North  Amer- 
ica. The  credit  of  proposing  confederation  has 
been  assigned  to  diilerent  politicians^  to  Gearg« 
Brown,  to  Sir  John  Macdonald,  to  Sir  Alexan- 
der Gialt  Of  the  party  leaders,  it  was  George 
Brown  who  first  came  forward  holding  out 
his  hand  to  his  rival,  Sir  John  Macdonald,  to 

Bropose  coalition  for  the  relief  of  the  utuation. 
ut  Mr.  Brown's  original  proposal  was  not  a 
confederation  of  all  the  provinces,  but  a  substi- 
tution of  a  federal  for  the  legislative  union 
between  the  British  and  the  French  province. 
What  Sir  John  Macdonald,  as  a  strong  (^n- 
servative  and  monardiis^  preferred  was  not  a 
federal  but  a  lefpslative  union  of  all  the 'North 
American  colonies  under  the  British  Crown. 
What  all  alike  wanted  was  a  relief  from  the 
situation,  and  for  this  purpose  a  coalition  gov- 
ernment comprehending  the  two  rivals  and 
enemies,  Sir  John  Macdonald  and  George 
Brown,  with  followers  of  both,  was  formed 
(1864).  The  fact  is  that  the  real  author  of 
confederation,  so  far  as  British  and  French 
Canada  was  concerned,  was  deadlock. 

The  thrc«  maritime  provinces.  Nova  Scotia, 
New    Brunswick  and    Prince    Edward  Island, 


were  inclined  to  a  sMiarate  union  among  them- 
selves, especiallv  with  a  view  to  a  reduction  of 
the  expenses  of  government    A  conference  of 


delegates  from  those  three  maritime  provinces 
was  held  at  Charlottetown  (1864).  To  that 
conference  delegates  were  sent  by  the  coalition 


(1865),  at  which  12  delegates  were  present 
from  (Canada,  7  from  New  Brunswick,  5  from 
Nova  Scotia,  7  from  Prince  Edward  Island,  2 
from  Newfotmdiand.  That  conference  sat  for 
18  days  and  passed  72  resolutions  on  which  the 
act  of  imion  was  afterward  based  and  which 
each  delegation  nnderiodc  to  sabmit  to  its  own 
government. 


By  t&e  Pariiament  of  the  two  Canadas  the 
scheme  was  at  once  accepted  and  by  a  large 
majority,  thou^  there  was  a  long  dcbake  in 
which  a  speaker  of  the  opposition  glanced  at 
the  geographical  unfitness  of  the  long  .and 
broken  line  of  provinces  for  ^litical  union. 
New  Brunswick,  not  being  adroitly  approached, 
at  first  rejected  the  schema,  but  presently  ac- 
quiesced. In  Nova  Scotia  the  resistance  was 
very  strong,  hut  it  still  remains  a  mystery  by 
what  arguments  a  legislature  elected  expressly 
to  oppose  confederation  was  brought  round  to 
its  support.  Brought  round,  however,  the  legis- 
lature of  Nova  Scotia  was.  Howe,  after  a  vain 
app«d  to  (he  British  Parliament  to  set  Nova 
Scotia  free,  himself  took  office  in  the  confed- 
eration government.  Prince  Edward  Island 
held  out,  out  came  in  at  last.  British  Columbia 
threatened  repudiation  of  the  union,  till  the 
constructian  of  the  Canadian  Pacifiic  Railway, 
wluch  was  the  condition  of  her  entrance,  was 
assured.  Newfoundland  still  remains  unfed- 
erated.  But  a  great  addition  was  soon  after- 
ward made  to  the  Dominion  by  the  purchase  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  country  now  comprising  the 
province  of  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritories. The  accession  of  Newfotmdiand 
alone  is  wanted  to  complete  the  scheme  of  con- 
federation. The  scheme  having  been  framed 
by  the  colonial  legislature,  was  laid  for  revision 
before  the  British  government,  and  by  it  em- 
bodied in  the  British  North  American  Act     (30 


were  drawn  again.  Brown  seceded  from  the 
Donfederation  government  and  the  political  en- 
mity between  turn  and  Sir  John  Macdonald  be- 
came as  bitter  as  before. 

The  Federal  constitution  was  never  submit- 
ted, like  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States: 
to  the  petMile.  It  was  alleged  that  in  a  general 
election  which  followed,  and  in  which  toe  con- 
federation government  was  sustained,  the  peo- 
ple virtually  expressed  their  approbation.  But 
It  is  obvious  to  remark  that  in  this  election 
other  issues  were  submitted  and  other  influ- 
ences, that  of  party  especially,  played  their  part 
So  that  it  cannot  be  truly  said  that  the  consti- 
ution  of  Canada  has  even  been  distinctly  rati- 
fied by  the  Canadian  people. 

See  articles  on  this  scries:  Under  British 
Rule  to  Confederation  ;  The  Maritime  Pbov- 

llfCBS;    (^KFXDBRATION  ;     SiNCE    CONPEDEBATtON  ; 

Imperial  Federation:  CoHsTirtnioN.  See  also 
the  history  of  the  different  provinces  in  this 

CkiLDWiN  Smith, 
Formerly  Remits  Professor  of  Modern  History 
of  ihe  Unwersity  of  Oxford,  and  Emeritus 

Professor  of  Cornell   University. 

S.  SIHCB  CONFEDERATION.  On  I 
July  1867  there  were  great  reioicings  in  Canada 
for  it  was  the  birthday  of  tne  new  Dominion. 
But  at  that  time  the  work  of  founding  a  Cana- 
dian nation  was  only  begun;  much  remained  to 
do.  As  it  stood  on  1  July  1867  the  Dominion 
included  only  four  provinces :  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  Quebec  and  Ontario,  (qq.v.) 
and  of  diese  Nova  Scotia  was  profoundly  dis- 
contented and,  since  her  people  had  never  voted 
upon  the  question,  desired  to  withdraw  from  the 
confederation.  Nor  did  (^nada  possess  the 
entire  East    The  two  important  islands,  New- 


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CANADA— SIHCB    CONFBDBRAHON    (9) 


founcUand  (q.v.)  and  Prince  Edward  Island 
(q.v.)  still  held  aloof ;  not  until  1873  was  Prince 
Edward  Island  persuaded  to  join  the  Dominion, 
while  Newfoundland  still  eUnds  apart  The 
vast  Northwest,  to-day  the  chief  pride  and 
promise  of  Canada,  was  not  then  included 
within  her  territory,  nor  was  its  entry  brought 
about  without  discontent  and  bloodshed.  It  had 
long  been  a  hunting  preserve  for  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  but  in  1870  by  payinz  to  the 
company  2300,000  to  extinguish  its  riRhts  Can- 
ada removed  every  obstacle  to  her  absorption 
of  those  regions.  lu  1871  British  Columbia 
(q.v.)  consented  to  enter  the  Union,  but  was 
long  restless  and  threatened  to  withdraw  unless 
a  transcontinental  railway  was  promptly  bttilt 
With  all  these  jarring  elements  assuredly 
Canada,  when  confederated,  had  no  real  union, 
and  the  subsequent  work  of  her  statesmen 
has  been  chiefly  to  consolidate  her  scattered 
fragments. 

The  leader  who  played  the  chief  part  in  this 
work  of  consolidation  was  Sir  John  Klacdon- 
ald  (q.v.).  In  many  ways,  in  wit,  in  intellec 
tual  agility,  sometimes  in  cynical  carelessness  as 
to  the  means  be  used  to  secure  his  ends,  he  was 
strikingly  like  Lord  Beaconsfield ;  but  whenever 
the  vital  political  interests  of  Canada  were  con- 
cerned, invariably,  according  to  his  light,  he 
showed  a  whole-hearted  patriotism.  He  was 
filled  with  passionate  devotion  to  the  British 
Crown  and  treasured  for  Canada  the  ideal  that 
she  should  be  a  kingdom  modeled  on  ihxt  o£ 
Great  Britain,  taking  her  place  on  equal  terms 
as  an  auxiliary  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He 
did  not  favor  federal  government,  and  would 
have  preferred  to  give  Canada  one  all-powerful 
legislature  like  that  of  Great  Britain.  But  in 
these  respects  conditions  were  too  strong  for 
Macdonald.  His  cherished  ^Kingdom  of  Can- 
ada' became  the  'Dominion  of  Canada*  in  def- 
erence to  the  supiMsed  prejudices  of  the  Amer- 
ican republic  against  a  monarchical  neighbor, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  assent  to  a  federal  system 
because  the  French  in  Canat^  insisted  upon  a 
measure  of  autonomy  only  to  be  secured  in  this 
way.  It  was  the  pending  'Alabama*  question 
that  made  Britain  so  anxious  at  this  time  to 
defer  to  the  opinion  of  the  United  States.  This 
and  questions  more  directly  affecting  Canada 
were  settled  br  the  Treaty  of  Washington, 
1871. 

Macdonald  was  Prime  Minister  of  Canada 
for  the  long  period,  1867  to  1891,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  an  interval  of  about  five  years,  last- 
ing from  November  1873  to  October  187&  In- 
evitably he  did  the  work  of  proving  the  federal 
system  which  he  had'helped  to  create.  There 
was  trouble  from  the  first.  When  as  a  result 
of  the  bargain  with  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
Canada  assumed  jurisdiction  in  what  is  now 
Manitoba,  some  of  the  settlers  already  estab- 
lished there  objected  to  being  handed  over  like 
cattle  to  a  new  government.  Surveyors  sent  in 
by  Canada  were  turned  back;  officers  going  into 
the  country  to  assert  Canadian  authority  met 
with  a  like  experience;  and  at  last  the  half- 
breed  inhaUtants  under  their  leader,  Louis  Riel 
(q.v.),  set  up  a  provisional  govenunent  at  Fort 
Garry,  now  Winnipeg  (q^v.),  and  defied  the 
Government  of  Canada.  They  tried  and  sum- 
marily executed  Thomas  Scott,  a  citizen  who 
opposed  their  proceedings  and  they  threw  other 
leaders  into  pnsoa    See  Riet.  Rebellion. 


In  1870  it  was  not  easy  for  Canada  to 
assert  her  authority  in  the  remote  setdements 
an  the  Red  River.  ,She  might  not  use  for  mili- 
tary purposes  the  territory  of  the  United  States, 
which  o&ercd  the  most  convenient  route;  and 
she  was  therefore  obliged  to  said  troops 
through  the  vast  wilderness  Mng  north  of  Lake 
Superior.  The  late  Lord  Wolsdey,  tbm  hold- 
ing a  military  command  in  Canada,  was  chosen 
to  lead  a  small  army  to  Fort  Garry  and  did  the 
work  with  brilliant  success.  After  a  toilsome 
journey  through  hundreds  of  miles  of  wild  and 
barren  country  Wolseley  at  length  reached  Fort 
Garry  only  to  find  that  Riel  and  his  provisional 
government  had  fled  at  the  approach  of  the 
Canadian  force.  Rebellion  crushed,  the  work  of 
pacification  was  conducted  partly  with  the  aid 
of  Mr.  Donald  A.  Smith,  later  Lord  Strathcona, 
an  official  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  Mani- 
toba soon  became  a  full-fiedged  province  in  the 
Canadian  federation  and  has  smce  played  an 
important  part.  In  view  of  the  present  status 
of  Wiimipegjthe  third  citjr  in  Canada,^  with 
perhapi  150,000  inhabitants,  it  is  interesting  to 
remember  that  it  had  not  even  the  telegraph  in 
1870  and  that  the  railway  did  not  reach  the 
town  until  1878. 

The  trouble  in  Manitoba  settied,  Canada  had 
next  to  pacify  her  remote  Pacific  Province, 
separated  from  her  by  an  immense  and  almost 
unpeopled  wilderness.  In  1871  British  Columbia 
entered  the  confederation  on  the  condition  that 
a  railway  across  the  continent  should  be  begun 
within  two  years  and  com{)leted  within  10.  At 
the  time  the  province  contained  but  a  few  thou- 
sand people  of  European  origin,  and  there  were 
complaints  in  eastern  Canada  that  the  vast  ex- 
penoiture  involved  in  the  bargain  would  burden 
too  heavily  the  country's  resources.  But,  on 
pain  of  her  withdrawal  from  the  union,  Britsh 
Columbia  insisted  angrily  that  the  bargain 
should  be  carried  ou^  and  her  attitude  brought 
to  the  front  the  bmlding  of  the  trans-conti- 
nental line  which  was  to  prove  of  supreme  mo- 
ment to  Canada. 

That  Canada's  small  population  should  apend 
a  hundred  million  dollars  on  this  undertaking 
was  a  stupendous  proposal;  on  the  basb  of  the 
proportionate  cost  of  each  head  of  population 
a  project  for  the  United  States  to  spend  $2,000,- 
000,000  would  be  its  equivalent  But  to  build 
the  railway  was  the  condition  of  national  exist- 
ence in  Canada,  and  in  the  end  the  thing  was 
done.  Not;  however,  before  the  project  had 
long  disturbed  Canadian  .  poUtical  Ufc  and 
threatened  to  overwhelm  its  promoters  with 
ruin.  When  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
(q.v.)  was  projected.  Canada  was  face  to  face 
with  the  question  that  has  perplexed  al)  the 
progressive  states  of  modern  times.  Should 
the  railway  be  a  government  or  a  private  enter- 
prise? Though  a  similar  line,  the  Inter- Colonial 
Railway,  connecting  the  eastern  provinces,  was 
a  state  enterprise,  the  cabinet  of  Sir  John  Mac- 
donald shrank  from  saddUng  the  country  with 
so  vast  a  burden  as  a  railway  to  the  Padnc,  and 
it  was  resolved  to  hand  over  the  task  to  a  pri- 
vate corporation. 

In  1872  there  was  a  general  election  in  Can- 
ada,'and  in  the  session  of  Parliament  which  fol- 
lowed ihe  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company 
with  Sir  Hueh  Allan  as  president,  secured  a 
charter  to  build  the  road.  Widi  this  went  also 
assurances  of  assistance  from  Canada  amouot- 


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CANADA— SINCE   CONFEDBRATIOH    <9) 


took  office  ii 


fund  for  the  r 


and  the  Liberals 
rie  (q.v.)  as  prime 
vember  1873. 

For  five  years  the  Liberals  remained  in 
jxiwcr.  Throwing  less  energy  into  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Pacific  Railway  than  had  been 
promised^  they  met  naturally  with  discontent  in 
British  Columbia.  The  menace  of  withdrawal 
from  the  confederation  was  renewed  and  at 
length  the  matter  was  referred  for  arbitration 
to  Lord  Carnarvon,  the  Colonial  Secretary,'  in 
London.  He  decided  that  the  ori^nal  terms 
were  too  onerous  and  proposed  new  ones 
under  which  a  trans-continental  railway  should 
be  opened  by  the  end  of  the  year  1890.  When 
the  Liberal  Government  thought  even  this  al- 
most impossible  of  accomplishment,  ■Carnarvon 
Terms  of  Separation*  became  the  war  cry  in 
British  Columbia.  Financial  depression  over- 
took Canada  in  1876-78  and  this  heightened  the 
difficulty  of  the  question.  But  in  18/6  the  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Canada,  the  Earl  of  DufFerin, 
visited  British  Columbia  to  soothe  her  discon- 
tent, and  he  helped  to  tide  over  the  period  of 
danger.  It  U  interesting  to  speculate  whether 
an  attempt  to  vnthdraw  from  the  Canadian 
union  would  have  been  resisted,  if  necessary, 
by  force  of  arms.  Probably  the  Canadian  atid 
Imperial    governments    would   have   agreed   in 


The  financial  depression  that  helped  to  delay 
contentment  for  British  Columbia  produced  ef- 
fects in  Canada  even  more  far-reachfng,  for  it 
led  to  the  cleavage  of  political  parties         '* 


itit,  which  was  hardly  sofiicient  for  her 
growing  revenue  requirements.  During  a  gen- 
eration she  had  tried  to  secure  free  exchange 
of  natural  products  with  the  United  States  and 
m  1854  her  governor.  Lord  Elfpn,  had  succeeded 
in  making  a  Reciprocity  Treaty  on  this  basis. 
But  the  treaty  was  not  long  in  force  and  when 
abrogated  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  a  heavy 
larifT upon  Canadian  products  was  soon  imposed 
by  the  United  Slates.  Over  and  over  again 
Canada  tried  to  secure  the  reversal  of  this  policy 
but  always  in  vain.  Meanwhile  the  low  Cana- 
dian tariff  permitted  American  manufacturers 
to  supply  the  Canadian  market  at  prices  with 
which  the  necessarily  smaller  producers  in  Can- 
ada could  hardly  compete,  and  in  time  the  cry 
for  increased  Protection  was  often  heard.  Had 
Mr.  MacKen lie's  Government  taken  it  up  in 


Trade.  But  when  the  Liberal  leader  refused 
tenaciously  to  adopt  Protection,  Sir  John  Mac- 
donald  proclaimed  it  as  a  ■National  Policy* 
for  building  np  Canada,  and  the  Canadian  elec- 
torate, forgetting  the  discredit  which  attached 
to  him  in  connection  with  the  Pacific  scandal, 
returned  him  to  power  by  an  overwhelming 
majority.     Since  that  time  Protection   has   re- 


Liberal!  favored  I 


system  but  slightly  on  their  advent  to  power 
in  1896. 

An  era  of  great  expansion  followed  the 
adoption  of  a  protective  tariff  in  1879.  A  great 
many  factories  were  established,  and  the  build- 
ing of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  was  pushed 
on  with  unparalleled  energy;  in  1^5,  live  years 
before  the  time  named  in  the  contract,  the  last 
spike  was  driven  in  the  line  connecting  Western 
and  Eastern  Canada  and  British  Columbia's 
grounds  for  discontent  were  finally  removed. 
Once  completed  the  road's  value  not  only  to 
Canada  but  to  Great  Britain  was  soon  appareitt. 
Not  only  did  it  unite  the  Canadian  provinces; 
it  furnished  a  ready  all-British  land  route  to 
the  East.  The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Com- 
pany in  time  established  lines  of  steamers  cross- 
ing both  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic,  and  the  ' 
highway,  looked  upon  as  a  doubtful  possibility 
in  1878,  has  now  become  one  of  the  chief  ar- 
teries of  world  commerce. 

The  completion  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  was  almost  coincident  with  a  second 
rebellion  of  half-breeds  in  the  Canadian  West. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  not  far 
from  a  village  called  Prince  Albert,  there  was  a 
colony  of  these  people.  They  had  long  lived 
remote  from  the  larger  world,  and  when  their 
country  was  invaded  by  the  pioneers  of  modem 
movement,  thejr  began  to  doubt  whether  they 
should  be  left  in  permanent  possession  of  the 
lands  they  had  long  occupied.  Upon  these 
lands  they  were  technically  "squatters*  for  they 
had  no  patents  and  no  surveys  had  been  made. 
When  at  length  Canadian  surveyors  came  to 
lay  out  their  fields  on  a  uniform  plan,  disre- 
KSrding  the  divisions  which  they  had  estab- 
lished, the  half  breeds  protested  and  demanded 
that  ihtj  should  be  granted  patents  for  their 
lands  as  they  stood.  At  Ottawa  their  protests 
were  filed  but  remained  unheeded.  The  official 
mind  was  aghast  at  the  prospect  of  land  grants 
not  based  upon  the  usual  survey ;  the  half 
breeds  could  get  nothing  done  and  they  grew 
ever  more  restless  at  the  supposed  menace  to 
their  rights.  Disinterested  observers  sent  to 
Ottawa  warning  of  a  probable  rising  but  official 
supineness  was  invincible,  and  the  result  of  neg- 
lect and  delay  was  that  in  March  ISBS  the  de- 
spairing half  breeds  attacked  a  body  of  police, 
lalled  12  out  of  40  engaged,  and  defied  the  au- 
thority of  Canada.  Since  it  was  not  unlikely 
that  uiey  would  be  joined  by  the  Indian  tribes 
the  outbreak  was  serious. 

The  half  breed  leader  was  the  same  Louis 
Kiel  (a.v.)  who  had  caused  trouble  in  I87IX 
.  On  its  liands  the  Government  now  had  a  diffi- 
cult task.  As  in  1870  it  mi^t  not  send  troops 
through  the  United  States,  and  the  railway  on 
the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior  connecting 
Eastern  and  Western  Canada  was  not  yet  com- 
pleted. In  bitter  March  weather,  with  the  ther- 
mometer often  below  zero,  the  regiments  of 
militia  summoned  from  Eastern  Canad^  all  un- 
prepared by  previous  hardship  to  endure  the 
cold,  traversed  the  desolate  shores  of  that 
frozen  region.  Sometimes  in  open  flat  cars,  for 
more  than  a  hundred  miles  on  foot,  ihey  pro- 
ceeded over  the  snow.  An  experienced  officer 
of  the  expedition  declares  that  the  task  was 
more  severe  than  Napoleon's  passage  of  the 
Alps,  for  Napoleon  had  a  beaten  road  and  an 
abundant  commissariat,  while  both  were  want- 
ing in   the   Canadian   witdemcss.     The   r^p- 


Ci.i 


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CANADA—  8INCB  CONFBDBRATIOH    (9) 


ments  soon  poured  into  the  West  in  over- 
whelming force  and  though  the  few  half  breeds 
made  a  brave  stand  against  great  odds,  they 
were  quickly  crushed.  Their  Indian  allies  the 
Canadian  troops  wearily  followed  to  their  al- 
most trackless  haunts,  and  so  the  rebellion  was 
put  down.  A  few  of  the  rebels  were  hanged; 
a  good  many  of  the  Indians  were  imprisoned; 
Kiel,  the  leader  was  taken,  and  then  his  fate 
became    a    question    of    national    concern    in 

With  Riel  the  French  Canadians  had  ties  of 
futh  and  of  blood.  French  Canadians  had 
been  pioneers  in  the  Northwest  and  at  times 
they  had  dreamed  of  holding;  that  vast  region 
for  their  langua^  and  fajth.  If  fate  was 
against  them,  if  it  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  who 
was  occupying  the  country  and  in  influence  was 
destined  to  dominate,  none  the  less  was  chiv- 
alrous support  due  to  the  few  people  who  stood 
in  the  West  for  the  ideals  of  France  and  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  1870  Riel  had 
appealed  not  in  vain  to  the  French  in  Quebec 
for  help  in  his  time  of  trouble  and  it  was  prob- 
ably the  strength  of  their  sympathy  which  then 
saved  him  from  the  scaffold.  Since  in  1885  the 
men  who  took  up  arms  had  more  real  griev- 
ances the  Church  espoused  their  cause.  In  the 
Province  of  Quebec  Liberals  and  Conservatives 
forgot  their  quarrels  in  the  name  of  justice  and 
FrencJi  Canadian  nationality  against  rigorous 
treatment  of  the  rebel  leader,  Louis  Riel,  On 
the  other  hand  the  English  demanded  that  the 
law  should  take  its  course.  Riel  had  led  a  re- 
volt in  which  law-abiding  citizens  were  ^ot 
down.  If  he  was  a  murderer  the  penalty  of 
murder  was  his  due.  The  demand  was  too 
urgent  to  be  disregarded.  Riel  was  tried;  in 
the  eye  of  the  law  the  penalty  of  his  crime  was 
death,  and  in  November  1885  be  was  hanged 
at  Regina,  the  capital  of  the  Northwest  terri- 
tories. See  Riel  Rebellion;  see  also  article 
Jesuits  Estates  Act  for  another  religious  and 
racial  question  in  Canada  in  1888-89. 

The  government's  course  in  regard  to  Riel 
was  a  defeat  for  the  French  Canadian  bishops 
who  had  long  played  an  active  part  in  political 
life.  They  claimed  that  even  in  secular  affairs 
the  authority  of  the  bishops  was  final  and  that 
when  they  spoke  the  laity  were  bound  to  obey. 
If  the  Church  chose  to  mdicate  her  desires  m 
regard  to  the  merits  of  candidates  seeking  elec- 
tion, it  was  the  duty  of  the  voter  to  heed  the 
voice  of  his  spiritual  directors.  Some  of  the 
lushops  claimed  the  right  to  use  spiritual  cen- 
sures to  influence  electors.  Newspapers  which 
opposed  the  wishes  of  the  hierarchy  must  not  , 
be  read  by  the  faithful,  and  when  L'Electevr,  a 
daily  newspaper  in  Quebec,  opposed  the  bishops' 
Mandtfnents  in  1896  it  was  denounced  from  uie 
altar,  and  under  penalty  of  grievous  sin  and  the 
refusal  of  the  sacraments  all  the  bishops  for- 
bade formally  anyone  to  read  it,  to  subscribe  or 
contribute  to  it,  to  sell  it  or  in  any  manner 
whatever  to  encourage  it.  The  denunciation 
commanded  obedience  and  made  the  continued 
existence  of  the  paper  under  its  existing  name 
impossible.  It  promptly  became  Le  Soldi,  and 
seemed  to  suffer  little  real  injury,  but  the  inci- 
dent showed  the  authority  claimed  and  exer- 
cised by  the  bishops. 

With  this  attitude  on  their  part  occasions  of 
strife  were  not  like^  to  be  wanting.  In  1890 
the  Manitoba  govemnient  passed  an  act  estab- 


lishing i 


n-sectarian   system  of    education. 


Protestant  minority  in  the  province  of 

Quebec  had  secured  the  constitutional  ri^t  to 
devote  the  taxes  paid  by  them  for  educatiao  in 
support  of  their  own  schools.  In  Ontario  the 
Roman   Catholic   minority   possessed  a    similar 

trivilege.  For  some  time  Manitoba  had  fol- 
iwed  the  example  of  Ontario,  but,  impressed 
by  the  obvious  advantages  of  a  uniform  system, 
the  legislature  passed  the  Act  of  1890  which  de- 
prived Roman  Catholics  of  former  privileges. 
At  once  a  vehement  agitation  broke  out.  The 
Federal  government  possesses,  within  certain 
limits,  the  right  of  disallowing  statutes  enacted 
in  the  provinces  and  urgent  demand  was  made 
upon  the  government  of  Sir  John  Macdonald 
to  disallow  the  Manitoba  School  Bill.  This,  on 
the  ground  that  Manitoba  was  acting  within  its 
constitutional  rights,  the  government  refused 
to  do.  Appeal  was  then  made  to  the  courts  to 
determine  the  authority  of  the  respective  gov- 
ernments in  the  matter  and  the  case  was  finallv 
carried  to  the  Privy  Council  in  London,  whi^ 
decided  that  the  Federal  government  possessed 
the  right  of  intervention  in  regard  to  the  Mani- 
toba schools. 

Extraordinary  pressure  was  then  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  Federal  government.  The  hier- 
archj^  of  the  province  of  Quebec  took  up  the 
question  with  much  heat,  while  the  Protestant 
province  of  Ontario  was  also  aroused  in  sup- 
port of  the  opposite  side.  In  1891,  when  Sir 
John  Macdonald  died,  his  successors  were  left 
with  the  legacy  of  the  Manitota  school  ques- 
tion. The  agitation  drag^d  on  for  five  or  six 
years.  Retreat  from  their  position  the  Mani- 
toba government  would  not,  and  finally,  in 
1S9^  the  Federal  government  endeavored  to 
put  through  Parliament  a  remedial  bill  for  re- 
storing to  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Manitoba, 
the  pnvileges  which  had  been  taken  away. 

It  was  this  question  that  brought  the  down- 
fall of  the  Conservative  party  so  long  dominant 
in  Canada,  a  process  accelerated  by  evidence  ad- 
duced in  1891  of  a  share  by  responsible  leaders 
in  the  province  of  Quebec  in  the  misuse  of 
public  funds.  In  1896  Sir  Charles Tupper  (q.v.) 
became  Prime  Minister  and  in  a  general  election 
^pealed  to  the  country  to  do  justice  to  the 
minoritj^  in  Manitoba.  On  this  question  manj 
of  his  Conservative  allies  broke  away  from  him 
and  he  fought  a  stern  but  losing  contesL  The 
Liberals  too  were  in  a  difficult  position.  When 
Sir  John  Macdonald's  old  rival,  Mr.  Alexander 
MacKeniie,  retired  from  the  leadership  of  the 
rarty  in  1830  he  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Edward 
Blake,  who,  in  turn,  proved  unable  to  overthrow 
the  Conservative  chieftain.  In  1887  Mr.  Blake 
retired  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.,  afterward 
Sir  Wilfrid,  Laurier.  In  personal  charm  and 
tact  the  new  leader  was  not  unlike  his  formid- 
able rival,  and  he  had,  besides,  remarkable  gifts 
as  an  orator.  French  Canathan  by  birth  and 
also  a  Roman  Catholic,  it  was  not  easy  for  him 
to  lead  the  Liberal  party,  which  was  committed 
unreservedly  against  interfering  in  Manitobo- 
In  Mr.  Laurier  s  own  province  of  Quebec  the 
hierarchy  were  still  unanimous  in  aemanding 
intervention  to  re-estabUsh  the  Roman  Catholic 
schools.  The  election  of  1896,  fought  chiefly 
on  this  issue,  resulted  in  a  conspicuous  Liberal 
triumph  and  it  was  in  Quebec  tut  Mr.  Laurier 
found  his  most  striking  support     Kther  the 


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CANADA—  BINCB   CONFBDBRATION    (» 


issue  in  regard  to  Manitoba  had  been  obscured 
or  the  'habitant*  wished  to  assert  his  ri^t  to 
^S3  judgment  for  himself  in  political  matters 
independent  of  the  views  of  the  hierarchy.  At 
any  rate  Mr.  L^aurier  beca'me  Prime  Minister  of 
C^ada.  The  Manitoba  govemtnent  made  some 
minor  concessions  and  the  matter  passed  out  of 
view,  but  an  important  warning  against  inter- 
fering with  the  authority  of  the  province  had 
been  given  to  the  Federal  government. 

The  Liberal  partv  had  long  championed  the 
cause  of  freer  trade  and  declared  itself  the 
enemy  of  Protection;  it  was  therefore  commit' 
ted  to  some  modification  of  the  existii^  pro- 
tective system.  But,  once  in  power,  it  fotind 
that,  since  important  industries  had  grown  up 
under  the  tanS,  this  could  not  be  changed  in 
any  radical  manner  without  ruin  to  those  con- 
cerned. While  doing  scmtething  to  reduce  Pro- 
lection  the  ^mvemment  took  a  further  remaric- 
able  step.  The  year  1897  saw  the  completion 
of  60  years  under  Queen  Victoria's  sovereignty, 
and  there  was  a-  general  desire  to  draw  more 
closely  together  (he  different  sections  of  the 
empire,  and  thus  to  assert  British  unity.  In 
pursuit  of  this  idea  Ur.  Lauder's  government 


forth  be  allowed  to  countries  whos.  „ 

a  favorable  opening  to  Canadian  products. 
Since  Britain  alone  gave  such  treatment  the 
preference  was  confined  to  her,  though  other 
countries  mi^t  share  in  it  on  the  terms  laid 
down.  Both  in  England  and  in  Canada  the 
preferential  tariff  aroused  great  enthusiasm  and 
no  doubt  it  aided  in  bringing  to  a  head  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  scheme,  announced  a  few  years 
later,  for  a  preferential  tariff  in  the  mother 
country  for  colonial  products. 

In  1898  the  Liberal  government  had  a  re- 
newed opporttmity  to  proclaim  its  devotion  to 
British  connection.  When  war  broke  out  in 
South  Africa  and  soon  proved  more  serious 
than  liad  been  thought  possible,  Canada 
promptly  volunteered  to  send  militarv  contin- 
gents in  reinforcement  of  the  British  troops. 
The  contingents  saw  some  service  and  a  good 
manv  Canadian  soldiers  lost  their  lives.  Nat- 
ural^ the  French  Canadian  showed  less  en- 
thusiasm for  what  was  in  large  degree  a  racial 
war  than  did  the  British  element  Only  a  few 
French  Canadians  served  in  the  contingents, 
and  some  voices  protested  against  Canada's  par- 
tiapating  in  BriUsb  wars.  But  the  overwhelm- 
ing opinion  of  the  country  supported  the  rally 
to  Britain's  aid;  when  the  ^vemment  appealed 
to  the  countrv  in  1900  it  gained  an  easy  victory, 
partly  upon  Uiis  issue. 

A  little  earlier  the  discovery  of  gold  in  re~ 
marlutblc  quantities  in  the  Yukon  territoiy, 
arousing  as  it  did  world-wide  interest,  natural^ 
attracted  attention  to  a  part  of  Canada  hitherto 
thought  of  little  value.  The  possession  by  the 
United  States  of  the  adjacent  coast  of  Alaska 
(q.v.)  throi^  which  lay  the  best  route  to  the 
new  gold  country  seriously  impaired  the  value 
to  Canada  of  the  territory.  The  boundary  be- 
tween Alaska  and  Canada  had  long  been  the 
subject  of  dispute,  the  Canadians  contending 
that  since,  under  the  terms  of  the  determining 
treaty,  the  line  should  run  from  headland  to 
ti^dland,  the  land  at  the  head  of  the  inlets 
which  furnished  the  most  ready  access  to  the 
Yukon  were  in  reality  British  territoiy.    Caa- 


ada's  cause  was  prejudiced  by  the  fact  that 
(though  not  without  occasional  protest)  she 
bad  acquiesced  in  the  American  contention  that 
the  boundary  line  followed  the  sinuosities  of 
the  shore.  A  disputed  boundary  is  always  danr 
geroua  Beudes  this  Question  uere  were  other 
matters  requiring  settlement  between  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  Canada,  and  at  last,  in  1^8,  a 
Joint  High  Commission,  including  prominent 
reijresenlatives  of  both  the  American  and 
British  side,  was  appointed  and  sat  for  some 
weeks  at  Quebec  and  then  at  Washington.  In 
addition  to  the  Alaska  boundary  the  conuni»- 
sion  was,  if  possible,  to  agree  upon  a  settle- 
ment of  the  oiSerences  in  regard  to  the  seal 
fishery  in  Bering  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  fish- 
eries; and  besides  minor  matters  was  to  con- 
sider the  general  trade  relations  between  the 
two  countries.  Paints  of  variance  proving  too 
great,  the  commission  effected  nothing;  but  in 
the  end  the  two  governments  agreed  that  six 
jurists  of  repute,  three  to  represent  each  side, 
should  be  appointed  with  authority  finally  to 
settle  the  AJaska  boundary.  In  the  end  a  ma- 
joriQ  of  the  commissioners  gave,  in  1903,  a 
decision  favorable  to  the  claims  of  the  United 
States.  Lord  Alverstone,  the  British  commis- 
sioner who  supported  the  American  conten- 
tions, was  severely  censured  in  Canada  for  an 
attitude  that  seemed  more  diplomatic  than  ju- 
dicial, but  in  spite  of  a  passing  irritation  there 
was  general  satisfaction  that  a  troublesome 
issue  had  a(  last  been  settled.  See  AlaskaH 
BouMDAxy  Com  MISSION. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  politics  of  Can- 
ada are  railways.  In  a  country  so  vast,  means 
of  transportation  are  of  vital  momenL  Thus  it 
happened  that,  after  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way was  completed,  plans  were  soon  on  foot 
for  other  transcontinental  lines.  Since  the  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  Railway  ran  near  the  soutbeni 
frontier,  new  lines,  it  was  thought,  should 
open  up  regions  farther  north.  In  1903  Sir 
Wilfred  Laurier  announced  that  the  govern- 
ment  of  Canada  had  plans  for  a  new  trans- 
continental lailwav.  'The  government  was  to 
complete  the  railway  from  Monclon,  New 
Brtiswick,  to  Winnipeg,  while  from  that  point 
to  the  Pacific  Coast,  at  what  is  now  Prince  Ru- 
pert, the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railway  Com- 
pany was  to  build  the  line  and  it  was  to  oper- 
ate this  section  and  also  that  from  Winnipeg 
to  the  Atlantic  to  be  leased  to  the  company  by 
the  Canadian  government.  A  little  earlier  a 
private  firm,  Messrs.  Mackenzie  and  Mann,  had 
matured  plans  for  a  similar  line  to  cross  the 
Rocky  Mountains  farther  south.  The  firm  had 
only  the  capital  of  remarkable  energy.  It  was 
by  means  of  government  bonuses  and  guaran- 
tees of  its  bonds  that  the  necessary  money  was 
to  be  obtained.  In  the  end  it  secured  guaran- 
tees of  this  kind  amounting  to  about  $250t- 
nOOO.  Efforts  to  unite  the  two  plans  and  to 
d  a  single  new  line  were,  unhappily,  not 
successful.  At  the  present  time  (1918)  both 
lines  have  been  neany  completed.  Their  cost 
baa  been  very  great  and  it  came  at  a  time  when 
taxation  grew  heavier  as  the  great  war  ap- 
proached. Three  transcontinental  lines  in  a 
country  with  a  population  of  less  than  8,000.000 
were  a  heavy  burden.  In  1917  the  Canadian 
government  took  over  the  Canadian  Northern 
which  could  not  meet  the  interest  on  its  bonds 
and  there  is,  at  tlic  moment  of  writing  some 


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CANADA— 8INCB    CONPBDERATION    (9) 


prospect  that,  to  promote  economy  and  effi- 
ciency, the  government  will,  for  the  duration  of 
the  war  and,  it  may  be,  as  a  permanence,  control 
also  the  Canadian  Pacific  and  the  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific  with  its  parent  company,  the  Grand 
Trunk,  The  government  of  Canada  will  then 
direct  three  vast  railway  systems,  each  of 
them  stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
The  growth  of  the  Canadian  West  -waa  ob- 
vious in  1905  when,  from  a  part  of  the  former 
Northwest  territories,  were  created  two  new 
self-governing  provinces,  Saskatchewan  and 
Alberta,  which  together  fill  the  gap  between 
Manitoba  on  the  east  and  British  Columbia  on 
the  west.  In  the  background  of  Canadian  poli- 
tics lurks  alwa]>s  religious  and  racial  strife, 
since  two-fifdis  of  the  population  are  Roman 
Catholics  and  form  a  minority  so  powerful  as 
to  keep  alive  the  suspicions  of  the  Protestant 
majority.  In  creating  the  two  new  provinces, 
Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  crossed  to  allow  the 
majority  in  a  school  iSstnct  to  determine  the 
religion,  if  any,  to  be  taught  in  the  school, 
the  minority  to  have  separate  schools  with  the 
same  privilege  and  each  school  to  be  kept  up 
by  taxes  on  its  supporters.  Any  government 
grant  was  to  be  equitably  divided.  Since  187S 
the  Roman  Catholics  had  had  the  ri^t  to  sepa- 
rate schools  in  the  territory  affected.  The 
policy  of  the  Prime  Minister  secured  the  strong 
support  of  the  Catholic  clergy  of  Quebec  but 
it  was  35  firmly  opposed  b^  a  larger  number 
of  Protestants,  A  crisis  in  the  government 
followed  and,  in  the  end,  the  bill  was  so  modi- 
fied as  to  place  the  proposed  schools  under 
effective  state  control.  All  throuf^  the  West 
the  demand  for  sectarian  and  ranal  privileges 
regarding  education  was  pressed.  Ruthenians, 
Poles,  Germans  and  others,  besides  French  in 
Manitoba,  demanded  the  right  to  have  schools 
conducted  in  their  own  language  and  declared 
that  this  was  a  sacred  heritage,  not  to  be  denied 
to  their  children  without  gross  injustice.  For 
a  time  in  Manitoba  some  half  dozen  languages 
were  used  in  the  schools  with  official  sanction. 
The  need  was  urged  of  requiring  English  in 
all  the  schools,  if  a  common  Canadian  national- 
11^  was  to  be  fostered.  In  1915  the  former 
Conservative  government  of  Manitoba  was  de- 
feated and  in  1916  the  new  Liberal  government 
Bssed  a  measure  requiring  the  use  of  Eng- 
h  as  the  teaching  language  in  all  the  schools 
and,  for  the  first  time,  making  elementary 
education  compulsory. 

The  strife  in  Manitoba  angered  the  French 
element  in  Canada.  They  urged  anew  the 
rights  guaranteed  to  their  language.  Widiout 
doubt  the  original  constitution  of  Manitoba, 
created  in  1870,  had  set  up  a  bi-Kngual  system, 
with  French  and  Elnglish  on  an  equality.  The 
truth  is  that,  in  a  majori^  at  first,  the  French 
in  the  province  had  by  1916  become  relatively 
unimportant  It  was  undoubtedly  a  grievance 
that  rights  formeriy  enjoyed  1^  them  should 
be  swept  away.  iTie  stnfe  spread  eastward. 
Under  what  is  known  as  Regulation  17,  the 
province  of  Ontario  took  steps  to  ensure  that, 
except  in  a  strictly  limited  number  of  admit- 
tedly bi-lingual  schools  (French  and  English), 
English  alone  should  be  used.  In  Quebec  where 
the  majority  is  French  no  one  challenged  the 
right  of  the  English  element  to  schools  using 
their  own  language.  ThoUj|h,  in  fact,  in  On- 
tario no  constitutional  provision  supported  bi- 


lin^alism,  the  Frendi  urged  that,  on  any  basb 
of  justice,  the  French  minority  should  have  the 
rights  in  respect  to  their  language  which  the 
English  minority  enjoyed  in  Quebec.  The  Eng- 
lish element  in  Ontario,  it  was  declared  pas- 
sionately, was  persecuting  those  who  used 
French.  Their  French  press  carried  on  a  vio- 
lent agitation,  ansv^red  in  Idnd  by  the  Orange- 
men of  Ontario,  who  feared  Oiat  with  the 
French  tongue  would  go  tbe  dominance  of  the 
French-speaking  priest.  The  claim  that  consti- 
tutional guarantees  protected  the  right  to  use 
French  in  the  Roman  Catholic  separate  schools 
of  Ontario  was  ne^tived  on  appeal  to  the  Im- 
peria)  Privy  Council,  the  tribunal  to  determine 
finally  such  constitutional  disputes..  Trifling  as 
such  questions  seem,  they  yet  served  to  make 
the  FrendL  dominant  in  the  province  of  Que- 
bec, resentful  and  suspicious,  and  this  no  donbt 
aflfected  their  attitude  when  the  European  War 
broke  out  in  1914. 

In  1911  the  government  of  the  United  States 
entered  into  negotiations  with  the  govemment 
of  Canada  fot"  a  wide  measure  of  reciprocity 
in  trade.  At  first  the  proposal  was  welcomed 
by  members  of  both  political  parties  in  Canada, 
but  it  soon  became  clear  that  financial  interests 
in  Canada  feared  the  dominance  of  New  York, 
that  Canadian  industries  were  alarmed  lest  a 
protective  tariff  should  disappear,  and  that  the 
Canadian  railways,  running  for  thousands  of 
miles  east  and  west,  feared  a  loss  through  the 
diverting  of  the  carrying  trade  southward  to 
the  lines  of  the  United  States.  In  the  back- 
ground was  the  fear  of  those  attached  to  the 
political  tie  of  Canada  with  Great  Britain  that 
Canadian  trade  would  discriminate  against 
Great  Britain  in  favor  of  the  United  States 
with  the  result  either  of  bringing  Canada  into 
the  American  Union,  or,  at  any  rate,  of  sever- 
ing the  tie  with  Great  Britain  and  the  setting 
up  of  a  republic  of  Canada.  The  political  cam- 
paign  revealed  tbe  profound  attachment  of  the 
Canadian  people  to  Great  Britain.  An  election 
ui  September  1911  resulted  in  the  defeat  of 
Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier,  who  bad  made  the  re- 
ciprocity pact  with  Mr.  Taft.  A  Conservative 
govemment  under  Mr.  (now  Sir)  Robert  L. 
Borden  came  into  power  and  the  proposals  for 
reciprocity  were  dropped. 

In  1914  came  the  Great  War  and  the  whole 
life  of  (Canada  was  soon  to  be  fociused  on  this 
event,  discussed  elsewhere  (see  Canada  and 
THE  War).  In  1917  Canada  celebrated  the 
SOith  anniversary  of  the  Federal  union  created 
in  1867.  It  had  been  a  period  of  varied  fortune, 
of  reverses  as  well  as  of  successes.  The  popu- 
lation had  doubled  and  the  8,000,000  people  of 
Canada  in  1917  represented  about  the  same 
number  that  the  United  States  had  had  a  hun- 
dred years  eartier.  Not  imtil  toward  the  end 
of  the  first  decade  of  the  20th  century  had  the 
development  of  Canada  been  very  rapid.  By 
1911  a  remarkable  immigration  movement  was 
at  its  height.  More  than  half  a  million  settlers 
from  the  United  States  had  by  that  time  found 
new  homes  in  Canada.  Settlers  from  Great 
Britain  and  from  continental  Europe  were  also 
flocking  in  and  the  prairie  country,  hitherto 
almost  tenantless,  was  filling  up  rapidly  widi 
varied  types  of  human  beings.  Probably,  con- 
sidering the  small  popubtion  of  Canada,  they 
came  too  rapidly,  for  half  a  million  new- 
comers in  a  single  year  could  not  be  naditr 


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CANAiUk^TUB  CAkAttt&H  «»ST  (U) 


usinulattd  when  the  n«w  amvals  tepwemaai 
about  1  in  10  of  the  existing  popnladon.  For 
the  transport  involved  nHwayt  were  bnilt  in 
the  West  too  lapidljr  to  be  proiitable.  Even 
before  1914,  depreasion  in  all  part*  of  the 
Western  world  bad  tended  to  dbcot  the  tide  of 
iaumgration,  and,  for  the  tim^  the  war,  begun 
in  that  year,  suspended  it  completely.  RrobMily, 
Of)  the  whole,  mis  sospenaion  waa  in  the  beat 
interests  of  Canada  since  it  ended  a  spedilsdve 
fever  in  regard  to  lands  and  brought  optitniit* 
face  to  face  with  stem  reality.  Alrea4r  dierc 
is  much  talk  in  Canada  of  reconstruction  after 
the  war.  In  a  world  shattered  by  war's  dis- 
asters it  will  be  a  problem  for  the  wisest  states- 
manship to  Dse  tne  undeveloped  resources  of 
Canada  to  freate  homes  for  the  landless  and 
peuntlesE  who  will  turn  from  devastated  EuiMe 
to  the  founding  of  a  new  life  in  the  West  (See 
Camaua  —  Population,  ImiiiauTioM  AHa  Dib- 
tubutiok).  In  Canada,  as  in  eveiy  belliBeccat 
oountiy,  the  great  war  is  psodncing  far-reach- 
ing eSects.  Since  the  war  bepui  one  by  one 
the  Canadian  provinces  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  have  imposed  such  restrictions  and 
prohibiticins  on  the  traffic  in  intoxicating  Uqwm 
as  practically  to  annihilate  it.  At  the  time  of 
writing,  from  Ontario  westward  every  drinldng 
place  is  dosed  By  l£ay  1919  Quebec  including 
the  great  dty  of  M-ontreal,  wUl  have  done  the 
same  thin^  and  in  the  Maritime  provinces, 
farther  east,  by  local  option,  a  stmuar  nsuh 
is  nearly  achieved.  It  is  likeli/  that  by  1920 
liquor  will  not  be  sold  by  retail  anywhere  in 
Canada  except  for  medical  purposes^ 

When  the  war  broke  out,  in  1914,  Caoa<b 
bad  a  party  government,  the  result  of  the  vic- 
tory of  redprodty  in  1911.  In  1916  the  term 
of  five  years  for  which  a  Parliament  is  elected 
expired,  but,  by  agreement  between  the  two  great 
parties,  the  period' was  extended  by  a  year  As 
the  war  went  on,  the  need  was  lelt  of  united 
support  of  the  government  so  as  to  avoid  the 
dissipation  of  energy  by  party  strife.  In  the 
summer  of  1917,  Sir  Robert  Borden  made  pro- 
Dosals  to  Sir  Wdfrid  Lauiier  to  mite  in  form- 
ing a  Cabinet  in  which  the  two  parties  should 
be  represented  eqtially,  but  this  offer  the  Lit>- 
eral  leader  dedined.  He  would  sot  accept  the 
policy,  inaiited  upon  by  Sir  Robert  Borden,  of 
compulsory  military  service  in'  order  to  Ice^  up 
the  Canadian  divisions  in  France.  The  French 
Ouiadisns,  who  are  more  than  a  quarter  of  ifae 
pec^le  of  Canada,  had  shown  themselves  ho^ 
tile  to  conscription,  and  on  this  issue  Sir  Wil- 
frid Laurier  stood  with  the  members  of  bia 
own  race. 

English-speaking  Liberals  refused,  on  this 
point,  to  follow  the  lead  of  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier, 
and  the  autumn  of  1917  saw  the  formation  in 
Canada  of  a  Unionist  govemmenL  led  still  by 
the  former  Conservative  Prime  Minister,  Sir 
Robert  Borden,  but  composed  in  about  e<iual 
proportions  of  Conservatives  and  Liberals. 
Since,  without  practically  mianimous  consent; 
the  term  of  Parliamettt  cooM  no  longer  be  ex- 
tended, an  election  followed  in  December  1917, 
with  conscrlptioii  as  the  vital  issue.  Sir  Wilfrid 
Laurier  led  the  forces  opposed  to  conscription. 
In  his  own  province  of  Qoebec  he  achieved  a 
HfSOfial  triumph,  carrying  62  out  of  65  seats. 
From  tihe  other  provinces,  however,  he  lecared 
little  more  than  a  score  of  sui^rterK  and  the 
Unioaiat  sorcmment  was  mstatned  by  an  ora^ 

VOt.  S— 22 


„  ma^mty.    The  pdicy  of  compolaory 

miUtary  service  was  pressed  with  energy  and 
Canada  has  pitxJaimea  to  the  woild  her  resolve 
to  make  every  sacrifice  to  stay  in  the  war  to 
tiMend. 


political  life  of  Canada.  The  evils  of  the  spoils 
system  bad  king- corrupted  potitics  and  this 
system  the  Union  government  has  swept  com- 
pletely away.  Antointments  to  the  whole  dvil 
service  art  now  controlled  by  a  iKm-partisan 
Ovil  Service  Commisaion.  F*tirchases  far  the 
govemnent  service  are  made  by  a  committee  of 
experts  without  regard  to  party  daims.  In 
abolishing  the  old  system,  C^madc  has  lagged 
far  behind  both  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  but  her  reform  now  promises  to  be 
Aoroush.  In  respect  to  other  changes  Canada 
is  like^  to  be  comervative.  Socialism  has,  as 
yc^  produced  little  effect  on  a  country  where 
nearfy  every  faraier  owns  the  land  he  tills  and 
the  artisan  and  the  laborer  earn  hi;^  wages. 
It  is  still  problematical  what  effect  the  war  will 
have  on  the  relations  of  Canada  wi^  Great 
Britain.  It  has  already  demonstrated  three 
things:  Canada's  resolve  to  settle  for  herself 
the  part,  if  any,  she  shall  take  in  British  wars; 
the  solidarity  of  Canadian  opinion  with  that  of 
the  other*  firiti^  peoples  on  the  issues  of  the 
present  war;  and  toe  affection  and  mutual  con- 
fidence whidi  exists  between  the  peoples  scat- 
tered in  all  fHuts  of  the  world  who  have  a 
common  British  allegiance.  Whether  out  of 
the  waiter  of  the  war  will  come  a  doser  political 
union  of  the  peopks  of  the  British  empire  for 
thdr  canmlon  defease  it  is  impossible  now  to 
■ay.  The  question  will  receive  increased  attend 
tion  after  the  wax.  It  is  certain  that  a  unity 
of  aims  already  exists  which  will  hold  together 
these  people  whatever  political  form  thdr  union 
aiay  assume. 

GeofttK  M.  Wbcmc, 
Profetsor  of  History,  University  of  Toronto.' 
10.  THS  CANADIAN  WEST.  It  U 
doubtful  if  a  British  sovereign  ever  made  a 
more  munificent  grant  to  a  company  of  his 
subjects  than  did  Qiarles  II,  in  the  year  IdJQ, 
to  "The  Governor  and  Company  of  Adventurers 
of  England  trading  into  Hudson  Bay.°  The 
■weeping  terms  of  the  royal  charter  defined  an 
area  stretching  from  Hudson  Bay  to  the  Rocky 


Mountains,  to  which  was  given    ._     _ . 
B^pen's  Land,  in  honor  of  the  King's 


:  of 


Pimce  Riqtert  the  company's  first  governor. 
In  spite  of  the  hostility  of  the  French  Canadian 
goverrancnt  and  the  competition  of  rival  traders^ 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  'succeeded  in  hold- 
ing this  territory  down  to  the  date  of  its  cession 
to  Canada  two  centuries  later.  Although  a  cen* 
tury  had  elapsed  since  Sir  Francis  Drake  had 
netted  the  snowy  peaks  of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
aad  half  a  century  stnee  the  ill-fated  Henry 
Hudson  had  ^scovered  the  bay  which  became 
at  once  his  grave  and  the  monument  of  his 
adiievement,  yet  the  history  of  the  Canadian 
West  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  founding 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  See  Cakada  — 
Thb  HuudN's  Bay  Company. 

The  presence  of  the  English  company  upon 
the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay  was  from  the  outset 
a  serious  menace  to  Prenich  Canadian  itifltience 
in  the  Northwest    The  newoomers  were  draw* 


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Canada—  the  cakahbam  wbt  a(9 


iiw  off  the  trade  of  the  northem  tribes.  Ea»- 
li^  and  French  were  face  to  face  in  a  ttrug^e 
for  comtnerdal  supremacy  in  the  West,  and 
their  rivalry  was  bound  sooner  or  later  to  break 
into  a  dash  of  arms.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Qmb- 
pany  had  strengthened  its  positioa  by  the  ettab- 
lithinent  of  four  trading-posts;  one  upon  the 
west  shore  near  the  Nelson,  and  the  other 
three,  Forts  Albany,  Hayes  and  Rupert,  on  the 
south  arm  of  the  bay.  In  the  spnng  of  1686 
the  progress  of  trade  was  rudely  interrupted 
Chevalier  Dc  Troyes  and  a  company  of  80  ad- 
venturous  Frenchmen,  ascending  ue   Ottawa 


James  Bay.  So  sudden  was  their  coming,  and 
BO  spirited  their  attack,  that  the  three  lower 
forts  fell  almost  without  resistance. 

In  1697  Pierre  le  Moyne  D'Iberville,  who  bad 
been  De  Troyes'  riifht-hand  man,  entered  Hud- 
con  Strait,  under  orders  from  Quebec,  to  attack 
Fort  Nelson,  the  most  important  trading-post  on 
the  bay.  The  Pelican,  which  carried  the  com- 
mander, became  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
fleet  and  fell  in  with  three  English  ships  belong- 
ing to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  In  the  en- 
counter  which  followed  the  Pelican  sank  one  of 
the  company's  ships  and  disabled  a  second,  while 
the  third  made  on  under  full  sail  Rejoined  hy 
bb  missing  ships,  D'Iberville  soon  fctrccd  Fort 
Nelson  to  surrender.  In  17]3  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht  put  an  end  to  hostilities  and  left  the 
English  traders  in  undisturbed  possess  ion  of 
their  posts. 

Meanwhile  French  Canadian  traders  w«e 
extending  their  trade  beyond  Lake  Supoior. 
With  these  there  was  ever  present  the  desire  to 
find  La  Mtr  de  fO»tsl,  which  they  tfaoufi^t 
could  not  be  far  distant  The  ambition  to  dis- 
cover this  "Western  Sea*  possessed  the  mind 
of  Pierre  Gaultier  de  Varennes  de  la  Veren- 
dtyej  the  commander  of  a  little  poU  on  Lake 
Nepigon.  It  was  late  in  August  1731  that 
'Verendrye  and  his  party  passed  over  Le  Grand 
Portage  leading  over  the  height  of  land  to 
the  waters  flowing  toward  Lake  Winnipeg. 
The  mouth  of  ue  Maurepas  (Winnipeg) 
River  had  been  reached  tvhen  troubles  began 
to  crowd  upon  the  unfortunate  explorer.  'The 
merchants  who  were  to  forward  supplies  failed 
to  do  so;  his  nephew  died;  and,  as  a  climax 
tm  hia  misfortunes,  21  of  his  company,  includ- 
ing his  eldest  son,  were  butchered  by  a  band 
of  murderous  Sioux.  It  was  not  until  six 
years  later  that  Verendrye  again  turned  his 
face  westward  The  course  of  his  travels  was 
marked  by  a  series  of  trading-posts  built  at 
successive  stages.  Among  these  were  Fort 
L«  Rone,  near  the  site  of  the  jiresent  town 


I   suburb   of   the  city   of 


During  the  last  century  of  the  French 
r^ime  the  Hudson's  Bay  Compaiq'  had  held  its 
own  throughout  the  dangers  of  war  and  the 
competition  of  trade.  Its  forts  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  Dc  Troyes  or  D'Iberville,  but  had 
been  restored  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (q.v.). 
Thou^  the  dangers  of  war  were  past,  the 
rivalry  of  the  Qinadian  traders  had  still  to 
he  met.  Despite  the  long  oyeriand  journey, 
the  latter  penetrated  to  the  neighborhood  of 
Hudson  Bay,  attracting  the  Indiai^  with  showy 
trinkets,  and  too  often  with  brandy.    The  ma* 


jority  of  the  oatiTes,  however,  were  not  easily 
drawn  away  from  the  old  company's  forts. 
Every  spring  the  rivers  and  lakes  were  dotted 
with  fur-laden  canoes  making  their  way  to 
Lake  Winnipeg,  the  meeting  place  of  the  hun- 
dreds of  natives  who  journeyed  aflnually  to 
Hudson  Bay.  As  manjr  as  500  canoes  in  a  year 
made  the  long  aad  tulaome  joumejr  to  Yoric 
Factory.     Here  they  exdiansed  their  deariy- 


^  powder,  powder-boms,  shot,  hatchets  and 

"The  conquest  of  Canada  by  Great  Britain 
brought  about  an  immediate  and  comjdete 
chaiwe  in  the  fur  trade.  With  the  passing  of 
the  French  regime,  monopoly  and*  licenses  dis- 
^teared  The  of1u;ers  of  the  French  company 
withdrew  from  the  country  rather  than  live 
under  the  British  flag.  The  coureuri  de  boig, 
suddenly  cast  adrift,  lacked  the  capital  necessary 
to  continue  the  fur.trade.'  New  anployers,  how- 
ever, were  soon  at  hand.  The  old  route  from 
the  East,  up  the  Ottawa  and  across  Lake 
Superior  to  Grand  Portage,  had  scarcely  for- 
^tten  the  passing  of  the  French  traders  when 
It' was  traversed  afresh  bv  British  merchants 
jr6m  Montreal.  Alexander  Henry,  Thomas 
Curry,  James  Pinlay  and  the  Frobisher  broth- 
ers were  the  hardy  foreruiuiers  of  a  new  race 
of  traders,  whose  enterprise  and  daring  soon 
carried  them  into  the  Saskatchewan 'and  Atha- 
basca districts.  In  order  to  compete  the  more 
successfully  With  their  long-establidied  rivals, 
the  newcomers,  who  at  first  traded  individually, 
decided  uiran  union,  a  decision  which  led  to  the 
founding  in  1783  of  the  Northwest  Company. 
Under  uie  stimulus  of  competition  the  opera- 
tions of  both  ccimpanies  qiuckly  extended  north- 
ward to  Lake  Athabasca  and  westward  to  the 
foot-hill*  of  the  Rockies.     ' 

The  necessity  of  enlarging  the  field  of  trade 
gave  a  reraarkule  impulse  to  exploration. '  In 
penetrating  the  unknown  lands,  north  and  west, 
the  pioneer  traders  rendered  invaluable  service 
to  their  conntrv.  The  honor  of  leadins  the  way 
Into  the  northlond  belongs  to  Samnel  Heamc^ 
a  servant  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  Set- 
ting out  from  Prince  of  Wales  Fort,  Hcame 
succeeded,  after  two  failures,  in  reaching  the 
Coppermine  River.  He  was  the  first  white 
man  to  arrive  at  the  Arctic  shores  from  the 
interior.  The  men  of  the  Northwest  Company 
were  not  slow  to  follow  the  example  of  their 
rivals.  No  name  holds  a  prouder  place  in  the 
annals  of  American  travel  than  that  of  Alex- 
ander Mackenzie.  Fort  Chipewyan,  situated 
upon  the  shores  of  Lake  Athabasca,  the  trade 
centre  of.  the  north,  was  the  starting  point  of 
his  two  great  journeys.  The  "Western  Sea,* 
the  elusive  goal  of  Virendrye's  travels,  was 
the  object  of  Mackenzie's  ([uest  His  first  joar- 
ney,  made  in  1789,  terminated  at  the  Arctic 
O^an.  Qtoosing  a  more  westerly  stream  for 
his  second  attempt,  Mackenzie  ascended  the 
Peace  River  to  its  source  in  the  Roddes,  crossed 
the  heis^t  of  land,  and  after  descending  the 
Fraser  River  a  short  distance,  .struck  out  across 
country  for  the  sea.  The  successful  issue  of 
the  journey  was  proclaimed  by  the  following 
words  inscribed  upon  the  face  of  a  rock  over- 
looking the  waters  of  the  Pacific:  'Alexander 
Mackenzie  from  Canada  by  land,  the  twenty- 
second  of  July,  one  thousand  seven  hundred 


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CANADA— THX  CANADIATI  WBST  (10» 


and  ninctyi-thTec"  Two  other  Nor'westers, 
Smon  FrBser  and  David  Thompsoa,  also  made 
Ifadr  way  to  tbe  Pacific  Ocean,  the  former  in 
1SD8  by  the  river  which  bears  bis  tuune,  die 
latter  in  1811  by  the  Columbia. 

While  Britisn  explorers  were  fordng  a  way 
across  die  continent,  British  seamen  were  mak- 
ing good  their  country's  claim  to  the  Padfic 
Coast  In  1778  Captain  Coc^  touched  at  Nootka, 
on  Vancouver  Island.  At  this  centre  of  trade 
Capt.  John  Meares  10  years  later  established 
a  settlement,  which  unfortunately  was  soon  de- 
stroyed by  the  Spaniards.  In  1792  Capt. 
George  Vancouver,  being  sent  out  to  inquire 
into  the  action  of  the  Spaniards,  forced  the 
latter  to  withdraw  from  the  scene  of  Ibar 
ontra^.  As  the  result  of  arbitration  Great 
Britain  received  the  entire  coast  line. 

Down  to  the  close  of  the  18th  century  the 
ruling  interest  of  the  West  centred  in  the  fur 
trade.  Lord  Selldric  it  was  who  first  conceived 
the  idea  of  planting  a  settlement  at  the  heart 
of  the  continent.  From  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany he  secured  a  grant  of  110,000  square  miles 
m  tne  valley  of  the  Red  River,  a  district  hence- 
forth (^lea  Assiniboia.  Settlers  were  hurried 
out  from  Scotland,  and  in  1812  a  small  com- 
pany, 70  in  number,  made  its  way  inland  from 
York  Factory. 

The  newcomers  were  looked  upon  a>  in- 
truders by  the  Nor'westers,  who  suspected  that 
Lord  Selkir)^  being  a  shardiolder  in  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company,  had  planted  his  colony  to 
interfere  with  the  trade  of  the  Canadian  com- 
pany. The  early  years  brou^t  trying  eiqieri- 
ences  to  the  settlers.  So  great  was  the  scarcity 
of  food  that  the  ^vemor.  Miles  Macdonell,  is- 
sued a  proclamation  lo  the  effect  that  "no  pro- 
visions, flesh,  fish,  grain  or  vegetables  were  to 
be  taken  out  of  the  lands  of  the  settlement  for 
a  year.*  This  action  brought  the  hostiUty  of 
the  Nor'westers  to  the  point  of  violence.  Some 
of  the  colonists  were  bribed  to  desert,  the  re- 
mainder were  driven  out  by  a  band  of  M^lis,  or 
half-breeds.  Almost  immediately,  however,  the 
refugees  returned,  reinforced  by  another  com- 
pany of  immigrants.  With  the  new  arrivals 
came  Robert  Sonple  as  ^vemor. 

Meanwhile  Lord  Selkirk  had  arrived  in  Can- 
ada. Hearing  at  Montreal  of  the  misfortunes 
of  his  colonists,  he  had  engaged  the  services  of 
100  discharged  soldiers  and  set  out  for  the  West 
While  he  was  yet  on  the  way,  stirring  events 
were  happening  in  the  Red  River  Valley.  The 
Nor'westers,  angered  by  the  destruction  of  their 
fort  on  the  Red,  bestirred  themselves  to  destrOT 
the  settlement.  A  strong  band  of  half-breeds 
was  gathered  at  Portage  la  Prairie  under  the 
leadership  of  Cuthbert  Grant  On  19  June 
1816  Governor  Semple  was  informed  that  a 
body  of  horsemen  was  approaching  over  the 
prairie.  Taking  a  smalt  force,  he  marched  out 
to  inquire  the  purpose  of  the  intruders.  This 
move  precipitated  a  skirmish  at  a  spot  now 
marked  by  the  Stven  Oaks  monument.  When 
the  firitiK  ceased  Semple  and  21  of  his  followers 
lay  dead  or  mortally  wounded.  B;v  this  disaster 
the  settlers  were  forced  to  again  leave  their 
hotnes. 

The  news  of  Seven  Oaks  was  a  signal  for 
great  rejoicing  at  Fort  William,  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Nordiwest  Company.  The  joy  of  the 
Nor'westers,  however,  was  rudely  dispelled  by 
tbe  sadden  arrival  of  Lord  Selkirk.    'The  hitter, 


them  down  to  York,  Upper  Canada.  In  the 
following  spring  he  pushed  on  to  the  Red 
RivcTj  where  he  promptly  restored  the  ejected 
colonists  to  their  farms,  letfled  his  soldiers  - 
about  Fort  Douglas  and  made  a  treaty  with 
the  Indians. 

When  the  news  of  the  tragic  death  ot 
Semple  and  his  men  readied  England,  the  im- 
perial government  at  once  interfered.  Both 
parties  to  the  quarrel  were  ordered  to  give  Iffi 
all  posts  and  prcmcrty  seired.  The  death  ot 
Lord  Selkirk  m  the  year  1820  though  to  be 
resetted,  was  beneficial  to  the  West,  removing 
as  it  did  the  last  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a  union 
of  tbe  fur  companies. 

AfEer  tbe  union,  which  took  place  in  1621, 
the  management  of  the  company's  affairs  rested 
with  an  official  known  as  the  governor  of  Ru- 
pert's Land,  assisted  by  a  council  of  chief  fac- 
tors  and  traders.  A  strong  man  was  needed  for 
the  Rovemorship,  and  such  an  one  was  found 
in  the  person  of  a  young  Scotchman  named 
George  Simpson,  who  ably  guided  the  forttmes 
of  the  company  during  the  next  40  years.  To 
the  enterprise  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
in  no  small  measure,  Great  Britain  owes  her 
control  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  From  tbe  north 
Russia,  from  the  south  the  United  States,  were 
pressu^  vital  claims  which  threatened  to  shut 
out  Great  Britain  entirely  from  the  sea.  Under 
Simpson's  aggressive  administration  the  coiutiy 
between  the  Rockies  and  the  Pacific  was  occu- 
pied. A  fleet  of  six  armed  vessels  protected 
the  company's  coast  trade,  of  which  Fort  Van- 
couver was  the  centre. 

Meanwhile  tbe  Selidrk  settlement  clustering 
about  the  historic  walls  of  Fort  Garry,  was 
winning  its  way  to  prosperity.  The  hardships 
of  pioneer  life  in  tbe  East  were  here  repeated. 
Spade  and  hoe,  sidde  and  cradle,  flail  and 
quern,  all  told  of  the  day  of  small  things.  A 
series  of  disaMers,  in  tbe  form  of  grasshoppers 
and  floods,  failed  to  shake  the  courage  of  the 
sturdy  settlers.  The  growth  of  the  colony  made 
necessary  a  change  of  government.  The  peo- 
ple complained  that  the  members  of  the  council 
of  Assiniboia  were  p^d  servants  of  the  com-  . 
pany,  and  did  not,  therefore,  represent  the  pop- 
alar  will.  Discontent  was  a  sign  of  piogress, 
a  sign  that  tbe  settlement  was  growing  beyond 
the  control  of  a  fur  company. 

The  steadily  growing  importance  of  the  Pa- 
cific country  made  it  imperative  to  determine 
the  boundary  line  between  Am^ca  and  Brit- 
ish territory  in  the  West  The  49th  parallel 
was  the  accepted  line  as  far  as  the  Rockies, 
and  it  was  agreed  that  for  the  time  being  the 
country  beyond  the  mountains  should  be  'free 
and  open*  to  both  nations.  In  1846  the  Ore- 
gon treaty  continued  tbe  boundary  line  along 
the  49tb  parallel  to  the  channel  separating  Van- 
couver Island  from  tbe  mainland  The  litie 
was  to  follow  this  channel  southwesterly  to 
tbe  Pacific  Oceaa  For  several  years  the  own- 
ership of  the  island  of  San  Juan  was  in  dis- 
pute. Tbe  qnestion  was  finally  referred  for 
settlement  to  the  German  Emperor,  who  gave 
his  award  in  favor  of  tbe  United  States. 

To  maintain  order  among  tbe  lawless  min- 
ers wbimi  the  discovery  of  gold  had  drawn 
to  the  Pacific  Coast,  a  separate  govemment 
was  established  on  the  mahiland.    New  West- 


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CANADA— THE  CANADIAN  WEST   (1(0 


aiEi-,  on  the  Fraser  River,  became  the  capi- 
ni.  This  aiTBiiKetnent,  however,  proved  un- 
satis  facto  17;  and  at  times  there  was  talk  of 
annexing  Vancouver  Island  to  the  United 
States.  Fortunately  a  strong  British  sentiment 
'  prev^led,  which  led  to  the  reunion,  in  1866, 
of  the  island  and  the  mainland,  to  form  the 
province  of  British  Columbia.  Victoria  was 
chosen  as  capital. 

The  British  North  America  Act  made  pro- 
vision for  the  admission  to  confederation  at 
any  time  of  British  Columbia,  Rupert's  Land 
and  the  Northwest  territories.  The  first  Do- 
minion Parliament  petitioned  the  British  gov- 
errmient  to  hand  over  to  Canada  Rupert's  Land 
and  the  Northwest  It  was  claimed  that  the 
rule  of  a  fur  company  did  not  tend  to  the 
general  development  of  the  country,  and,  more- 
over, that  the  extension  of  the  Dcnninion  west- 
ward would  be  a  safeguard  aRainst  any  aggres- 
sion on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  finally  surrendered 
to  Canada  its  control  of  Rupert's  Land  and 
its  monopoly  of  trade.  The  company,  in 
return,  received  the  sum  of  ^300,000,  one- 
twentieth  of  all  land  thereafter  surveyed  for 
lettlement,  and  also  retained  its  posts  and 
trading  privil^es. 

At  the  time  of  confederation  (q.v.),  the  only 
occupants  of  the  land  bejrond  Lake  Superior 
were  roving  bands  of  Indians,  a  few  scattered 
traders  and  12,000  settlers  in  the  vallev  of  die 
Red  River.  Ten  thousand  of  these  12,000  were 
half-breeds,  Scotch  and  French.    Into  this  c 


country  had  been  handed  over  to  Canada  and 
the  interests  of  the  natives  were  to  be  sacrificed. 
Such  was  the  thought  of  the  half-breed  ele- 
ment. The  storm  centre  was  the  French  half- 
breed  party,  the  M^tis,  led  by  Louis  Kiel  (see 
RiEL  Rebellion).  There  was  no  one  in  the 
colony  to  restrain  the  letter's  madness.  Fort 
Garry  was  seized  and  a  ^provisional  govern- 
ment' established  There  was  every  prospect, 
however,  of  a  bloodless  settlement  of  the  situa- 
tion, when  suddenly  Riel,  in  a  moment  of  reck- 
lessness, ordered  the  execution  of  a  young  On- 
tario immigrant  named  Thomas  ScotL  The 
news  of  this  brutal  murder  raised  a  storm  of 
indignation  in  the  East  In  a  remarkably  diort 
time  a  volunteer  force  under  the  command  of 
Col.  Garnet  Wolseley  reached  Fort  Garry,  only 
to  find  that  the  instigators  of  the  rd>ellion 
had  fled  across  the  American  border. 

Out  of  the  sttife  of  rebellion  arose  a  new 
province.  Even  while  Wolsdey's  force  was 
on  its  way  up  from  the  East,  the  Manitoba  Act 
passed  the  Caii3<&n  Parliament.  Manitoba  was 
admitted  into  confederation  as  a   fult-Bedged 

?rovince.  The  claims  of  the  half-breeds  were 
ullv  met  by  a  generoos  land  grant.  Many  of 
Wolseley's  men  remained  in  the  new  province 
to  share  in  its  making^.  The  litde  settlement 
about  Fort  Garry  was  soon  transformed  into 
die  popolouB  city  of  WiimiDeg.  Manitoba  drew 
her  first  governor  from  uie  far  East,  in  the 

r ion  of  a  distinguished  Nova  Scotian,  Adams 
Archibald. 

A  year  later  the  westward  expansion  of  con- 
federation was  continued.  British  Columbia  be- 
came part  of  the  Dominion,  subject  to  a  very 
important  condttioii,  namely,  that  a  transcon- 
tinental railroad  should  be  begun  within  two 


years  and  completed  widiin  10  years  from  the 
date  of  union.  In  1872.  therefore.  Sir  John 
A.  Macdonaid  introduced  the  question  in  Par- 
liament. The  great  enterprise  was  well  under 
way  when  the  ministry,  charged  with  corrup- 
tion, was  forced  to  resign.    Alexander  Macken- 


the  country  allowed.  This  delay  put  a  severe 
strain  upon  British  Columbia's  loyalty  to  the 
Dominion.  The  Macdonald  government,  re- 
turning to  power  in  1878,  immediately  took  up 
again  the  railway  question.  Construction  was 
begun  from  both  ends;  and  with  such  vigor 
was  the  work  pressed  forward  that  the  last 
spike  was  driven  by  Lord  Strathcona  in  No- 
vember 18S5.  The  completion  of  a  tnuiscon- 
tinental  railway  cemented  the  bond  binding  the 
East  and  the  West 

No  sooner  was  order  restored  after  the  Riel 
rebellion  than  settlers  began  to  flock  into  Man- 
itoba. Many  fanners  from  eastern  Canada 
movwi  west  while  from  Europe  came  an  ever 
increa^ng  number  of  colonists,  of  British,  Scan- 
dinavian  and  German  stock.  The  newomiers 
Miread  beyond  the  limits  of  Manitoba,  many 
finding  their  way  into  the  valley  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan, a  few  ev«n  to  the  foothills  of  the 
Rockies.  This  Northwestern  Territory  was 
governed  by  the  lieutenant-governor  of  Mani- 
t^a  and  a  council  of  U  members.  In  1876 
a  change  took  place.  The  eastern  section  of 
the  country,  called  Keevratin,  was  placed  under 
the  personal  control  of  the  lieu  ten  ant -governor 
of  Manitoba,  while  the  western  was  given  a 
resident  governor  and  a  council  of  five  mem- 
bers. A  few  years  later  four  districts  were  or- 
fanized.  Alberta,  Assiniboia,  Athabasca  and 
askatcbewaiL  Regina,  being  situated  upon  the 
main  line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railww  then 
under  construction,  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of 
government 

The  advent  of  the  railway  gave  promise  of 
peaceful  and  rapid  progress,  when  suddenly  ■ 
second  rebellion  broke  out.  At  the  close  of  the 
Red  River  rebellion  many  of  the  Mitis  with- 
drew westward  and  settled  ui>on  the  banks  of 
the  Saskatchewan,  among  their  near  relatives, 
the  Cree  Indians.  Here  they  were .  disturbea 
^  the  encroachment  of  a  hated  civilization. 
■Their  unrest  was  increased  by  a  fear  of  losing 
their  lands  through  the  failure  of  the  Dominion 
government  to  issue  title  deeds.  The  sudden 
return  from  exile  of  Louis  Rid  was  all  that 
was  needed  to  provoke  rebellion.  Near  Duck 
Lake,  within  the  angle  formed  by  the  North 
and  South  Saskatchewan,  tiie  first  dash  took 
place,  between  a  band  of  MMs  and  a  force 
of  mounted  police  and  volunteers. 

The  positiOD  of  the  white  settlers  of  the 
Saskatchewan  Valley  was  serious.  The  real 
dan^r  lay,  not  in  a  revolt'  of  die  M^tis, 
but  m  the  possibility  of  a  general  rising  of  the 
Indians,  of  whom  taere  were  over  30,000  in  the 
Northwest.  Prince  Albert,  Battleford  and 
Fort  Pitt  lay  exposed  to  attack.  The  most  se- 
rious risings  of  the  Indians  took  place  near 
Battleford  and  Fort  Pitt,  among  the  followers 
of  Poundmaker  and  Bifj  Bear  The  heart  oC 
the  rebdtton  was  the  villi^^  of  Balocbe,  die 
centre  of  die  Uitis  settlements.  The  news  oC 
the  fight  at  Dude  Lake  was  the  signal  for  a 


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CANADIAN  SCENERY 


I  MaaDt  Sir  Dviuld,  uid  Uu  Dl«ill*<nl  Cladet,  Selkirk  Uauataini  1  LwJiia«  lUpldi,  St  Luuiuaf 

Digit  zed 


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CANADA^THB  SBTTLBMBNT  OF   THE  CANADIAN  WS8T  (11)         841 

then  drove  out  the  garriaon  of  Port  Pitt.  When 
dM  reimrt  of  the  rebellion  reached  Ottawa,  the 
Dotnimoo  sovenunent  took  protnpt  actkm.  The 
call  for  vduntecrs  met  with  an  eager  response 
on  all  sides.  In  spite  of  the  great  distance, 
within  less  than  two  months  4/400  men  were 
f>laced  in  the  field,  all  save  the  Winiupeg  con- 
tingent beinR  from  eastern  Canada. 

General  Middleton,  contmaoder-in-chief  of 
the  Canadian  mihtia,  who  arrived  at  Qu'Ap- 
pelle  in  advance  of  the  main  force,  made  tbc 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  the  base  line  of  iiis 
operations,  and  prepared  to  crush  the  rebellion 
in  ail  its  centres  at  onc«.  Three  places  were 
in  immediate  danger:  Prince  Albert,  Battle- 
iord  and  Fort  Pitt;  three  relief  exi)editions 
were  provided  for  in  the  plan  of  campaign. 
General  Mjddleton  was  to  advance  from  Qn" 
Appelle  to  Batoche,  Riel's  headquarters.  Colonel 
Otter  from  Swift  Current  to  Battleford,  and 
General  Strange  from  Calgaty  to  Edmonton. 
The  three  movements  were  successfully  carried 
through,  the  divided  forces  converging  upon 
Battleford.  The  bulk  of  the  fighting  fell  to 
Middle  ton's  column,  which  met  with  deter- 
mined oppositioii  at  Fish  Creek  and  Batoche. 
With  Riel,  Poundmaker  and  Big  Bear  finally 
in  custody,  the  rebellion  was  at  an  en  a. 
Riel  and  ei^t  Indians  suffered  <the  death 
penalty. 

The  rebellion  was  not  Without  its  good  re- 
sults. In  recognition  of  their  growing  import- 
ance, the  Northwest  territories  were  granted 
representation  in  the  Dominion  Senate  and 
House  of  Commons.  The  need  of  a  stronger 
government  in  die  Northwest  became  obvious. 
The  old  council  was  abolished  and  its  place 
taken  by  an  elective  assembly,  which  first  met 
in  1888,  at  Regina.  .  But  this  was  not  of  course 
a  final  settlement  and  in  1905  the  vast  district 
between  Manitoba  and  British  Columbia  was 
divided  into  two  self-governing  pro*iaces  — 
Saskatchewan  and  Alberta. 

The  discovery  in  1897  of  ridi  d^slts  of 
gold  in  the  Yukon  (q.v.)  was  the  signd  for 
an  influx  of  fortune-hunters.  As  a  result  the 
long  standing  dispute  over  the  Alaskan  bound- 
ary patherednew  inwtortance.  In  taking  over 
Alaska  from  Russia  in  1867,  tfie  United  States 
secured  all  the  ri^ts  of  that  nation  as  laid 
down  in  the  trea^  of  I62S  between  Russia  and 
Great:  Britain.  The  interpretation  of  the  terma 
of  the  treaty  was  left  to  a  commission,  com- 
posed of  three  representatives  from  the  United 
States,  two  from  Canada  and  Lord  Alverstome, 
the  chief  justice  of  England.  The  commission 
met  in  London  in  September  1903.  The  de- 
cision w^s,  upon  the  whole,  favorable  to  the 
American  clamis.  See  Alaskan  BouNDAar 
Commission. 

The  growth  of  the  West  durbg  the  last  30 
years  has  been  very  marked,  the  inevitable 
result  of  the  expansion  of  the  Canadian  rail- 
way system  and  the  resultant  influx  of  settlers. 
Three  railway  systems  now  cross  Canada  from 
coast  to  coast:  the  Canadian  Pacific  (qv), 
the  Canadian  Northern  (q.v.)  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific  (q.v.),  the  eastern  section  of 
nrhirh  is  called  the  National  Transcontinental 
These  transcontinental   railroads,   with 


Fort    Nelson,    on    Hudson    Bay,    a 
of  410  miles.. 

David  M.  Ddncan, 
Author  of  'The  Story  of  the  Canadim  People,* 
Collegiate  Institute,  Winnipeg. 
11.  THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  CA- 
NADIAN WKST.— Without  a  just  apprecia- 
tion of  the  attractions  and  possibilities  of  the 
'Canadian  West."  as  the  larger  half  of  the 
Dominion  situated  west  of  Lake  Superior  has 
commonly  been  called,  neither  the  Canada  of 
to-day  nor  that  of  the  future  will  ever  be 
understood.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  states* 
manshift  after  the  consummation  of  confed- 
eration (see  Ohada  —  CoNrEDERATiOM)  was 
the  purchase  by  the  Canadian  govenmient  f  rom 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  (see  Canada- 
Hudson's  Bay  Company)  of  the  immense  ter- 
ritory forming  the  basin  of  Hudson  Bay  and 
known  as  Rupert's  Land,  over  which  that  com- 
pany held  proprietary  rights.  British  Columr 
bia,  in  1871,  entered  the  Dominion  thus 
brou^t  up  to  her  borders.  Some  14  years  later 
followed  the  completion  of  the  Camidian  Pa- 
cific Railway  (^.r.),  an  enterprise  of  splendid 
self-confidence  in  so  young  a  country.  A  rail- 
way was  needed  to  fulfil  the  conditions  upon 
which  British  Columbia  had  joined  the  Con- 
federation^ and  without  it  the  vast  territory 
betweBi  that  province  and  Ontario  could  not 
be  developed  nor  preserved  to  Canada.  The 
^mrdiase  of  Rwpert's  Land  created  the  condi- 
tions which  brought  about  and  justified  the 
building  of  the  first  transcontinental  railway, 
and  the  prolonged  difcussions  over  the  policy 
of  the  government  of  the  day  in  respect  to  the 
puUic  assistance  given  to  that  road  began  the 
process  of  popular  education  in  eastern  Canada 


tracts  of  territory  to  the  settler;  and  in 
addition  a  line  is  under  construction  from 
The     Pas,    on    tiie    Saskatchewan    River,    to 


the  extent  and  resources  of  the  West  A 
seemingly  limitless  sphere  for  internal  develop- 
ment gradually  was  revealed,  and  the  neccs^ty 
on  two  occasions  for  the  employment  of  armed 
force  against  half-breed  rebellions,  with  some 
sacrifice  of  blood,  sealed  the  sense  of  poeses- 
sioa  Pioneers  proved  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
and  the  richness  of  the  mines,  and  with  the 
assurance  of  a  rapidly  increasing  population  the 
whole  national  life  received  an  access  of  vigor 
and  hopefulness.  External  policy,  as  well  as 
iotema),  was  influenced.  A  country  that  could 
produce  and  export  slai^e  foodstuffs  in  quan- 
tities capable  of  indefinite  multiplication,  and 
had  vast  stores  of  timber,  coal  and  metaU 
could  support  great  home  industries  and  also 
become  a  prominent  factor  in  international 
trade.  It  could  work  at  home  and  bargain 
abroad.  It  could  make  choices.  The  idea  of 
a  trade  union  of  the  British  empire,  for  ex- 
ample^ presented  itself  in  i>ractical  form  lar»ly 
beause  of  the  potentialities  of  the  Cana<uaiii 
West  Populatian  only  was  needed  to  show 
results,  and  the  movement  of  population  into 
this  part  of  Canada  is  therefore  a  subject  of 
faitcrest  and  importance, 

The  conntrjr  lying  west  and  northwest  of 
Lake  Superior  in  Canada  is  of  vast  extent  and 
great  variety.  It  includes  the  extreme  wcsteni 
end  of  the  province  of  Ontario,  the  provinces 
of  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta  and  British 
Columbia,  while  beginning  again  at  the  east  and 
lying  to  the  north  of  tiiese  districts  are  di« 
Northwest  terrhories  and  Yukon.  Prior  to 
1905   the  only  province*  were  Uaiutoba  and 


Google 


S«S        CANAIU  —  THB  3BTTLBBSBNT  OF .  T]^  CANADBUi  WUT  Ol) 


Britisb  Calumjiia.  The  remainder  constituted 
the  'territories.'  Now  'the  territories"  signify 
the  v»st  northern  region  stretching  from 
Labrador  to  Yukon.  The  land  area  in  these 
districts  in  acres  is : 


Oatuio  l^nttBa  end).  appRHinwte. 


Noflhwot  tetiiloriM  ciibridor  to  Tukiid). . . 


0. 000,000 
5.093.480 


ui.m.uo 


<Usregarded,  since  they  have  not  yet  attracted 
population  to  any  maimd  de^ee.  The  western 
end  of  the  province  of  Ontario  is  rich  in  timber 
and  minerals,  and  possesses  stretches  of  good 
agricultural  land.  The  prairie  region  begins  at 
the  eastern  boundary  of  UanitoM  and  extends 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  embracing  t&e  prov- 
inces of  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta: 
wooded  prairie  and  open  prairit  rolli>«  and 
flat,  broken  by  hills  and  some  rocky  ridges  and 
drained  by  ^reat  rivers  that  flow  eastward  and 
northward  into  great  lakes  with  outletB  into 
Hudson  Bay.  No  richer  agricultural  lands  and 
no  better  graring  ranges  exist  than  are  here 
found.  Of  the  350,000,000  acres  in  this  com- 
bined district  it  would  be  idle  to  estimate  the 
proportion  of  good  grain  land.  It  b  very  large, 
as  attested  bv  the  successful  farms  now  scat- 
tered througnom  the  whole  region.  In  1903 
only  5,073,424  acres  had  yet  been  put  nuder  crop. 
By  the  year  1917  the  area  under  crop  had  grown 
to  24.9S,700  acres.  British  Columbia  is  a  land 
of  magnificent  mountains  rich  in  minerals,  and 
of  valleys  of  the  very  bluest  aRrinltural  pos- 
sibilities, nearly  the  whole  clothM  with  ipletidid 
forests.  See  the  articles  in  this  series:  Aoai- 
ctn-TuaEi  MiKERALB;  The  Fokests  and  Luk- 
BER  Ikdustry. 

In  1901  the  Canadian  West,  not  including 
the  portion  of  Ontario,  was  shown  by  the 
census  to  have  a  population  of  645,517.  In  1911 
the  Camdian  West,  not  including  the  portion 
in  Ontario,  was  shown  by  the  census  to  have  a 
population  of  1,742,182.  Out  of  this  number 
498,347,  or  2a6  per  cent,  had  been  bom  in  the 
West,  3S4,74Si  or  20.4  per  cent,  had  been  bom 
in  the  eastern  provinces  of  Canada.  341.960  or 
19.6  per  cent  had  been  bom  in  the  Britisn  Isles, 
509,509  or  29.2  per  cent  had  been  bom  in  for- 
ei^  countncs,  white  37,618,  or  22  per  cent  had 
failed  to  (five  their  birthplace  or  been  bom 
at  sea.  By  origin  966,238  were  of  British 
stock,  152,137  of  Gemian  stock,  114,877  of 
Austro-Hungarian  stock,  95,106  of  Scandina- 
vian. 83,635  of  French,  43,676  of  Russian  and 
32,167  of  Chinese  and  Japanese,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  these  78,717  were  Indiana  and  108,905 
of  unspCci^ed  origin.  To  understand  the  pecu- 
liar nature  and  me  rate  of  the  movement  of 
eopulatian  into  the  Canadian  West  indicated 
y  these  figures,  many  general  considerations 
taint  be  borne  in  mind.  Conditions  as  they 
have  existed  in  the  United  States  are  among 
the  most  important  of  these  considerations. 
Until  the  ckning  years  of  the  last  century  the 
United  States  was  an  irresisdUe  magnet.  It 
drew  from  the  movable  |>opulation  of  all  coun- 
tries. From  Canada  itself  it  attracted  a  larger 
pK^fottioo  o£  the  native  population  than  from 


any  other  country.  Its  relative  advantages  over 
Canada,  in  the  qres  of  those  who  soti|^  to 
better  their  condition,  consisted  in  its  advanced 
stage  of  devdoivnent  Not  only  vr«rc  there 
more  varied  employment  and  larger  opiKWtiuii- 
ties  in  industrial  and  commerdal  life,  bat  its 
fertile  lands  were  opened  up  by  raihvays  from 
10  to  40  years  before  those  in  the  Canar 
dian  West  abd  d»e  mineral  wealth  of  its 
western  BKiuntains  was  discovered  and  advet^ 
tised  to  the  world  years  before  the  riches  of 
Canada  in  this  reject  were  even  suspfccted. 
The  prairie  regions  of  the  Canadian  West  had 
to  wait  for  tnnsportation  facilities,  and  then 
they  had  to  wait  tnMil  their  profitableness  was 
aitabli»hed.  Since  people  are  not  predisposed 
to  bdtevc  in  the  security  of  agriculture  in 
Rorthem  lat>tude^  this  meant,  practically,  that 
thc^  had  to  wait  ondl  the  prairies  in  the 
Umted  States  were, tested  ri^t  tn>  to  the  border. 
Before  that  time  even-oiificial  eras  returns 
could  not  he  widdy  effective  as  ittduoements 


lion  are  not  easy  to  divert    Where  many  have 
gone  others  tend  to  follow. 

To  what  extent  the  United  States  drew  upon 
Canadians  up  to  1900  is  shown  in  the  census  re- 
turns of  that  year  which  record  the  residence 
in  that  country-  of  1,181^5  persons  bom  in 
British  North  America,  that  is,  in  Canada  and 
Newfoundland.  HOw  littk  the  United  States 
had  given  in  return  appears  from  the  oompara- 
tivdy  small  number  of  127,899  natives  of  the 
United  States  resident  in  Canada  when  the 
Canadian  census  was  taken  in  1901.  But  the 
flow  of  population  from  Canada  to  the  United 
States  has  been  diedked  and  the  tide  haa  tume^ 
and  from  censns  returns  of  1  June  1911  it  is 
shown  that  there  were  303,680  natives  of  the 
United  States  resident  in  Canada,  of  whom 
168^  were  males  and  135,402  females;  and 
during  the  years  1912  to  1917,  inclusive,  the 
immigration  returns  show  die  arrival  in  Canada 
of  natives  of  the  United  States  to  a  total  num- 
ber of  538,815.  Canada  has  made  steady  and 
substantial  progress  and  her  industries  now 
provide  opportunities  for  all  her  own  people 
who  dearc  industrial  ee^loymeat.  But  whit 
is  of  more  direct  importance  to  the  present 
subject,  the  cheap,  good  lands  in  the  United 
States  are  now  very  largely  occupied ;  pros- 
perity and  a  good  birthrate  among  the  farming 
poptUation  have  created  a  host  of  laud  seekers 
of  native  birth,  and  the  price  of  land  has 
rapidly  risen.  In  the  Canadian  West,  < 
other  hand,  milHons  of  acres  of  the  most 
land  are  obtainable  at  moderate  cost,  _— 
land  has  been  proved,  and  railwapr  facilitiec 
and  railway  rates  put  the  crops  within  profit- 
able   reach   of    the   markets. 

The  history  of  the  settlement  of  the  Cana- 
dian West  may  conveniently  be  divided  into 
three  periods:  the  first  embracing  the  time  be- 
fore railway  facilities  existed  or,  say,  up  to 
1885;  the  second  from  1885  to  1901:  and  the 
third  beginning  in  1901.  So  far  as  the  prairie 
division  is  concerned  fur  traders  visited  it  and 
dwelt  in  it  from  early  times,  but  no  attempt 
wa,')  made  at  coloniiatioTi  previous  to  that  of 
Lord  Selkirk  in  the  decade  succeeding  1812 
That  his  venture,  beset  with  misfortunes  though 
it  was.  left  a  permanent  result  was  shown  by 
the  fact  that  in  1873  as  many  as  530  of  the  orig- 
inal Selkirk  setders  or  their  white  children  were 


,  the 
irtile 
this 


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CAHADA^THE  9BTTLBMSNTOP    THB. CANADIAN  WKffT  <11>        S48 


found  to  daim  ibc  grants  of  Und  offered  by  Ad 
Canadian  Pariiament.     Other  independent  col- 
MiMts  had  made  their  way  into  the  country  and 
there  wen,  of  course,  the  cmploTves  of  the 
HudioD's  Bay  Cotnpany,  but  in  18^,  when  die 
pnrcfaase  by  Canada  waft  made,  the  total  white 
population   numbered    only    a    few.   hundreds. 
Scnne   members   of  the  military   e^cpedition   of 
1670  retnained  as  settlers  and  other  accession! 
were  receired  at  about  the  same  time.    In  1871 
the  Dominion  government  appointed  the  first 
immigration  agents  In  the  Vfest^  one  In  Uani- 
toba  and  another  in  the  Terrttones,  and  author-' 
ized  the  eitabtishment  of  an  'inunigrBtion  ihed* 
at  Winnipeg,  a  hamlet  then  possessing  241  in- 
habitants.   The  work  of  promoting  immigration 
to  Canada  had  been  undertaken  by  the  Federal 
government  in  1868,  the  provincial  governments 
co-operating,  and  the  appointment  of  agents  in 
the  West  brought  that  section  into  direct  touch 
with  tile  general  sirstem  having  agents  in  Great 
Britain  and  Europe.     It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  in  his  annual  report  to  the  department  for 
1872  tlie  agent  at  Winnipeg  estimates  the  ar- 
rivals during  the  year  at  1,400,  of  whom  954 
came  from  Ontario,  78  from  Quebec  and  115 
from  the  United  States.    During  1872  and  1873 
the  Dominion  government  entered  into  neg<yj 
tiations  with  a  colony  of  Gennan  Mennonites 
living  in  southern  Russia  who  desired  to  emi- 
.    Bfrate.     E>elegates  visited  Canada  and  in  1874  ■ 
1,349  of  these  people  settled  in  southern  Mani- 
toba.   This  is  important,  not  only  because  it  led 
to  further  immigration  from  the  same  source 
but  also  because  the  attention  of  the  Dominion 
government  was  thus  directed  to  the  question 
of  special  colonization  in  the  West.      In  1874 
Scandinavian    and    Icelandic    delegates    were 
shown  through  the  countiy  and  a  small  begin- 
ning was  made  in  Icelandic  settlement  through 
the  moving  up  from  Ontario  of  285  Icelanders. 
The  years  18/4  and  1875  may  be  noted  also  be- 
cause the  Dominion  government  then  first  ap- 
Kinted    Canadian    immigration  agents  in   the 
lited  States,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  effect- 
ing the  repatnalion  of  Canadians.    Results  were 
at  once  obtained  and  agents  reported  some  400 
repatriated  Canadians  as  immigrants  into  the 
W^st  in  1876  and  some  800  in  1877.    In  1879  a 
delegation  of  tenant  fanners  of  Great  Britain 
visited   the  country  and  their  reports  resulted 
in  an  increase  in.  immigration  from  the  British 
Isles.     The  projected  transcontinental  railway 
had  met  with  difiiculties  and  delays,  but  in  1875 
work  was  begun  at  Thunder  Bay,  the^head  of 
Lake  Superior,  on  the  sectidn  to  Winnipeg,  and 
in  1S7S  a  line  from  the  United  SUtes  border  at 
Pembina  was  completed  to  Saint  Boniface,  oppo- 
site Winnipeg  across  the  Red  River.    Although 
the  line  from  Lake  Superior  was  not  completed 
until  1883,  the  line  from  Pembina  increased  the 
facilities  for  reaching  Winnipeg  (q.v.),  and  the 
railway  building  combined  with  other  not  un- 
natural causes  led  to  a  'boom*  in  real  estate, 
accompanied  by  a  rush  of  speculators  and  protr 
pectivc  settlers.    In  1881  the  immigration  agents 
estimated    the  arrivals  in   Manitoba  at  about 
25,000,  in  1832  at  almost  70,000^  and  in  1883  at 
50^000.     Eastern  Canada  and  the  United  States 
contributed    the   great   proportion   of   these 
visitors,     as    most    of    them    proved    to    be. 
The  boom  ^urst*  in  1883,    By  the  census  re- 
Wna  for  1S8I  tome  estimate  of  wlnt  was  pot- 


manent  in  the  immigration  of  the  previous  years 
can  be  reached.  Manitoba  was  given  a  total 
population  of  65,954,  of  whom  18,020  were  bom 
m  Manitoba  itself,  and  6,422  in  the  Territories. 
Of  these  two  clasies  (^767  were  Indians,  but  the 
balf-hreeds  were  not  separately  enumerated. 
Ftoib  outside  the  largest  nimiber  was  furnished 
by  the  province  of  Ontario,  namely,  19,125,  Que- 
bec supplying  4,085  and  Nova  Scoda  820.  Na- 
tives of^England  and  Wales  numbered  3,457,  of 
Scotland  1,896,  and  of  Ireland  2,868.  Russia 
supplied  5,651,  chieAy  Mennonites ;  Germany. 
220;  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark,  121;  and 
Prance^  81.  The  United  States  had  contrib- 
tited  1,752.  In  the  same  year  the  while  popula- 
6on  of  the . Territories  was  6i974,  of  whom  517 
were  born  in  Ontario,  101  in  Quebec,  98  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  136  in  Scotland,  62  in  Ireland, 
27  in  France  and  116  in  the  United  Stales.  As 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  was  pushed 
trough  real  settlement  followed  at  a  faster 
rate  than  ever  before  and  in  1886  when  the  first 
train  was  run  frwn  Montreal  to  the  Pacific 
Coast  the  net  gain  in  population  from  the 
principal  sources,  over  the  figures  just  given  for 
1881,  was:  From  Ontario  14,996,  from  Quebec 
1,891,  from  Nova  Scotia  497,  from  New  Bruns- 
wick 363,  from  England  and  Wales  6,865,  from 
Scotland  4,146,  from  Ireland  753,  from  Iceland 
1,500,  from  the  United  States  570;  while  each  of 
the  other  countries  showed  small  gains.  The 
chief  sources  of  increases  in  the  Territories 
were  Ontario  8,300,  Quebec  1,200,  England  and 
Wales  3,750;  Scotland  2,000,  and  die  United 
States  890. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  follow  in  detail 
the  records  of  the  succeeding  years  up  to  1901. 
which  form  ±e  second  period.  The  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  Company,  which  had  received 
large  grants  of  land,  became  an  additional 
agency  in  the  organizing  of  immigration  move- 
ments as  also  to  a  limited  extent  did  the  col- 
onization societies  which  had  purchased  tracts 
of  land  in  1882,  1883  and  1884.  A  movement 
which  began  in  1889  and  1890  and  ultimately 
attained  considerable  proportions  was  that  from 
Austria- Hungary.  _  The  year  1890  was  marked 
by  a  considerable  immigration  from  Great  Brit- 
am.  Migration  from  tne  eastern  provinces  of 
Canada  remained  moderate  until  1^8.  In  1899 
over  7,000  Doukhobors  were  brought  in  and 
established  in  colonies.  According  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1901  Manitoba  had  a  population  of  238,- 
934,  not  counting  Indians  and  half-breeds. 
Those  bom  in  Canada  numbered  164,582.  Of 
the  Canadians  67,566  were  bom  in  Ontario,  8,492 
in  Quebec.  1,536  in  Nova  Scotia,  820  in  New 
Brunswick.  419  in  Prince  Edward  Island  and 
167  in  British  Columbia.  In  England  there 
were  bom  20,036,  in  Scotland  8,099.  in 
Ireland  4J37,  and  in  Wales  356:  in  Aus- 
tria-Hungary 11.570,  in  Russia  &8S4,  in  Ice- 
land S,4ffi  in  Germany  2,285.  in  IJorway,  Swe- 
den and  Denmark  2,09C^  in  France  1,470,  and 
in  the  United' States  6,922.  The  Territoriea 
had  a  population  of  185,335,  exclusive  of  Indians 
and  half-breeds.  Of  the  65.231  bom  in  Canada, 
Ontario  was  die  birthplace  of  28,229,  Quebec  of. 
4,075,  Nova  Scotia  of  1,169,  New  Brunswick 
of  669  and  Prince  Edward  Island  of  488.  Those 
bom  in  England  numbered  10t7S2,  in  Scotland 
^226,  in  Ireland  2,158,  and  in  Wales  186;  in 
Austria-Hongary  13^,  Russia  H58S,  Norway. 


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8M        CANADAwTHS  IWTTLSHKHT  OF   THB  OAH1IU3ZAN  WBST  <ll> 


Before  touching  the  (novement  of  the  later 
years  into  die  prairie  region  a  few  words 
tna^  be  said  of  the  progrcES  of  settlement  in 
Bntish  Columbia.  In  1901  the  population  of 
th&t  province  was  149,706,  again  excluding  In- 
dians and  half-breeds.  The  composition  of  the 
population  of  British  Columbia  differs  front  that 
of  the  districts  we  have  just  b«en  considering 
in  several  interesting  respects.  In  the  first 
place,  it  ciMitained  in  1901  relatively  a  larger 
number  bom  in  the  United  States,  namely, 
17,164.  Then  ther«  were  14,576  Chinese  and 
4^15  Japanese.  Ontario  contributed  23,64^  but 
Nova  Scotia  came  next  among  the  provinces 
with  4,603.  These  features  are  easily  explain- 
able. The  chief  attractions  of  British  Columbia 
hare  been  its  mines,  its  forests  and  its  fisheries. 
The  first  named  have  in  many  different  years 
caused  rushes  from  the  Unitea  Slates  and  they 
have  been  an  added  attraction  to  the  people  of 
the  province  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  man  from 
Ontario  is  a  good  pioneer  under  any  conditions. 
And  the  same  causes  that  drew  Chinese  to  Cali- 
fornia have  operated  in  the  case  of  British  Co- 
lumbia. The  first  gold  nish  to  British  Columbia 
occurred  in  1858,  nine  years  after  the  mem- 
orable rush  to  California.  It  is  said  that  between 
20,000  and  30,000  prospectors  from  California 
invaded  the  province  in  that  year.  Systematic 
exploration,  however,  was  not  attempted  and 
the  mining  population  came  and  went  in  waves, 
the  years  1858,  1861,  1864,  1865.  1869  and  1872 
marking  the  influxes.  Up  to  1893  nearly  all  die 
gold  produced  was  placer  gold  and  the  values 
ran  from  $705,000  in  1858  to  $3,913,563  in  1861 
continuing  at  an  average  of  over  $3,000,000  until 
186a  when  with  variations  a  decline  set  in.  The 
working  of  lode  mines  since  1893  has  ^ven  an 
element  of  permanence  to  the  mining  population 
and  the  annual  product  of  gold  has  for  the  past 
10  years  been  between  five  and  six  million  dol- 
lars in  value.  The  copper,  silver,  zinc  and  lead 
mined  exceed  gold  in  their  total  value,  coppef 
in  1917  reaching  the  value  of  $17,784,494.  Coal, 
of  which  British  Columbia  has  enormous  de- 
posits, shows  a'  steady  increase  and  the  annual 
product  now  exceeds  2,000,000  tons.  In  1917 
2,084,093  tons  of  a  value  of  $7,294,325  were 
mined.  The  magnificent  timber  resources  of 
the  province  have  given  employment  to  an  in- 
creasing number  of  men  and  theyield  of  the 
fisheries  has  grown  from  $104,697  in  1876  to 
$14,637,346  in  1917.  In  1871,  when  British 
Columbia  bettame  a  province  in  the  Dominion, 
the  population  was  36,247,  of  whom  25,661  were 
Indians.  In  1881  it  had  increased  to  49,548,  in 
1891  to  98,173,  in  1901  to  178,657,  in  1911  to 
392^. 

The  Yukon  territory  might  perhaps  be 
classed  with  British  Columbia.  In  1896  the 
gold  discoveries  were  made  there  which  caused 
the  famous  rush  in  1897.  The  census  of  1901 
gave  the  Yukon  a  population  of  24,357,  exclusive 
of  Indians  and  half-breeds.  Natives  of  the 
United  States  numbered  6,7K',  of  Ontario  1,940. 
of  Quebec  1,349,  of  Norway  and  Sweden  1,265, 
of  England  1,153  and  of  Germany  746;  not 
specified  6,573.  '  Pop.  (1911)  was  only  8.512. 

The  part  of  Ontano  included  in  the  Cana- 
dian West  has  interests  of  its  own  in  mines  and 
fertile  land,  but  its  progress  in  setdement  has 


the  Woods  district  caused  the  establishment 
of  the  town  of  Rat  Porta^  now  Kenara,  the 
continued  prosperity  of  which,  however,  came  to 
dqwnd  to  a  great  extent  on  the  lumber  in- 
dustry for  the  supply  of  the  demand  in  Mani- 
toba and  the  territories.  Port  Arthur  and  Fort 
William  on  Thunder  Bay,  Lake  Superior,  are 
at  the  head  of  lake  navi^tiOn  on  the  Canadian 
route,  and  the  summer  traffic  in  goods  for  die 
West  and  in  p-ain  and  flour  from  the  West  is 
there  transshipped,  the  towns  possessing  im- 
mense storage  and  shipping  grain  elevators. 
These  towns  are  Rowing  ra[)idly,  particularly 
since  1901,  and  their  growth  will  keep  pace  with 
the  development  of  the  West  The  completion 
of  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway  between 
Port  Arthur  and  the  wheat  fields,  running 
through  the  southern  part  of  the  province,  has 
not  only  assisted  Port  Arthur  but  has  opened 
up  the  'ralley  of  the  Rainy  River  and  nev 
centres  for  the  lumber  industry.  In  1911  Rat 
Portage,  now  Kenora,  had  a  population  of 
6,158  people.  Fort  William  16,499  and  Port 
Arthur  11,220.  Since  that  date  the  population,, 
especially  of  the  two  last  mentioned  towns,  has 
greatly  mcreased  and  new  towns  have  sprung 
up  along  the  line  of  the  Canadian  Northern. 
The  third  period  in  the  settlement  of  Mani- 
.  toba  and  the  Territories  began  in  1901.  Condi- 
tions to  which  reference  has  previously  been 
made  had  developed  and  the  time  was  ripe.  In 
the  United  States  a  greater  movement  of  land- 
seekers  was  taking  place  than  at  any  previous 
time,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  the  early 
eighties,  and  good  available  lands  for  pioneers 
were  fast  becoming  occupied.  Tliis  movement 
was  not  directly  from  the  more  thickly  settled 
Eastern  and  Middle  Slates  to  new  lands,  hut 
from  these  States  to  the  Northwestern  and 
Southwestern  States.  The  newcomers  were 
willing  to  buy  lands  under  cultivation  at  prices 
which  were  comparatively  high  to  the  men  who 
had  broken  them.  It  was  the  men  who  had 
entered  the  Northwestern  States  as  pioneers 
10,  15  or  20  years  before  who  were  offered 
tempting  prices,  and  in  thousands  decided  to 
become  pioneers  a^n.  This  movefflent  of 
population  was  directed  by  the  railway  com- 
panies and  by  private  land  companies,^  the 
managers  of  which  had  their  connections  in  all 
parts  and  thoroughly  understood  the  business 
of  land  settlement.  The  new  feature  in  the 
bistoiT  of  immigration  into  the  Canadian  West 
in  1901  was  the  adyent  of  these  United  States 
land  companies.  As  soon  as  prospects  scetned 
to  indicate  a  good  crop  in  that  year,  their  agent) 
appeared  in  considerable  numbers  and  pur- 
chased large  tracts.  This  continued  in  1902. 
To  show  Oic  magnitude  of  the  operations  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  one  of  these  companies 
purchased  in  one  block  about  I.IW.OOO  acrel 
The  lands  thus  secured  could  be  offered  to 
land-seekers  in  the  United  States  at  from  $4  to 
$10  per  acre.  In  certain  localities,  or  in  the 
case  of  improved  farms,  the  price  was  higher. 
The  man  who  could  sell  his  farm  in  tfie  Da- 
kotas,  Minnesota  or  Iowa,  for  example,  at  from 
$30  to  $75,  or  even  $100  per  acre  was  offered 
land  in  Canada,  which  returns  showed  was 
capable  of  producing  more  bushels  to  the  acre, 
for  a  price  which  would  not  only  pay  the  ex- 
penses of  the  tianifcr  but  leave  Bam  witt  * 


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CANADA— THE  eBTTLBimNT  OP  THB  CAMADUH  WEST  (11)        MB 


bonk  account.  In  most  cases  the  lai^  blocks 
ot  land  pnrchaaed  were  sold  in  smaller  lots  to 
middlemen  and  the  nainb«r  of  agents  thereby 
largely  increased  and  distributed  Enterprising 
Canadian  land  companies  also  existed  and 
greatly-  increased  in  numbers.  By  19(0  the  first 
phase  of  this  new  development,  that  is,  the 
purchase  of  large  blocks  of  land  by  speculatinf 
settlement  companies,  had  ahnoit  come  to  an' 
end.  The  policy  of  the  government  is  opposed 
to  selling  exctnt  to  the  actual  settler  and  the 
Canadian  Pacihc  Railway  Company,  the  Hud~ 
smi's  Bay  Company  and  the  Canadian  North- 
west Land  Company,  the  other  largest  owners 
of  land,  were  Ukewise  unfavorable  to  the  too 
extensive  operations  of  speculative  middlemen. 
It  waa  to  the  interest  of  the  railway  company, 
particularly,  to  secure  the  acttal  settler  as  soon 
as  possible  and  it  was  believed  that  prices  could 
mo«t  effectually  be  kept  at  an  attractive  level 
by  retaining  the  retail  selling  of.  the  lands  in 
the  hands  of  the  compa^.  Large  sales  were, 
however,  made  by  these  Omadian  companies  in 
blocks  as  well  as  in  farms,  and  it  is  of  interest 
to  note  how  great  an  increase  in  land  values 
accrued  as  shown  by  the  report  of  Ac  land 
sales  department  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way Compatv  for  dte  years  1901  and  1910. 
During  the  first  year,  a  total  of  831^32  acres 
was  sold  for  $2,646,23?,  the  average  return 
being  $3.18  per  acre.  In  1910,  the  sales  of  i^- 
cultural  land  aggregated  975,030  acres,  for 
$14,468,564J3,  bemg  an  average  of  £14.84  per 
acre.  Included  in  this  area  were  145,421  acre* 
of  irrigated  land,  which  brought  $26.59  per 
acre,  so  that  the  average  price  of  the  balance 
was  $12.78  per  acre.  The  Canadian  Northern 
Railway  Company  has  also  sn  extensive  land 
grant,  from  which  there  were  sold  in  I9I0 
246,966  acres  at  an  average  price  of  $10.36  per 
acre,  compared  with  116,662  acres  (or  $1,091,- 
722.37,  an  average  of  $9.36  per  acre,  in  1909. 
Among  the  factors  at  work  during  this 
period,  the  inunigraiion  department  of  the  gov- 
ernment must  be  given  a  chief  place. 


States.  To  this  fund  the  Dominion  govern- 
ment, the  government  ot  the  province  of  Mani- 
toba and  ie  city  of  Winnipeg  gave  contribu- 
tions. The  effect  of  the  increased  immigration 
from  the  Uinted  States  was  not  alone  in  addi- 
tions to  popnlation  from  that  source,  but  tiie 
fact  that  United  States  farmers  were  seeking 
Canadian  lands  was  an  excellent  advertisement 
in  Europe  The  most  Idling  advertisements  of 
all,  however,  were  the  splendid  crops  of  1901 
and  1902.  The  gorenunent  returns  of  wheat, 
oats  and  barley  for  Manitoba  and  the  Terri- 
tories, now  the  provinces  of  Alberta  and  Sas- 
Itttchewan.  for  the  years  1900,  1901,  1902,  1910, 
1915,  1916  and  1917  are  as  follows: 


1»17.. 


Ac™ 

BtBhela       ; 

PMIUM 

19  9S 

254,STT,1<M 

im-m 

«-H''9!5 

i^li 

e  gov- 
The 


0,000        40.5M.100       21. M 

The  area  under  wheat,  oats  and  barley  in 
what  are  now  the  provinces  of  Manitoba,  Sas- 
katchewan and  Alberta  was  in  1900,  3.481.453 
acres,  and  in  1917,  24,028,910  acres.  The  total 
production  was,  respectively,  43,25f^6&4  bushels 
and  507,214,400  bushels. 

For  the  year  19J7,  the  field  crops  of  the  Do- 
minion were  as  follows: 

Bnthik  Total  n«U 

91  (ura4  per  ten  ftmitieU  Total  vdua 


Spring  wtieat , . 

Oou 

Bwkiy 


BnckwhKt. . 
Uiudmins. 


Com  [br  Im^ting., 


Hay  And  done. . 


PbiJ^ 


Totali. . 


number  of  agents  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States  had  been  increased  and  more  money  than 
ever  before  was  spent  in  advertising  Canada. 
In  January  1904  the  United  States  and  Canadian 
land  companies  interested  in  western  Canada 
and  leadmg  business  men  in  Winnipeg  and  else- 
where organized  what  is  called  the  Western 
Canada  Immigration  Association  and  raised  a 
fund  of  $50000  for  a  two  years'  campaign  of 
cdocation    through    the    press    of    the   United 


"l^iSS 

"^l.M 

is',j33.iSo 

M2.M6.M0 

1,174,000 

Tom 

TOB* 

IO».US 

1.39 

W.tOl.lK 

The  area  in  field  crops  in  the  Dominion  in- 
creased from  19,763,740  acres  in  1900  to  30,556^- 
168  acres  in  191%  and  to  42.602,288  acres  in 
1917;  and  the  total  values  of  fidd  crops  from 
£194,953,420  in  1900  to  $384,513,795  in  1910,  and 
$1,144,636,1^0  in  1917.  According  to  official  es- 
timates for  1916  the  averace  value  of  farm 
lands  in  Canada  was  $40.95  per  acre;  the  aver- 
age wage  of  farm  help  (includir^board)  was 
$4323  per  month  for  mates  and  $22.46  for  fe- 


d=v  Google 


CANAOA— THE  CDHTnTUnON  <U) 


males,  and  per  anntnn  it  was,  rcspectivelr. 
$3%^  and  $2Z?Sf}.  The  total  value  of  farm 
animals  in  1916  was  $903,685,700  as  against 
$749,640,000  in  the  year  previous. 

uamterBtioa. —  The  total  immigration  into 
Canada  during  the  seven  fiscal  years,  1911-17 
ioclusive,  was  XfHO^Z,  of  which  614,520  came 
from  the  British  Isles ;  659,705  from  the  Uoited 
States  and  346,087  from  other  countries.  Of 
these  800,068  were  destined  to  the  tastem 
provinces  and  730,244  to  the  west. 

The  growth  of  railways 'in  Canada  it  indi- 
cated by  the  following  table : 

Ymt  UDawe        Yew  Uikao* 


l.Oti         1910 M,T5t 

2.fil7         I91S 35. SSI 

T.194         1916 37. 4M 


Of  the  24,731  miles  of  railway  in  Canada 
in  1910,  9.473  or  38J  per  cent  was  in  western 

Srovinces  and  in  the  year  1916  of  the  total 
7,434  miles,  17,185  or  45.9  per  cent  was  in  the 
west. 

W.  Sanpokd  Evans, 
Chairman    Georgian    Bay    Canal    Commission, 
Ottawa. 

12.  THE  CONSTITUTION.  In  the  Ca- ' 
nadian  draft  of  the  bill,  Canada  was  styled  a. 
■Kingdom.*  For  that  title  "Dominion*  was 
subsbtuted  at  the  instance  of  Lord  Derby,  who 
thought  that  the  title  'Kingdom*  might  be 
offensive  to  Che  Americans.  Sir  John  Mac- 
donald.  as  a  strong  monarchist,  deplored  the 
change,  feeling  that  had  the  title  'Kingdom* 
been  adopted  the  Australian  colonies  would 
have  been  applying  to  be  placed  in  the  same 
rank  as  the  kingdom  of  Canada.  As  it  is,  the 
Australian  colonies  fiave  adopted  the  title 
" Commonwealth,*  suggest" 
I  democratic  sentiment. 


progress 


Australian  colonies  fiave  adopted  ' 
'Commonwealth,*  suggestive  ratner  of 
in  democratic  sentiment. 

The  term  Confederation  has  been  applied  to 
two  forms  of  polity  materially  different  from 
each  other.  One  is  confederation  proper;  the 
other  is  nationality  with  a  FcdcrJ  structure. 
The  instance  of  confederation  proper  in  ancient 
histoiy  is  the  Achaean  League;  in  modem  his- 
tory, instances  are  the  original  Swiss  Bund,  the 
United  NetheHands,  and  the  Union  of  the 
American  colonies  during  the  Revolutionary 
War.  Instances  of  a  nation  with  a  Federal 
structure  are  the  United  States  of  America 
under  their  present  constitution  and  the  present 
Swiss  Bund.  A  confederation  oroper  is 
formed  for  a  special  object,  usually  Uiat  of 
common  defense.  The  several  states  entering 
into  it  do  not  resign  their  soverei^  power. 
Nor  does  the  Federal  council  exerase,  like  a 
national  government,  authority  over  the  indi- 
vidual citizen,  but  only  over  the  States.  Its 
legislative  power  is  confined  to  the  fulfilment 
of  the  special  object  of  the  federation.  Nor 
has  it  any  power  of  taxation,  but  only  a  power 
of  requisition.  In  the  case  of  a  federation 
proper,  the  Federal  government  is  an  organ 
of  the  states  governments  collectively.  In  the 
ease  of  a  nation  with  a  Federal  structure,  the 
states  are  severally  organs  of  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment. The  Canadian  confederation  belongs, 
as  its  name  Dominion  of  Canada  imports,  to 
the  class  of  nations  with  a  Federal  structure; 
So  does  the  newly  formed  Commonwealth  of 
Australia. 


The  Canadian  constitution  is  embodied  in  die 
act  of  the  British  Parliament  called  tiie  British 
North  America  Act,  which  can  be  amended  only 
by  the  power  by  which  it  was  passed.  In  com- 
mon with  the  other  colonic^  self^Bovenied  as 
they  are  styled,  Canada  remains  in  the  allegiance 
of  the  British  Crown,  retains  the  constituiional 
forms  and  nomenclature  of  the  monarchy,  and 
is,  to  a  certain,  though  of  late  years  diminish* 
ing,  extent,  under  iht  actual  control  of  the 
Imperial  govemmenL  The  legislation  of  the 
Imperial  Parliament  i^  with  certain  exceptions, 
binding  upon  Canada.  To  the  King's  govern- 
ment under  the  control  of  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment belong  the  trcaty-maldi^  power  —  with 
the  exception  of  conunercid  treaties  —  and  the 
power  of  peace  and  war.  By  the  Imperial  gov- 
ernment the  govemor'gcneral^  the  legal  head  of 
tbe  Dominion  is  appointed.  The  supreme  juris- 
diction ifi  still  the  British  Privy  Council,  and 
IB  it  is  vested  the  interpretation  of  the  Cana- 
dian constitutioa.  The  fountain  of  honor 
is  Imperial.  The  .territory  of  the  Dominion 
ii  part  of  the  domain  of  the  empire,  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Imperial  government, 
which  has  exercised  its  power  in  boundary 
cases.  The  tendency,  however,  since  cott- 
federatjon,  has  been  constantly  toward  prac- 
tical independence.  Tbe  veto  power  has  been 
very  spann^  exerdsed,  and  only  in  special 
cases,  as  in  that  of  copyright  where  the  colonial 
act  conflicted  with  the  imperial  law.  Appeal 
from  the  colonial  courts  to  the  Privy  Council 
has  been  restricted.  Military  occupation  has 
ceased.  The  military  administration  has  passed, 
not  without  friction,  into  the  hands  of  the 
Canadian  Minister  of  Militia,  and  the  Chief  of 
the  General  Staff,  as  the  principal  military 
officer  is  called,  is  his  subordinate.  In  cora- 
merdal  relations  Canada  is  antonomous.  The 
dispensation  of  titles  and  decorations,  to 
which  great  influence  is  attached,  still  remains 
Imperial,  thougli  even  in  tins  the  wishes  of  the 
Canadian  government  probably  make  tbems^es 
felt 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  and  the  other  self- 
governing  dependencies  of  the  British  Crown 
faithfully  reproduce  the  forms  of  monarchy. 
The  governor-general  of  Canada,  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  British  soverei^  has  the  pre- 
rogative of  calling  and  dissolving  Parliament, 
of  appointing  the  members  of  the  Privy  CoundL 
of  nominating  the  Senate.  Parliament  is  opened 
by  htm  with  a  'speech  from  tbe  throne."  But, 
like  the  monarch  whom  he  represents,  he  reigns 
but  does  not  govern.  Very  rare  have  twen  the 
instances  since  the  confederation,  and  those  not 
cases  of  general  policy,  in  which  he  has  exer- 
dsed his  personal  power..  Only  of  tbe  pageantry 
of  his  office  and  of  his  assumption  of  state  has 
there  since  confederation  been  an  increase 
favored  by  those  who  desire  to  foster  tbe 
monarchical  sentiment.  The  lieutenant-govern- 
ors of  provinces,  nominally  appointed  by  him, 
are  rcallv  appointed  by  his  ministers,  and  almost 
invariab^  from  the  ranks  of  thdr  own  party. 
When  one  of  them  was  dismissed  it  was  ap- 
parently against  the  wish  of  the  governoi^gen- 
eral  aird  manifestly  on  party  groimds;  yet  on 
reference  to  the  home  govermnent  the  gov- 
ernor-general was  directed  to  conform  to  Ae 
opinion  of  his  constitutional  advisers. 

The  legislative  power  is  divided  between  die 


d=,  Google 


CANAOA-r-<rBrCQN8TITUTK»i  (12> 


MT 


islative  autiiorit]'  of  lite  Parliament  o£  Canada 
extends  to   (I)   the  public  debt  and  prc^rty; 

i2)  the  reflation  of  trade  aod  commerce; 
3j  the  raising  of  money  by  any  mode  or  sys-; 
tern  of  taxation;  ^4)  the  borrowing  of  money 
DO  the  public  credit;  (5)  postal  service;  (6) 
the  census  and  statistics;  (7)  militia,  military 
and  naval  service  and  defense;  (8)  the  fixing 
of  and  providing  for  the  salaries  and  allowances 
of  civil  and  other  officers  of  the  government  of 
Canada ;  <9)  beacons,  buoys,  lighthouses,  and 
Sable  Island;  (10)  navigation  and  shipping; 
(11)  quarantine  and  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  marine  hospitais;  (12)  the 
coast  and  inlet  fisheries;  (13)  ferries  between  a 
province  and  any  British  or  foreign  country,  or 
between  two  provinces;  (14)  currency  and<~~~ 


age;  (15)  banldng,  incorporation  of  bonks  and 
the  issue  of  paper  money;  (16)  savius  banks; 
(17)  weights  and  measures;  (18)  bids  of  ex- 
change and  promissory  notes;  (19)  interest; 
(20)  legal  tender;  (21)  bankruptcy  and  insol- 
vency; (22)  patents  of  invention  and  discovery; 
(23)  copyright;  (24)  Indians  and  lands  re- 
served for  the  Indians;  (25)  naturalization 
and  aliens;  (26)  marriage  and  divorce;  (27) 
the  criminal  law,  exc^t  the  constitutian  of 
courts  of  criminal  jnrisdiction,  but  including 
the  procedure  in  criminal  matters;  (28)  the 
estatuisbment,  maintenance  and  management  of 
penitentiaries. 

To  the  provincial  legislatures  are  assigned 

(I)  the  amendment  from  lime  to  time,  not- 
withstanding anything  in  the  act,  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  province,  except  as  re- 
gards the  oflice  of  the  Ueutenant-^vemor ;  (2) 
direct  taxation  within  the  provmce  in  order 
to  the  raising  of  a  revenue  for  provincial  pur- 
poses ;  (3)  the  borrowing  of  money  on  the 
sole  credit  of  the  province;  (4)  the  «tabliah- 
ment  and  tenure  of  provincial  offices,  and  the 
appointment  and  payment  of  provincial  officers; 
(5)  the  management  and  sate  of  the  public 
lands  belonging  to  the  province,  and  of  the  tim- 
ber and  wood  thereon;  (6)  the  establishment, 
maintenance  and  management  of  public  and 
reformatory  prisons  in  and  for  the  province; 
(7)  the  establishment,  maintenance  and  man- 
agement of  hospitals,  asylums,  charities  and 
eleemosynary  institutions  in  and  for  the  prov- 
inces, other  than  marine  hospitals ;  (8)  munic-< 
ipal  institutions  in  the  province;  (9)  shop, 
saloon,  tavern,  auctioneer  and  other  licenses^  iq 
order  to  the  raising  of  a  revenue  for  provincial, 
local  or  municipal  purposes;  (10)  local  works 
and  undertakings  oUier  than  such  as  are  of  the 
following  classes:  (o)  Lines  of  steam  or  other 
ships,  railways,  canals,  telegraphs  and  other 
works  and  undertakings  connecting  the  prov- 
ince with  any  other  or  others  of  the  provinces, 
or  ext^ding  beyond  the  limits  of  the  province; 
(b)  lines  of  steamships  between  the  province 
and  any  British  or  foreign  country;  (f)  such 
works    as,   although   wholly   situate   within   the 

Srovince,  are  before  or  afler  their  execution 
eclared  by  the  Parliament  of  Canada  to  be 
for  the  general  advantage  of  Canada  or  for 
the  advanta^te  of  two  or  more  of  the  provinces; 

(II)  the  incorporation  of  companies  with 
provincial  objects;    (12)   the  solemnization  of 


marriage  in  the  province;  (13)  property  and 
civil  rights  in  the  province;  (14)  the  adminis- 
tration of  jostke  in  the  province,  including  the 
constitution,  maintefKutce,  oisaniiation  of  ^ro- 
vinciat  courts,  both  of  civil  and  of  criminal 
jurisdiction,  and  including  procedure  in  civil 
matters  in  those  courts;  (15)  the  imposition 
of  punishment  by  fine,  penal^  or  imprison- 
ment for  enforang  any  law  of  the  province 
made  in  relation  to  any  matter  coming  within 
an^  of  the  classes  of  subjects  enumerated  in 
this  section;  (16)  generally  all  matters  of  a 
merely  local  or  private  nature  in  the  province. 

Powers  not  specifically  given  to  the  prov- 
inoes  are  reserved  to  the  Dominion,  wtvereas 
under  the  American  constitution  powers  not 
specifically  given  to  the  Federal  government 
are  reserved  to  the  States  or  to  the  people. 

The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  Federal 
government  and,  as  in  Great  Britain,  for  life  or 
during  good  behavior,  in  contrast  with  the  prac- 
tice of  tne  United  States,  where  jodgca  arc 
elected  for  a  term  of  years.  They  can  be  re- 
moved only  by  the.governor-^neral  on  ui  ad- 
dress from  both  houses  of  Parliament 

The  Canadian  Parliament  consists,  like  thtt 
British,  of  two  houses.  The  House  of  Com- 
mons, in  which  supreme  legislative  power 
practically  resides,  is  dected  almost  by  man- 
hood suSrage;'but  by  the  Military  Voters  Act 
of  1917  the  wives,  widows,  mothers,  siisters  or 
daughters  of  men  who  had  served  in  the  mili- 
tarj;  or  naval  forces  of  Canada  or  Great  Britain 
during  the  Great  War  were  given  the  right  of 
voting  in  the  election  of  that  year.  The  North 
Amenca  Act  apportions  representation  to  the 
several  provinces  on  the  principles  of  popiila» 
tion  and  provides  for  decennial  readjustment  to 
meet  changes  in  the  balance  of  population.  Mem- 
bers of  both  bouses  are  paid ;  in  Great  Britain 
only  members  of  the  House  of  Ccmmons,  The 
senators  are  appointed  nominally  by  the  CrowiL 
really  by  the  head  of  the  party  in  power,  and 
almost  mvariably  on  parly  grounds.  Senator- 
ships  are  for  life,  not  hereditary  lUce  seats  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  so  that  the  political  analogy  ia 
imperfect.  On  the  other  hand,  party  which  an- 
points  the  Canadian  Senate,  controls  it  It  might 
Otherwise  block  legislation  and  there  would  be 
no  remedial  force,  while  the  British  House  of 
Lords,  it  is  well  understood,  must  give  way 
to  the  will  of  the  nation  when  persistently  de- 
clared. As  it  is,  when  the  outgoing  parhr  hap- 
pens to  retain  a  majority  in  the  Senate^  tnere  is 
danger  of  a  block.  The  House  of  (Commons 
is  elected  for  a  term  of  five  years,  subject,  how- 
ever, to  the  prerogative  of  dissolution.  An 
amendment  to  the  British  North  America  Act 
was,  owing  to  war  conditions,  passed  in  1916 
specially  extending  for  one  year  the  term  of 
the  Parliament  then  expiring. 

The  provincial  le^slatures  are  miniatures  of 
those  of  the  Domimon.  The  forms  like  those 
of  the  Dominion  Parliament  arc  monarchical, 
the  lieutenant-governor  formally  nominating  the 
ministers,  as  does  the  governor-general  those  of 
the  Dominion.  The  practical  working  is  popu- 
lar, elective  and  partisan.  The  party  divisions 
run  through  the  provinces  severally  as  well  as 
through  the  Dominion  at  large.  Quebec  and 
Nova  Scotia,  like  the  Dominion  Parliament, 
have  each  two  chambers;  the  rest  have  only 
one.  The  Federal  government  has  a  veto  on 
provincial  le^slatioa. 


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CANADA— LOCAL  OOTUUtMBNT  00 


Th«  treatment  of  the  Northwest  territories, 
as  provinces,  presents  a  certain  analogy  to  that 
of  the  Territories  of  the  United  States,  execu- 
tive and  legislative  powers  being  given  to* a 
lieulenant-governor  with  an  elective  council 
subject  to  instructions  by  order  under  Federal 
council  or  by  the  Canadian  Secretary  of  State. 

The  Parliament  is  by  law  bi-lin|[ual;  the 
French  language  as  well  as  the  English  being 
recognized,  though  practically  Englisn  prevails. 
The  dvil  law,  in  which  the  Coutumt  de  Paris 

I  the  Code  Napoleon  are  blended  with  the 

nmon  and  statutorv  law  of   Great  Britain, 

lains  the  law  of  Quebec 

In  its-  generally  detnocratic  character  the 
Canadian  constitution  approaches  to  that  of  the 
American  republic,  but  in  their  structure  they 
materially  differ.  The  American  constitution, 
Jn  accordance  with  the  principle  laid  down  by 
Montesquieu  <q.v.),  separates  the  executive 
from  the  legislative.  The  members  of  the 
President's  council,  miscalled  a  cabinet,  have 
not  seats  in  the  legislature,  nor  is  their  contin- 
nance  in  office  dependent  on  its  support.  They 
are  the  nominees  of  the  President  alone,  Und^' 
the  Canadian  constitution,  as  under  the  British, 
the  members  of  the  Cabmet  have  seats  in  the 
Parliament,  on  the  confidence  of  which  dieir 
tenure  of  office  depends,  and  in,  which  they  in* 
itiate  and  control  legislation.  The  head  of  the 
American  republic  is  elected  for  a  term  certain. 
The  terms  of  members  and  the  times  of  election 


Prime  Minister,  the  head  of  the  party  in  power, 
who  wields  in  tlM  interest  of  his  party  the  pre~ 
rogativE  of  summoning  and  of  dissolution.  The 
members  of  the  Canadian  Senate  are  chosen 
by  the  heed  of  the  party  in  power,  whereas  the 
American  Senate,  formerly  elected  by  the  legf- 
islatures  of  the  several  States,  are  now  fsinte 
1913)  elected  by  popular  vote.  Thus  the  Cana- 
dian constitution  lends  itself  more  aptly  to  the 
working  of  the  party  system  of  govemmeniL 
which,  with  all  its  accessories,  political  and 
moral,  has  prevailed,  though  the  general  influ- 
ence of  party  cannot  be  stronger  than  it  is  in 
the  United  States. 

In  Great  Britain  the  Cabinet,  in  which  the 
real  power  of  government  resides,  is  a  growtfi 
of  political  part]f  unreco^ized  1^  law,  while 
the  Privy  Council,  recognized  by  law,  has  be- 
come honorary.  In  Canada  the  Privy  Council 
is  the  Catnnet,  at  ihe  same  time  conferring  the 
honorary  rank,  but  the  relation  to  the  Crown 
the  relation  to  Parliament  and  the  working  or 
^e  system  in  both  cases  are  the  same. 

The  British  North  America  Act  does  not, 
like  the  American  constitution,  prohibit  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  particular  religion  by  the 
■state.  It  leaves  untouched  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  priesthood  of  Quebec  the  power  of 
levying  tithes  on  the  people  of  their  own  com- 
munion. In  the  section  respecting  education  it 
perpetuates  the  privilege  of  denominational 
schools.  Since  confederation  the  government 
of  Ontario  has  practically  aided  a  denomi- 
national university.  But  since  the  secularization 
of  the  clergy  reserves  and  the  opening  of  the 
University  of  Toronto,  non-interference  of  the 
state  with  religion  may  be  said  to  have  been 
established  as  a  general  principle  and  may  be 
regarded  as  practically  part  of  the  constitution. 
See  the  articles  in  this  series:   Convedekation ; 


Local  GovmNicEirr;  fiiRUAL  Fedbation; 
UmcK  Fbench  Rdlz  ;  Uhoes  BBmsH  Ruix. 
G(XJ)WiN  Smfth. 
13.  LOCAL  QOVERHHBNT.  Under  the 
British  North  America  Act  of  1867,  which  is 
virtually  the  constitution  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  the  organization  of  local  government  is 
placed  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  several 
provinces.  There  is  consequently  considerable 
variety  in  the  structure  of  rural  and  urban  gov- 
ernment in  the  different  parts  of  the  Dominion. 
Certain  general  features  are,  however,  to  be 
observed.  The  ftindamental  principle  of  organ- 
ization is  that  of  local  autonomy^  the  means 
of  reftresentative  elected  bodies.  Tne  provinces 
are  mvided  into  counties,  subdivided  into  town- 
ships, in  which  again  school  sections  are  formed. 
The  county  and  the  township  are  not  every- 
where foand  side  by  side.  Indeed,  the  provinces 
of  Canada  present  me  same  contrast  between  the 
predominance  of  die  township  and  the  county 
as  is  found  in  die  United  States.  In  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  the  county  is  the 
unit    of    local    government ;    in    Ontario    and 

auebec  both  township  and  county  are  found; 
rougfaout  the  West  the  township  system  pre- 
vails, the  county  being  only  a  jumcial  area.  In 
addition  to  these  rural  areas  of  government, 
there  are  found  incorporated  villa^s,  towns 
and  cities.  In  Ontario  and  M^mitoba  mcorpora- 
tion  takes  place  by  virtue  of  a  general  statute; 
elsewhere  it  is  done  by  special  legislation.  The 
details  of  local  government  may  oest  be  under- 
stood by  first  passing  in  review  the  organization 
and  powers  of  rural  governing  bodies  in  the 
different  provinces,  and  treating  separately  the 
question  of  town  and  city  government  and 
municipal  franchises.  Ontario,  the  most  pop- 
ulous of  the  provinces,  contains  38  county  cor- 
porations ana  423  townslups.  Both  of  these 
divisions  vary  greatly  in  size  and  population. 
The  largest  county  (Grey)  contains  1  092,027 
acres,  the  smallest  (Brant)  only  213,905  acres. 
ThirQr-two  townships  contain  less  than  201,000 
acres,  U  of  them  more  than  80,000  acres  each 
llicre  are  in  addition  the  districts  of  Mudcoka, 
Parry  Sound,  NifHSsinft  Uanitoulin,  Algoma, 
Thunder  Bay,  Kenova,  Sudbuty,  Temiskaming 
and  Rainy  River,  not  yet  organized  as  counties, 
but  in  the  settled  portions  of  which  over  200 
townships  have  been  incorporated.  The  affairs 
of  the  townships  are  managed  by  a  reeve  and 
from  one  to  four  deputy  reeves,  according  to 
population,  elected  yearly,  For  the  county  there 
IS  a  county  council,  composed  of  the  reeves  and 
deputy  reeves  of  the  towns,  not  being  separated 
towns,  and  of  the  vill^es  and  townships  in  the 
county.  The  franchise  for  all  local  elections  is 
extremely  wide.  It  includes  every  person  of  21 
years  and  upward,  rated  for  real  property  to  an 
extent  varying  from  $100  in  the  townships  to 
$400  in  the  cities ;  those  assessed  for  an  income 
of  $400,  and  farmers'  sons  of  full  age  living  at 
home.  The  township  council  is  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  the  maintenance  of  roaos  and 
bridges,  the  levy  and  collection  of  school  taxes 
and  the  collection  of  the  county  tax.  Assessors 
appointed  annually  by  the  township  council  make 
a  valuation  of  real  and  personal  property.  The 
other  principal  officers  of  the  townsmp  are  the 
treasurer  and  the  township  clerk.  The  latter, 
though  legally  holding  office  at  the  pleasure  of 
.L 1    -_: ^:„n ,j„t  ,^. 

,  statute 


vGooglc 


CANADA  — LOCAL  aOVSRmiBNT  (U) 


labor  Hsts,  voters'  lists,  etc,  registers  Urths, 
deaths  and  narriaKes  and  perfonns  many  other 
duties  assigned  to  ohn  bv  separate  statutes.  The 
connty  council  meets  at  tne  "county  town,"  nnder 
lh«  presidency  of  a  warden  whom  it  elects  annu- 
ally. It  acts  largely  through  committees,  both 
standing  and  special.  It  appoints  a  treasurer^  a 
county  clerk,  an  engineer,  a  public  schobl  in- 
spector and  two  aumtors.  The  coimly  council 
provides  accommodation  for  the  courts  of 
tujtice,  maintains  county  buildings,  roads  and 
bridges,  houses  of  refuge,  etc  The  county  rate 
is  collected  with  the  local  taxation,  but  the 
countj;  council  has  power  to  'ef^ualiie*  the 
valuations  of  the  local  assessors  if  it  thinks 
necessary.  For  organixation  of  school  districts, 
and  control  of  schools  in  Ontario  and  elsewhere, 
see  article  on  Public  Educatioit  ik  Cahasa. 
Local  government  in  the  ijrovince  of  Quebec  is 
organiced  under  a  municipal  code  enacted  t^ 
the  legislature  (24  Dec  1870),  and  revised  in 
1888.  The  larger  towns  and  the  dties  are  in- 
corporated under  special  charters  granted  by' 
the  legislature.  Of  the  counties  some  arc 
divided  into  parishes,  others  into  townships. 
For  each  connty  there  is  a  council  com^sCd  of 
all  the  maj^ors  of  the  included  municipalities. 
At  its  head  is  a  warden  (prUet)  whom  it  annu- 
ally elects.  The  connty  council  meets  in  regular 
session  four  times  a  year';  its  duties  consist 
chiefly  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
roads,  bridges,  etc,  the  locating  of  the  Circuit 
Court,  provision  against  forest  iires,  etc.  The 
subordinate  local  councils  (parish,  township, 
united  township,  village  and  town)  consist  ot 
seven  councillors  elected  annually  throuf^out 
the  province^  each  council  having  a  mayor  as 
its  head.    The  powers  of  these  minor  coundh 


poses  direct  taxes  are  levied  on  alt  real 
except  the  property  of  the  government  and  that 
of  religious  and  educational  institutions.  (For 
organization,  etc.,  of  schools,  consult  article  on 
Public  Education).  The  Seigniorial  tenure  of 
land,  which  once  carried  with  it  certain  powers 
of  local  administration,  is  also  treated  in  a  sep- 
arate article.     The  local  government  of  New 


meeting  twice  a  year.  The  larger  cities  have  a 
representative  in  the  county  council  as  well  as 
their  own  local  council.  The  officers  of  the 
parishes  are  appointed  by  the  county  council. 
In  Nova  Scotia  there  are  elective  county  coun- 
cils, choosing  its  own  wardens.  Their  by-laws 
are  subject  to  the  apfiroval  of  the  legislature. 
The  counties  of  Prince  Edward  Island  are 
electoral  and  judicial  areas,  but  owing  to  the 
small  siie  of  the  province  the  legislature  itself 
acts  as  the  organ  of  local  government;  villa^s 
and  towns  are,  however,  incorporated  with 
elective  councils.  In  Manitoba,  Alberta,  Sas- 
katchewan and  British  Columbia  local  govern- 
ment centres  in  the  township,  administered  by 
a  council  of  four  to  six  members,  with  a 
reeve  at  its  head.  The  unorganized  territories 
(Yukon,  Mackcniie,  Keewatin  and  Ungava)  are 
controlled  1^  the  Dominion  government,  and 
have  no  representative  institutions.  The  govern- 
ment in  C^adian  cities  is  regulated  by  statutes 
of  the  provincial  legislatures.  This  fact  permits 
of  frequent  chan§[e,  and  a  continuous  develop- 
ment of  organitation  to  meet  the  '  ' 


of  the  hour.  In  Toronto,  for  example,  and  in 
many  other  dties,  it  is  the  practice  to  suggest 
to  the  ParHament  from  year  to  year  such  altera- 
tions of  the  dty  charter  as  seem  advisable.  In 
the  majority  of  the  Canadian  provinces,  towns 
and  dties  are  incorporated  by  special  legislation : 
in  Ontario  and  Manitoba,  by  virtue  ot  general 
statues  on  proclamation  by  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor. Even  in  these  provinces,  however,  special 
acts  of  incorporation  are  usually  passed  in 
order  to  provide  tiorrowing  powers.  The  typi- 
cal form  of  Canadian  urMn  government  con- 
sists of  a  single  chamber  of  aldermen  (varvinz 
in  number  from  9  to  26)  with  a  mayor,  BotE 
the  mayor  and  coundl  are  generally  elected  for 
one  year.  In  Montreal  ana  Quebe:  the  mayor 
is  elected  for  two  years,  and  in  the  latter  dty  is 
chosen  from  among  the  aldermea    In  Montreal, 

Suebec  WiiBiipeg,  Brandon  and  Vancouver  the 
dermen  are  elected  for  two  years.  A  board 
of  control  (the  mayor  with  four  aldermen), 
whose  function  it  is  to  prepare  the  annual  esti- 
mates, has  been  adopted  for  the  dties  of  Ontario 
having  a  population  of  more  than  45,000.  In 
Montreal  the  affairs  of  the  dty  are  administered 
by  the  mayor  and  four  controllers  spedally 
elected  for  four  years,  the  coundl  oi  aldermen 
acting  in  a  legislative  and  supervising  capadty. 
Humdpal  offices  are,  in  most  cases,  filled  % 
appointments  made  by  the  mayor  or  the  coundl. 
In  the  cities  of  Ontario  and  British  Columbia, 
in  Winnipeg,  Charlottetown  and  Saint  John, 
police  appointments  are  made  by  commissioners 
independent  of  the  dvic  government  The 
liquor  licenses  are  almost  everywhere  under 
the  control  of  the  provincial  authorities.  The 
muoidpal  suffrage  in  Canada  is  more  restricted 
than  the  rural  or  parliamcntaiy.  Throughout 
Ontario,  in  Montreal,  Quebec^  Calgary  and  the 
four  largest  dties  of  British  Columbia  a  special 
qualification  of  real  property  or  income  is  de- 
manded The  chief  sources  of  dvic  revenue  are 
found  in  taxes  on  real  property,  betterment 
taxes,  and  in  some  cases,  license  taxes  and  per- 
centage recripts  from  aty  franchises.  Munici- 
pal indebtedness,  incurred  mainly  for  streets, 
sewers,  waterworks  and  education,  has  much 
increased  of  late  years,  and  in  Mcmtreal, 
Toronto,  the  dties  of  puebec  and  the  western 
province*  it  grew  rapidly  from  1910  to  1917 
concurrently  with  an  amazing  growth  in  assess- 
ment values.  The  net  debt  of  Montreal  at  the 
beaSnning  of  1917  was  $97,790,779,  of  Toronto 
about  $44,000,000.  Except  for  waterworks 
there  is  but  little  munidpal  management  of  pub- 
lic works.  Winnipeg,  New  Westminster,  TTiree 
Rivers  and  a  number  of  minor  towns  in  On- 
tario own  and  operate  electric  plants;  (Calgary 
and  Brandon  operate  thdr  own  street  railways. 
Street    railway     franchises     are     granted     for 

Sriods  varying  from  15  to  30  years ;  in  Toronto, 
ontreal,  Hamilton,  Ottawa  and  Halifax  the 
city  recdves  a  percentage  of  gross  receipts. 

Bibllocnuihy.—  Meredith  and  Wilkinson, 
'Canadian  Munidpal  Manual'  (Ontario  1917); 
University  of  Toronto  Studies,  Vol.  11,  Nos. 
1-2;  R^ort  of  Ontario  Assessment  Commission 
(1901-02)  ;  Bourinot,  'Local  (jovemment  in 
Canada';  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in 
Histoo';  Municipal  Undertakings;  Cana^ 
Year-Book  (annual;  official). 

Stephen  Lcacock, 
Professor  of  Economies  and  PoKHcal  Science, 
McGill  University, 


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CANADA -^LUFSSUL  VBDBRATIOtt  .<U) 


14.  IHPBRIAL  FEDERATION.  Im- 
perial federation  is  tke  name  given  to  the  vari- 
ous projects  for  revising  the  relations  between 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  so  as  Id  give  to 
the  latter  a  share  in  the  government  ot  the 
empire.  The  growth  of  the  colonies,  and  the 
increasing  burden  of  national  defense,  naturally 
suggest  uiat  the  colonies  should  contribnte  to 
the  Imperial  revenue;  on  the  other  hand,  such  a 
contribution,  unless  accompanied  by  a  voice  in 
the  councils  of  the  mother  country,  would  con- 
stitute that  "taxation  without  representation* 
CO  abhorrent  to  Anglo-Saxon  ideas.  Such  was 
the  situation  during  the  great  controversy  of 
the  18th  century  between  Great  Britain  and  her 
North  American  dependencies,  and  such  is  again 
the  ^tuation  at  the  present  day.  Even  in  the 
.18th  centuiy  various  proposals  were  made  for 
solving  the  colonial  difficulty  by  admitting 
American  representatives  to  the  British  Pariia~ 
ment  Governor  Pownall  (see  Pownaix, 
Thouas),  Edmund  Burke  (q.v.),  and  Adam 
Smith  (q-vj  made  suggestions  of  this  sort 
But  the  dimcultY  of  communication  rendered 
any  such  federation  impracticable.  During  the 
middle  period  of  the  19th  century  it  was  cur~ 
reotly  believed  that  the  manifest  destiny  of  the 
colonies  was  independence.  With  the  passing 
of  that  idea  has  arisen  the  demand  for  a  closer 
bond  of  union.  The  Imperial  federation  move- 
ment originated  in  the  early  70s,  an  informal 
ctmference  for  discussing  the  subject  b«ng  held 
in  1871.  In  1884  the  Imperial  Federation 
League  was  founded,  its  first  chairman  being 
the  Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Forster  (qv.).  Lord 
Rosebery  (q.v),  the  Ri^t  Hon.  Ed.  Stanhope 
(sometime  Secrelaiy  of  State  for  the  colonies), 
and  Sir  Frederick  Young  (q.v.)  (whose  worlc, 
^Imperial  FedM-ation,*  had  appeared  in  1876) 
were  interested  in  the  movement  from  its  incep- 
tion. A  significant  event  was  seen  in  the  Lon- 
don colonies  conferences  of  1887,  to  which  rep- 
resentatives of  both  the  self-governing  and  the 
CrowD  colonies  were  summoned,  and  at  which 
the  subjects  of  Imperial  defense  and  trade  were 
discussed.  In  1892  a  committee  of  the  Imperial 
Federation  League  presented  a  practical  scheme 
of  federation.  It  recommended  the  institution 
of  a  council  of  the  empire,  to  which  dcle^tcs 
should  be  summoned  from  the  self-governing 
colonies,  the  Crown  colonies  and  India.  The 
function  of  the  council  was  to  consist  in  the 
regulation  of  Imperial  defense.  It  was  recog- 
nized, however,  even  at  this  stage  of  the  move- 
ment, that  there  was  no  sufficient  unanimity 
among  the  members  of  the  league  in  reference 
to  the  details  of  the  plan  to  be  adopted  to  enable 
them  to  work  effectively  toward  a  common  end. 
The  league^  whose  work  was  declared  to  be 
only  preliminary  and  preparatory,  was  dissolved 
in  1893  and  its  place  was  taken  by  a  number  of 
organisations  having  each  a  more  de&nite  pur- 

Ejse.  Of  these  the  United  EJnpire  Trade 
eague  became  the  advocate  of  the  commercial 
union  of  the  empire  by  means  of  protective 
duties.  The  Imperial  Federation  (Defense) 
Committee  urges  coml»ned  action  for  defensive 

Eurposes,  the  establishment  of  a  navy  supported 
y  joint  contributions  being  its  immediate  ob- 
ject. Most  important,  perhaps,  is  the  British 
Empire  League,  established  m  1894  and  ex- 
tended to  the  Etominjon  of  Canada.  The  pro- 
gram of  (he  lea^e  aims  at  the  permanent 
unity   of   the   empire,   the   promotii  '    "      ' 


and  inter-communicatieu,  the  twUii^  of  peri- 
odic conferences  and  co-operation  in  national 
defense.  In  Canada,  indeed,  the  movement  had 
already  made  considerable  progress.  The  Im- 
perial Federation  League  in  Clanada  had  been 
formed  at  Uontreal  in  1885,  witti  branches  sub- 
s«iuently  established  at  various  places  in  the 
Dominion.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  orgaoiz- 
ing  committee  of  the  league  a  distinguished 
Canadian,  George  Parkin,  delivered  addresses 
throughout  Canada,  and  in  1889  was  sent,  on 
behalf  of  the  parent  league,  on  a  tour  of  the 
Australasian  colonies.  In  1894,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  Canadian  government,  a  conference 
was  held  at  Ottawa  to  discuss  intercolonial 
trade  and  communicatiDn.  The  Imperial  gov- 
ernment, Canada,  Cape  Colony  and  the  Austral- 
asian colonies  were  represented.  Resolutions 
were  adopted  in  favor  of  reciprocal  preferen- 
tial duties  among  the  colonies.  A  still  more 
important  conference  was  held  in  London  in 
1897  on  the  occasion  of  the  jubilee  celebration 
'  of  that  year.  At  this  meeting  the  premiers  of 
Canada,  Newfoundland,  New  South  Walej, 
Victoria,  Queensland,  South  Australia,  West 
AustraUa,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Cape  Col- 
ony and  Natal  discussed  with  the  Right  Hon. 
Joseph  Chamberlain  (a.v.).  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  colonies,  both  tne  commercial  and  polit- 
ical relations  of  die  mother  country  with  the 
colonies.  In  reference  to  the  former,  a  resolu- 
tion was  unanimous^  adopted  favoring  the 
"denunciation  at  the  earliest  convenient  time 
of  any  treaties  which  now  hamper  the  commer- 
cial relations  between  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies.*  The  premiers  also  undertook  to  con- 
fer with  their  colleagues  to  see  whether  a  pref- 
erence could  advantageously  be  given  by  the 
colonies  to  the  products  of^  the  United  King- 
dam.  In  reference  to  political  relations,  the 
majority  of  the  premiers  endorsed  the  follow- 
ing resolutions:  (1)  *That  the  present  political 
relations  between  tne  United  Kingdom  and  the 
self-governing  colonies  are  generally  satisfac- 
tory under  tne  existing' condition  of  things.* 
(2)  'That  it  is  desirable,  whenever  and  wher- 
ever practicable,  to  group  together  under  a  fed- 
eral union  those  colonics  which  are  geograph- 
ically united."  (3)  'That  it  would  be  desirable 
to  hold  periodical  conferences  of  representatives 
of  the  colonies  and  Great  Britain  for  the  discus- 
sion of  matters  of  common  interest"  From  the 
first  of  these  resolutions  Seddon  of  New  Zea- 
land and  Sir  E.  N,  Braddon  of  Tasmania  dis- 
sented, on  the  ground  that  the  time  had  alreat^ 
come  for  a  reconstruction  of  political  relations. 
The  Canadian  government  in  the  next  year 
(1898)  extended  to  Great  Britain  and  to  snch 
Britisk  colonies  as  should  reciprocate  a  tariff 
preference  of  25  per  cent,  increased  in  1900  to 
33  1/3  per  cent.  In  the  summer  of  1902.  on  the 
occasion  of  the  coronation  of  King  Edward 
VII,  a  further  colonial  conference  was  held  be- 
tween Secretary  Chamberlain  and  the  premiers 
of  the  self-governing  colonies.  The  meetings 
of  the  conference,  of  which  there  were  10  in  all, 
were  also  attended,  by  several  ministers  of  Aus- 
tralia and  Canada  then  present  In  London,  and 
by  the  members  of  the  British  Cabinet  whose 
departments  were  concerned  in  the  discusuon. 
Chamberlain  submitted  a  paper  showing  the 
disNoportionate  share  of  the  burden  of  Imperial 

defense  at  present  borne  by  the  United  King- 

of  trade      dom.     *If  you  are  prepared  at  any  time,"  he 


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CANAUA — IBil^RIAL  VBDBBATiaN  <M) 


sn 


Iffcparcd  to  meet  you  with  any  proposal  for 
ghnng  to  you  s  corremondinK  voice  in  the 
poli<?  of  tne  empire.*  No  dennitc  conctuaion 
was  reached  for  the  alteration  of  present  poUt' 
ical  relations  beyond  the  following  resolution; 
*Th«t  it  would  be  to  the  advantage  of  the 
emiure  if  conferences  were  held,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticu,  at  intervals  not  exceetUng-  four  yean,  at 
which  questions  of  common  interest  affecting 
the  relations  of  the  mother  country  and  His 
Majesty's  dominions  over  the  seas  could  ht 
discussed  and  considered  as  between  the  Secre- 
tapr  of  State  for  the  colooies  and  the  prime 
ministers  of  the  sclf-soveming  colonies.  The 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  colonies  is  requested 
to  arrange  for  such  conferences  after  communi- 
cation with  the  prime  ministers  of  the  respective 
colooies.  In  case  of  any  emergency  arising 
upon  which  a  special  conference  may  have  been 
deemed  necessary,  the  next  ordinary  conference 
to  be  held  not  sooner  than  three  years  there- 
after." On  behalf  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia  ^200,000  a  year  was  offered  toward 
the  cost  of  the  Australian  Naval  Squadron  and 
naval  reserve;  from  New  Zealand  ii40;000  for 
the  same  purpose^  from  Cape  Colony  £50,000, 
«nd  from  Natal  £35,000  for  the  Imperial  navy 
generally,  and  from  Newfoundland  £3,000  fat 
maintanung  a  branch  of  the  Royal  naval  re~ 
serve.  The  grants  were  subject  to  ratification 
by  the  colomal  legislatures.  Resolutions  of  a 
general  character  in  favor  of  preferential  trade 
were  also  adopted  by  the  congress.  The 
Australian  contribution  met  with  sharp  criticism 
from  the  Melbourne  Age  as  involving  taxation 
without  representation.  In  Febmary  1903  the 
British  Empire  League  in  Canada  passed  a  reso- 
lution against  the  abstention  of  Canada  fron 
naval  contributions,  and  declared  that  "it  would 
be  proper  for  her  ...  to  contribtite  a  fair  and 
reasonable  share  toward  the  annual  cost  of  the 
navy  of  the  United  Kingdom." 

During  the  period  that  elapsed  between  the 
conference  of  1902  and  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War  the  movement  of  opfnion  in  re- 
gard to  Imperial  organization  was  veiy  notice- 
able. It  was  esped^y  stimulated  by  (a.)  the 
continued  discussions  of  the  question  of  tariff 
reform  in  England,  which  involved  the  possi- 
bility of  preferential  and  reciprocal  duties  in 
favor  of  the  colonies,  (b)  the  increasing  im- 
minence of  war  with  Germany  ^^i<ii  would 
necessitate  a  common  effort  of  Imperial  de- 
fense and  (c)  the  periodic  assemblage  of  the 
conferences  which  naturally  called  fordt  public 
discussion  throughout  the  empire.  Four  dis- 
tinct currents  of  ooinion  became  more  and 
more  clearly  defined  in  the  ebb  and  flow  of 
debate.  One  of  these  favored  the  retention, 
indefinitely,  of  the  status  quo.  Another  opinion 
of  a  kindred  nature,  which  gained  ground  very 
rapidly  with  theprogressof  the  century,  favored 
the  reorgamzatiDn  of  the  empire,  not  in  the 
form  of  a  centralized  Federal  state,  but  as  a 
group  of  separate  units  in  permanent  alliance, 
no  single  body  holding  the  sbverdgn  power. 
This  scheme  is  best  set  forth  in  Mr.  Richard 
Jebb's  'Britatmie  Alliance>  (1913),  It  may  be 
said  to  represent  the  views  during  the  period 
in  question  of  Sir  Wilfrid  Launer  (consult 
Imp.  Conference  Report  1911,  esp.  pp.  122,  123) 
and  of  the  South  African  party  led  by  General 


Botha  IB  South  Africa,  and  of  the  Labor  and 
Socialist  parties  throughout  the  empire.  A 
diird  current  of  opinion  revived  the  idea  of 
Imperial  federation  in  die  sense  of  a  central 
ggvemment  with  supreme  power  over  defense 
and  taxation.  This  view  was  supported  by  such 
influeiitial  leaders  as  the  late  Lord  Grey  (d  • 
1917),  Lord  Milncr.  Sir  J.  Ward,  Premier  of 
New  Zealand,  the  late  Sir  Starr  Jameson  (the 
Dr.  TametoD  of  the  'raid")  and  others.  It  led 
to  the  formation  throughout  the  cmfure  of  a 
powerful  chain  of  affili^Ued  associations  known 
as  the  Rotmd  Table  (^oup,  organiied  ori^ally 
for  inq>artial  study  but  leaning  heavily  toward 
centralization.  The  teadin^  spirit  of  this  move- 
ment was  Mr.  Lionel  Oirti«,  who  had  been  one 
of  those  instrumental  in  forming,  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  (1910)  and  who  spent  some  years 
in  visiting  all  aelf-^oveming  parts  of  the  empire 
to  orgamz£  the  Round  Table  Groups.  Oo  the 
basis  of  the  work  of  the  groups  Mr.  Curtis 
liublished  in  1916  a  volume  called  <The  Problem 
of  the  Commonwealth,'  a  brilliant  presentation 
of  the  case  for  centralization.  A  fourth  and 
last  current  of  opinion,  necessarily  somewhat 
veiled,  is  that  favoring  the  breaking  up  of  the 
empire  into  independent  states.  This  is  pre- 
sumably the  goal  of  Mr.  Henri  Bourassa  and 
the  party  of  French  CanatUan  Nationalists  who 
follow  his  lead.  (Consult  Bourassa,  'Que 
Devons-Nousi  I'AngleterTe*  (1915);  'National 
Problems'  (1916),  etc).  Independence  is  gen- 
erally held  to  be  the  aun,  orommate  or  distant 
of  the  Nationalist  parly  of^  South  Africaheaded 
by  {General)  Jud^  Hertzo^.  A  proper  appre* 
oation  of  these  divergent  views  enables  one  to 
uoderstand  the  full  significance  of  the  great 
In^erial  conferences  of  1907  and  1911  and  the 
subndianr  conferences  of  1909  (consult  Re- 
Mrts  _  of  Ccmlenacts,  also  Jebb,  R„  'The 
Imperial  Conference*  1911).  The  conferences 
oi  \9W  and  1911  showed  a  strongly  marked 
thvermnce  between  the  partisans  of  nationalism 
and  uose  of  federalism.  The  adoption  of  the 
name  Imperial  Conference  in  place  of  Colomal 
(1907)  marks  the  opening  of  a  new  era. 
The  proposal  of  a  central  body  to  be 
called  the  Imperii  secretariat,  advocated  by 
the  New  Zeuand  and  Australian  delegates 
and  those  from  the  Cape  and  Natal,  in 
19^  was  opposed  by  the  (then)  Liberal 
British  government  and  by  the  Canadian 
delegates  and  those  from  the  Transvaal. 
But  it  mult  be  remembered  that  under  the 
existing  Cabinet  systeoi  the  delegates  .to  the 
conference  represent'  at  a  given  time  only  one 
colonial  party.  In  the  place  of  a  secretariat 
there  was  created  a  division  of  the  colonial 
office  known  as  the  Dominions  department,  and 
the  name  'dominion*  replaced  colony  in  the 
offidal  designation  of  the  self-governing  de- 
pendencies. In  1909  a  special  naval  conference 
was  summoned.  A  grave  situation  had  been  al- 
ready officially  declared  to  exist,  by  Sir  Edward 
Grey  as  Foreign  Secretary  speaking  in  the 
House  of  Ckimmons,  and  "emergency*  offers  of 
assistance  had  been  made  by  New  Zealand  and 
Australia.  In  the  conference  of  1909  the  prin- 
ciple of  centralized  control  of  maritime  defense 
was  abandoned  in  favor  of  a  scheme  of  *fleet 
units*  presented,  perhaps  reluctantly,  by  the 
Admiral^  (consuh  Report  of  Conference,  Cd. 
4948).  The  conference  of  1911  witnessed  a 
pitched  battle  cm  die  subject  of  Imperial  r»- 


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aw 


CAHASiA^CAHAIU  AND  THS  BUSOPBAH  WAR  <15> 


;  Sir  J.  Ward  brining  forward  a 
complete  Federal  scheme  which  was  over- 
whclmeil  by  the  powerful  opposition  of  Ur. 
Asquith  (Aen  British  Prime  Minister),  Sir 
Wilfrid  Laurier  and  their  followers.  The  much- 
quoted  atatcments  of  Mr.  A&quiih  to  the  effect 
Uiat  Imperial  responsibility  cannot  be  ihared, 
and  of  Sir  Wilfrid  l-aurier  'Canada  need  not 
necessarily  takt  part  in  a  British  War'  should 
be  read  in  their  context  (consult  Report  of 
Conference).  The  conference  left  the  Imperial 
tituatjon  still  in  the  same  dilemma  (no  taxation 
without  representation  and  no  representation 
without  taxation)  in  which  it  had  been  since 
die  Imperial  Federation  Movement  b^an. 
Meantime  certain  definite  steps  were  being  at- 
tempted toward  more  adequate  Imperial  de- 
fense on  the  lines  suggested  in  the  conference 
of  1909.  The  Canadian  government  (liberal) 
passed  in  1909  a  Naval  Act  for  the  creation  of 
a  separate  Canadian  navy.  The  incoming  Con- 
servative government  (1911)  repealed  the  Act; 
but  found  their  own  naval  program  (that  of 
presenting  dreadnouj^ta  to  the  British  govern- 
ment for  an  indefinite  period)  defeated  in  the 
Senate,  thai  body  being  still  Liberal.  During 
the  same  period  a  separate  "Royal  Australisa 
Navy*  was  brought  ulo  being,  the  principal 
ships  completed  during  1913  and  the  naval  es- 
tablishments at  Sydney  and  elsewhere  in  Aus- 
tralia taken  over  by  die  Commonwealth  (1  July 
1913). 

The  advent  of  die  war  has  obviously  altered 
the  whole  situation.  The  war  efforts  of  the 
dominions  have  been  made  entirely  on  a  volun- 
tai^  basis,  the  nominal  le^l  sovereignty  of  the 
British  Parliament  not  being  brought  into  play. 
The  consultations  and  oonference,  and  espcnally 
rthe  general* I ffli>erial  conference  of  1917,  were 
devoted  to  the  immediate  aim  of  the  prosent- 
tion  of  the  strugi^e,  the  question  of  reorganisa- 
tion remaining  in  ftbeyi^ce.  But  it  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  at  the  ciose-oi  the  war  the 
time  will  have  come  for  a  reopening  of  the 
whole  question  of  future  Imperial  relations. 
See  the  articles  in  this  series:  Simcb  Ow- 
nuEBATioN;  Canada  and  the  EtnuiPRAM  Was; 
Caitadian  Was  Econouicb  ;  and  consult 
in  addition  to  the  works  noted  in  article  ab<>vB, 
Cunningham,  'Scheme  for  Imperial  Federation* 
(lags') ;  Goldman,  C.  S.,  (ed.)  'The  Empire 
and  the  Century:  a  Series  of  Essays'  (1905); 
Kurd,  P.,  and  Hurd,  A.  S.,  'The  New  Empire 
Partnership'  (1916);  Keith.  A  B  ^Imperial 
Unity  and  the  Dominions'  (1916);  Paricer, 
'Imperial  Federation'  (1892) ;  Silboume,  P. 
A.  B.,  'The  Governance  of  Empire'  (19I0>; 
Smillie,  E.  A.,  'Historical  Origins  of  Impend 
Federation'  (1910);  Worsfold.  W.  B,  'The 
Empire  on  the  Anvil'   (1916). 

Stephen  Leacx>ck, 
Professor  of  Economics  and  Political  Science, 
McGill  University. 

15.  CANADA  AMD  THS  EUROPEAN 
WAR.  Though  the  world  at  large  was  sur- 
prised by  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war,  there 
was,  in  fact,  for  this  little  justification.  Alams 
enough  had  been  given.  In  1909  there  was  in 
England  an  acute  crisis  in  regard  to  expendi- 
ture to  meet  Gcrtnai^s  naval  preparations. 
The  crisis  extended  to  Canada,  which  was  with- 
out either  an  army  or  a  navy.  Appeals  were 
made    in    the    Canadian    Pariiament    that    the 


country  Uioold  ^t  itsdf  in  a  p6ritioD  to  do 
something  effective  in  case  of  a  conflict.  These 
demands  embairassed  the  government  of  Sir 
Wilfrid  Laurier.  His  strength  was  in  the 
French-spealdng  province  of  Qbebec,  where  the 

Stople,  detached  for  a  century  and  a  half  from 
ranc^  the  mother-land  of  uieir  nccj  and  not 
stirred  ly  the  sense  of  unity  with  Britiafa  ideals 
f dt  in  f^glish-speaking  Canada,  were  disposed 
to  make  prepatations  only  to  meet  the  dangers 
of  a  direct  attack  on  Cjunida.  lite  most  violent 
spokesman  -  of  this  sduMi  of  thoi^t  was  M. 
Henri  Boiuassa,  grandson  of  a  farmer  stormy 
leader  in  CanacUan  politics,  Louis  Joseph 
Papinean.  When  Sir  Wilfrid  Lwmer  sub- 
mitted to  Parliament  plans  for  the  creation  of 
a  Canadian  navy,  U.  Bourassa  attacked  him  as 
a  jin^imperialist  Like  many  others.  Sir 
Wilfnd  Laurier  hcMicd  that  the  dread  of  the 
horrors  of  war  would  lead  to  effective  restraint 
by  the  more  sobeiMninded  people  in  Germany 
and  elsewhere  to  prevent  an  actual  oatbreak. 
He  proceeded  reluctantly  to  q»end  moti^  upon 
a  navy  and  in  1911,  when  he  fell  from  power, 
had  gone  no  farther  in  nmcrete  results  duo 
to  create  a  naval  college  at  Halifax  and  lo  pur- 
chase from  the  Britidi  government  and  to  man 
two  small  warships. 

Durine  the  election  of  1911,  M.  Bourassa 
had  assailed  with  ^reat  bitterness  the  policy  of 
creating  a  d^anadian  navy  as  likely  (o  dras 
Canada  into  imperialistic  wars  in  which  she  had 
no  vital  interest  In  the  election,  the  Conserva- 
tive party,  thoaghj  in  fact,  imperialistic  in 
spirit,  had  worked  m  a  loose  alliance  with  the 
anti-imperial  Nationalists  of  Quebec  Con- 
servatives had  attacked  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier's 
naval  policy  but,  unlike  the  Nationalists,  on  the 
ground  that  it  aimed  at  too  little  rather  than 
too  much.  When  in  power,  with  an  adequate 
majority  the  new  Prime  Minister  Sir  Robert 
Borden,  had  to  formulate  his  naval  policy.  To 
meet  Nationalist  demands,  he  rejected  the  naval 
policy  of  his  rival,  not  on  the  groimd  that  it 
was  not  needed  but  that  it  was  imdequate.  As 
a  first  step,  and  to  show  the  earnestness  and 
sincerity  of  Canada  to  give  aid  in  the  great 
crisis  which  he  declared  was  neat;  he  pused 
through  the  Canadian  House  of  Commoiis  in 
1913  a  measure  providing  for  the  immediate 
building,  at  a  cost  of  about  $35,OO0;O0ai  of  three 
dreadnoughts  to  be  placed  at  ttie  duposal  of  the 
British  govemmtnt  until  stich  time  aa  Canada 
should  have  a  navy  of  her  own.  This  would, 
he  said,  give  time  to  mature  an  adequate  naval 
policy  while  she  would  meanwhile  be  giving 
effective  assistance  in  naval  defense.  After 
prolonged  discussion  the  Senate  of  Canada, 
which  still  contained  a  Liberal  majority,  re- 
jected the  new  naval  bill.  Before  this  impasse 
between  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  Senate 
had  ended,  war  broke  out  on  4  Aug.  19H 
while  Canada  was  still  without  any  nav^  equip- 
Bunt  that  would  count  in  the  great  strug^c^ 

It  may  be  that  this  helplessness  in  regard 
to  effort  on  the  sea  made  the  Canadian  people 
the  more  jealous  to  equip  a  great  army  when 
once  they  realized  the  issues  raised  by  the  war. 
At  any  rate  the  outbreak  of  war  was  met  in 
Canada  by  astonisliing  resolution  and  en- 
thusiasm, to  take  part  in  what  the  Canadian 
people  believed  to  b«  a  vital  struggle  for  liberty. 
It  IS  a  mistake  to  say  that  the  motive  was 
diiefly  to  help  Great  Britain.     Help  to  Great 


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CAHADA  — CANADA  AND  THE  BUROPKAN  WAS  (1&) 


'  Britain  Canada  was  most  ready  to  give,  but 
Canada  did  not  enter  the  war  as  a  child  coming 
to  the  help  of  a  parent.  It  was  in  the  spirit  of 
partneTE  in  a  ^eat  crusade  that  the  Canadians 
wished  to  join  English.  Scotch,  Irish,  Aus- 
tralians and  others  in  tiffnting  side  by  side  with 
the  French  and  other  allies.  No  doubt  it  was 
due  to  Canada's  political  tie  with  Great  Britain 
bat  her  people  saw  so  quickly  the  issue  in- 
volved. They  had  no  suspicion  of  aggressive 
designs  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  and  thus 
met  with  quick  s^'mpathy  her  resolve,  after  the 
invasion  of  Belgium,  to  declare  war.  On  the 
nature,  however,  of  the  issue  itself  and  not 
throueh  any  compulsion  to  follow  Great  Britain, 
Canada  foneht.  It  was  certain  that,  in  lime,  the 
people  of  the  United  States  would  view  the 
war  exactly  as  the  Canadians  viewed  it. 

The  outbreak  of  war  saw  stirring  dam  In 
Canada.  The  Uinister  of  Militia  and  Defense. 
General  Hughes,  later  Sir  Sam  Hughes,  had 
freat  energy  ^nd  force,  though  he  was  at- 
tacked by  cntics  for  rashness  in  words  and  for 
ill-considered,  impulsive  and  arUtrary  actions. 
In  the  end  these  attacks  led  to  his  retirement. 
In  his  support  it  must  be  said  that  he  broui^l 
a  fiery  enthusiasm  and  energy  to  his  task  of 
making  Reparations  for  war.  Under  his  direc- 
tion a  military  camp  was  formed  at  Val  Carrier, 
near  Quebec.  When  the  war  broke  out  few 
realized  the  long,  desperate  strug^e  that'  lay 
ahead  and  the  Canadian  government  planned  to 
send  to  Europe  only  a  sui^e  division  of  20,000 
men,  fully  eauipped  for  war.  So  eager,  how- 
ever, were  tne  volunteers  for  service  that  by 
7  Sett.  1914,  a  month  after  the  outbreak  of  war 
Canada  had  under  arms  43,000  men.  On  3 
Oct  1914,  there  steamed  out  of  Gaspi  Basin  on 
the  lower  Saint  Lawrence,  escorted  by  a  for- 
midable array  of  warships,  the  greatest  force 
which,  as  yet,  had  ever  crossed  die  Atlantic 
On  board  were  33,000  Canadian  soldiers,  most 
of  whom,  two  months  eariier,  had  been  civilians 
with  little  thought  of  ever  taking  part  in  war. 
At  the  moment  when  this  fleet  sailed,  the 
Canadimi  government  announced  the  recruiting 
of  a  second  division  and,  by  April  1915,  the 
movement  to  Europe  of  this  force  began.  At 
the  end  of  1915  Canada  had  more  than  200,000 
men  under  arms.  By  this  time  it  was  clear  that 
there  could  be  no  reserve  in  regard  to  Canada's 
participation  in  the  war  and  tlut  she  was  com- 
mitted to  the  full  extent  of  her  men  and  re- 
sources. By  the  end  of  1917  she  had  sent 
400,000  men  over-seas  and  was  raising  an  addi- 
tional 100,000.  At  the  time  of  writing  she  has 
four  divisions  in  the  fighting  line,  her  casualties 
alone  amotmt  to  many  more  than  the  total 
number  of  men  in  the  four  first  divisions  which 
she  sent  over  seas,  and  a  steady  stream  of  nfw 
men  is  srilt  flowing  to  Europe,  together  with 
another  and  sadder  flow  of  thousands  of 
wounded  and  disabled  men  back  to  Canada  from 
the  tttttle-front.  If  the  United  States  is  forced 
to  take  port  in  the  war  on  the  same  scale,  the 
republic  will  send  to  Europe  six  or  seven  million 
men.  Australia  and  New  Zealand  have  sent  an 
even  greater  proportion  of  thdr  manhood. 

It  was  one  Uiing  to  send  men  across  the 
sea,  another  to  train  them  so  that  they  should 
be  able  to  take  a  worthy  place  in  the  battle  line 
in  front  of  the  disciplined  battalions  of  a 
military  nation  like  Germany.  For  a  long  time 
die  professional  soldier  had  been  contemptuous 


soldier  was  worth  more  than  a  dozen  of  raw 
militiamen,  with  inexperienced  officers,  igno- 
rant of  war  as  a  science.  Remembering  this,  we 
can  realize  the  anxiety,  the  fears  and  hopes, 
with  which  the  unprofessional  army  was 
watched  in  Canada,  when  at  last  it  reached  the 
scene  of  war.  The  first  Canadian  division  was 
sent  to  the  front  about  Ypres,  in  Belgium, 
ground  fought  over  the  most  bitterly,  pertiaps, 
of  any  part  of  the  long  front.  On  another 
front  in  the  battle  of  Neuve  Chapelle,  10  March 
1915,  Canadian  artillery  took  part  but  not 
Canadian  infantry. 

The  first  great  trial  of  Canadian  arms  was 
to  come  six  weeks  later.  In  April  1915.  the 
resolve  of  the  Germans  was  to  force  their 
way  through  to  Calais  and  dius  menace  com- 
munications between  England  and  France  with 
greater  effect  than  could  be  secured  from 
Ostend,  already  for  months  in  German  posses- 
sion. The  Canadians  were  at  a  critical  point 
on  the  line,  in  front  of  the  villages  of  Saint 
Julien  and  Langemard^  near  Ypres,  in  the  de- 
fense a^inst  the  advance  of  the  German  army 
to  Calais.  At  about  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
of  22  April  1915,  the  Germans  discharged 
poisonous  gase^  slowly  carried  by  a  favorable 
wind  to  the  allied  lines,  and  followed  with  an 
attack  in  great  force.  In  the  froni  line  on  the 
Canadian  left  were  French  regiments  of  Turcos 
and  Zouaves.  The  deadly  gas  not  unnaturally 
caused  a  panic  among  these  troops  and  they 
fled  to  the  rear  in  great  disorder  with  the  wild 
eyes  and  anguished,  distorted  faces  of  men  who 
had  breathed  invisible  death  and  were  in  ter^ 
rible  agony.  With  this  support  gone  the  Cana- 
dian left  was  "in  the  air.*  Had  the  Canadian 
Kne  broken,  it  is  altogether  likely  that  the 
German  divisions,  numbering  150,000  men,  could 
have  pressed  through  to  Calais  widi  all  the 
dire  consequences  to  the  allied  cause  which  this 
would  have  involved.  The  Canadian  line  gave 
a  litde.  The  left  was  bent  back  so  that  the 
two  fronts  were  almost  at  right  ai^^les.  For 
two  terrible  days  and  nights,  fighting  in  shell 
holes  and  bclund  any  defenses  which  the 
ground  provided,  the  smdll  force  held  on  until 
adequate  relief  came.  The  Canadians  lost  6,000 
men,  about  one-third  of  all  the  Canadians  then 
on  the  front,  but  they  had  baffled  the  enemy 
designs.  'It  is  not  too  much  to  say,*  wrote 
Sir  John  French,  the  commander-in-chief, 
•that  the  bearing  and  conduct  of  these  splendid 
troops  averted  a  disaster.*  At  Festubert  (9 
May)  and  Givenchy  (15  June)  the  Canadians 
had  further  hard  fighting  The  three  batdes 
formed  a  terrible  ordeal  for  troops  hidierto 
untried 

The  battle  of  Saint  Julien,  the  name  now 
generally  used,  and  those  which  immediately 
followed  are  momentous  in  the  history  of 
modem  war.  They  showed  that  newly-levied 
forces  of  good  mettle  can,  after  six  or  eight 
months  of  training,  hold  their  own  against  the 
fiercest  onslaught  of  professional  armies.  Not 
only  so,  but  the  training  in  initiative  learned 
in  civilian  life  made  such  men  specially  re- 
sourceful fighters.  It  was  the  Canadians  who 
first  kept  enemy  nerves  on  edge  by  trench 
raids  and  they  proved  good  bombers,  woods- 
men, roadmakers  and  generally  handy  men  aa 
need  arose.    As  we  have  seen  there  had  been 


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CANADA  ^CANADA  AND  THB  EUROPSAN  WAS  (15) 


Bcrvoiuneif  in  Canada  as  to  the  bearing  of 
troops  on  die  battle-line  who,  officers  and  men 
alike,  had  been  untrained  civiiians  less  than  a 
year  earlier.  Saint  Jolien  and  the  experience 
which  followed  relieved  anxiety  on  this  score 
and  since  that  day  Canadians,  civilians  and 
military  alike,  have  had  calm  confidence  in  the 
capacity  of  the  Canadian  divisions  at  the  frooL 
E>uring  the  first  years  of  the  war  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  Cuiadian  forces  was  held  by  an 
officer  of  the  regular  British  army,  at  first 
General  Alderson  and  later,  from  9  May  1916, 
Gen.  Sir  Julian  Byng.  But  at  the  time  of 
writing  the  Onadians  have  been,  since  19  June 
1917,  under  the  supreme  command  of  Gen. 
Sir  Arthur  Currie,  who,  three  and  a  half  years 
ago,  was  a  business  man  in  the  Canadian  West 
His  success  is  one  chief  proof  furnished  by 
Canada  of  the  rapidity  with  which,  in  conditions 
of  war,  the  dvthan  soldier  may  become  effec- 

After  the  first  trying  test  at  Saint  Julien, 
the  Canadian  army  settled  down  to  do  its  share 
in  holding  apart  of  the  long  line  in  Prance  and 
Flanders,  l^e  three  chief  scenes  of  war  in 
which  the  Canadian  divisicHis  took  part  were  at 
Yores ;  on  the  Sonune,  in  the  great  offensive 
of  the  summer  of  1916;  and  before  Lens, 
chiefly  in  the  fitting  of  1917.  In  what  is  now 
known  as  the  battle  of  Saint  Eloi,  on  the  Ypres 
line,  beginning  on  3  April  1916  and  lasting 
many  days,  the  Germans  made  a  terrific  con- 
centration of  artillery  fire  on  the  Canadians. 
There  were  three  Canadian  divisions  in  the  line 
of  battle.  The  hoped-for  British  advance  did 
not  succeed,  in  spite  of  local  successes.  The 
battle  of  Sanctuary  Wood,  in  the  same  area, 
a  terrible  struggle,  was  fought  in  June  1916, 
and  the  Canadians  held  the  ground  after  incur- 
ring fearful  losses.    The  outstanding  result  of 


the  long  fighttng  was  that  tlie  British  continved 
to  hold  (fie  Vpres  salient  upon  which  " - 
Germans    had   concentrated    their    fiercest 


tacks.  In  September  of  that  year  the  Canadian 
divisions  were  on  the  Somme  where  in  many 
weeks  of  hard  fating  their  most  conspicuous 
victory  was  at  Courcelette.  The  Somme  offen- 
sive was  not  the  ttrildng  success  which  had 
been  hoped  for,  but  it  was  successful  enoi^i  to 
cause  a  considerable  German  retirement  in  that 
region  earhr  in  1917. 


Canadian  troops  duritw  the  war,  the  city  of 
L^s  is  an  objective  lor  which  they  weot 
through  very  hard  fighting,  after  being  with- 
drawn from  the  Somme.  In  the  early  spring  of 
1917  the  British  planned  a  great  offensive  atnd, 
t:^  the  fortune  of  war,  the  Canadian  troops 
were  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  attack.  On  6 
April  1917,  the  allied  forces  were  cheered  by  the 
entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  war. 
Three  days  later,  as  if  to  celebrate  it,  they 
made  the  great  attack  at  Vimy.  Nearly  20,000 
prisoners,  200  ^ns  and  some  300  machine  gun) 
fell  to  the  Bntish.  The  Canadians  took  part 
in  the  attack  on  the  portion  of  the  line  called 
Vimy  Ridge  and  captured  3,000  prisoners.  It 
was  then  that  Vimy  became  a  great  name  in 
the  military  annals  of  Canada.  The  city  of 
Toronto  has  undertaken,  when  the  war  is  over, 
to  restore  the  village  of  Vimy  as  a  memorial 
of  Canada's  part  in  a  slrildDi;  military  success. 
By  midsummer  of    1917    the    Bntish    had 


then  pre^red  for  a  new  offensive  in  that 
r^on.  This  took  ^lace  in  the  last  days  of 
October  and  early  m  November,  The  most 
striking  feat  of  the  Canadians  in  this  offensive 
was  the  capture  on  6  Nov.  1917  of  the  strongly 
defended  village  of  Passchendalle:  This  fur- 
nished the  dramatic  close  to  the  Canadian  Bat- 
ing of  1917,  beyond  which  the  present  record 
does  not  ga 

Before  the  close  of  the  year  1917  die  Cana- 
dian casualties  amounted  to  about  6,000  offi- 
cers and  124,000  men.  A  good  many  of  the 
wounded  returned  to  the  fitting  line,  but  the 
fist  of  final  losses  in  the  Canadian  army  makes 
a  grim  record.  Exact  figures  are  not  yet  avail- 
able, but  by  the  end  of  1917  the  dead,  includr 
ing  those  killed  in  action,  dead  of  wounds  or 
disease,  and  misung  and  counted  dead, 
amounted  to  some  2,000  officers  and  38,000  men, 
a  total  of  40,000  men  — numbers  slight  com- 
pared with  the  losses  of  the  nations  in  Europ^ 
but  yet  appalling.  To  such  great  losses  indeed 
must  be  added  those  of  wholly  or  partially  dis- 
abled men  of  whom  the  number  must  be  nearly 
as  many. 

In  spite  of  such  losses,  die  war  has  had  a 
Btimulaaug  effect  upon  Canadian  character  and 
production.  For  the  first  time  in  the  history 
of  the  world  a  great  army  from  America  has 
fought  in  Europe  to  redress  that  balance  of  the 
Old  World  which,  a  century  ago,  England  re- 
dressed in  the  new,  by  coming  to  the  snpport  of 
the  Monroe  Doctrine.  It  marks  an  epoch  in 
the  historv  of  mankind  that  Canadian  divisions^ 
to  be  followed  in  1918  by  divisions  from  the 
United  States,  should  thus  fight  in  Europe  in 
a  cause  in  which  neither  of  them  had  any 
thought  of  direct  gain  beyond  their  own  secu- 
rity. "Nothing  in  the  history  of  the  world  has 
ever  been  known  quite  like  it,"  said  a  dis- 
tinguished French  general.  "Uy  countrymen 
are  fighting  within  50  miles  of  Paris  . 
But  ...  the  Canadians  at  Ypres  fona^ 
with  supreme  and  absolute  devotion  for  what 
to  many  of  them  must  have  seemed  simple  s^ 
stractions;  and  that  nation  which  will  support 
for  an  abstraction  the  horrors  of  this  war  of 
all  wars  will  ever  hold  the  highest  place  in  the 
records  of  human  valor.'  Precisely  the  same 
spirit  brought  the  United  Slates  into  the  war. 
Facility  of  commtinication  has  made  the  whole 
modem  world  a  tmit.  The  idealism  of  the 
western  peoples  is  practical,  for,  to  each  of 
them,  danger  and  security  alike  involve  a  world- 
wide range  of  forces. 

Not  less  on  the  material  than  on  the  moral 
side  has  Canadian  life  been  stimulated.  Canada 
has  supplied  vast  quantities  of  munitions  for 
the  allied  armies  fighting  in  EJirope  and  the 
skill  and  enterprise  of  her  industrial  leaders 
have  made  marked  advances.  In  spite  of  the 
drain  of  war  upon  her  male  population,  agricul- 
tural production  has  been  increased  and  Canada 
remains  one  of  the  chief  exporters  in  the  world 
of  food  supplies.  The  enhanced  value  of  her 
commodities  has  been  so  great  as  almost  to 
counterbalance  the  cost  to  her  of  the  war.  For 
the  first  time  in  history  the  Canadian  govern- 
ment has  secured  huge  loans  from  the  masses 
of  the  Canadian  people.  For  the  first  time  also 
Canada  has  a  heavy  trade  balance  in  her  favor, 
due  chiefly  to  the  export  of  mimitioDs.  It  is 
an  unexpected  result  of  war  that  ibis  former 


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CANADA  — CANADIAN  WAS  SCONOHICS  (15a) 


debtor  state,  bomywing  large  sums,  has  now 
become  a  creditor  state  financing  great  sif  plies 
of  munitions  for  tbe  Allies.  See  also  Sixes 
CoNFEraXAnON  (ttrtide  9). 

The  full  story  of  Canada's  part  in  the  war 
faai  not  yet  been  told.  (For  later  details 
see  Wak,  Eubopeah).  The  'Canada  Year- 
Book*  published  annually  by  the  Minister  of 
Trade  and  Commerce  at  Ottawa  contains  much 
statistical  information.  'Canada  in  Flanders' 
by  Sir  M.  H.  Aitken,  now  Lord  Beaverbrook 
(New  York),  i%  a  semi-official  account  of 
Canada's  part  in  the  war.  Two  volumes  have 
been  published  bringing  the  narrative  to  the  end 
of  1916. 

Gbobge  M.  Wbono, 
Proftisor  of  History,  Unwersity  of  Toronto, 
ISL  CANADIAN  WAR  ECONOMICS. 
In  common  with  most  commercial  countries, 
Canada  had  enjoyed  a  period  of  remarkaUe 
expansion  and  prosperity,  for  at  least  10  ^ears 
previous  to  1913.  During  this  period  her  inter- 
nal economic  expansion  and  external  trade  in- 
creased in  an  exceptional  ratio.  This  was 
chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  Canada  presented 
the  largest  remaining  area  of  unoccnpwd  lands 
and  other  virgin  natural  resources,  wider 
climatic  and  social  conditions  attractive  to 
huropean  and  American  settlers.  With  an  in- 
flux of  over  2X100,000  immigrants,  accompanied 
by  over  $1,000^000,000  of  foreign  capital,  it  was 
inevitable  that  values^  even  on  the  soundest 
basis,  should  very  rapidly  increase,  and  equally 
inevitable,  under  conditions  of  free  individu^ 
investment,  that  apecnlative  values  should  rise 
still  higher.  The  growth  of  western  towns  and 
cities  in  particular,  and  some  of  the  newer 
railroad  oevelopments,  outran  the  adjoining 
agricultural  developments  on  which,  however, 
they  must  ultimately  depend.  When,  therefore, 
the  optimistic  sjnrit  of  investment  which  per- 
vaded the  older  countries  had  received  a  check 
in  1912-13.  and  the  pendulum  began  to  swing 
toward  greater  cantioa  in  investments,  many 
Canadian  enterprises  were  caught  in  an  incom- 
plete or  relatively  unproductive  can<Ution,  The 
sudden  arrest  of  a  number  of  these  undertak- 
ings not  only  checked  general  speculation,  but 
brou^t  about  a  rather  severe  reaction  in  the 
older  industries  dependent  on  tbe  regions  of 
special  expansiona  These  in  turn  checked  en- 
terprise in  many  other  Hues  of  trade.  In  brief, 
a  period  of  stagnation  and  readjustment  bad 
set  in  during  1913-14. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  Canada  when  the 
European  War  burst  upon  tbe  world.  Naturally 
the  (Canadian  situaticm  was  not  improved  by  the 
initial  paralysis  produced  by  the  declaration  of 
war,  and  the  dislocation  of  international  trade. 
Widiin  a  few  months,  however,  tiie  demand  for 
men  and  equipment  relieved  the  grovrinK  stag- 
nation of  the  labor  market  and  stimulated  those 
industries  and  trading  houses  which  were  able 
to  furnish  the  various  lines  of  army  equipment, 
or  could  most  rapidly  adapt  themselves  to  the 
new  and  urgent  demands  occasioned  by  the 
war.  The  rapid  enlistment  of  many  thousands 
of  men  involved  the  employment  of  many  others 
in  fumishiiuc  sustenance,  equipment  and  trans- 
portation. The  Canadian  forces  when  equipped 
were  r^dly  sent  overseas.  The  government, 
for  the  first  time  in  its  history,  undertook  to 
bear    the    tritole  c:q>ense   of    eqn^^g,   trans- 


porting and  maintaining  at  the  front  its  entire 
force.  This  involved  very  important  conse- 
quences for  Canadian  trade  and  exchange,  and, 
incidenlly,  for  the  statistics  of  import  and  ex- 
port. 

The  expansion  of  Canada  for  the  decade 
from  1903^13  having  been  accomplished  very 
largdy  through  foreign  capital,  practically  the 
whole  of  this  capital  came  to  the  country  in 
tlM  shape  of  goods,  thus  enormously  increasing 
the  imports.  Since,  however,  only  a  limited, 
number  of  immigrants  were  at  first  employed  in 
meeting  their  own  primary  wants,  the  feeding, 
housing  and  general  maintenance  of  a  raiudly 
increasing  population  made  great  demands  upon 
the  agricultural  and  other  products  of  the 
countn  which  would  otherwise  have  been  sent 
abroad  increasing  tbe  export  returns.  Thus 
the  epoch  of  internal  prosperity  and  expansion 
of  1903-13  was  marked  by  rapidly  increasing 
imports,  without  any  corresponding  increase  in 
exiK>Rs.  For  tbe  fiscal  year  1912-13,  die  excess 
of  imports  over  exports  amounted  to  £296,750^ 
000;  on  a  total  trade  of  $1,095,000,000.  The  sud- 
den arrest  of  imports  throu^  the  falliiu^  off  of 
foreign  investment  and  the  corresponding  re- 
lease for  export  of  much  Canadian  produce 
formerlv  required  in  the  countiy  rapidly  re- 
adjustea  the  balance  of  trade.  Within  two 
years,  including  the  first  eight  months  of  the 
war,  the  adverse  balance  of  imports  had  been 
reduced  from  $296,000,000  to  $3(^000,000.  There- 
after the  effect  of  the  war  beaame  very  evident. 
Supplies  for  the  maintenance  of  the  men  abroad, 
and  the  war  eqmpment  sent  to  them,  so  far  as 
tn^oduced  in  Canada  now  wpeared  a£  exports. 
On  the  other  hand,  such  foreign  supplies  as 
they  were  furnished  with  in  Europe  did  not 
appear  at  imports  to  Canada.  Taking  the  latest 
returns  available,  we  find  that  for  the  12 
months,  ending  November  1917,  the  Canadian 
exiiorts  exceeded  the  imports  by  over  $563,000,- 
000  in  a  total  trade  of  $2,586,000,000.  In  point 
of  percentage  this  sli^tly  more  than  reverses 
the  exceptional  excess  of  imports  over  exports 
before  ttie  war.  Nothing  more  directly  ilhis- 
trates  the  remarkable  revolution  in  Canadian 
external  trade  in  passing  from  a  condition  of 
domestic  expansion,  through  immigration  and 
foreign  investment,  to  the  participation  in  a 
world  war  requiring  the  export  of  all  available 
resources  for  the  supply  of  die  Canadian  army 
and  the  needs  of  the  Allies. 

Tlie  great  volume  of  Canadian  recent  aggre- 
gate trade  was  due  chiefly  to  three  factors,  in 
addition  to  the  central  one  already  indicated. 
Tbe  first  and  most  obvious  is  tbe  great  increase 
in  prices,  the  usual  accompaniment  of  war  con- 
ditions. Second  ia  the  fact  that  the  munition 
and  other  industries  connected  with  the  war 
have  required  the  import  of  large  Quantities  of 
machinery,  raw  materials  and  partly  manufac- 
tured goods,  which  enter  into  the  production 
of  the  finished  articles  as  finally  exported. 
The  other  factor  is  the  greatly  increased  im- 
port, during  the  past  two  years,  of  articles  of 
use  and  luxury  for  home  consumption,  due  to 
the  exc«rtionaI  prosperity  and  spending  power 
of  that  large  section  of  the  community  which 
has  benefited  financially  by  the  operations  of  the 
war. 

This  last  factor  is  a  rather  interesting  and 
important  erne,  not  bj;  anj;  means  confined  to 
Canada;    but,    in   conjunction   with  the  other 


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CANADA  — CANADIAN  WAR  ECONOMICS  (ISa) 


forces,  accounting  for  a  vety  considerable  ele- 
ment in  the  general  increase  in  prices  and  the 
higher  cost  of  living  generally.  As  has  been 
already  pointed  out,  the  first  effect  of  the  war 
was  to  aggra.vate  the  depression  which  the 
recent  reaction  from  exceptional  prosperity 
had  produced,  but  the  double  demand  (or  men, 
on  the  one  hand  to  enlist  for  military  service 
and  on  the  other  to  furnish  the  su(>plies  and 
services  incidental  to  their  participation  in  the 
war,  led,  before  many  months,  to  tne  absorption 
of  all  tne  efficient  man-Txiwer  of  the  country. 
The  demand,  however,  being  far  from  satisfied, 
not  only  did  w^es  rise  in  all  activities  directly 
or  indirectly  connected  with  the  war,  but,  to  an 
increasing  degree,  other  elements  in  the  popu- 
lation, such  as  women  and  youths  of  both  sexes, 
and  elderhr  persons,  found  employment  at 
hitherto  unknown  rates  of  remaneradon.  Tho^ 
not  only  was  the  family  income  increased 
through  its  bead,  but  often  doubled  and  even 
trebled  through  the  remunerative  employment 
of  several  of  its  other  members.  Furtoer,  while 
over  400,000  men  were  taken  overseas  for  mili- 
tary service,  thrir  families  or  those  dependent 
on  them  were  provided  for  by  separation  allow- 
ances, assigned  pay  and  special  contributions 
from  the  Patriotic  Fund,  while  many  of  their 
relatives  and  dependents  were  among  those  who 
received  extra  emp1o:nneDt,  and,  as  was  just 
and  proper,  in  proportion  to  their  qnalifications, 
were  given  the  preference  in  such  employment. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  those  who  were  for- 
tunate enough  to  control  or  have  investments 
in  munition  industries,  or  other  enterprises 
favorably  affected  by  tbe  war.  receive  as  a  rule 
profits  and  incomes  mucn  beyond  what 
were  customary,  even  in  the  days  of  expansion 
before  the  war.  Some  of  these  capitalists  and 
merchants,  it  is  true,  have  had  to  contribute 
various  percentages  of  their  gains  through  the 
war  profits  and  income  taxes,  but  the  very 
volume  of  the  taxes  is  an  index  of  the  excep- 
tional revenue  remaining  with  those  who  pay 

It  cannot  be  forgotten,  however,  diat  one 
considerable  element  in  the  community  suffers 
more  or  less  heavily  from  Ae  war  wittiout  any 
appreciable  redress.  This  is  made  up  of  those 
living  on  fixed  incomes  or  annnities,  and  cer- 
tain professional  or  other  salaries,  wluch,  for 
various  reasons,  have  not  been  increased;  also 
those  furnishing  services,  or  conducting  various 
lines  of  business  which  have  not  been  oencfited 
by  the  war,  but  perhaps  the  reverse.  Such  per- 
sons, according  to  their  previous  sodal  status, 
must  meet  the  steady  increase  in  the  cost  of  liv- 
ing, and  the  many  other  calls  upon  their  means 
without  any  oSset.  Ilieir  only  resource  is  to 
continually  curtail,  as  best  they  can,  ihnr 
former  standard  of  living,  whik  die  majority 
of  their  nei^bors  are  at  die  worst  holding  thnr 
own,  but  in  most  cases  enlarging  thrir  c:q>en)fi' 
turt 

With  the  government  and  its  colossal  expend- 
iture, on  the  one  hand,  and  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  war-prosperous  citizens  on  the  other, 
competing  for  the  products  of  agrictdture  ana 


fident  measure,  and  that  even  in  die  necessaries 
they  may  pass  from  lower  to  higher  grades  of 
quality,  the  Canadian  trade  returns  for  the  past 
two  years  indicate  that  not  only  does  the  pros- 
perous element  in  the  country  completely  offset 
those  who  are  forced  to  curtail  their  former 
scale  of  living,  but  rolls  up  a  large  balance  on 
the  other  side.  It  is  true  that  only  certain  im- 
ports can  be  cited  in  proof  of  Uiis  ntuation, 
inasmuch  as,  in  many  lines,  the  quantity  and 
value  taken  for  domestic  consumption  cannot  be 
separated  from  the  quantity  and  value  taken  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  or  for  rcshipment  to 
the  troops  overseas.  Tnus,  only  for  the  past 
two  years  have  passenger  automobiles  been 
Separated,  in  the  trade  returns,  from  all  forms 
of  automobiles  and  motor  trucks;  hence  only 
for  that  time  can  one  safety  determine  to  what 
extent  the  increased  imf>ort  represents  com- 
mercial or  war  needs  as  distingnisned  from  per- 
sonal lue  and  enjoyment.  So  in  the  tobacco 
imports,  it  is  impossible  to  accurately  distin- 
guish between  the  increased  consumption  in  the 
country  by  a  considerably  dimimshed  male 
population  and  the  amount  which  is  sent  over- 
seas to  soldiers  at  the  front.  We  must  also 
recognize  that  much  of  what  goes  to  the  soldiers 
at  the  front  is  not  sent  directly  from  Canada, 
but  furnished  from  Britain  and  France  or  pur- 
diased  at  the  canteens,  from  funds  contributed 
for  that  purpose,  In  the  case  of  many  other 
articles,  however,  whether  of  ordinary  supply 
or  of  pure  luxury,  what  the  trade  returns  show, 
alike  in  actual  volume  of  goods  and  in  the 
money  values  of  these,  is  tnat  the  actual  as 
well  as  the  relative  purchasing  power  of  the 
people  has  very  greatly  increased  during  the 
war.  A  few  typical  articles  may  be  mentioned, 
the  increased  im^rt  of  which  will  serve  to  indi- 
cate this  interesting  economic  effect  of  the  war. 
Boots  and  shoes,  gtcves,  hats,  various  fancy 
artides,  furs,  glass  w«re,  phonographs,  ^no 
parts  and  musical  instruments  generally,  cheap 
pictures,  precious  Stones,  carpets,  shirts,  stock- 
ings, especially  silk  stoddngs,  underwear,  cot- 
tons, bee,  embroidery,  lontted  goods,  siOcs  of 
all  kinds  for  personal  -wear,  tweeds,  passenger 
autnnobiles,  cte.  The  last  is  a  typical  case 
Leaving  values  out  of  account  we  find  that  for 
the  eight  months  ending  November  1915,  the 
total  number  of  automobiles,  including  frdgfat 
antomobiles  and  motor  trucks, 


not  mere^  in  value  but  also  in  quanti^.  Pre- 
suming that  people  indulge- in  luxunes  onl7 
after  the  necessaries  of  life  a 


tv 


automobiles  alone  were  for  l91fi,  8,491, 
anffor  1917,  12,156. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  the  increased  ex- 
penditure of  the  Canadian  people  as  a  whol^  a 
sufficient  surplus  of  funds  has  been  available 
from  their  incomes  to  enable  diem  to  raise, 
without  any  serious  difficolty,  increasingly  lar^ 
domestic  loans  for  the  use  of  the  opvemmcnt  in 
the  prosecution  of  the  war.  Tlie  followine 
have  been  the  special  domestic  war  loans 
efiected  by  the  government;  in  November  1915, 
$100,000,000,  September  191^ $100<OOO,OOO,  March 
1917,$lS0,0qfta»,  November  1917,  $400,000,ODa 
Large  additional  amounts  have  been  supiplied  to 
the  government  in  tiie  pnrciuse  of  war  certifi- 
cates and  in  spedat  loans.  Most  of  the  in- 
creased caintal  for  war  industries  has  been  sap- 
pUcd  from  within  the- country,  while  the  banks 
nave  aided  in  fiiKiidng  British  and  allied  pur- 
diases  in  Canada.    Thm  am  also  t&e  loaas  for 


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CANADA— DIPLOMATIC  RELATIONS  OF  xnnlTKO  STATB8  (It) 


As  regards  the  dTrection  of  Canadian  trade, 
it  has  been  the  good  fortune  of  the  country  not 
to  experience  any  appreciable  dislocation  of  its 
noimal  trade  connections  since  the  onibreak  of 
the  war.  Before  the  war  nearly  90  per  cent  of 
Canada's  export  trade  was  with  the  two  coun- 
tries, Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  and 
during  the  war  that  percentage  has  been  prac- 
tically maintained.  Before  the  war  85  per  cent 
of  Canadian  imports  came  from  the  same  coun- 
tries, and  the  only  effect  of  the  war  has  been 
to  raise  the  pereentage  to  a  little  over  90  per 
cent.  At  the  same  time,  the  details  of  the  trade 
with  these  cotmtries  has  naturally  been  consider- 
ably altered.  There  has  been  a  very  consider- 
able diversion  of  the  exports  of  Canada  to 
Britain,  and  a  corresponding  transfer  in  the 
source  of  Canadian  imports  from  Britain  to  the 
United  States.  When  the  war  is  over,  there- 
fore, we  may  expect  very  little  change  in  the 
direction  of  nine-tenths  of  our  world  trade,  be- 
yond a  readjustment  of  details  as  between 
Canada  and  her  two  chief  trading  allies.  The 
loss  of  ttade  with  the  enemy  countries  has 
been  of  no  material  importance  to  Canada  as  a 
whole,  though  it  naturally  affected  somewhat 
seriously  a  few  trading  houses. 

As  to  the  chan^  in  the  nature  of  the  prod- 
ucts called  for  owmg  to  the  war,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  a  veritable  revolution  has  been 
wrought  in  one  department  of  Canadian  export, 
that  of  manufactures.  Fifty'tour  million  dol- 
lars represented  the  value  of  the  export  of  the 
Canadian  manufactures  in  1913,  increasing  to 
S69,0O0,00O  for  1914,  $191,000,000  for  1915  and 
1440.000,000  for  1916;  while  tor  ei^t  months  to 
November  1917,  the  amount  was  $489,000^000. 
This  of  course  represents  munitions  of  war  of 
all  kinds  and  involves  a  correspondingly  great 
increase  in  imports  of  materials  and  equtp- 
ment  which  enter  into  their  production.  The 
usual  allowance  must  of  course  be  made  for  in^ 
creased  prices.  Incidenlly  the  prosp^ty  of  the 
munition  industries  and  ^eir  subsidiarv  de- 
pendents indicates  the  difficulty  of  tnaucing 
labor  and  capital  to  turn,  during,  the  war  at 
least,  from  these  tempting  fields  of  sure  profits 
and  hieli  wages  to  the  more  uncertain  realm  of 
agriculture.  At  the  same  time  the  next  largest 
export  has  been  in  agricultural  products,  which, 
though  legs  in  aggregate  value  than  manufac- 
tures, indicates  a  larger  actual  return  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  trade  balance,  apart  from 
individual  profits.  The  increase  in  agricultutal 
exports  has  been  due  more  to  the  proportion  of 
certain  products  sent  abroad,  and  the  hi^ 
values  attached,  than  to  an  actual  increase  in 
the  agricultural  production  of  the  country, 
which  naturally  varies  with  the  harvest*.  The 
great  harvest  of  1915  has  not  been  since  ap- 
proached. The  exported  agricultural  product^ 
apart  from  animal  products,  increased  from 
$127,000,000  in  1914  to  $364,000,000  in  1916,  and 
for  the  eight  month  period  to  November  1917, 
amounted  to  $384,000,000.  Next  came  anUnai 
products:  increasing  from  $68,000,000  in  1914, 
to  $117,000,000  in  1916,  and  $124,000,000  for  the 
ag£t  months  of  Ae  past  year.  Tlie  export  of 
the  products  of  the  mine,  the  fisheries  and  the 
forest  have  not  materially  increased  for  the 
past  couple  of  years. 

Altogether  a  close  survey  .of  the .  eoonoaic 


conditions  in  Canada,  since  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  compels  the  general  conclusion  that,  what- 
ever reaction  may  require  to  be  faced  at  the 
close  of  the  war,  whatever  may  be  the  sulue- 
quent  effect  of  (he  great  national  debt  whi(^ 
Canada  in  common  with  the  other  belligerent 
tntions  is  piling  up,  and  whatever  readjustment 
may  be  noceasary  to  meet  the  changed  econonvc 
conditions  and  relationships  of  the  outside 
world,  the  chief  effect  of  the  war  up  to  1918 
has  been  to  increase  the  prosperity  of  the  Cana- 
dian peojplc  as  a  whole,  to  increase  their  com- 
mand of  ready  money,  and,  in  consequence,  to 
raist  for  lar^  numbers  at  least,  their  physical 
standard  of  hving. 

Adah  Shortt, 
Chairman   Board    of    Historical   Publications, 
PuhHc  Arcktvts  of  Canada. 
IS.    DIPLOMATIC    RELATIONS    OP 
THE  UNITED  STATES  WITH  CANADA. 

lort  peril 
,  and  reinaugurated  in  1814  by  the  Treaty  of 
Ghent,  is  the  more  remarkable  and  significant 
because  it  has  been  maintained  across  the  long- 
est international  boundary  in  the  world  with- 
out costly  fortifications  or  armaments,  in  a 
period  of^  national  youth  and  aggressive  west- 
ward movement,  and  in  the  face  of  repeated 
friction  and  irritation  arising  from  a  long  series 
of  international  problems  —  many  of  which 
were  serious  in  their  nature  and  difhcult  of 
solution  or  adjustment,  sometimes  even 
^rcatening  actual  collision.  In  the  war  of  the 
Kevolution  and  in  the  negotiations  of  peace  at 
its  dose  the  United  States  hoped  to  obtain 
Canada,  but  in  the  end  was  able  to  get-only  the 
region  north  of  the  Ohio  which  had  been  an- 
nexed to  Canada  by  the  Quebec  Act  (q.v.)  of 
1774  and  Was  regarded  as  necessary  for  the 
grovrth  ana  safety  of  the  Union.  Great 
'  tfy  ; 

igh    the   -„ .-- _. 

objected  to  [his  Tine  of  boundary  and  especially 
to  the  amputation  of  the  territory  north  of 
the  Ohio  which  under  American  control  might 
be  subject  to  conditions  injurious  to  the  Cana- 
dian fur  trade  and  export  trade  to  the  Indians. 
They  also  desired  to  exclude  the  United  States 
from  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  all  tributaries  by 
making  the  boundary  at  the  height  of  land,  or 
at  least  to  limit  the  size  of  American  vessels 
upon  the  lakes. 

The  early  British  trade  policy  in  relation  tt> 
the  United  States  wai  largely  determined  by  a 
desire  to  stimulate  Canada  to  furnish  the  - 
British  West  Indies  with  American  product^ 
carried  via  the  Saint  Lawrence,  thus  reversing 

e^graphic  ctHiditions  with  a  view  of  attaching 
nada  to  Great  Britain.  , 

'  Canada's  remaining  hope  to  contiiiite  the 
control  of  the  interior  Indian  trade  received  its 
first  shock  by  the  American  org^nizatioa  of 
the  Northwest  Territoty  under  the  ardinonce  of 
1787  and  the  consequent  i^ans  of  future  rda4t 
and  river  improvements. 

Serious  qtiestiotis  and  complicatiolu  .con- 
fronted the  new  American  government  which 
was  inaugurated  under  the  new  Federal  coh- 
stitntion  in  1769.  The  boundary  was  unmailted 
Influenced  by  Canadian  traders  who  aiiged  that 
the  boundary  should  have  been  established  aootlk 
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868       CANADA— DIPLOBIATIC  SEIATIONS  OF  UNITED  STATES  (16) 


the  lake  posts  on  American  territory  which  it 
had  agreed  in  1783  to  abandon  without  delay. 
British  officers  also  seriously  interrupted  the 
fur  trade  o£  American  citizens,  by  duties  levied 
on  American  vessels  and  by  the  exclusion  of 
American  citi;!ens  from  the  navigation  of  the 
American  side  of  the  boundary  waters,  although 
at  one  time  in  1790  Lord  Dorchester  suggested 
that  the  British  government  favored  an  alliance 
with  the  United  States. 

Washington,  believing  the  retention  of  the 
posts  prevented  the  possibility  of  securing  a 
perfect  tranquility  of  the  Indians  of  the  North- 
west and  fearing  that  the  retention  would  re- 
sult in  retaliatory  legislation  against  commercial 
relations  with  Great  Britain,  sent  Jay  to 
negotiate  a  treaty.  This  treahf  provided  for 
evacuation  of  the  posts  by  1796,  freedom  of 
intercourse  and  trade  across  the  border  and  a 
commission  to  determine  the  boundary.  In  the 
United  States  this  treaty  was  strongly  opposed 
by  certain  citizens  who  advocated  prevention 
of  trade  with  Canada  and  were  disappointed 
in  failing  to  get  egress  of  American  vessels 
from  the  lakes  to  the  Atlantic  via  the  Saint 
Lawrence,  and  the  prohibition  of  the  importa- 
tion of  arms  and  warlike  stores  by  way  of  the 
lakes. 

The  international  boundary,  although  de- 
fined by  the  treaty  of  1783,  was  not  easily 
marked  by  the  surveyors  whose  governments 
were  not  able  to  agree  upon  a  starting  point 
at  the  extreme  eastern  end  of  the  line,  and  who 
encountered  other  difficulties  all  the  way  to 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  Not  until  1798,  after 
IS^ears  of  controversy,  was  the  identity  of  the 
Saint  Croix  River  determined,  the  agreement 
being  reached  through  a  joint  commission  as 
arranged  by  a  provision  of  Jay's  treaty,  and 
this  was  the  limit  of  progress  made  on  the  de- 
termination of  the  boundary  before  the  War 
of  1812. 

New  sources  of  irritation  on  the  lake  fron- 
tier continued  to  arise.  Canadians  regarded 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  as  a  step  toward  ac- 
quisition north  of  the  lakes  and,  althoui^  they 
still  attracted  a  large  part  of  the  Indian  trade 
of  the  Northwest  they  induced  the  British 
government  in  1807,  in  the  negotiations  of  a 
treaW  to  replace  the  temporary  provisions  of 
the  Jay  treaty,  to  request  an  amendment  which 
would  admit  their  traders  and  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  to  participation  in  the  Indian 
trade  of  (he  Louisiana  Purchase.  By  1808,  re- 
lations became  much  strained.  Canadian 
traders  asked  redress  for  injuries  resulting 
■  from  exclusion  from  Louisiana,  from  American 
assessment  of  portage  duties  and  from  Ameri- 
can interference  with  Canadian  boats  which 
had  approached  too  near  to  particular  Ameri- 
can lake  ports  or  ^ores. 

Finatty,  the  Indian  troubles  of  1811  aroused 
the  American  frontiersmen  of  the  Northwest 
to  demand  the  prevention  of  further  relations 
between  the  Indians  and  the  Canadian  traders ; 
and  the  lake  frontier  became  the  theatre  of 
the  principal  military  operations  of  the  War  of 
L812,  l>egun  largely  with  the  purpose  of  the 
conquest  of  Canada  as  a  means  of  terminating 
British- American  trade  with  the  Northwest 
Indians  and  giving  Americans  control  of  trade 
on  the  lakes.    See  Boundaries  of  the  United 

One  of  the  most  important  struggles  in  the 


peace  negotiations  whidt  resulted  in  the  Treaty 
of  Ghent  was  to  secure  the  continuation  of 
American  rights  upon  the  lakes,  where  the 
British  sought  exclusive  control,  and  upon  the 
adjacent  southern  shores  where  the  British  by 
an  ultimatum  sought  to  establish  an  Indian  bar- 
rier against  future  American  aggression  upon 
Canada.  The  boundarv  remainea  as  before  the 
war.  The  part  of  Maine  occupied  by  the 
British  dunug  the  war  was  returned.  See 
Ghent,  Thraty  of. 

Meantime,  there  was  an  Increase  of  Ameri- 


Lake  Ontario  which  was  not  stopped  ..  ._. . 
Elnbargo  Act  of  1808  nor  by  the  later  war 
embargo  1^  which  the  JUadison  government 
sought  to  prevent  trade  with  the  enemy.  The 
Treatyof  Ghent,  without  mention  of  the  osten- 
sible causes  of  the  war,  provided  for  arbitration 
of  various  matters  in  aispute.  It  contained  a 
provision  for  the  definite  establishment  of  the 
exact  boundary  line  bv  joint  commission.  In 
1817,  ai  a  supplement  to  the  peace,  to  prevent 
the  danger  of  future  collision  and  sources  of 
misunderstanding  from  rival  navies  on  the 
lakes,  an  agreement  was  negotiated  providiu); 
for  mutual  disarmament  on  those  waters,  ex- 
cept four  vessels  on  eadi  side  restricted  as  to 
size  and  duties.  Although  peace  existed  in 
fact,  there  were  many  unsettled  questions,  some 
of  which  naturally  became  more  important  and 
more  serious  by  the  changes  of  time  —  influenced 
not  only  by  development  at  the  East  but  by  the 
extension  of  virile  peoples  westward  to  the 
Pacific.  The  meaning  and  import  of  certain 
words,  used  in  the  treaty  of  1/83,  relating  to 
boundaries  were  still  unsettled  and  continued 
a  source  of  dispute  between  the  nations  for 
nearly  30  years.  There  were  also  new  sources 
of  irritation  resulting  from  the  war,  and  from 
economic  and  politiral  policies.  Canada  could 
not  forget  that  the  closed  war  was  an  expres- 
sion of  an  American  policy  of  territorial  ateorp- 
tion  which  had  long  been  apprehended  by  Cana- 
dian authorities. 

Among  the  most  important  subjects  of  dis- 
aiTMment  or  possible  sources  of  friction  were 
the  ownership  of  some  comparativelv  worth- 
less islands  in  Paisamaquoddy  Bay,  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Maine,  the  boundary  through 
the  lakes,  claims  for  slaves  carried  by  British 
warvesselsduring  the  war,  other  general  claims, 
the  use  of  the  fisheries,  questions  relating  to 
commerce  with  the  British  West  India  Ismiik, 
the  restitution  of  territory  taken  during  the  war 
and  the  Northwest  boundary.  To  these  were 
later  added  the  border  troubles  along  the  Maine 
boundary,  the  border  troubles  along  the  Niagara 
frontier  at  the  time  of  the  Caroline  affair,  the 
case  of  McLeod,  trade  relations  with  Canada, 
the  use  of  Canadian  canals,  the  operations  of 
Confederates  from  Canada  during  the  Ameri- 
can Civil  War,  the  connection  of  Canada  widt 
the  Alabama  claims  dispute,  the  San  Juan 
boundary,  new  phases  of  the  fisheries  dispute 
relating  to  the  Atlantic  Coast,  the  Bering  Sea 
seal  fisheries,  the  Alaska  boundary,  the  ob- 
struction or  diversion  of  boundary  waterway 
and  the  persistent  question  of  reciprocity  in 
trade  relations. 

Commercial  relations  were  unsatisfactory. 
Although  Great  Britain  by  government  regula- 
tions until  1822  allowed  Bie  privilege  of  trade 
enjoyed  by  northern  New  York  aad  Vermont 


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CANADA— DIPLOMATIC  fiZLATIOHS  OF  UNITBD  STATES  (U) 


with  MoDtreal  and  Quebec  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Jay  treaty  which  were  extin- 
guished by  tile  war,  she  would  make  no  new 
permanent  agreement  on  the  subject.  She  also 
refosed  to  ncogniie  the  principle  of  the  Ameii' 
can  claims  to  a  natural  right  to  navigate  the 
Saint  Lawrence  to  the  sea.  Fortunatdy  the 
importance  of  the  btter  question  was  later 
diminished  by  the  completion  of  canals  which 
connected  Lake  Champlain  and  Lake  Erie  re- 
dons  with  die  Hudson  River,  and  thereby  widi 

CMnmercial  relationa,  as  defined  by  the 
treaty  of  1815,  remained  tmsatisfaciory  until 
1831  when  the  United  States,  after  persistent 
efforts,  obtained  the  privilege  of  trade  with  the 
British  West  Indies.  Fisbinsr  rt^ti  were  de- 
fined by  a  treaty  of  1818  which  aUo  postiMned  a 
dangerous  dispnte  by  providing  for  joint  oc- 
cupation of  distant  Oregon  until  later  pro- 
visions conid  be  made  for  the  adjustment  of  the 
boundary  there.  So,  until  new  conditions  pro- 
duced the  need  of  new  adjustments,  the  people 
of  each  country  fished  together  in  the  unset- 
tled parts  along  Nova  Scotia  and  hunted  fur 
animals  together  in  the  unsettled  territory  bor- 
dering the  Paci&c  Ocean  nortk  of  the  Columbia. 
At  the  same  time  the  American  claim  to  OregOB 
was  reinforced  by  a  provision  of  the  Spanish 
(Florida)  treaty  of  1819,  ratified  in  1821,  erect- 
ing the  first  inlematitmal  boondaiy  line  which 
touched  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Paisama- 
quoddy  question  was  settled  in  1817  by  actual 
agreement  of  two  commissioners,  one  selected 
1^  the  King  of  England  and  the  other  by  the 
Prcsideni  of  the  United  States,  The  line  of  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
was  settled  at  the  49th  parallel  westward  from 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  Rocky  Uoun- 
tains.  in  1818.  The  boundary  ihrou^  Lakes 
Ontario,  Erie  and  Huron  was  satis facMrily  set- 
tled by  two  commissioners  who  met  at  Utica 
in   1822. 

The  claim  for  slaves  carried  away,  referred 
after  1818  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia  who  made 
a  compromise  award,  was  later  (1822)  referred 
to  four  commissioners  to  determine  the  amomit, 
and  was  finally  terminated  by  the  payment  of  a 
lump  sum  determined  by  the  two  governments. 

The  Northwest  bonndary  question,  the  run- 
ning of  a  line  from  the  head  of  the  Saint  Croix 
along  the  highlands  and  the  43th  parallel  to  its 
intersection  with  the  Saint  Lawrence,  proved 
most  difficult.  In  accord  widi  the  Treaty  of 
Ghent  it  was  submitted  to  a  commission  which 
toiled  Ave  years,  1816-21,  only  to  reach  a  hope- 
less disagreement,  the  point  selected  for  the 
•Northwest  angle  of  Nova  Scotia"  by  differmg 
opinions   being   105   mites   apart.     By   a  subse- 

Juent  convenHon  of  1827  the  question  was  re- 
erred  to  the  King  of  the  Netherlands,  who  in 
1831  made  a  compromise  decision  which  neither 


controversy,  coincident  with  the  excitement  of 
the  Upper  Canadian  rebellion  of  1837-38  and 
incidents  resulting  therefrom,  including  the 
'dan^rs  of  lawless  violations  of  American  neu- 
trality along  the  Niagara  frontier  illustrated 
by  the  case  of  the  Caroline  which  for  its  un- 
neutral service  was  seized  on  the  American 
side  of  the  Niagara  by  a  small  British  expedi- 
tion.  Later,  in  1840  it  was  further  complicated 
ty  a  new  source  of  friction  resulting  fioK  tbe 


arrest  of  Alexander  UcLeod,  a  Canadian 
deputy  sfaerift  who  was  arrested  on  the  Ameri-  ' 
can  side  of  the  river  and  tried  for  arson  and 
a  murder  which  had  occurred  in  connection 
with  the  seizure  of  the  Caroline.  The  acquittal 
of  McLeod,  in  1841,  terminated  a  serious  source 
of  international  embarrassment  and  smoothed, 
the  way  for  the  friendly  conferences  between' 
Webiter  and  Ashburton  who  both  exerted  the 
wiidom  of  diplottiacy  to  maintain  peaceful  re- 
lations. Finaity,  m  1842,  after  tluee  years  of 
eeat  activity  in  search  for  the  Northeast 
undary,  accompanied  by  a  display  of  vast 
ingenuity  in  trea^  interpretation,  topographical 
theories  and  cartographic  controversy,  the 
question  was  settled  by  the  Webster- Ashburton 
trea^  which  ead:i  country  regarded  as  a  capitu- 
lation. British-Americans  wno  were  debarred 
by  the  treaty  from  tiie  most  direct  and  practical 
line  of  railway  communication  between  Halifax 
and  Quebec  Icoig  continued  to  feel  that  their 
interests  had  been  sacrificed  to  an  exaggeiat«d 
fear  of  breach  with  the  United  States.  The 
State  of  Maine  which  nioumed  the  loss  of  juris- 
diction, and  Massachusetts  which  mourned  the 
loss  of  lands  in  the  disputed  area,  each  received 
a  wlace  of  $150,000  from  the  United  States 
government. 

In  1846  the  Oregon  boundary  question, 
which  was  an  increasing  source  of  dangerous 
tension  betweeo  the  two  countries,  was  settled 
by  the  American  acceptance  of  the  British 
offer  of  the  49th  parallel  west  of  the  Kockies, 
but  reserving  to  the  British- Americans  all  of 
VanoBover  Island  —  a  geographical  exception 
which  contained  Che  germ  of  another  boundary 
dispute  which  was  settled  in  1872.  General 
claims  of  citiiens  of  each  country  were  sub- 
mitted to  arbitration  by  a  conventioo  of  1853, 
which  provided  two  commissioners  and  an  um- 
pire or  arbitrator  chosen  by  the  two.  The 
commissioners  in  1854-55  settled  all  claims  suc- 
cessfully, and  entirely  satisfactorily  to  everjr- 
body  except  some  who  lost.  It  gave  important 
decisions  rt^rding  fishery  ri^ts  and  rendered 
awards  in  the  McLeod  and  Creole  cases. 

Meantime,  for  nearly  a  decade  the  conditions 
of  international  amity  had  steadily  improved 
except  in  certain  sections  of  the  United  States 
influenced  by  immigrants  from  Ireland  who 
preached  the  antipathy  aroused  by  O'Connell's 
agitation  and  subsequent  Irish  misfortunes. 

From  1815  for  nearly  four  decades,  during 
which  fishery  and  boundary  questions  were  also 
prominent  subjects  of  discussion,  Canada  per- 
sistently solicited  commercial  reciprocity  with 
the  United  States.  Finally,  after  the  repeal  of 
the  English  com  laws  in  1846  and  the  repeal 
of  the  navigation  lawB  in  1849,  she  expressed 
a  growing  sentiment  in  favor  of  closer  relations, 
commercial  and  political;  and  many,  both  in 
England  and  America,  seemed  to  consider  tbat 
by  her  own  consent  she  would  ultipiately  be  an- 
nexed to  the  United  Stotes.  In  1850,  certain 
EngUshmen,  interested  in  checking  and  divert- 
ing the  trend  of  events,  urged  Hiat  the  con- 
struction of  Whitney's  pr^Msed  railroad 
throu^  tbe  western  part  of^  tbe  United  States 

the  Pacific  would  result  in  the  inevitable  loss 


egatialed  with  the  expectation  t 
result  in  the  gradual,  quiet  and  peaceful  settle- 
ment of  the  Canadian  question  by  growth  of 
cktse  relations  which  possibly  would  develop 


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CANADA  — DIPLOMATIC  RBLATIOHS  OP  UNITED  STATES  (16) 

the  United  Slates  government  replied  that  it 
had  no  control  -over  State  caiuds  and  could 
not  compel  States  to  act  in  the  matter.  Because 
in  188S  the  United  States  refused  to  pass 
through  the  Sault  Saint  Marie  Canal  a  Canadian 
vessel  loaded  with  troops  on  their  way  to  sup- 
press the  Riel  rebellion,  and  because  in  1892 
President  Harrison  in  order  to  retaliate  for  dis- 
criminating tolls  on  frei^ts  passed  throu^ 
this  canal  bound  for  Canadian  ports,  the  Ca- 
nadians were  ted  to  buitd  a  canal  of  their  own 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  Tariffs  often 
TufHed  the  temper  of  the  people  on  the  border. 
Canada  by  vsnons  pilgrimages  to  WashinKton 
made  persistent  efforts  to  secure  a  renewal  of 
the  reciprocity  treaty;  but  to  these  friendly 
advances  the  American  govemment  declined  ti 


,    but    conditions    were    soon 

changed  with  the  rise  of  a  protective  tariff 
movement  in  Canada,  under  leaders  who  after 
1859  affirmed  the  right  of  Canada  to  regulate 
her  own  tariffs  without  interference  from  Eng- 
land. In  1866,  the  reciprocity  treaty  was  termi- 
nated by  notice  of  the  United  States,  partly 
under  the  influence  of  a  feeling  of  resentment 
originating  in  certain  Confederate  Derations 
from  Canada  during  the  American  Civil  War, 
In  the  meantimt;,  new  conditions  on  the 
Pacific  and  west  of  Lake  Superior  threatened 
to  complicate  Anglo-American  relations  and 
finally  induced  the  British  govemment  and 
Upper  Canada  lo  take  steps  to  secure  confedera- 
tion and  consolidation  of  the  British- American 
provinces  in  order  to  counteract  the  danger  of 
American  annexation  of  the  West.  The  later 
American  acquisition  of  Alaska,  which  was  re- 
garded as  a  counter  movement  against  British- 
American  consolidation,  contributed  much  to 
Stimulate  a  determined  AiiKlo-Canadian  policy 
to  complete  the  scheme  of  confederation  1^ 
including  British  Columbia  and  the  northwest 
territory  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  by 
opening  a  trans-Canadian  railway  to  the  Pacific. 
The  latter  was  conceived  as  a  Canadian  counter- 
movement  to  frustrate  American  influence  in 
British  Columbia.  In  1869-70,  Irish  Fenians 
threatened  to  complicate  international  relations 
by  plans  to  invaae  Canada.  In  spite  of  the 
proclamation  of  the  President,  they  persisted 
until  their  collections  of  money  were  exhausted 
and  their  intoxicated  sentiment  was  sobered 
by  a  dawning  consciousness  of  the  seriousness 
of  their  jiroject.  At  the  same  time  Senator 
Sumner,  influenced  t?  Cobden's  views  of  1849 
in  regard  to  closer  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada  and  especially  stimulated  by 
the  question  of  the  Alabama  claims  and  by  the 
danger  of  Fenian  disturbances  which  were  ex- 
cited by  the  proximity  of  the  British  flag,  pro- 
posed to  remove  all  causes  of  international  dis- 
pute with  Great  Britain  by  the  withdrawal  of 
the  British  flag  from  alt  British  America,  but 
his  views  were  not  sustained  by  Secretary  Fish 
and  the  Grant  administration.  The  Treaty  of 
Washington,  negotiated  after  the  United  States 
dropped  her  fla^-withdrawal  proposal,  was  a 
great  landmark  in  the  adjustment  of  interna- 
tional gueslions.  It  submitted  to  arbitration 
three  disputed  questions :  Alabama  claims,  the 
San  Juan  boundary  and  the  Northeastern  fish- 
eries. It  also  contained  several  clauses  which 
directly  affected  subseauent  relations  between 
Canada  and  the  United  States.  It  established 
^reements  in  regard  to  bonded  transit,  certain 
features  of  the  coasting  trade,  the  navigation  of 
certain  rivers  and  canals  (including  Uie  Wet- 
land and  Saint  Clair  flats  canals)  as  roads  of 
commerce,  and  the  use  of  the  Saint  John  River 
hy  American  lumbermen.  It  recognized  the 
Saint  Lawrence  as  forever  free,  and  gave  to 
Canada  the  right  to  navigate  Alaskan  waters. 
It  failed,  however,  to  renew  the  principle  of  the 
reciprocity  treaty,  which  was  requested  by  the 
British- Canadians  and  declined  hy  the  Amer- 
icans. Although  there  was  a  marked  improve- 
ment of  international  feeling,  various  contro- 
versies continued  to  arise  at  different  times. 
Canadians  complained  because  they  did  not  get 
\hc  free  use  of  certain  State  canals  which  tney 
supposed  they  had  secured  by  the  treaty  of 
1871.     When    Canadian    authorities   protested, 


respond  with  equal  ardor,  prot»bly  inflneiKed 
largely  in  this  policy  of  reserve  by  the  fact 
that  Canada  possessed  no  treaty-making  powers 


except  through  the  British  government.  After 
1873  the  demand  for  protective  duties  became 
general  among  large  classes  of  Canadian  people. 
In  the  fall  election  of  1878  the  protectionists 
were  successful  in  Canada;  and  at  the  next 
session  of  the  Dnninion  Parliament,  a  tariff 
was  enacted.  Since  that  time,  both  countries 
have  found  occasion  to  complain  of  new  tariff 
bills.  The  American  Congress  placed  duties 
on  coal,  lobsters,  eggs,  etc.;  Canadian  legislation 
excluded  American  cattle,  and  laid  a  retaliatory 
tax  on  lobster  cans.  Americans  responded  to 
Canadian  retaliation  by  threatening  to  stop  the 
transmission  of  goods  in  bond,  and  by  new  tariff 
provisions.  New  tariffs  thereafter  continued 
to  be  a  source  of  more  or  less  irritation.  In- 
ddentslly,  it  may  be  staled  that  complications 
of  threatening  relations  have  often  beoi  largely 
the  result  of  the  necessity  of  indirect  negotia- 
tions through  the  mother  country,  thus  taldi^ 
the  feeling  of  responsibility  from  Canada  who 
complains  that  her  interests  have  been  sacri- 
ficed by  British  diplomacy.  A  former  Canadian 
official,  summarising  the  history  of  treaties  af- 
fecting Canada,  once  said ;  *Like  animals 
doomed  to  vivisection  for  the  good  of  science, 
Canada  has  been  unspanngly  operated  upon  for 
the  good  of  the  Empire."  Ixi  1887,  the  right  of 
Canada  to  negotiate  her  own  commerci^ 
treaties  with  foreign  powers  was  conceded  by 
Great  Britain  Iqf  a  provision  thai  negotiation 
of  such  treaties  should  be  conducted  by  the 
British  Minister  and  the  Canadian  envoy  act- 
ing together  and  with  equal  powers.  In  1S80, 
the  Canadian  Dominion  ^vemment,  by  its 
pintest  to  the  British  Colonial  office,  prevented 
the  execution' of  the  Blaine-Bond  reciprocily 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and  New- 
foundland, and  proceeded  first  throiwh  the 
British  Minister  at  Wa^t^on  ana  later 
through  Secretaries  Foster  and  Blaine,  to  re- 
new previous  efforts  to  secure  commercial 
itciprocity. 

Some  more  recent  questions  may  here  be 
sketched  very  briefly.  The  Bering  Sea  con- 
troversy, arising  in  1886,  finally  found  a  way 
for  settlement  by  arbitration  in  1893.  There 
still  remained  several  questions  for  interna- 
tional negotiations,  including  protection  of  fur 
seals,  the  fisheries,  the  Alaskan  boundary,  re- 
ciprocity, transit  questions,  alien  labor  laws, 
mining  rights  and  naval  armaments  on  the 
lakes.  An  attempt  to  settle  these  questions  was 
made  in  188&-99  throui^  a  joial  hiflh  commis- 


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CANADA^  PRIMARY  KDUCAltON  (1T> 


Ml 


sion,  of  wUch  Lord  Herscbell  was  chainnan, 

consistiiig:  of  six  members  from  each  country. 

Although  it  pnKtkaJly  reached  an  agreement 

1  several  subjects  it  made  little  progress  < 


ary  on  which  the  Canadian  commissioners  de- 
manded a  settlement  before  tfa^  would  enter 
into  any  agreeinett  on  other  quieations.  Some 
one,  perhaps  with  facetiqusr^ntetit,  has  explained 
the  failure  of  this  comilrtnion  in  contrast  with 
the  success  of  that  of  1871  by  stating  that  the 
latter  contained  only  cne  Canadian  and  four 
Ef^sh  statesmen,  while  the  former  contained 
only  one  English  and  four  Canadian  statesmen. 
But  the  action  of  the  13ominion  members  con- 
cerning Alaska  does  not  seem  strange  to  one 
familiar  with  the  histoiy  of  American-Canadian 
relations  in  regard  to  boundaries — a  source  of 
almost  constant  discussion,  punctuated  by 
bitter  contentions,  for  over  a  century.  For- 
tunately, in  the  case  of  the  Alaskan  boundary  a 
temporary  atUvstment  waa  secured  by  a  modut 
Vivendi  effected  in  1699;  and  after  long  n^otia- 
tioiis,  the  question  was  in  1903  submitted  to  the 
arbitration  of  a  joint  commission  of  six  °im- 
partial  jurists  of  repute"  (three  Americans,  one 
Engltshman  and  two  Canadians)  who  settled 
it  by  a  decision  which  perhaps  may  be  regarded 
as  a  reasonable  compromise. 

For  several  years,  the  North  Atlantic  Coast 
fisheries  threatened  to  disturb  friendly  com- 
mercial rdatioBS.  The  fishery  agreement  of  the 
Treaty  of  Wadnngton  was  terminated  in  1885 
-  by  the  required  notice  given  Iw  the  United 
States  in  1883,  thus  restoring  ue  conditions 
existing  imder  the  treaty  of  1818,  and  soon 
resulting  in  Canatfian  enforcement  of  irritatii^ 
restrictions  on  the  fishing  grounds.  In  1868,  a 
modus  vivendi  was  readteo  by  an  international 
commission  (of  three  Englishmen  and  three 
Americans).  This  mvtfidi  was  continued  both 
by  Canada  and  t^  Newfoundland  until  the 
question  was  settled  by  The  Hague  tribunal  in 
1910,  althou^  Premier  Bond  of  Newfoundland 
proposed  to  abrogate  it  after  the  failure  of  the 
HayBood  treaty  in  1905.  The  chief  remaining 
obstacles  to  friendly  relations  between  Canada 
and  the  United  States  have  recently  been  re- 
moved. Additional  security  for  the  future  was 
made  1^  the  negotiation  and  ratification  of  an 
arbitration  treaty  in  1908,  11  years  after  the 
Senate  had  refused  to  approve  a  similar  treaty. 
This  trca^  provides,  with  some  restrictions, 
that  differences  of  legal  character,  or  relating 
to  treahr  differences  which  cannot  be  settled 
by  diplomacy,  shall  be  referred  to  the 
permanent  conrt  of  arbitration  establiriied  at 
The  Hague  in  1899.  The  settlemeni  of  the 
various  points  at  issue  had  a  fortunate  cubnina- 
tion  in  the  recent  settlement  of  the  fishery  dis- 
pute by  The  Hague  award.  In  conformity  with 
tha  provisioos  of  the  treaV  of  artMtration,  a 
specaal  agre^ent  of  1909  was  arranged  with 
the  concurretice  of  the  governments  of  Canada 
and  Newfotmdland,  subtnitting  to  The  Hague 
court  of  arbitration  any  question  rdating  to 
the  fisheries  of  the  North  Atlantic  coast  arTsing 
under  the  Treaty  of  ISia  The  board  appointed 
to  consider  the  case  contained  six  members,  of 
which  one  was  the  chief  justice  of  Canada  and 
another  a  justice  of  the  United  States  Grcuit 
Court  of  Ajipeals,  acting  with  an  Austrian,  a 
Hstttsndtr    and    an    Argeitiac      The    result 


seemed  to  satisfy  both  Canada  and  tlM  United 
States,  each  of  whom  appeared  to  have  won  a 
victory. 

Sources  of  future  dispute  have  been  lessened 
by  a  Waterway  Treaty  of  1909  which  provides 
for  the  establishment  of  an  international  joint 
commission  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
(a  miniature  Hague  tribunal)  consisting  of  six 
members  (three  appointed  by  eadi  govenunent) 
to  exertnse  jurisdiction  in  cases  invcdving  the 
use,  obstruction  or  diversion  of  boundary 
waters,  and  with  authority  to  inquire  and  re- 
port on  other  matters  of  differcoce  along  the 
frontier  or  to  decide  npon  such  questions  as 
may  be  referred  to  it. 

The  question  of  trade  relations  between 
Canada  and  the  United  States  remains  tmsettled. 
The  efforts  of  the  United  States  to  r 


can  Congress,  resulted  in  the  appointment  of 
a  commission  and  the  negotiation  of  an  agree- 
ment (January  1911)  to  secure  restricted  reci- 
pTodtr  by  concurrent  legislation  at  Wa^ngton 
and  Ottawa.  This  agreement,  which  aimed  at 
fuller  and  freer  trade  rdntions,  and  which 
after  a  sharp  political  ttmg^  passed  both 
houses  of  Congress,  became  the  chief  issue  of 
a  keenly  fou^t  campaign  in  Canada  and  was 
lost  (September  1911)  by  the  overwhelming  de- 
feat of  the  Liberal  Laurier  government  which 
had  held  power  for  15  years.  The  feeling  of 
mutual  respect  and  corttiality  between  the  two 
countries  has  been  strengthened  by  their  con- 
viction of  comtnon  interest  and  by  their  prao 
deal  co>operatiDa  to  preserve  the  world  peace 
against  die  attadcs  of  Ormany  and  her 
allies.  Sm  Alabama  Claims;  Alaska  Boihid- 
ABY  Couhission;  Bering  Sea  Controversy; 
Botn4i)AKm  or  the  UNms  States. 

Bibliography. — Anderson,  David,  ■Canada, 
or  A  View  of  the  Importance  of  the  Britistv- 
American  Colonies'  (1814) ;  Atchison,  Na- 
thaniel, 'Points  to  be  Discussed  in  Trea^  with 
the  United  States>  (Pamphleteer  1815);  id., 
<  American  Encroachments  >  ( Pamphleteer 
1816) ;  Callahan,  J,  M.,  'The  Alaska  Purchase 
and  Americo-Canadian  Relations>  (1906);  id., 
■The  Neutrality  of  the  American  Lakes' 
(1898) ;  Dunning,  W.  A.,  'The  British  Empire 
and  the  United  States'  (1914) ;  Foster,  John  W, 
<Diplomatic  Memoirs'  (Vol.  11,  1909) ; 
Hodgins,  Thomas,  'British  and  American 
Diplomacy  Affecting  Canada'  (1900) ;  Roberts, 
C.G.D.,  'History  of  Canada'  (18W)  ;  Smith,  E, 
'England  and  America  after  Independence' 
(19ft). 

Jahes  M.  Callahan, 
Professor    of   History   and  Political  Science, 
West  Virginia  University. 


17.  PHIMARY  EDUCATION.  Previous 
to  1867  there  existed  io  Canada  four  prov- 
inces, practically  independent  of  each  other. 
These  were  Ontario,  Qnebec,  Nova  Scotia  and 
Prince  Edward  Island.  These  provinces  es- 
pecially Ontario  and  Quebec,  differed  very 
greatly.  Speakitig  generally  the  people  in 
Quebec  were  of  French  origin  and  spoke  the 
French  language.  They  were  nearly  all  Roman 
Catholics.  In  Ontario  most  of  the  people  were 
of  British  descent,  Tlie  English  language  was 
the  ordinary  mcditMn  of  oommuntcstion.  The 
gnat  nvDfity  w«re  ProtesUmls  —  Aflglicaah 


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CAMADAr- PRIMARY  XDUCATIOH  a?) 


PrejI^erians  and  Methodists  bein^  most 
numerous.  When  in  1867  confederation  was 
effected,  education  was  entrusted  to  each  of  the 
provinces,  the  Federal  government  merely  re- 
taining the  right  to  introduce  remedial  legisla- 
tion when  rights  or  privileges  of  minorities 
were  interfered  with.  Naturally,  the  systems 
worked  out  in  each  of  the  provinces  differed 
in  essential  details  — the  governing  bodies,  the 
form  of  administration,  the  programs  of 
studies  and  methods  of  instruction,  varying  to 

Since  1867,  five  other  provinces  have  joined 
confederation  —  New  Brunswick,  British  Co- 
lumbia, Manitoba,  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta. 
These  have  in  turn  developed  systems  suited  to 
their  needs. 

Sducation  Free.— '  Generally  speakiog,  prj- 
niary  education  is  free  to  all  pupils  of  school 
age,  that  is,  from  5  or'6  years  to  18  or  21.  In 
one  of  the  provinces  a  fee  may  he  charged,  but 
this  is  merely  nominal.  In  kindergarten  schools 
and  secondary  schools,  the  pa^nient  ot  fees  as 
supplementary  to  state,  municipal,  and  diatrkt 
aid  is  sometimes  permitted. 

Central  Govecning  Bodiei.—  In  every  ctise 
the  system  is  administered  by  a  central  author- 
i^.  In  Prince  Edward  Island  the  board  of 
education  consists  of  the  executive  council,  the 

Principal  of  Prince  of  Wales  College  and 
Formal  School,  and  the  chief  superintendent 
of  education,  tne  last-named  ofEcer  being  s^ 
pointed  by  the  lieutenant-governor  in  council. 
In  New  Brunswick  the  board  of  education  con- 
sists of  the  lieutenant-governor,  the  executive 
council,  the  dianccllor  of  the  provincial  univer- 
sity and  the  chief  superintendent  of  education, 
who  is  appointed  by  the  lieutenant-tremor  io 
council.  In  Nova  Scotia  the  council  of  public 
instruction  consists  of  members  of  the  executive 
council,  of  whom  five  shall  form  a  quorum,  and 
.the  chief  ofiicer  la  a  superintendent  of  education 
appointed  by  the  lieutenant-governor  in  council. 
-He.  is  assisted  by  an  advisory  board  of  seven 
members,  appointed  by  govemor-in-councit  or 
elected  by  the  teachers.  In  Quebec  the  council 
of  public  instruction  consists  of  (1)  th^  Roman 
Catholic  biEhops  of  the  provmce;  (2)  an  equal 
number  of  Roman  Catholic  laymen,  (3)  sn 
equal  number  of  Protestanls.  The  last  two 
classes  arc  appointed  b^  the  lieutenant-governor 
}n  council.  This  council  of  public  instruction  is 
divided  into  two  committees  known  as  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  committee, 
each  being  concerned  with  the  administration  of 
schools  of  its  own  kind.  The  two  committees 
may  have  associated  with  them  persons  chosen 
or  elected  because  of  expert  knowledge.  The 
practical  administration  of  schools  is  carried. on 
through  a  superintendent  of  education,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  lieutenant-governor  in  council, 
and  through  two  secretaries,  one  for  each  sec- 
tion of  the  council  of  public  instruction.  In 
Ontario  the  department  oi  education  coiiaists 
of  the  executive  council  or  a  committee  thereof, 
-and  the  head  of  this  department  is  known  as  the 
minister  of  education.  The  practical  adminis- 
IratioQ  is  conducted  by  a  superintendent  of 
eiducation  who  is  assisted  by  dioscn  specialists 
and  specially  qualified  school  inspectors.  In 
Manitoba  the  executive  council  forms  the  de- 
partment of  education.  One  of  the.nwmbers  of 
the  executive  council  is  known  as  the  minister 
ottdacaAoit.  Under  fais-dinctioii.a'^averinUtii^ 


ent  of  education  and  a  body  of  sjjecially  chosen 
workers  assist  in  the  work  of  administration. 
An  advisorv  board  consistiiig  of  members 
chosen  by  the  government,  the  inspectors  and 
the  teadiers  of  the  province,  has  authority  in 
such  practical  matters  as  the  framing  of  a 
program  of  stndles,  the  certification  of  teachers, 
the  authoritatjon  of  textbooks. 

In  Saskatdiewan  and  Alberta  the  form  of 
government  and  administration  is  (tuile  similar 
to  that  of  Ontario.  In  British  Cohirabia  the 
council  of  public  instruction  is  composed  of  the 
executive  council,  and  the  work  under  its  ditec- 
tion  is  carried  on  by  a  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion. Recently  steps  have  been  taken  looking 
toward  ctoWr  co-operation  among  the  tour 
western  provinces  in  all  matters  pertaining  to 
elementary  and  secondary  education  and  ediica- 
tion  of  defectives. 

Local  Self-Contro]. — Though  the  govern- 
ing bodies  just  mentioned  regulate  education  as 
regards  the  organization,  govemnient,  examina- 
tion and  inspection  of  schools,  the  certification 
and  training  of  teachers,  die  authorization  of 
textbooks  and  other  matters  of  like  importance, 
yet  much  power  is  given  in  most  of  ttie  prov- 
inces to  local  school  boards.  Each  district 
selects  its  own  teacher,  but  must  not  take  any 
one  who  has  not  a  certificate  to  teat*  in  the 
province.  Within  limits  each  district  erects 
the  building  it  considers  most  snitahle  under 
the  drciimttances  and  etjuips  it  as  it  may  desire. 
There  is  wise  supervision  in  matters  of  this 
kind  to  prevent  undue  expenditure  and  to  guard 
a^nst  overcrowding  ot  pupils,  unsanitary  con-  ■ 
ditions  and  lack  of  apparatus.  In  Bnti^  Co- 
lumbia the  council  of  public  instruction  is  su- 
preme in  all  matters,  virtually  doing  away  ViKth 
district  con t red,  except  in  the  selection  of 
teacher.  In  certain  districts  in  Manitoba  and 
Alberta  the  settlers  are  non -English  and  in 
some  cases  are  not  well  enough  acquainted 
with  Canadian  ways  to  or^nize  and  administer 
their  own  schools.  A  public  trustee  is  appointed 
-by  the  government  to  aa  in  such  cases,  with 
the  result  that  the  schools  and  teachers'  resi- 
daices  in  these  districts  are  fast  becoming 
quite  as  good  as  any  in  the  coumiy. 

The  Religious  Difficolty.— The  constitu- 
tion of  the  govcmiDK  bodies  in  education  indi- 
cates that  there  has  been  difficulty  in  establish- 
ing and  administering  school  systems  because  of 
the  conflicting  religious  beliefs  of  the  people.  A 
closer  examination  emphasites  this  fact.  In 
Quebec  there  are  two  systems  of  schools  — one 
for  Roman  Catholics,  one  for  Protestants.  In 
Ontario  there  is  a  ^stem  of  separate  schools. 
In  Manitoba,  which  untii  1890  had  Protestant 
ichoots  and  Roman  Catholic  schools,  there  is 
now  but  one  system.  There  are  in  the  province 
many  schools  conducted  by  religious  com- 
munities. Some  of  diese  have  regularly  qi^i' 
Aed  teachers  and  are  ranked  as  ordinary  state 
schools,  receiving  a  share  of  the  legislatire 
giant.  In  Winnipeg,  and  at  other  points,  the 
Roman  Catholic  ratepayers  support,  at  their 
own  expense,  an  independent  system  of  schools. 
In  Alberts  and  Saskatchewan  there  is  provision 
made'  for  separate  schools,  but  all  schools  fol- 
low the  same  program  of  studies,  are  under 
the  same  inspection  and  teachers  must  qualify 
in  rtie  same  way.  In  Nova  Scotia.  British  Co- 
lumbia and  Prince  Edward  Idand  the  schools 
arc;  strictly    nonrsectgrian,      Tbo 


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CANADA— PRUfAKY  BDVCATIOM  (U) 


coDirovenies  and  intereatiiiK  court  decisioiu. 

ReUgioas  BzcrciaeB  ana  Religioui  Teach- 
ing.—  Closely  (»>nnected  with  the  separate 
school  question  b  that  of  rcl^ioua  teaching  and 
religious  exercise*.  In  British  Columbia, 
scfaooli  must  be  conducted  on  strictly  secular 
and  non-sectarian  principles.  No  religious 
dogma  or  creed  stuul  be  taugfat.  The  Lord's 
Prayer  may  be  used  in  c^>ening  or  dosing 
sctaooL  No  clergyman  of  aoy  denomination 
shall  be  el^ible  for  the  position  of  superintend- 
ent, teacher  or  trustee.  In  Uanitoba,  schools 
may  dose  with  the  reading  of  the  Bible  with- 
out comment  and  the  recitatioii  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  it  is  possible  for  derwinen  or  their 
appointee  half  an  hour  before  closing 
to  give  rdigious  teaching  to  those  of  their  own 
denomination.  In  Ontario  every  public  school 
shall  be  opened  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
dosed  with  the  reading  of  Scriptures  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  or  the  prayer  authorized  by  the 
department  o(  education.  Teachers  who  have 
conscientious  scruples  in  this  matter  may  be  re- 
lieved. Attendance  during  religious  exercises 
is  not  compulsory.  Religious  teaching  vnay^  be 
given  1^  the  clergy  or  their  representatives 
after  the  regular  hours  of  school.  In  Quebec, 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  schools,  there  is  daily 
prayer  aod  systematic  daily  instruction  in  the 
catechism.  In  Protestant  schools  the  first  half 
hour  is  devoted  to  prayer,  Scripture  reading,  In- 
struction in  morals  and  Scripture  history.  No 
denominational  teadiing  may  be  given.  A  con- 
science dause  is  operative.  In  ^lew  Brunswick 
the  teacher  may  open  and  close  the  school  by 
the  reading  of  Scripture  and  by  ofiering  the 
Lord's  Prayer.  In  Prince  Edward  Island  the 
school  is  opened  with  Scripture  reading^  but  no 
comment  or  explanation  is  permitted.  In  Nova 
Scotia  the  law  is  pracdcally  the  same  as  for  the 
last  two  provinces,  local  opdon  bdng  permitted 
In  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  the  scnool  may 
be  opened  by  redtation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
Religious  instruction  may  be  given  during  the 
last  naif  hour  of  the  day,  but  attendance  is  not 
compulsory  for  pupils. 

The  Langaage  Problem. — There  has  been 
not  a  little  dioicQlty  with  regard  to  the  language 
employed  as  memutn  of  instruction  in  the 
schools.  In  Quebec,  both  English  and  French 
are  ofiidally  recognized.  In  Ontario  the  school 
act  provides  that  ElngHsh  shall  be  the  language 
of  instruction,  except  where  this  is  impossible 


becauae  of  the  pupil's  mdamiliarity  vitk  the 
language.  An  attempt  in  1912  and  1913  to  make 
regulations  covering  this  point  led  to  a  heated 
discussion.  The  tamous  "Ottawa  case"  was 
fou^t  out  in  the  courts.  In  Saskatchewan,  Al- 
berta and  Nova  Scotia  those  of  French  origin 
have  special  privileges,  and  in  the  first  two  prov- 
inces any  language  may  be  tauc^t  at  the  expense 
of  the  ratepayers  concerned  But  the  medium  of 


In  Manitoba  the  L. 
made  it  possible,  in  any  acbool  where  10  ( 
more  pupils  speaking  any  language  were  en- 
rolled, for  the  parents  to  deirtand  teaching  in 
that  langttage.  This  gave  rise  to  what  were 
known  aa  ni-lingual  schools  with  bi-lii«ual 
teachers.  In  some  districts  teaching  in  as 
many  as  four  different  languages  cotild  have 
been  adced  for,  and  in  several  schools  teaching 
in  three  languages  was  demanded.  In  1916  the 
school  act  was  amended  so  as  to  do  away  with 
bi-liagualistn  u  a  system.  English  must  now 
be  the  medhm  <f!  instnKtion  in  all  state-aided 
schools.    This  woidd  boI  prevent  Fi«id,  Ger- 


as   they  now  are  found  on  the  hic^  sdiool 
curricnlum. 

The  Support  of  ScbooU^-The  schools  of 
the  Dominion  are  maintained  by  a  fund  drawn 
from  three  sources  —  a  state  fund,  a  munidpal 
or  county  ftmd  and  a  fund  yidded  from  dis- 
trict assessment.  The  government  aid  is  dis- 
'  tributed  in  different  tvaya.  In  Prince  Edwaixl 
Island  and  New  Brunswick  the  grant  depends 
upon  the  sex  and  the  grade  of  certificate  of  the 
teacher.  In  Nova  Scotia  it  depends  npon  grade 
of  certificate  and  the  number  of  days  school  (s 
open.  In  Quebec  the  sian  depends  upon  the 
pofinlation  of  the  district,  and  in  Ontario  it  Is 
divided  among  tiie  counties,  townships,  dties, 
and  towns  in  a  similar  manner,  special  grants 
recogniaing  the  grade  of  teachers'  certificates 
and  length  of  exjwrience,  and  grants  to  rural 
schools  recogniiing  sdiool  accommodation, 
equipment,  teachers  certificates  and  experience 
and  the  munidpal  aid  rendered  the  school.  In 
Manitoba  a  definite  sum  depending  upon  the 
total  grant  available  b  given  to  each  school 
open  tne  fall  year,  and  a  proportionate  sum  to 
schools  open  for  less  time.  In  Saskatchewan 
and  Alberta  the  grant  depends  upon  the  size  of 
the  district,  the  number  of  days  school  has  been 
kept  open,  the  grade  of  certificate  held  by  the 
teacher,  and  the  percentage  of  attendance.     In 


6TAIUTICS  Rbsauuhg  Bohml  'AnaniMtcB 

Tcachen 

P^. 

.2SS. 

Hak 

Pcmile 

Total 

Boy. 

Girt. 

ToM 

Number 

Ttt- 

Prince  Bdmrd  bbnd 

l.«2 
Z,«8S 

Ml 

Ji 

i:i 

1,UI 
3.630 

,S?? 

9.SU 
S3|lU6 

II 

i'i 

iDslioa 

Ml, 636 

■jeiios 

43,141 

I8,4;4 

18.009 

1 18 '.92  J 

11,170 

40,sej 

66,599 
170,438 

»S4;684 

61. 

SM 

Bri2*&ti;^bi«" 

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CANADA-PKIHAfiY  BDVCATION  OT) 


British  Columbia  th«  (rovemment  meets  prac- 
tically all  the  expense  of  education  except  in 
the  case  of  cities.  Here  a  per  capita  grant  is 
tfiven,  the  smaller  towns  getting  a  hifjher  rate 
Sian  the  larger  cities.  In  Manitoba,  SaskatcbC' 
wan  and  Alberta  no  less  than  one-d^teenth 
oi    the    whole   land    is    set   aside    for   school 


university.  It  has  not  been  foand  possible  to 
adhere  to  this  intentioa  as  there  are  alwa^ 
some  branches  in  which  academic  instructioii 
has  to  be  given,  such  ai  histoiy,  geograph/,  the 
school  arts  and  the  newer  subjects  <Hi  the  de- 
mentaiy  school  program.  In  the  eastern 
provinces  the  tendency  is  to  combiiie  academic 
and  professional   instructioii   as   in  American 


provinces,  when   free  schools  were  introduced 


s  natural 


and  districts  began  to  be  formed,  i 
that  every  settler  should  wish  to  De  near  tne 
schoolhouse.  This  led  to  small  school  districts. 
When  the  burden  of  supporting  the  small  dis- 
trict fell  upon  the  small  district  there  was  a 
tendency  to  reduce  the  salary  of  the  teacher 
to  the  lowest  amount  possible.  The  result 
has  been  most  unhappy.  In  spite  of  excellent 
provision  for  the  instruction  and  training  of 
tcadiers  it  is  now  sometimes  impossible  to  get 
as  many  who  are  fully  qualified  for  tiieir  work 
aa  there  are  schools ;  and  the  male  members  of 
the  profession  are  becoming  fewer  every  yt^r. 
This  is  particularly  true  in  those  communities 
where  there  is  great  industrial  activity  and  con- 
sequent openings  for  men.  Relief  can  come 
about  in  only  two  ways:  (1)  There  must  be  an 
incrca.se  of  legislative  aid;  (2)  there  must  be 
increased  local  support  The  former  is  prob- 
ably an  impossibihty  in  some  of  the  provinces 
beoiuse  of  the  limited  resources ;  the  latter  will 
come  only  as  a  matter  of  education.  No  people 
are  in  a  better  condition  financially  than  the 
Canadian  farmers.  The  burdens  of  taxation  are 
comparatively  light  Yet  the  salaries  paid  to 
teachers  are  very  meagre.  In  Prince  Edward 
Island  the  average  salaries  in  1910  ran  from 
$146  to  $289  for  women,  and  $201  to  $487 
for  men.  In  Nova  Scotia  the  salaries  vary 
from  $562  for  male  teachers  of  the  ^B"  grade 
and  $358  for  female  teachers  of  the  same  grade, 
to  $222  for  males  of  ■D*  grade  and  $198  for 
females  of  the  same  grade.  In  Ontario  the 
salaries  average  $711  for  males  and  $433  for 
females.  In  Manitoba  the  average  for  all  is 
|628-'an  increase  of  $134  since  1902.  In  the 
new  Province  of  Saskatchewan  the  rate  in  1910 
was  $1,052  for  males  and  $730  for  females  hold- 
ing first-class  certificates.  In  Alberta  the  sim- 
ilar average  was  $1,092  and  $749  respectively. 
Wherever  salaries  are  small  two  things  are 
noticeable :     ( 1 )     The    percentage    of    female 


of  the  teachers  are  untrained ;  in  Manitoba  con- 
ditions are  almost  equally  satisfactory.  In 
Nova  Scotia  about  43  per  cent  of  the  teadieri 
have  taken  normal  training.  In  New  Bruns- 
wick where  salaries  are  small  less  than  20  per 
cent  of  the  teachers  are  men ;  in  Nova  Scotia 
about  18  per  cent;  in  Ontario  24  per  centi  in 
Manitoba  30  per  cent;  in  Saskatchewan  about 
43  per  cent.  In  the  older  provinces  teachers' 
pension  schemes  are  in  operation  and  other 
provinces  are  considering  the  matter.  The  city 
of  Winnip^  has  workedout  a  very  satisfactory 
schedule. 

Training  of  Teachers.— The  training  of 
teachers  is  something  to  which  all  the  provinces 
have  given  much  attention,  though  the  system 
followed  is  not  uniform  Oiroughout.  In  On- 
tario and  the  four  western  provinces,  the  course 
was  designed  to  be  purely  professional  based 
on  academic  preparation  in  tbe  high  schools  or 


some  of  the  provinces  a  short  course  of  train- 
ing followed  by  actual  sdiool  room  experience 
of  a  year  or  two,  precedes  the  longer  and  more 
philosophic  traimng.  The  fact  that  all  certifi- 
cates are  granted  by  provincial  rather  than  local 
authorities  does  mtich  to  elevate  the  standard 
of  the  profession. 

Teachers'  InatitBtea<—  The  work  of  the 
normal  schools  b  supplemented  by  teachers' 
institutes  which  are  of  two  kindz,  (1)  Those 
arranged  for  and  carried  on  under  the  directioiL 
of    the   department   of   education ;    (2)    those 


velopbg  a  professional  spirit,  toward  bringing 
teacncrs  into  touch  with  educational  prc^cress 
in  other  lands,  and  toward  bringins  scnotd  and 
home  into  closer  relationship.  The  most  im- 
portant gatheriiup  are  the  provincial  conven- 
tions held  each  Easter.  An  attempt  to  hold  a 
Dominion  educational  association  has  not  met 
with  marked  success.  Either  the  territon  is  too 
great  or  provincialism  is  too  marked.  Yet  such 
an  association  could  have  great  value.  Such  an 
assodation  and  a  national  bureau  of  educaticm 
are  two  things  that  have  yet  to  be  worked  out 

School  InapectiotL'- In  all  provinces  in- 
spectors appointed  or  approved  by  the  depart- 
ments of  education  report  on  the  conditions  of 
the  schools,  not  onlv  to  the  central  authorities 
but  to  the  local  scliool  boards.  In  the  cities 
superintendents  are  employed,  and  in  some  of 
the  promnces  their  reitorts  are  accepted  by  the 
department  of  education.  The  inspectors  or 
superintendents  have  to  be  professionally  quali- 
fied in  order  to  serve.  In  Canada  the  machinery 
of  politics  is  not  permitted  to  control  school  ap- 
pointments. 

School  Librarieaw— It  a  recognized  through- 
out Canada  that  school  libraries  are  a  neces- 
sity in  education.  In  most  of  the  provinces 
grants  are  made  to  supplement  the  grants  of 
trustees.  The  newer  provinces  have  made  the 
most  complete  provision  bv  making  it  com- 
pulsory for  trustees  to  spend  annually  a  portion 
of  the  regular  grant  in  the  purchase  of  botda 
for  library  purposes. 

Coeducation. — A  disrinctive  feature  of 
Canadian  elementary  schools  is  the  coeducation 
of  the  sexes.  Tbxn  are  exceptions  to  this  rule 
in  Quebec  and  in  a  few  leading  cities  of  the 
other  provinces.  In  aU  rural  communities  co- 
eduation  must  continue  to  be  the  practice,  and 
it  is  doubtful  whether  there  will  be  any  depar- 
ture from  customary  procedure  in  cities  and 
towns.  Tbe  results  morally  and  intellectually 
under  present  conditions  seem  as  satisfactory  as 
in  lands  where  separation  of  the  sexes  is  con- 
sidered a  necessity, 

Consolidation  of  Schools.—  In  most  of  the 
provinces  the  School  Act  makes  provision  for 
consoli<^tion  of  schools,  but  in  Matuloba  alone 
has  the  legislation  beeo  followed  t>y  ooMider- 


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CANADA— 8ECOHDAKT  EDUCATION  (18) 


abtc  acHon.  There  are  about  50  consolidated 
sdiools  in  operation,  one  operating  in  a  school 
district  of  120  square  miles.  The  children  pre- 
fer driving  seven  or  eif^t  miles  to  walking 
three  miles.  The  idea  is  gradually  gaining 
ground  that  it  is  easier  and  better  to  convev  the 
children  to  the  schools,  than  to  bring  the  scoools 
merely  within  walking  distance  of  the  homes. 
Consolidation  can  not  include  all  the  schools  of 
a  province.  The  little  district  school  will  al- 
ways exist,  but  the  influence  of  a  neighboring 
consolidated  school  with  its  hi^er  organiiation 
and  better  equipment  will  always  urge  to 
greater  efficiency. 

CompnlBory  Bdncatloii.— In  all  the  prov- 
inces with  one  exception  education  is  compul- 
sory. The  acts  are  now  enforced  more  rigidly 
than  ever  before.  The  openings  in  commercial 
and  industrial  life  tempt  young  [wople  to  leave 
school   early;   some  parents,  particularly  immi- 

5rajits,  are  careless;  and  in  many  cases  the 
■stances  from  home  to  school  are  very  great 
Nevertheless  the  'percentage  of  attendance"  is 
increasing  from  year  to  year,  there  are  very 
few  native  born  who  cannot  read  and  write 
and  the  incotning  settlers  are  becoming  more 
and  more  anxious  to  give  their  children  the 
advantage  of  a  school  education. 

Conraea  of  Study.— Tlie  course  of  study 
pursued  in  the  various  provinces  does  not  differ 
very  greatly  from  that  followed  in  other  civil- 
ized lands,  though  emphasis  may  not  be  placed 
on  the'  same  subjects.  Though  direct  moral 
instruction  is  not  systematically  given  in  all 
the  provinces,  it  is  doubtful  if  anything  could 
be  more  salutary  than  the  influence  of  the 
schools.  The  high  moral  standing  of  the  aver- 
age Canadian  citiien  must  be  attributed  in  a 
measure  to  the  faithful  labor  and  supervision  of 
the  public  school  teacher.  In  addition  to  the 
study  of  the  five  central  subjects,— language, 
hterature,  mathematics,  geography  and  history, 
—  emphasis  has  of  late  been  given  to  manual 
training  (q.v.),  and  nature  study  (q.v.).  The 
former  branch  received  prominent  notice  owing 
to  the  liberality  of  one  of  Canada's  most 
worthy  citiiens  — Sir  WilHam  MacDonald.  The 
work  in  nature  study  is  carried  on  successfully 
in  several  of  the  provinces  and  with  excellent 
results.  In  the  aties  and  towns  particularly 
music  and  drawing  are  taught    The  play  im- 

{ulse  is  recognized  in  the  games  of  the  school, 
n  these  the  teacher  frequently  takes  a  promi- 
nent part.  Many  of  them  at  summer  schools 
and  on  school  playgrounds  have  become  ac- 
quainted with  we  method  of  organized  play, 
and  are  capable  of  exercising  skilled  leadership. 
In  most  of  the  provinces  provision  is  made  for 
medical  inspection  of  schools,  not  only  in  the 
cities  but  in  rural  districts.  Physical  training 
usually  according  to  the  syllabus  of  the 
Strathcona  Trust  is  given  in  all  the  provinces. 
Cadet  companies  are  numerous  especially  in 
Ontario.  Instruction  in  hygiene  is  compulsoiy. 
The  temperance  wave  in  the  Dominion  is  said 
to  be  owing  in  part  to  the  teaching  given  in  the 
schools  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  Beverages.  A 
great  interest  is  beinc  taken  In  rural  schools  in 
school-gardening  and  elementary  aflricutiure, 
and  this  interest  is  on  the  increase.  Vocational 
education  is  not  attempted  bdow  the  high 
school,  unless  the  domestic  science,  sewing  and 
manual  training,  given  in  the  senior  grades  of 
the    elementary   school,   be    counted    as    such. 


It  is  Renerally  recognized  in  elementary  schools 
that  flie  method  of  study,  and  the  mental  atti- 
tude developed  in  pupils,  are  of  as  much  im- 
portance as  the  facts  learned.  The  power  for 
self-direction  developed  in  Canadian  youth,  is 
amply  proven  bythe  behavior  of  manhood.  The 
method  of  classification  even  in  the  large  city 
schools,  does  not  appear  to  have  crushed  out 
the  individuality  of  the  pupils.  It  may  have 
removed  idiosyncrasies,  but  it  has  still  left 
power  for  independent  action.  The  ideal  of 
school  government  in  Canada,  though  not  fully 
realized  in  many  cases,  is  that  of  a  kindly 
authority  which  induces  power  of  self-control. 
In  this,  the  temper  of  me  Canadian  people  is 
expressed  However,  in  the  home  as  well  as  in 
the  school,  well-meant  liberty  often  develops 
into  license.  Intelligence,  right  habits  of 
thought,  and  good  morals  are  often  noted  where 
manners  and  good  taste  are  in  a  marired  degree 
lacldng.  Yet  on  the  whole  the  type  of  life  rep- 
resented in  Canadian  elementary  schools  is  of  a 
very  hi^  order. 

Canada  may  be  considered  the  land  of  the 
common  school.  With  the  one  unfortunate  ex- 
ception already  noted,  there  is  nothing  in  the 
pnblic  school  system  which  recognizes  class, 
race  or  creed.  The  school  is  the  most  potent 
agency  for  unifying  the  diverse  elements  of  the 
population.  See  articles  in  this  series  Secons- 
ABY  Education  ;  Higkeh  Education  ;  Cath- 
olic Education  ;  Public  Education.  See  also 
the  section  Editcattcn  in  the  articles  on  the 
different  provinces, 

W.  A.   MclNTYBE. 

"  Normal  School,  lVi«niP'g. 
18.    SECONDARY  EDUCATION.    The 


those  of  Ontario,  which  was  the  first  (1844) 
organize  a  system  of  public  instruction.  As  a 
result,  there  is  a  very  general  similarity  amongst 
them.  Quebec,  however,  which  is  largely 
French  and  Roman  Catholic,  with  an  English- 
speaking  Protestant  minority,  has  organized  its 
high,  as  well  as  its  elementary  schools,  in  ac- 
cordance with  its  exceptional  conditions. 

Secondary  education  in  Canada  is  provided 
for  in  three  main  classes  of  schools  which  are 
well  distributed  geographically  and  are  known 
sometimes  by  diflerent  names  in  the  different 
provinces : 

(1)  Public  high  schools,  in  which  secondary 
education  alone  is  provided  for.  A  few  take 
up  also  the  first  year  or  the  first  and  the  second 

Sar  work  of  the  universities.     Besides  the  day 
gh  schools,   night  and  summer  schools  are 
provided  generally. 

(2)  Public  high  school  grades  in  connection 
with  the  elementary  schools,  known  sometimes 
as  construction,  superior  or  intermediate 
schools.  A  few  of  such  grades  are  as  good  as 
the  smaller  high  schools,  and  often  gradually 
develop  into  separate  institutions. 

(3)  A  small  number  of  private  secondary 
schools.  These  have  usually  elementary  grades 
attached  and  occasionally  do  the  work  of  the 
earlier  years  of  the  universities.  Their  fewness 
is  due  chiefly  to  the  efficiency  of  the  public  sys- 
tems, which  were  organized  early  in  the  history 
of  most  of  the  provinces.  As,  however,  the 
wealth  increases,  more  of  such  schools  are  es- 
tablished, but  they  are  now,  and  wilt  likely  con- 


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CANADA  — 8BCONDAKY  EDUCATION  (1» 


into  one  system  in  each  province  and  in  being 
controlled  and  supporiea  by  the  province  as 
well  as  by  the  localit}'.  The  causes  which  thus 
tend  to  unifomiity  in  the  individual  systems 
haveinmost  been  reinforced  tw  uniform  exami- 
nations of  the  different  graaes,  conducted  by 
the  central  authority.  The  statfr^»ntrol  is  ex- 
ercised by  a  minister  of  education,  who  is  a 
member  of  the  provincial  Cabinet,  or  by  a  su- 
perintendent of  education,  responsible  to  the 
Cabinet,  or  by  both.  Sometimes  such  control- 
\iBg  officers  have  associated  with  them  an  ad- 
visory canncil,  variously  constituted,  with  more 
or  less  important  powers.  The  functions  of 
the  state  are  legislative  and  general.  Subject 
to  this  oversi^,  which  is  exercised  both  di- 
rectly and  throu^  government  inspectors  and 
which  prescribes  textbooks,  courses  of  study 
and  school  reflations,  local  boards  of  trus- 
tees or  commissioners  have  complete  control, 
»P1>aintinx  the  teachers  and  managing  the 
finances.  The  boards  are  thus  able  to  deal  with 
local  conditions,  while  the  state  connection  has 
secured  a  measure  of  uniformity  and  general 
efficiency  of  courses  and  standards.  The  state 
contributes  often  very  liberally  to  the  support 
of  the  public  high  schools,  the  expense  of  es- 
tablishment and  the  rest  of  the  expense  of 
maintenance  being  provided  for  by  local  taxes 
imposed  by  the  municipality  or  district  in  which 
the  school  is  situated,  and,  with  few  exceptions, 
.  W  the  county.  Sometimes  small  fees  are 
cnarged,  but  we  general  tendency  is  towards 
free  schools. 

The  private  schools  are  generally  proprie- 
tary ana  of  denominati(»ial  origin ;  and,  as  a 
result,  nearly  all  of  them  are  under  denomina- 
tional control.  Although  affected  in  their 
courses  and  organization  by  the  denominating 
public  systems,  they  have  no  connection  with 
the  state,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  which 
are  affiliated  with  state  universities,  or  of  some 
Quebec  schools  which  are  subsidised  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  Except  also  in  Quebec,  the 
public  hi^  schools  are  open  to  and  attended 
ly  all  denominations.  The  private  schools,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  usually  sectarian,  but  the 
religious  training  given  in  most  of  the  Protest- 
ant schools  is  such  that  they  are  patroniied  by 
the  adherents  of  other  churches  than  those 
with  which  they  are  connected. 

All  the  secondary  schools  have  more  or  less 
extended  curricula,  corresponding  to  those  of 
the  United  States  high  schools ;  but.  as  there, 
the  entrance  and  the  leaving  standards  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  system  of  orraniiation,  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  elementary  schools,  the  require- 
ments of  the  universities,  and  the  wealth  and 
population  of  the  different  provinces.  The  On- 
tario secondary  schools  are  the  best  developed 
and  the  most  dfident,  being,  as  regards  stand- 
ard, on  a  par  with  the  best  in  the  United  States. 
Besides  providing  a  general  education,  the  Ca- 
nadian secondary  schools  prepare  for  univer- 
sity matriculation,  for  commercial  pursuits,  for 
teachers'  academic  certificates  and  some  of  tliem 
for  industrial  and  technical  occupations.  In 
one  important  and  far-reaching  respect  they 
differ  from  the  high  schools  of  the  United 
SUtes:  tlieir  teachers  must  all  hold  certificates 


of  academic  and  professional  competent,  ait- 
thorized  by  the  respective  State  Departments 
of  Education,  and  varying  somewhat  in  stand- 
ard and  character  according  to  the  conditions 
of  the  system-  Such  teachers  are  usually 
obliged  to  attend  professional  schools.  On- 
tario, however,  is  exceptional  in  providing  for 
the  professional  training  of  its  first  class  pub- 
lic school  and  high  school  teachers  in  two  fac- 
ulties of  education:  (I)  in  the  University  of 
Toronto  (provincial),  (2)  and  the  other  in 
Queen's  University,  Kingston.  Both  of  these 
faculties  receive  provincial  aid  on  condittcm 
that  they  provide  courses  approved  by  the  De- 
partment of  Education.  In  Oie  other  provinces 
the  normal  schools  provide  the  gener^  profes- 
sional training  for  all  grades. 

Following  are,  additional  details  in  regard  to 
each  of  the  provinces: 

Ontario, —  The  special  secondary  schools  in 
Ontario  are  of  two  classes,  high  schools  and 
collegiate  institutes.  The  teachers  are  of  two 
classes :  those  with  ordinary  certificates  and 
those  with  specialists'  certificates,  each  of  the 
latter  having  taken  an  advanced  course  in  his 
department.  The  principal  of  a  h^  school 
or  collegiate  institute  must  be  a  graduate  in 
arts  of  a  university  in  the  British  dominions. 
The  staS  of  a  collegiate  institute  must  consist 
of  specialists  with  honor  university  degrees  in 
classics,  mathematics,  modems  and  history  (in- 
cluding English),  and  sdeoce,  and  spetiaJists  in 
art  and  physical  culture ;  and,  t^ere  the  optional 
subjects,  agriculture,  household  science  and  the 
commercial  subjects  are  taken  up,  with  special- 
ists in  these  deparUnents  also.  The  staffs  of 
the  high  schools  may  consist  of  teachers  with 
ordinary  certificates,  but  many  of  them  are 
specialists.  Some  of  the  collegiate  institutes 
have  as  many  as  3S  teachers  ana  only  a  few  of 
the  high  schools  have  not  more  than  two.  Both 
classes  of  schools  roust  have  good  accommoda- 
tions with  a.  minimum  equipment  of  $750  for  a 
high  school  with  two  or  three  teachers;  $1,125 
for  one  with  four  or  more  teachers;  and  $1,675 
for  a  collegiate  institute.  A  collegiate  insti- 
tute must  have,  and  a  high  school  may  hav^  a 
gymnasium,  for  which  the  former  may  receive 
a  maximum  grant  of  $96  a  year  and  the  latter 
of  $48. 

A  h^  school  may  be  established  by  a  county 
or  a  city  municipal  council  with  the  approval 
of  the  minister  of  education,  and  such  estab- 
lishment entitles  it  to  a  maximum  grant  of  from 
about  $600  to  $1,300,  according  to  the  grade  of 
the  schools,  as  well  as  proper  maintenance  by  the 
coun^  or  the  municipality  in  which  it  is  situ- 
ated. After  providing  for  a  minimum  grant 
for  each  school,  the  rest  of  the  legislative  grant 
is  distributed  on  the  bases  of  the  value  of  the 
equipment,  the  amount  of  the  teachers'  salaries, 
and  the  character  of  the  accommodations,  a 
system  of  apportionment  which  has  been 
adopted  generally  and  which  has  greatly  stimu- 
lated local  exi^nditures  and  has  done  much  to 
secure  the  efficiency  of  the  schools. 


and  others,  callnl  boards  of  educadon,  have 
charge  of  botih  classes  of  schools  as  in  the  United 
States.  In  constitution,  however,  tfa^  are 
peculiar  in  containing  a  representative  of  the 
(Roman  Catholic)  separate  elementary  schools, 
if  there  should  be  aiiy  soch  school  in  a  munici- 


.Google 


CAMAI)A~SSCOHI»UtY.KI>tK0ATU31M'<tt>> 


the  large  i 
rfpresentatiTCs) . 

Besides  toe  separately  established  high 
schools,  there  are  in  connection  with  the  ele- 
mentary  schools,  in  locaKdes  which  caonot 
maintain  a  hich  school,  continuatioD  schools 
which  also  do  nigh  school  work  of  a  character 
sometiines  as  good  and  as  contprefaensive  as  is 
done  in  many  of  the  high  schools.  Continiia-. 
tion  schools  may  be  established  with,  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Minister  of  Education'  by  t, 
public  or  a  separate  school  board  or  In  a 
union  of  such  boards  under  conditiona 
which  ensure  their  proper  maintenance.  Of 
these  schools,  therri  are  three  grades:  Grade 
A  with  three  teachers,  grade  B  with  two.  and 
grade  C  with  one;  of  Umsc,  the  grade  B  schools 
arc  the  most  numerous.  Tht  teachers  of  grade 
A  schools  must  have  the  same  cnalifications  as 
the  teachers  of  high  schools ;  tnose  of  grades 
B  and  C  must  hold  at  least  first  class  pubhc 
school  certificates,  many,  however,  being  ura- 
versity  graduates.  The  legislative  grants,  to 
these   schools  are  proportionately  even  more 

Eenerous  than  those  to  the  high  schools^  and  as, 
eing  situated  in  the  rural  districts,  they 
commend  themselves  strongly  to  the  county 
councils,  the  support  from  tcus  source  is  often 
proportionately  larger  than  in  Uie  case  of-  the 
hi^  schools. 

Pupils  pass  from  the  fourth  grade  of  the 
etementaiy  schools,  called  public  or  (Roman 
Catholic)  separate  sdiools  (ages  12  to  14  or 
15),  into  the  secondary  sdiools  on  untform  er- 
aminatian  papers  set  t^  the  department  of  edu- 
cation, the  answers  to  which  are  read  and  valued 
by  local  boards.  Permission,  however,  is 
granted  to  boards  to  set  their  own  papers  or  to 
accept  under  certain  conditionB  the  promotion 
examinations  of  the  elementary  school  staffs. 
The  standard  of  entrance  into  the  secondary 
schools  in  Ontario  is  at  least  as  high  as  that 
of  the  best  high  schools  of  the  United  States. 
A  number  of  years  ago,  the  department  of 
education  held  miiform  Icavine  examinationa 
at  the  end  of  the  courses  of  each  main-  division 
of  the  secondary  schools.  As  a  cDnsequencej 
however,  of  the  evils  associated  with  so  much 
uniformity,  these  examinations  have  been  dis- 
continued and  the  department  itself  holds  only 
those  that  are  necessary  for  teachers'  certifr- 
cates.  It  continue,  however,  to  conduct 
dirongh  a  matriculation  board,  representing  the 
universities  of  the  [ffoviiKe,  the  uniform  ma- 
triculation   examination    prescribed    by    these 


The  following  statistics  set  forth  the  general 
condition  of  the  high  and  continuation  schools; 
Total  number  of  high  schools  (1918),  162,  o£ 
which  47  are  collegiate  institutes  and  76  arc 
free.  Number  of  teachers,  1,051,  ef  whom  763 
are  university  graduates,  and  507  hold  honor 
degrees  or  the  equivalent.  Highest  salary, 
$3,jOO;  average  for  principals.  $1,884;  for  as- 
Mstants,  $],412;  Number  of  pupils,  28,833  (1917). 
Total  amount  expended  during  the  year  1916, 
(2,488,254,  of  which  $1,509,227  was  for  the  sal- 
aries of  teachers.  Cost  for  each  pupil  (on  aver- 
age attendance),  $10922.  Total  number  of  con- 
tinuation schools  (1918),  137,  with  241  teachers, 
of  whom  77  are  university  graduates.  Highest 
salary,  $2,000 1  average  for  principals,  $1,117 :  for 
assistanls,  $778;  total  number  of  pupils,  5,083 
(1917).     Total  amount  expended  for  conlinia- 


the  chief  is  Upper  Canada  College  (which, 
however,  is  only  semi-private),  an  old  historic 
residential  and  day  school  &t  one  time  under 
govemment  control,  but  now  under  a  board  of 
eovernors  partly  nominated  and  partly  elected 
by  the  'Old  Boys,"  the  state  connection  being 
maintained  througti  the  Minister  of  Education, 
1vbo  is  ao  ex-o£da  merober.  This  college  has 
still  a  small  endowment,  but  is  supported 
chiefly  by  fees.  It  does  general  and  umversity 
matriculation  work  for  boys,  and  is  attended  by 
pupils  from  all  parts  of  the  Dominion  and  even 
from  the  UnitM  States,  Besides  colleges  for 
young  women,  some  of  which  lake  up  the  same 
course*  as  the  hi^  schools,  there  are  a  few 
titber  collei[e9  for  Doyt,  doing;  general  work  and 


In^;  Trinity  College,  Fort  ilope,  and  the  De 
La  Salle  Institute,  near  .Toronto.  A  few  also 
have  mixed  classes,  the  chief  being  Albert  CoU 
lege,  Belleville,  at  one  time  a  university,  but 
now  aSiliated  with  the  University  of  Toronto 
(q.v.),  which. provides  courses  of  various  kinds 
and  grades,  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  university 
work  of  the  first  year.  With  very  few  excep- 
tion^ alt  the  private  schools  are  connected  with 
rel^ous  denominations. 

The  .courses,  of  stu<^  are  the  same  for  thq 
different  grades  of  public  secondary  schools: 
the  general  courses,  the  courees  for  admission 
to  the  professional  schools  for  teachers,  and  the 
courses  for  matriculation  into  the  universities. 
The  evolution  of  the  content  of  the  genera] 
courses  during  the  last  10  years  has  proceeded 
on  modem  lines;  vocational  and  prevocatLonal 
courses  have  been  duly  provided  in  connection 
with,  the  high  and  continuation  schools  and  in 
separate  establishments. 

There  are  86  manual  training  centres  and  84 
household  sdence  centres  attended  by  14,130 
boys  and  13,552  giils  from  the  fourth  grade 
(seventh  and  eighth  years)  of  the  public  schools 
and  the  first  two  years  of  the  nigh  schools. 
These  centres  are  well  equipped  and  liberal 
grants  are  made  by  the  Department  of  Educa- 
tion on  the  usual  tnises :  salaries,  equipment,  ac- 
commodations, with  minimum  fixed  grants.  In 
1915  the  total  amount  of  the  legislative  grant 
was  $30,200.  In  1913  agriculture  was  intro- 
duced into  the  secondary  schools  as  an  optional 
course  covering  two  or  four  years.  At  present 
21  schools  carry  on  the  work,  most  of  them, 
however,  attempting  only  the  two  years'  course. 
These  schools  also  are  generously  aided  by 
both  the  Dominion  and  the  Ontario  Govern- 

The  Industrial  Act  of  1911  provides  for  a 
system  of  indnstrial  and  technical  schools  with 
courses  as  follows  :  Day  schools  :  (jcneral  iu' 
duslrial  schools  for  subjects  basal  in  the  trades; 
special  industrial  schools  for  particular  trades; 
technical  high  schools  and  high  school  courses; 
part  time  co-operative  industrial  courses  for 
apprentices;  schools  for  instruction  in  the  fine 
arts.  Evening  schools  for  day  workmen  and 
workwonien. 


Digitized 


=,  Google 


CANADA  — SECONDARY  BDUCATIOU  (U) 


The  day  and  evening  schools  are  liberally 
supported  by  l^slative  grants  apportioned  on 
the  usual  bases ;  the  maximum  grant  on  sal- 
aries for  day  schools  being  $5,000  and  ior  night 
schools  $3,000',  on  equipment  for  day  schools, 
^,000,  and  for  night  schools,  $1,000.  The  max- 
imum grant  for  co-operative  classes  is  $875, 
The  total  attendance  at  the  industrial  and  tech- 
nical schools  in  1917  was  1(^668.  In  some  urban 
centres  large  sums  are  expended  on  capital 
account;  for  example,  at  Hamilton  a  site  for  a 
new  technical  school  has  been  bougiit  at  a  cost 
of  $75,000;  Toronto  recently  opened  a  new 
technical  school  costing  at  least  $2,000,000,  and 
London  has  a  new  building  for  a  technical 
school  costing  $250,000. 

The  day  technical  departments  of  the  hi^ 
schools  adapt  the  ordinary  courses  to  the  vo- 
cational needs  of  the  commnnities.  At  Hailey- 
bury,  a  mining  centre,  for  example,  the  high 
school  has  a  mining  dmartment  in  which,  since 
its  opening  in  1910,  104  novs  have  been  enrolled. 
And  some  of  the  technical  schools  have  already 
courses  nearly  as  comprehensive  as  those  of  the 
best  schools  in  the  United  States. 

The  agricultural,  commercial,  and  industrial 
and  technical  schools  and  classes  are  managed 
by  advisory  committees  consisting  of  represen- 
tatives of  the  high  school  and  collegiate  insti- 
tute boards  and  an  eqiwl  number  of  persons 
engaged  in  industrial  pursuits  approved  ay  said 
boards.  The  advisory^  committees  may  also  co- 
i^t  persons  engaged  in  sudi  pursuits  who  are 
not  members  of  the  school  board.  The  pro- 
posals of  such  committees,  however,  are  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  school  boards  concerned. 

Quebec. —  Secondary  education  in  Quebec  is 
organised  on  somewhat  different  lines  from 
those  followed  in  the  other  provinces.  The  Ro- 
man Catholic  Committee  of  the  Council  of 
Public  Instruction  names  the  three  chief  kinds 
of  public  schools,  respectively  the  •primary  ele- 
mentary," 'primary  intermediate*  or  model,  and 
the  *pnmary  superior*  or  academy.  There  are 
four  years  of  work  in  the  elementary  schools, 
two  in  the  model  schools  and  two  in  the  acad- 
emies. The  model  schools  and  academies  fre- 
quently teach  also  some  of  the  lower  grades. 
The  msjari^  of  the  Catholic  model  schools 
and  academies  are  French,  the  others  being 
English.  Secondary  education  proper  is  that 
of  the  classical  colleges. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  Protestant  schools, 
namely,  elementary,  model,  and  academy,  some 
of  the  last  mentioned  being  designated  %igfa 
schools.'  Beginning  in  the  year  191S-I6  the 
Protestant  Committee  adopted  a  new  classifica- 
tion of  the  grades  as  well  as  a  new  course  of 
study.  There  are  H  grades,  numbered  from 
1  to  11.  The  elementary  sdiools  teach  the 
first  seven  grades,  the  model  schools  the  first 
nine  and  the  academies  the  whole  U  grades. 
Successful  examination  at  the  end  of  grade  10 
admits  to  the  Macdonald  School  for  Teachers, 
for  the  elementary  diploma  course,  and  at  the 
end  of  grade  II  to  trie  model  diploma  course 
in  the  same  institution.  Grade  11  also  affords 
matriculation  to  McGitl  and  Bishop's  univer- 
sities. The  principals  of  the  chief  Protestant 
academies  are  men.  The  Protestant  model 
schools  are  j)ractically  'intermediate*  schools. 
The  academies  are  secondary  schools  proper, 
although  inclnding  all  the  earlier  grades. 

Summarized    statistics,    191S-16:    Catholic 


model  schools,  680;  Catholic  i , 

Catholic  classical  colleges,  21.  Pupils  in  ^th- 
olic  model  schools,  106J475,  of  which  239  were 
Protestants.  Pupils  m  Catholic  academies, 
83,227,  of  whom  339  were  Protestants.  Total 
of  lay  teachers  in  Catholic  model  schools  and 
acadonies,  1,315.  Total  of  religious  teacfaers, 
533a  Protestant  model  schools,  58;  Protestant 
academies,  41.  Pupils  in  Protestant  model 
schools,  5,416,  of  wlum  334  were  Roman  Cad>- 
olic  Pupils  in  Protestant  academiea,  12,03& 
of  whom  356  were  Roman  Catholica.  Total  of 
teachers  in  Protestant  model  schools  and  acad- 
emies, 602;  of  these  66  are  without  diploma, 
nearly  every  case  the  teacher  is  merely 


of  these  subjects  are  extensively  taught,  and 
there  is  a  director  of  drawing  for  the  Catholic 
schools.  An  extensive  program  in  household 
science  has  been  carried  out  for  several  years 
now  in  some  of  the  Catholic  normal  schools 
(Ecoles  Nonnales  Mena^res),  and  the  subject 
receives  much  attention  in  the  convent  sdiools. 
Manual  training  is  practically  confined  to  the 
Montreal  schools.  The  Protestant  school  board 
of  that  city  minntains  also  a  large  commercial 
and  technical  high  school,  at  wludi  the  yearly 
attendance  averages  about  I,60&  The  technical 
schools  prcn»er  of  the  province,  the  large  ones 
at  Montreal  and  Quebec  particularly,  come  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  provincial  secretary, 
not  ui>der  that  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Instruction,    The  attendance  at  these  t 


tutions  is  not  yet  as  satisfactory  as  the  splen- 
did eqniiiaient  and  the  qualifications  of^  the 
staffs  call   for:    the  school  at  Montreal  cast 


$636,187 ;  that  at  Quebec  $405,359.  The  Poly- 
technic School  of  Montreal,  which  has  been 
in  existence  many  years  and  which  gives  courses 
in  engineering,  architecture  and  the  industrial 
arts,  had  an  attendance  of  140  in  1915-17.  The 
teadiing  of  afjriculture  in  the  Protestant  and 
Catholic  supenor  schools  has  received  consider- 
able impetus  of  late  from  the  aid  given  by  the 
county  demonstrators  (graduates  of  Mac- 
donald College,  Sainte  Anne  de  la  Pocaticre 
and  Oka)  in  the  form  of  lectures.  In  1910 
the  Ecole  dei  Hautes  Etudes  Commcr dales 
(School  of  Cominercia]  Higher  Studies)  was 
opened  in  Montreal.  It  is  now  affiliatea  with 
Laval  University  (q,v.).  All  the  classical  col- 
leges are  affiliated  wiui  Laval  University  and 
give  the  university  courses  in  arts  and  saence; 
and  their  students  take  university  examinations, 
and  receive  the  university  degrees. 

Manitoba, —  The  terms,  intermediate 
schools,  high  school,  collegiate  department,  col- 
legiate institute  and  technical  high  school  are 
used  in  Manitoba  to  denote  secondary  schools. 
Intermediate  schools  are  secondary  departments 
of  graded  schools,  the  principal  devoting  hb 
whole  time  to  secondary  school  work  High 
schools  have  two,  collegiate  departments  three 
and  collegiate  institutes  four  or  more  teachers 
engaged  exclusively  in  secondary  school  woik 
There  were  (1917)  72  intermediate  sdiools,  23 
high  sdiools,  4  collegiate  departments,  7  col- 
legiate institutes  and  2  technical  high  sdtools. 
The  whole  number  of  teadiers  in  biiJi  and 


Google 


CANASA  — SBCONDART  SDUCATION  <») 


colkgimte  achools  was  173,  iMch  with  the  72 
teacners  in  the  intermediate  achools  Rhres  a 
total  of  245.  In  the  intermediate  schools  there 
were,  in  1916-17.  6^294  students  of  hi^  school 
grade,  of  whom  4,096  were  enrolled  in  high  and 
collegiate  schools  and  2,198  in  intennediate 
schools  and  the  upper  grades  of  rural  ele- 
mentary sdiools. 

The  secondary  school  progiam  covers  three 
years  and  includes  several  courses.  The  inter- 
mediate schools  invariably  give  the  course  for 
teachers'  certificates  and  occasiottally  that  for 
university.  matricnlatioD.  In  the  high  schools 
the  student  can  pursue  the  teachers'  course,  the 
university  matriculation  course  or  a  "combined* 
course,  which  admits  to  Ac  nniveraity  and  to  the 
normal  school.  In  some  of  the  larger  collegiate 
schools  a  commercial  course  of  two  years  is 
given  in  addition  to  the  preceding.  In  certain 
rural  centres  a  course  is  given  in  agricnlture. 

Special  grants  are  paid  by  the  Department 
of  Education  as  follows:  Intermediate  schools, 
$200  i  high  schools,  $300  fixed  grant,  |8  per 
anuum  per  c^ita  grant  and  $50  for  apparatus 
and  library;  collemate  departments,  $450  along 
with  per  capita,  Ubrary  and  laboratory  grants; 
coUegHte  institntes,  fecial  grants  to  the  aniount 
of  $1,600  in  all  in  addition  to  capitation  grant  of 
$5  per  pnpil. 

Fiindi^  of  intermediate  and  high  schools 
must  hold  first  class  certificates;  principals  of 
collegiate  schools  must  in  addition  be  umversity 
graduates;  professional  certificates  are  required 

The  Winnipeg  tedinical  high  schools,  which 
cost  over  half  a  million  eaJcb,  were  opened 
in  1912.  So  far  as  their  day  school  woric  is 
concerned  these  are  really  manual  training 
hi^  schools,  but  as  evening  schools  they  are 
continuation  schools  for  adult  pupils  along  in- 
dustrial and  technical  lines.  Household  scienre, 
art  and  physical  culture  are  taught  in  both  the 
day  and  the  evening  classes.  In  the  day  school 
there  is  a  special  course  for  girls,  known  aa  the 
practical  arts  course,  which  contains  a  maxi- 
rnuEQ  of  work  in  household  science  and  house- 
hold arts  and  which  leads  to  the  normal  scfaooli. 
The  percentages  in  the  different  courses  in 
1917  were  as  fallows:  Teachers'  course,  20 
per  cent;  university  course,  19  per  cent;  com- 
bined  course,  37  per  cent;  commercial  course, 
10  per  cent ;  boys'  technical,  4  per  cent,  and 
girls'  practical  arts,  8  per  cent.  The  special 
work  m  household  science  and  manual  training 
is  provided  for  students  in. the  Collegiate:  In- 
stitute  at  Brandon  and  at  Stonewall.  The 
manual  work  of  the  technical  schools  of  Winni- 
peg is  recognized  in  the  requirements  for 
matriculation  to  the  engineering  course  of  the 
university,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  allow- 
ance will  be  made  ior  it  in  the  other  matricula- 
tion  courses  also. 

Prince  Edward  Island.— There  are  no  high 
schools  proper  in  Prince  Edward  Island,  but 
provision  for  the  work  has  been  made  in  about 
29  schools  with  high  school  departments,  in  32 

fraded  schools  and  in  some  of  the  best  con- 
ucted  primary  schools.  In  these  trades  about 
500  pupib  are  prepared  for  entrance  into  Prince 
of  Wales  College  and  Normal  School  in  Char- 
lottetown  (the  capital)  in  a  course  which  cor- 
responds to  that  of  the  first  two  years  of  a 
faigh  school.  Properly  spcakini;;  the  college  is 
the  only  secondary  public  school.    AD  the  other 


schools  aim  to  matriculate  pupils  into  it.  All 
the  schools  are  supported  by  leeislative  aid  and 
district  assessment,  of  which  the  former  con- 
stitutes about  three-fourths  of  the  expenditure. 


tary  vote  of  the  ratepayers  of  the  district 
Uantial  training,  household  sdenoe,  p^Ncal 
culture  and  agiKulture  are  taught  in  the  Prince 
of  Wales  College  and  the  Normal  School.  The 
teachers  so  trained,  in  turn  instruct  all  the 
pupils  in  the  public  schools  in  physical  culture 
and  agriculture  or  nature  sluc^.  Physical  cul- 
ture is  greatlv  stimulated  by  prizes  from  ibe 
Sirathcona  Trust  Fund  and  agriculture  is  as- 
sisted by  the  Department  of  A^culture.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Charlottetown  and  Sum- 
merside  schools  no  instruction  is  given  in 
manual  trainii^  and  household  sdeuce. 

New  Brunswick. —  Secondary  education  in 
New  Brunswick  is  provided  for  in  grammar 
and  superior  schools.  The  number  of  the 
former  u  14,  with  41  teachers  and  an  enrolment 
of  1,281.  Teachers  holding  license  of  the  gram- 
mar school  class  receive  from  the  government 
from  $330  to  $400  a  year,  according  to  the  length 
of  service  o{  the  teacher,  and  under  conditions 
provided  by  the  Board  of  Education,  but  not 
mure  than  four  teachers  in  any  one  grammar 
sdiool  can  receive  this  legislative  grant  These 
schools  are  free  to  all  pupils  in  the  county  in 
^des  &-12,  University  matriculation  exam- 
inations are  based  on  the  requirements  of  the 
h^  school  course,  as  completed  in  grade  11. 
Superior  schools  may  be  established  in  every 
coiiDly—ioac  for  every  £^000  inhabitants,  and 
a  majority  fraction  thereof.  The  principal  of 
a  superior  school  must  hold  a  .first  class  su- 
perior license,  and  receives  from  the  govern- 
ment a  grant  of  $250  to  $300  a  year,  according 
to  the  time  of  service  of  the  teacher,  provided 
the  trustees  pay  the  teacher  a  salary  from  the 
district  at  least  equal  to  the  government  grant 
Superior  schools  in  grade  7  and  upward  are 
free  to  all  pupils  living  within  the  parishes  in 
which  the  schools  are  situated.  Most  of  the 
superior  schoob  provide  courses  in  high  school 
work  of  the  same  character  as  the  grammar 
schools.  Little  progress  has  been  made  in 
secondary  vocational  education.  There  are  five 
consolidated  schools  in  the  high  school  d^)art- 
ments  of  which  agriculture,  manual  training 
and  household  science  are  taken  up.  In  most 
of  the  cities  and  towns  these  subjects  are  taught 
in  grade  9;  that  is,  the  first  year  of  the  hig^ 
school,  and  at  the  normal  school.  As .  yet, 
however,  there  is  no  provision  for  purely  voca- 
tional training. 

Nova  Scotia.— In  the  public  schools  of 
Nova  Scotia  there  are  12  grades,  9,  10,  11  and  12 
being  high  school.  Very  many  of  the  rural 
elementary  scht»ls  have  simerior  grades  which 
do  the  first  and  the  second  year  and  even  the 
third  year  woric  of  the  high  schools.  In. the 
towns  and  larger  villages  the  high  school  de- 
partments  are  separate.  The  law  allows  one 
hi(^  school,  called  the  county  academy,  in  each 
county,  to  share  in  the  $10,000  which  uie  legis- 
lature grants  for  secondary  education,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  other  grants  to  which  they  are  en- 
tilled  in  common  with  the  high  school  grades 
generally ;  provided  the  county  academy  is  free 
to  each  pupil  of  the  county  who  passes  the 
uniform   departmental    entrance  exaninations. 


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CANADA— SECONDARY  XQUCATIOH  (18> 


Sboul<l,  however,  the  shire  town  fall  below  the 
standard  in  equipment  and  accommodations, 
another  may  be  made  the  county  academy 
by  the  council  of  public  instruction.  Be- 
sides  the  uniform  entrance  examinations  the 
education  department  holds  uniform  examina- 
tions in  the  courses  of  all  the  hi|^  school 
grades,  and  the  universities  and  collcKes  of  the 
provinces  accept  for  matriculation  the  certifi- 
cate of  having  passed  grade  11  when  it  indi- 
cates a  hi^  pass  in  the  subjects  they  prescribe, 
or  of  grade  12  with  a  50  per  cent  pass  on  the 
essential  matriculation  subjects.  The  grade  12 
pass  is  expected  to  displace  eventually  the  old 
grade  11  pass.  There  are  18  county  academies 
with  59  teachers,  of  whim  39  are  university 
graduates,  class  academic  beiae  the  necessary 
professional  <)ualiticatioD  for  the  high  school 
teachers  drawing  academic  grants.  In  1917  the 
total  enrolment  in  all  hi^  schools  was  9,088. 
Of  the  total  attendance  1,853  belonged  to  the 
county  academies.  There  were  2,949  pupils  in 
the  technical  schools.  Nova  Scotia  has  a  nnm- 
bcr  of  private  schools  which  renort  an  attend- 
ance of  450  as  doing  high  school  work. 

Academic  teachers  must  henceforth  be  grad- 
uates of  recognused  universities,  who  must  after 
f^raduation  have  passed  the  provincial  univer- 
sity graduates'  testing  examination  in  six  sub- 
jects,  one  of  which  (the  major)  must  be  of  the 
Standard  of  university  honors  distinction.  After 
30  or  35  years'  service  they  can  retire  with  an 
annuity  not  exceeding  $600  per  annum. 

So  far,  except  in  some  prc^ressive  centres, 
very  little  speoal  attention  has  been  paid  in 
the  secondary  schools  to  vocational  education. 
Art  is  an  optional  subject  in  the  high  school 
course  and  in  the  Halifax  County  Academy 
there  is  a  three  years'  commercial  course.  In 
the  Nova  Scotia  Technical  College  there  are 
two  sets  of  courses,  the  long  course  being  of 
university  grade  and  the  short  course  partly 
of  secondary  grade.  There  were  also  in  1917 
local  technical  schools  in  seven  cities  and  towns 
and  coal  mining  and  engineering  schools.  For 
the  school  year  ending  July  1917  the  following 
was  the  attendance  at  the  different  classes  of 
schools:  Rural  Science  School,  148;  Agricul- 
tural College  (regular),  63;  Agricultural  Col- 
lege (short  course^,  290;  Nova  Scotia  Technical 
College,  67;  evening  technical  schools,  1,643; 
coal  mining  schools,  536;  Normal  College,  263; 
total,  2,949. 

Alberta. —  The  administrative  unit  of  the 
educational  system  of  Alberta  is  the  school  dis- 
trict. Any  district,  when  conditions  warrant, 
may,  in  addition  to  providii^  for  the  elemen- 
tary or  public  school  grades  (1-8),  provide  for 
any  or  all  of  the  high  school  grades  (9-12), 
with  the  usual  secondary  school  courses,  all 
being  under  one  school  board.  The  govern- 
ment provides  an  increased  grant  for  the  sec- 
ondary grades.  Grade  11  gives  university  ma- 
triculation standing  and  admits  to  a  normal 
school  for  training  as  second  class  teacher, 
while  grade  12  gives  first  year  university  stand- 
ing and  admits  to  normal  school  for  training  as 
first  class  teacher. 

Provincial  normal  schools  containir^  large 
practice  schools  are  located  at  Calgary  and 
Camrose.  The  other  educational  institutions 
which  take  up  secondary  school  work  are  the 
Alberta  (Theological)  College,  the  Robertson 
(Theological)   College,  the  Jesuit  College,  all 


of  Edmonton;  Houm  Royal  Collcse;  Western 
Canada  College;  Saint  Hilda's  College,  all  of 
Calgary;  Alberta  Ladies'  College  at  Edmonton; 
and  Knight's  Academy  al  Raymond. 

As  in  most  of  the  other  provinces,  the  voca- 
tional side  of  education  is  empfaasixed  in  Alberta. 
The  board  of  every  district  has  power  to  make 
provision  for  instruction  in  both  die  primary  and 
secondary  grades  in  manual  training  domestic 
■cienct^  physical  training,  music  and  art,  and 
courses  are  given  during  each  summer  vacation 
for  teachers  of  these  subjects.  An  optional 
commercia]  high  sdiool  course  of  two  years 
has  also  been  established.  As  to  agriculture: 
The  subject  is  taken  up  in  the  last  two  years  of 
the  elementary  school  course  and  is  supple- 
mented in  the  higher  grades  after  a  course  in 
elementary  science;  and  summer  schools  are 
provided  for  both  teachers  and  inspectors. 
Moreover,  in  order  to  provide  for  very  mai^ 
young  men  and  women  who  in  their  earlier 
years  were  deprived  of  school  facilities,  three 
schools  of  AgriculturcL  managed  fay  Uie 
Department  of  Agriculture,  have  already 
been,  located  on  three  of  the  demonstration 
farms  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The 
courses  include  scientific  and  practical  agricul- 
ture and  household  science  and  art,  along  with 
the  more  essential  subjects  of  the  ordinary  pub- 
lic and  high  school  grades.  Pupils  who  take 
the  two  years'  course  offered  and  who  possess 
the  necessary  academic  standing,  may  continue 
their  course  for  a  degree  in  agriculture  in  the 
University  of  Alberta. 

In  some  of  liie  larger  centres  technical 
schoob  have  been  established  whose  courses 
cover  a  wide  range  of  industrial  trades.  Night 
schools  have  also  been  established,  espedaJly 
in  the  mining  centres.  In  order  abo  to  corre- 
late efforts  in  these  various  directions  and  to 
afford  opportunities  for  more  advanced  train- 
ing, an  institute  of  technology  has  been  estab- 
lished at  Calgary. 


1908,  21  high  schools  have  been  established,  7 
of  which  have  since  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
collegiate  institutes,  in  these,  138  teachers 
were  employed  in  1916  and  the  total  number  of 
pupils  was  3349.  A  residential  college  for  bovs 
and  girls  has  been  established  by  the  Methodists 
in  Regina  and  one  for  boys  by  the  Pred>y- 
terians  in  Moose  Jaw. 

The  total  outlay  from  general  revenue  in  aid 
of  education  increased  from  less  than  $200;00O 
in   1904  to  approximately  fl.OOO^OOO   in   1916. 

Being  a  comparatively  young  province  Sas- 
katchewan has  been  devoting  most  of  its  energy 
to  its  puUic  schools.  It  has,  however,  made  a 
beginning  in  elementary  industrial  training.  A 
board  of  any  district  has  authority  to  provide 
for  manual  traininj^  household  science  and 
industrial  training  in  both  day  and  night 
schools.    The  only  secondary  schools,  however, 

g'ving  courses  in  these  subjects  are  the  col- 
date  institutes  at  Regina,  Moose  Jaw,  Prince 
Albert,  Saskatoon,  Yorkton,  Weybum  and  Swift 
Current.  As  Saskatcheman  is  almost  purely  an 
agricultural  province,  ^)ecial  stress  is  being  laid 
upon  agriculture  in  both  the  public  and  the  hiiifa 
schools.  So  far  not  much  has  been  done  in  die 
latter,  but  the  indicadons  are  that  a  majority  of 
them  will  provide  for  the  subject  in  the  near 
future.    For  commerce  and  the  trades  little  pro- 


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CANADA— HBSHKBXDircA'nOM  09) 


871 


vitton  has  so  far  bctn  made  in  die  secondary 
schools.  Three  collegiate  institutes,  however, 
have  heen  giving  cxceplionalty  good  courses  for 
a  number  of  years.  There  is  very  close  co- 
operation between  the  Department  of  Edncatioo 
and  the  University  of  Saskatchewan;  especially 
valuable  work  has  been  done  through  the 
medium  of  summer  courses  for  teachers  and 
others  held  at  the  university  during  the  months 
of  July  and  August. 

Britiah  Columbia. —  Secondary  education  in 
Brttish  ColumtMa  is  provided  for  in  superior 
and  Ugh  schools,  A  superior  school  may  be 
established  where  there  are  at  least  10  qtudv 
fied  pupils  available.  The  subjects  taught  are 
those  of  the  junior  and  senior  fourth  classes 
of  the  public  schools  and  the  first  two  years 
of  the  high  schools.  The  teacher  most  bold  at 
least  a  first-cbss  B.  C.  certificate.  A  high 
school  may  be  established  in  any  municipal 
school  district  where  there  are  at  least  20  quali' 
fied  pupils  available.  The  teadier  must  hold  a 
B.  C.  academic  certificate,  and  the  subjects  of 
the  course  of  study  are  tiiose  usually  taken  up 
in  the  hi^  schools  of  the  other  provinces. 
Government  assistance  to  superior  and  hirii 
schools  is  the  same  as  for  other  schools,  the 
grant  being  so  much  per  teacher  according  to 
the  class  of  the  district,  from  $360  per  teacher 
in  cities  of  the  first  class  to  $480  per  teacher  in 
rural  municipal  districts,  with  an  additional 
maximum  grant  of  $100.  A  grant  on  the  same 
scale  is  also  paid  on  account  of  teachers  of 
manual  training,  domestic  science,  art  and 
other  special  subjects,  provided  sndi  teachers 
hold  B.  C.  certificates  of  qualification.  Spedal 
grants  are  also  made  for  agricultural  education, 
the  greater  part,  howevei^  being  met  by  a  pro- 
portion of  the  special  Federal  grant.  As  in 
(he  other  provinces,  the  secondary  schools  are 
controlled  by  the  Provincial  Department  of 
Educatiou  and  by  boirds  of  school  trustees,  and 
are  visited  by  provincial   inspectors. 

The  King  Edward  School,  Vancouver, 
-which  was  established  in  August  1916,  is  the 
only  school  in  the  province  undertaking 
a  comprehensive  technical  course.  It  is  in- 
tended that  at  the  end  of  the  third  j^ear  of  the 
course  the  pu^il  shall  be  able  to  matriculate  into 
the  engineennjj  course  of  the  University  of 
British  Columbia.  Of  manual  training  centres 
there  are  49,  with  40  instructors,  attended  by 
992  inipilf  from  the  high  schools,  and  of  do- 
mestic science  centres  39,  with  29  instructors, 
attended  1^  1,406  pupils  from  the  high  schools. 
A  commercial  course  of  a  thoroughly  practical 
character,  covering  three  years,  nas  been  es- 
tablished in  'the  larger  hign  schools.  In  order 
to  provide  for  the  study  of_agricuIture,  the  De- 
partment of  Education  proposes  to  establish 
classes  for  both  boys  and  girls  in  certain  high 
and  superior  schools.  Arrangements  have  sJ- 
ready  been  made  to  carry  on  these  classes  at 
three  high  schools  and  two  superior  schools. 
Extensive  courses,  suitable  to  the  different  lo- 
calities, have    also   been   provided   for  yoting 

John  Seath, 
'   Superintendent  of  Education,  Ontario. 
19.  HIQHEH    EDUCATIOH.     The    his- 
tory of  higher  education  in  Canada  is  by  no 
means  a  homogeneous  development  in  all  die 
provinces.     Each  province,  possessing  its  own 


madiinery  of  local  govermnent  and  pecaharities 
of  social  and  economic  condition,  has,  as  might 
be  exiiected,  evolved  its  own  system  of  higher 
education.  It  is,  therefore,  the  more  remarluble 
that  the  beginnings  of  university  educadon  were 
almost  identical  in  .all  the  older  provinces.  This 
was  due  to  the  enli^tened  policy  of  the  British 
government,  which  through  the  executive  hteds 
of  the  colonies  began  very  early  to  make  pro- 
vision for  future  educational  needs.  In  Upper 
Canada  (now  Ontario)  and  New  Brunswide 
this  provision  took  the  form  of  an  endowment 
out  of  Crown  lands  for  the  purposes  of  higher 
education.  In  Nova  Scotia,  already  a  self-gov- 
erning colony,  the  legislature  was  encouraged 
to  devote  a  spedal  grant  of  money  to  estabfi^ 
a  university  and  to  tnakc  an  annual  appropria- 
tion in  suraort  of  it  thereafter,  while  the  Im- 
perial Parliament  endorsed  this  action  by  vot- 
ing much  more  substantial  sums  both  for  estab- 
Us^fiment  and  for  annual  maintenance.  In 
Lower  Canada  (now  Quebec)  a  proposal  was 
made  to  create  an  tmdenominational  state  uni- 
versity, but  the  uncompromising  hostility  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the  idea  prevented 
it  from  being  carried  out.  Thus  in  each  of  the 
four  colonies  or  provinces  which  at  the  end  of 
the  18th  century  made  up  the  settled  poriion  of 
British  North  America  the  policy  was  inaug- 
urated of  establishing  state  universities,  either 
with  large  land  endowments  or  with  the  ple^e 
of  support  by  the  provincial  legislature.  The 
next  stage  wafi  also  alike  in  all  the  provinces 
of  older  Canada  except  Lower  Canada.  In  these 
a  narrower  view  prevailed,  and  the  state  collegfe 
in  each,  when  estabhshed,  discriminated  m 
favor  of  ^he  Church  of  En^and  against  other 
religious  denominations.  It  was  an  attempt  to 
implant  in  the  colonies  the  English  institution 
of  an  established  Church,  but  the  conditions  in 
Canada  were  very  different  from  those  in  Eng- 
land; the  Church  of  England  was  numerically 
hardly  stronger  than  the  Presbyterian,  Meth- 
odist or  Baptist  bodies  separately,  and  cer- 
tainly no  exclusive  right  to  control  the  state 
universities  should  have  been  given.  The  other 
denominations  accordingly,  seeing  the  doors  of 
the  state  institution  closed  to  their  members,  or 
open  perhaps  but  with  reservations  in  favor  of 
a  rival  Church,  established  their  own  institu- 
tions of  higher  educadon.  Thus,  instead  of  a 
single  wc]l-suM>orted  university  m  each  prov- 
ince there  were  several  universities  of  a  small 
calibre,  none  of  them,  not  excepting  the  state 
university,  coming  up  to  the  st^dard  that  had 
been  anticipated  when  the  policy  of  a  single 
state-snt^rted  institution  tor  eadi  province 
was  framed.  In  course  of  time  the  disad- 
vantapKs  of  division  became  more  apparent. 
The  denominational  character  of  the  state  uni- 
versities was  altered  and  neBOtiations  for  al- 
liance were  seriously  begun.  Up  to  the  present 
time  these  negotiations  have  had  no  result  in 
Nova  _  Scotia  or  New  Brunswick.  Sot  in 
Ontario  a  third  stage  has  been  reached,  and 
the  movement  to  combine  resources  has  met 
with  partial  success.  In  western  Canada  die 
history  of  higher  education  is  different.  Profit- 
ing, perhaps,  by  the  experience  of  the  older 
provinces,  the  state  univeruties  in  Manitoba 
and  other  western  provinces  have  been  estab- 
lished under  conditions  that  prevent  them  from 
bein|;  controlled  in  the  interests  of  any  de- 


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8TS 


CANADA  — HIGHSR  EDUCATION  (19) 


HoTB  Scotia. —  Taking  each  province  in 
turn,  [or  a.  more  detailed  account,  we  begin 
with  Nova  Scotia,  the  earliest  settled  of  Die 
English-speaking  provinces  of  Canada.  The 
first  attempt  at  establishing  a  universi^  was 
made  by  act  of  the  legislature  in  1789  incor- 
porating King's  College  at  Windsor,  where  a 
seniituiry  had  been  founded  a  year  before  by 
legislative  aid.  A  grant  of  i500  for  a  site  was 
also  niade  and  an  annual  appropriation  of 
i400  for  maintenance.  In  the  following  year 
the  British  Parliament  gave  HOOO  in  further 
aid  of  the  infant  institution.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear that  actual  university  powers  were  ob- 
tained until  1802,  when  a  royal  charter  was 
granted.  At  the  same  time  an  annual  sub- 
sidy of  £1,000,  which  was  not  discontinued  until 
1835,  began  to  be  made  by  the  British  Parlia- 
ment The  charter  gave  control  of  King's 
College  to  the  authorities  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  the  province,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  Its  career  the  governing  body  unwisely  re- 
stricted to  members  of  that  Church  the  ri^t  of 
entering  the  college  as  students,  thus  com- 
pletely establishing  the  sectarian  character  of 
the  state  institution.  A  majority  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  province  were  now  debarred 
from  sharing  in  the  benefits  to  which  th^  had 
looked    forward,    and    agitation    began    for   a 

'  freer  system.  In  response  to  this  demand  Dal- 
housie  College  was  founded  at  Halifax  in  1821 
out  of  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  governor 
for  provincial  purposes.    Attempt  at  fusion  of 

■  the  two  state-endowed  colleges  were  subse- 
quently made  from  time  to  tune  but  without 
success.  It  was  as  a  result  of  the  refusal  in 
1835  of  the  governors  of  King's  College  to 
surrender  their  charter  and  amalgamate  with 
Dalhousie  College  that  the  Imperial  grant  of 
i  1,000    was    withdrawn.      Dalhousie    College^ 

.thou^  founded  in  1^1  and  soon  afterward 
provided  with  a  building,  was  not  opened  for 
academical   instruction   until    1638,   when   suSi- 

.  cient  funds  had  accumulated  to  enable  a  be- 
ginning to  be  made.  In  1841  university  powers 
were  conferred  by  act  of  legislature  and  con- 
trol was  vested  m  a  board  appointed  b^  the 
lieutenant-governor.  But  a  similar  mistake 
had  been  made  as  in  the  case  of  King's  College, 
and  Presbyterian  influences  had  been  allowed 
to  preside  at  the  organization  in  183&  The 
Baptist  bod^,  therefore,  seeing  one  of  the 
state  institutions  avowedly  under  Anglican  con- 
trol,   the    other   practically   Presbyterian,    pro- 

,  ceeded  to  establish  a  college  of^  its  own  at 
Wolfville.  It  was  named  Queen's  College,  and 
was  formally  opened  in  1839.  The  act  of  in- 
corporation conferring  university  powers  was 
not  passed,  however,  until  1840,  and  another  act 
in  1841  changed  its  name  to  Acadia  Coll^tL 
which  it  still  retains,  with  the  alteration  of 
•university'  for  ■college.*  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  which  had  always  stood  apart  from 
any  system  of  hi^er  education  under  state  con- 
trol, established  somewhat  later'  Saint  Francis 
Xavier's  College  at  Antigonish,  in  the  year  1855. 
Under  varying  conditions  hi^er  education  in 
the  province  continued  to  be  carried  on  for  a 
number  of  years  by  the  institutions  named,  two 
of  them  being  the  recipients  of  government 
Iiouniy,  Dalhousie  College,  indeed,  for  want 
of  funds  was  closed  from  1845  to  1863,  and  on 
reorganization  at  the  latter  date  wag  i^ven  a 
strictly  non -denominational  character.    But  the 


hope  of  uniting  all  the  existing  colleges  in  a 
single  state  university  has  not  been  Riven  up. 
In  1876  an  act  of  the  legislature  established  the 
University  of  Halifax,  which  should  examine 
and  confer  degrees  upon  candidates  sent  up  by 
'the  colleges.  The  latter,  however,  gave  it  ao 
support,  and  continued  to  exercise  their  uni- 
vcrsit]f  functions.  In  1881  the  legislature  with- 
drew its  financial  st^port  and  at  the  same  time 
discontinued  the  annual  grant  which  h»d 
hitherto  been  made  to  Kiiu^s  College.  Univer- 
sity federation  in  Nova  Scotia  iad  proved  a 
failure,  and  no  scheme  to  that  effect  has  since 
been  proposed.  A  second  RomaU'  Catholic  col- 
lege, College  Sainte  Anne,  was  established  in 
Digby  CounW  in  1890;  and  the  Seminaiy  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  at  Halifax,  in  1895. 

New  Bnintwick.— As  early  as  1786  an  en- 
dowment of  2,000  acres  near  Fredericton,  the 
capital,  was  set  aside  for  the  foundation  ol  a 
provincial  Academy  of  Arts  am^  Sciences,  wlucb 
became  incorporated  in  1800  as  the  College  of 
New  Brunswick.  In  1805  an  act  was  passed 
audiorizing  an  annual  grant  of  £100  in  addition, 
which  was  subsequently  increased  from  time  to 
time  up  to  $S344,  at  which  sum  it  has  stood 
since  1829.  In  1828  the  provincial  charter  was 
surrendered  and  a  royal  charter  obtained  ii 


ity  powers. 

.         ,    ible  butldii^  was 

erected  and  academical  work  begun.  The  ra;nl 
charter  contained,  however,  the  same  provision 
for  Church  of  England  control  which  had  al- 
ready begun  to  work  so  disastrously  in  Nov) 
Scotia,  and  almost  from  the  moment  of  its  in- 
ception the  sectarian  character  of  the  new  col- 
lege  was   strongly   omrased   by   other   religious 

.denominations.  In  1842  the  Wesleyan  Melb- 
odists  succeeded  in  establishing  an  institution 
of  their  own,  Mount  Allison  A^Jemy,  atSack- 
ville.  At  first  onl^  a  secondary  schooL  it  re- 
ceived in  1858  uraversity  powers,  which  came 
into  operation  four  years  later.  Meanwhile 
agitation  against  the  existing  constitution  of  the 
provincial  college  began  to  bear  fruit  In  184S 
religious  tests  were  abolbhed,  and  in  1859  re- 

.  organization  on  a  non-denominational  basis 
was  effected  and  the  name  changed  to  Univer- 
sity of  New  Brunswick.  A  third  university  for 
the  province  was  added  in  1864,  when  the 
Roman  Catholic  College  of  Saint  Joseph  was 
founded  at   Memramcook. 

Quebec. —  Before  the  ces^on  of  Canada  to 
Great  Britain  in  .1763  the  control  of  all  educa- 
tion in  the  French  colony  had  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  religious  orders.  Laval, 
first  bishop  of  Quebec,  had  established  ibe 
Grand  Siminaire  at  Quebec  in  1663,  which  is 
perpetuated  as  Lav«l  University  of  the  present 
day.  The  Grand  Siminaire,  however,  was  not 
a  university,  but  a  theological  training  college 
for  the  priesthood.  The  first  suggestion  of  a 
university  in  the  province  was  made  in  1789, 
when  a  committee  of  the  executive,  in  report- 
ing on  the  condition  of  education  in  the  province 
ofLower  Canada  (now  Quebec),  recommended 
the  establishment  of  a  non-denominational  uni- 
versity at  Quebec.  The  opposition  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  bishop  prevented  the  suggestion 
from  being  carried  out,   and  though  tne  hope 

,  was  long  cherished  that  the  project  would  be 
renewed  under  more  favorable  conditions,  no 
subsequent   proposal   to   that   effect  was  evet 


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'CANADA  — HIGHER  EDUCATION  (U) 


fonnally  made.  It  was  left  to  private  enter* 
prise  to  establish  the  first  university  in  Lower 
Canada.  In  1813  the  Hon.  James  McGill  o* 
Montreal  died,  leaving  by  will  a  i»ece  of  land  > 
as  a  site  for  a  tuiiversit^  or  college  and  the 
jnni  of  il0,00O  for  maintenance.  A  royal 
diarter  was  obtained  in  1820,  but  the  colieg^ 
bearing  its  founder's  name,  was  not  openea 
until  1829,  and  on  the  day  of  its  inauguration 
the  Montreal  Medical  Institute  was  united  to 
it  as  its  medical  faculty.  For  more  than  20 
}reaT3  the  college  had  a  precarious  eidstence. 
Its  expansion  Ming,  to  a  certain  extent,  ham- 
pered by  the  constitution  of  its  governing 
board,  but  a  new  charter  was  obtained  in  1852 
entirely  freeing  it  from  official  control.  The 
history  of  McGill  University  (q.v.)  since  that 
time  IS  a  record  of  steady  improvement.  It  is 
not  identified  with  any  religious  body,  but  there 
are  four  affiliated  theological  colleges  —  Con- 
gregational.  Diocesan,  Presbyterian  and  Wes- 
leyan.  It  owes  its  present  position  as  one  of 
the  leading  universities,  not  only  of  Canada  but 
of  the  continent  of  America,  to  the  generosity 
of  the  merchant  princes  of  Montreal,  and  to 
the  wise  and  able  guidance  of  Sir  J.  W.  Daw- 
son, principal  from  18SS  to  1893,  and  of  his 
successor.  Sir  William  Peterson. 

The  second  university  to  be  established  in- 
the  province  in  the  interests  of  the  English- 
speakine  inhabitants  was  in  the  Church  of 
EnelanS  institution  at  Lennoxville,  called 
Bishop's  College.  It  was  incorporated  in  18W, 
but  a  royal  charter  conferring  university 
powers  was  not  obtained  until  I8S3.  In  the 
previous  year,  1852,  a  royal  charter  had  also^ 
issued  to  the  corporation  of  the  Grand  S^-' 
inatre  of  Quebec  empowering  it  to  confer 
degrees  and  exercise  other  university  functions, 
under  the  name  of  University  Laval.  The  uni- 
versity thus  established  remains  the  sole  Roman 
Catholic  university  of  the  province,  with  facul- 
ties of  divinity,  law,  medicme  and  arts,  having 
affiliated  colleges  and  seminaries  in  various. 
towns,  and  an  integral  branch  of  itself  at  Mon- 
treal under  the  name  of  "Succursale  de  rUni- 
versite  LavaL'  Saint  Mary's  College  at  Mon-. 
treal,  under  control  of  the  Jesuit  order,' 
incorporated  in  1852,  has  since  1889  been  en-, 
titled  b);  papal  brief  to  confer  degrees  of  Laval 
University.  There  are  numerous  Roman  Cath- 
olic colleges  affiliated  to  Laval  Universi^,  some 
of  them  of  considerable  antiqui^.  The  oldest 
are  Saint  Raphael's  College  at  Montreal,  eslab-. 
lished  by  the  Sulpicians  in  1773 ;  those  at  Nico- 
let^  founded  in  1804;  Sainte  Ifyacinthe,  in  1812; 
Sainte  Ther^se  in  IS24;  Samte  Anne  de  la 
Pocatiere,  in  1827 ;  and  L' Assumption,  in  1832. 
The  higher  education  given  at  these  colleges 
is  chieSy  theological.  Jaues  Loudon. 

Ontario. —  The  history  of  higher  education 
in  Ontario  shows  a  sometvhat  dinerent  develop-- 
meat  from  that  in  the  older  provinces.  In  1798 
the  legislature  set  aside  an  endowment  of . 
500;0DO  acres  of  Crown  lands  for  the  purposes 
of  higher  education,  but  nothing  further  was' 
done  at  that  time  to  carry  the  project  into 
effect-  In  1827,  however,  a  royal  charter  was 
granted  for  the  establislunent  of  a  university 
under  the  name  of  King's  College.  By  the- 
terms  of  the  charter,  the  institution  was  to  be 
under  the  control  of  the  Church  of  England. 
It  wsa  natural  that  the  other  religious  bodies 


should  t 

take  steps  to  establish  independent  collies. 
Consequently  in  1830  the  Methodist  Church  of 
Canada  resolved  to  found  an  institution  of 
higher  learning  in  Upper  Canada.  That  this 
resolve  was  not  due  to  narrow  sectarian  preju- 
dices a  vouched  for  by  the  fact  that  refigious  - 
tests  were  not  to  be  required  for  admission,  - 
and,  further,  that  a  distinct  stipulation  was. 
made  with  the  early  subscribers  that  'this  shall 
be  purdy  a  literary  instituticai*  and  that  "no  - 
system  of  divinity  shall  be  taueht  therein.* ' 
In  1836  the  college  was  established  in  Cobout^. 
under  the  name  of  Upper  Canada  Academy. . 
It  was  incorporated  by  letters  patent  on  12 
Oct.  1836  — the  first  royal  charter  granted  to 
any  Nonconformist  institution  of  learning  in 
the  Britidi  dominions.  In  1841  the  first  Par- 
liament of  Canada  extended  the  charter  and 
changed  the  name  to  Victoria  Colieee,  with^ 
power  to  grant  decrees  in  the  -various  faculties. 
Work  in  the  faculty  of  arts  was  begun  in  the 
same  year.  This  was  therefore  the  first  uni- 
versity in  actual  operation  in  the  province.  The 
Preslqrterian  Church,  which  some  j-ears  pre- 
vioush-  had  petitioned  the  provincial  govern- 
ment "to  endow  without  delay,  an  institution  or 
professorships  for  the  education  and  training 
of  roung  men  for  the  ministry  in  connection 
with  the  Synod"  had  received  but  little  en-- 
couragemcnt,  and  so  steps  wore  taken  to  found 
a  college  somewhat  after  the  model  of  the 
Scottish  national  tiniversities.  A  royal  charter 
was  granted  on  16  Oct  1841  for  the  establish- 
ment of  Queen's  College  at  Kingston,  and  the 
fii^  classes  were  opened  there  in  March  of 
the   fallowing  year. 

In  the  meanwhile  affairs  at  Kiuf^s  College 
had  been  almost  at  a  standstill.  Owing  to  the 
pressure  of  public  oiunion  a  modification  of 
the  charter  l^d  been  made  by  the  legislature 
in  1837,  but  the  chief  grievances  had  not  been 
removed.  Teaching  was  not  actually  begun 
until  1843,  that  is,  not  until  after  the  two  oUier 
colleges  had  been  established,  llie  agitation 
increased  in  volume  and  bitterness  until  in 
1849  it  effected  a  complete  change  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  university.  The  special  privi- 
leges accorded  to  members  of  the  Church  of 
En^and  were  abolished.  From  this  time  on  the. 
Umvenity  of  Toronto,  as  it  was  now  called,' 
was  non-sectarian.  The  immediate  effect  of 
this  reorganization  seemed  at  first  disastrous. 
Within  three  years  a  charter  had  been  granted 
to  a  new  univeriity  in  Toronto  entirely  under 
Anglican  control.  Trinity  College  began  work 
earfy  in  1852,  and  the  university  constituenty 
was  still  further  divided.  In  lEn6  three  more 
denominational  colleges  were  opened  in  On-^ 
lario,  namely,  Ottawa  College  <Roman  Cath< 
olic),  which  in  this  year  was  granted  the  power 
of  conferring  university  degrees,  and  in  1889 
became  the  Universi^  of  Ottawa;  R^opolis 
College  (Roman  Catholic),  at  Kingston;  and 
Albert  College  (Methodist  Episcopal),  at  BeUe- 
viUe.  In  1878  Huron  Colle^  (Anglican)  at  Lon- 
don became .  Western  University,  and  in  1887 
Toronto  -  Baptist  College  and  Woodstock  Col- 
lege were  united  under  the  corporate  name  of 
UcMaster  University  with  full  university- 
powers.  Not  all  of  these  have  survived,  how- 
ever. Regiopolis  College  closed  its  doors  in 
1869;  and  in  188A,  in  consequence  of  the  union 


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CAHADA— PUBLIC  BDUCATIOH  (2B) 


of  the  vanom  brandies  of  Ucthodism  in  Can- 
ada, Albert  College  was  incorporated  in  so  far 
as  Its  underKradnate  worlc  was  concerned  witb 
Victoria  College,  and  the  name  of  the  latter 
was  changed  to  Victoria  University. 

The  evils  of  the  muitiplication  of  small  col- 
leges brought  about  their  own  cure.  The  enor- 
mous expansion  of  modem  science  imperatively 
donanded  lam  expenditures  for  both  buildii^ 
and  equipment,  and  none  of  the  existing  in- 
stitntions  was  able  adeqiiateir  to  meet  the 
demand.  It  was  natural  therefore  diat  an 
effort  should  be  made  to  devise  a  fian  by  which 
the  ruinous  duplication  of  expensive  apparatus 
and  plant  could  be  avoided.  Accordingly  in 
1884  the  Minister  of  Education  called  a  meeting 
of  the  he^ds  of  the  Tarioui  colleges  and  uni- 
versities of  the  province  for  the  puinpose  of 
discussing  ways  and  means  to  accomplish  this 
end.  The  result  of  these  deliberations  was  that 
an  act  was  passed  by  the  legislature  in  18S7 
reorganizing  the  university  in  order  to  permit 
of  the  federation  of  the  various  inatitutions  in- 
volved. Queen's  University,  which  at  one  time 
had  seemed  ready  to  accept  the  federation  idea, 
finally  decided  to  retain  its  indepcnde 


.  Victoria.  The  latter  agreed  to  hold  in  abey- 
ance its  degree  conferring  power  in  all  depart- 
ments except  Divinity,  and  in  1891  moved  from 
Cobourg  to  Toronto.  In  1903  Trinity  College 
entered  into  federation  and  in  l*i07  Saint 
Uichael's  College  (Roman  Catholic)  also  began 
work  as  an  Arts  college  of  the  Universi^  of 
Toronto. 

The  6rst  14  years  of  the  20th  century  were 
years  of  extraordinary  expansion  for  Cutadian 
univershies.  Queen's  University  had  now  a 
dear  field  in  eastern  Ontario  and  under  the  lata 
Principal  Grant  became  one  of  the  great  uni- 
versities of  the  Dominion.  The  University  of 
Toronto  under  the  late  President  Loudon,  and 
since  1907  under  President  R.  A.  (now  Sir 
Robert)  Falconer  grew  to  be  one  of  the  largest 
universities  in  the  Brilish  Empire.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  war,  which  swept  it  almost  clean 
of  men  students,  as  it  did  most  Briti^  imiver- 
sities,  the  enrolment  stood  at  4,428, 

Weatem  Province*. — Hi^er  education  in 


established,  with  the  sole  power  of  conferring, 
degrees  in  arts,  law  and  medicine  in  the  prov- 
ince; degrees  in  divinity  may  only  be  conferred 
by  colleges  affiliated  with  the  university.  In  its 
early  years  the  university  was  an  examining 
and  degree-conferring  body  only,  all  teaching 
being  left  to  the  affiliated  colleges.  Later,  how- 
ever, a  grant  of  land  was  made  by  the  provin- 
cial government  for  the  erection  of  a  Iniilding 
for  purposes  of  instruction  in  the  departments 
of  science  and  for  a  university  library. 

There  are  seven  colleges  affiliated  with  the 
University  of  Manitoba :  Saint  Boniface  Col- 
lege is  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  and  was 
established  as  a  small  school  so  early  as  1818; 
&iint  John's  College  (Church  of  England)  was 
founded  in  1866;  Manitoba  College  (Presby- 
terian) in  1871;  Wesley  College  (Methodist) 
in  1886;  Manitoba  Medical  CoUege  was  aflih- 
ated  in  18S2;  the  College  of  Pharmacy  in  1902;- 
and  the  Agricultural  College  in  1907.  All  are  in 
Winnipeg  except  Saint  Boniface  College,  which 


remains  at  the  town  of  Saint  Boniface,  where  it 
was  first  established.  The  growth  of  the  insti- 
tution necessitated  new  builtungs  and  a  site  was 
chosen  at  Tuxedo  Park  and  binidiogs  erected. 

In  1903  an  ordinance  was  passed  to  establish 
a  university  for  the  Northwest  territories  which 
has  developed  into  the  University  of  Saskatche- 
wan. The  comer-stone  of  the  first  building  was 
laid  by  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  at  Sasl^atoon  in 
1910  and  the  building  opened  for  students  in 
1912.  Emmanuel  Collie,  founded  in  1879  at 
Prince  Albert  by  Bishop  McLean  for  the  train- 
ing of  native  helpers,  and  transferred  in  1909  to 
Saskatoon,  was  the  first  of  the  affiliated  col- 
leges. A  place  of  special  proniiitence  is  given 
to  agriculture  at  this  universiw.  A  university 
for  Alberta  was  founded  at  Edmonton  and  the 
first  session  opened  in  1908.  Since  then  per- 
manent boildings  have  been  erected,  and  vanous 
theological  colleges  and  professional  societies 
affiliated  to  the  university.  From  1899  to  the 
opening  at  Vancouver  in  September  191S  of  the 
University  of  British  Columbia;  the  interests 
of  higher  education  in  that  province  were 
servea  by  the  McGill  University  College  of  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  an  institution  which  had  two 
branches,  one  at  Vancouver  and  the  other  at 
Victoria,  and  both  affiliated  to  the  McGill  Uni- 
versi^  at  Montreal. 

A.  E.  Lang, 
Victoria  CoUtgt,  Univtrjity  of  Toronto. 

20.  PUBLIC  EDUCATION.  Under  the 
provisions  of  the  British  North  America  Act, 
control  of  public  education  in  Canada  is  vested 
in  the  provincial  ^vernments.  The  position  of 
dissentient  denominational  schools  is,  it  is  true, 
specially  safeguarded  under  the  Act  (30-31 
Vict.,  c.  3,  par.  93),  and  on  their  behalf  the 
Dominion  Parliament  may  interpose  remedial 
legislation,  but,  with  this  exception,  the  whole 
or^pnization,  conduct  and  maintenance  of  edu- 
cation lies  with  the  provinces.  At  the  time  of 
confederation  the  provinces  then  existing  had 
already  in  operation  a  system  of  free  elemen- 
tary schools,  which  has  since  been  expanded  into 
the  present  eSicient  organization.  In  general 
there  are  two  fundamental  systems  of  educa- 
tion throughout  Canada,  one  that  of  the  Prot- 
estant communities,  free  from  the  control  of 
religious  bodies,  and  the  other  that  of  the 
Roman  Cadiolic  French  and  Irish  communities 
in  which  education  is  united  with  the  religious 
teaching  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  In 
Ontario,  Roman  Catholics  have  the  right  to 
form  what  are  known  as  "Separate  Schools" 
for  elementary  education,  the  local  rales  for 
the  support  of  these  schools  being  separately 
levied  and  applied.  In  Quebec,  Saskatchewan 
and  Alberta  similar  provisions  apply.  In  the 
remaining  provinces  there  are  no  separate 
schools  for  Roman  Catholics  with  state  sup- 
port The  figures  of  the  census  of  1911  show 
the  h^h  standard  obtained  in  public  education 
in  Canada,  In  a  population  of  6J19,160  per- 
sons over  five  years  old,  only  II.OZ  per  cent  are 
illiterate;  in  the  province  of  Ontario  of  the 
persons  over  five  years  old,  the  illiterates  num- 
ber 8  per  cent.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  is 
highest  amongst  the  foreign-bom  and  lowest 
amongst  the  British-bom  population.  The  latest 
reports  available  in  1917  show  1,250,000  pupils 
in  24jS7I  primary  and  secondary  schools  of 
Canada  with  about  36|000  teachers.    Except  in 


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CANADA  — PUBLIC  EDUCATION  (2a) 


the  province  of  Quebec  all  but  a  small  fraction 
of  these  schools  are  ^verntnent  institutiotis. 
Tfarou^out  the  Dominion  the  cost  of  educa- 
tion is  defrayed  from  the  public  revenues,  pro- 
vincial and  local,  and  public  elementary  educa- 
tion is  free,  except  for  certain  small  fees  which 
are  payable  in  i»rts  of  the  province  of  Que- 
bec With  the  exception  of  Quebec  all  the 
provinces  have  laws  of  compulsory  education, 
but  under  conditions  that  differ  between  one 
province  and  another.  The  schools  are  co-edu- 
cational and  are  controlled  (within  the  scope 
of  provincial  statutes  and  regulations)  by  lo- 
cally elected  trustees.  Secondary  scnools  or 
departments  and  colleges  or  universities  for 
higher  education,  exist  under  zpvemment  con- 
trol in  all  the  provinces,  and  tue  thr«e  classes 
of  teaching  institutions  are  more  or  less  co- 
ordinated to  allow  of  natural  transition  from 
the  lower  to  the  higher.  Recent  movements  in 
the  direction  of  nature  study,  manual  instruc- 
tion, school  gardens,  agriculturf^  domestic 
science  and  technical  education  are  all  energeti- 
cally in   progress. 

For  the  organization  of  education  it  is  nec- 
essary^    to    consider    the    provinces    separately. 


and 

ing  largely  influenced  the  educational  systems 
of  the  other  Protesunt  parts  of  Canada,  de- 
serves the  toiost  detailed  treatment.  The  sys- 
tem of  public  education  in  Ontario  includes 
Idndergartens,  public  (primary)  schools,  con- 
tinuation schools,  hi^h  schools  and  collegiate 
institutes,  and  a  provmcial  university,  the  whole 
forming  an  oi^nic  unit  There  are,  in  addi- 
tion, ni^t  schools,  art  schools,  model  schools, 
normal  schools,  teachers'  itistitutes,  libraries 
and  technical  and  industrial  schools.  Kinder- 
garten schools,  admitting  children  between  the 
r;  of  four  and  seven,  may  be  organized  at 
option  of  boards  of  school  trustees  in  cities, 
towns  and  incorporated  villages.  There  are  at 
present  216  such  schools  in  the  cities  and  towns 
of  Ontario,  with  an  enrolment  of  25,554  puyils. 
The  exercises  consist  of  singing,  marching, 
sewing,  object  lessons,  etc.  Above  these  are 
the  public  schools  of  the  province,  whose  or- 

Snization  (first  placed  on  a  comprehensive 
sis  in  1844  by  Egerton  Ryerson,  superintoid- 
ent  of  education),  owes  much  to  the  education 
system  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Every 
township  is  divided  hy  its  council  into  school 
sections,  and  for  each  section,  each  incorpo- 
rated village,  town  and  city  there  is  a  board 
of  trustees.  The  latter  are  elected  hy  the  rate- 
payeis,  both  male  and  female.  Within  the  pro- 
visions of  the  statutes  of  the  province,  and 
the  regulations  of  the  education  department, 
the  trustees  appoint  the  teachers,  determine  the 
salaries  and  provide  and  maintain  buildings 
and  equipment.  The  provincial  government 
makes  an  annual  grant  of  money  to  each  school 
according  to  the  average  number  of  pupils  in 
attendance.     For  the  rural  schools  tiie  county 


two  teachers),  and  the  remaining  fimds  needed 
are  raised  from  the  ratepayers.  In  cities, 
towns  and  villages  the  legistalive  grant  is  sup- 
plemented by  funds  raised  by  the  municipal 
council.  All  the  public  schools  are  free,  and 
under  an  Act  of  1891,  trustees  are  empowered 
to  supply  textbooks  either  free  or  at  reduced 


prices.     In   the  uniform   course   of   study  pre- 
scribed   by    the    education    department,    chief 
laid  on  reading,  writing,  arithmetic. 


grammar,  geography  and  drawing.  In  the 
upper  forms  British  and  Canadian  history  and 
commercial  subjects  are  taught;  agriculture  is 
taught  in  rural  schools.  Periodic  talks  are 
given  on  tem^rance  and  hygiene.  Only  text- 
books authorized  by  the  education  department 
are  allowed  Attendance  is  obligatory  for  all 
children  between  the  ages  of  8  and  14  years, 
not  attending  separate  schools  and  not  under 
efficient  instruction  at  home.  The  public  schools 
are   stricdy   nonsectarian,   but   the   schools 


...   _ .  id  daily.     The  clergy  of  any  denom 

tion  ma^  arrange  with  the  trustees  to  give  re- 
ligious mstruction  in  the  school  after  the  reg- 
ular hours.  Any  group  of  hve  or  more  heads 
of  families  may,  upon  giving  notice  to  the  mu- 
nicipal clerk,  cease  to  pay  school  rates,  and  be- 
come supporters  of  a  separate  school.  This 
privilege  may  be  used  by  any  religious  sect  or 
by  persons  of  color;  in  actual  fact,  of  the  542 
separate  schools  existing  in  Ontario  all  but 
five  arc  Roman  Catholic  institutions.  The 
course  of  instruction  given  in  the  separate 
spools   is   almost  indentical   with   that   of    the 

fiublic  schools,  with  the  addition  of  special  re- 
igious  teaching.  Separate  schools  slure  in  the 
legislative  grant.  In  1916  there  were  6.600  pub- 
lic schools  (including  537  Roman  Catholic  sep- 
arate schools)  with  11,850  teachers  (including 
1,389  in  Roman  Catholic  separate  schools)  ana 
505,074  pupils,  67,481  of  whom  attend  the 
Roman  Catholic  separate  schools.  The  average 
salaries  in  public  schools  are  as  follows :  Prov- 
ince—  male  $902,  female  $613;  urban  —  male 
$1,310,  female  $696;  rural —  male  $621,  female 
5549.  For  secondary  education  Ontario  has  an 
admirable  system  of  high  schools  and  collegiate 
institutes;  these  are  almost  identical  in  char- 
acter, the  collegiate  having  a  larger  and  more 
highly  qualified  staff,  special  facilities  in  re- 
gard to  apparatus,  etc.,  and  receiving  a  larger 
government  grant.  Any  high  school  may  be- 
come a  collegiate  institute  on  fulfilling  the  re- 
quirements. High  schools  and  collegiate  in- 
stitutes are  created  bv  municipal  and  county 
councils  and  mana^d  by  elective  boards  of  . 
trustees.  The  origmal  cost,  and  the  cost  of 
permanent  improvements  are  defrayed  by  the 
local  authorities.  For  current  expenditure,  the 
I>rovincial  government  contributes  a  yearly 
grant  varying  according  to  situation,  attendance, 
etc.,  but  wifli  a  fixed  minimum.  The  grants 
average  from  $500  to  $800.  The  county  con- 
tributes an  equal  amount.  The  remaining  ex- 
pense is  met  bv  the  municipality.  About  one- 
third  of  the  schools  are  free,  in  the  others  the 
annual  fee  varies  from  $2.50  to  $26.  A  uni- 
form examination  is  prescribed  for  admission. 
A  graded  aeries  of  four  forms  leads  to  the  uni- 
form 'leaving*  examinations  (junior  and 
senicM-)  conducted  by  the  department,  on  the 
results  of  which  certificates  are  granted.  The 
matriculation  examination  for  the  provincial 
university  is  almost  identical  with  the  junior 
leavui^  examination.  In  1916  there  were  in 
Ontano,  160  high  schools  and  collegiate  insti- 
tutes, with  1,023  teachers  and  38,426  pupils. 
Co-education  obtains  in  all  of  them,  approxi- 
mate^ 20,000  of   the  registered  pupils   being 


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CANADA  — PUBLIC  KDUCATION  (20) 


gris.  The  total  expenditure  was  $3,444,940. 
One  hundred  and  thirty-two  continuation 
schools  intended  to  provide  an  education  suited 
to  the  needs  of  the  youth  of  the  ac^cultural 
'"'  s  have  been  established.    The 


r  total  expenditure  was  $294,125,  The 
total  school  expenditure  for  all  classes  of 
schools  was  $1?,049,244,  the  provincial  goverr)- 
mcnt  grant  amounting  to  $1,104,775.  Special 
attention  is  paid  in  Ontano  to  the  uniform 
qualification  and  training  of  teachers.  The 
lowest  grade  of  public  school  teachers  (third 
class)  must  pass  the  high  school  primary  ex- 
amination (Forms  I  and  11)  and  attend  a 
county  model  sciiool.  Teachers  of  the  second 
class  must  pass  the  Junior  leaving  and  attend 
the  provincial  normal  school.  Teachers  of  the 
first  class  must  pass  the  senior  leaving  exami- 
nation, and  attend  the  school  of  pedago^  in 
Toronto.  To  hold  a  position  in  a  high  soaool 
a  teacher  must  hold  a  first  class  public  school 
certificate,  or  have  passed  at  least  equivalent 
university  examinations.  For  spedai  positions 
in  collegiates,  higher  university  standing  is  de- 
manded, varying  according  to  the  subject  Un- 
less bv  special  permission  of  the  department, 
onl^  the  certificates  of  the  universities  in  On- 
tario are  accepted.  At  the  bead  of  the  system 
is  the  Minister  of  Education,  a  member  of  the 
Provincial   Cabinet. 

The  problem  of  public  education  in  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  owing  to  the  division  of 
the  population  between  the  French  and  English 
racts,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 
religions  is  one  of  peculiar  difficulty.  The  dif- 
ference of  creeds  has  led  to  the  establishment 
of  a  dual  system  of  elementary,  secondary  and 
superior  schools.     The  Roman  Catholics  of  the 

Erovince,  numbering  (census  of  1911)  1,724,683, 
ad  6,119  schools  of  all  kinds;  the  Protestant 
population  of  378,549  had  897.  At  the  head  of 
the  educational  system  is  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  with  a  council  composed  of 
all  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops  whose  dioceses 
or  parts  of  whose  dioceses  are  in  the  Provinces 
of  Quebec,  now  numbering  IS,  an  equal  number 
of  Roman  Catholic  laymen  appointed  by  the 
Crown  and  an  equal  number  of  Protestants 
similarly  appointed.  Within  the  council  are  a 
Protestant  committee  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
committee  which  control  the  schools  of  their 
respective  denominations.  Each  has  its  ele- 
mentary, model,  normal  and  hi^h  schools  and 
academies.  School  attendance  is  not  compul- 
sory. In  each  parish  or  township  there  is  a 
board  of  school  commissioners  elected  by  the 
owners  of  real  estate.  These  erect  and  main- 
tain schools,  appoint  teachers  and  levy  the 
school  tax,  which  falls  on  real  property  only. 
But  in  any  such  district  a  dissentient  minority 
professing  a  religious  faith  different  from  that 
of  the  majority,  may  organize  themselves  sepa- 
rately, elect  a  board  of  trustees  and  conduct  a 
school  of  their  own.  In  the  cities  and  towns 
there  are  separate  Protectant  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic boards  of  school  commissioners.  Real 
estate  is  taxed  for  school  purposes  according 
to  the  religious  faith  of  its  owners.  The  finan- 
cial resources  of  the  school  municipalities  com- 
prise (1)  the  sums  raised  by  local  rates,  and 
<2)  grants  made  by  the  Legislature.  The 
former  consists  of  the  school  assessment,  which 
is   levied   on   all   ratable   property  of  8   school 


the  Legislature  is  divided  proportionatery  to  the 
number  of  the  children  enrolled.  In  1916  there 
were  5,998  elementary  schools,  with  7,982  teach- 
ers and  251,492  pupils.  The  average  salary  for 
elementary  teadiers  is  male  $936  and  female 
$236.  There  were  1,042  academies,  high  schools 
and  model  schools,  with  196,595  pupils.  The 
public  schools  mentioned  above  are  practically 
Roman  Catholic  schools  with  897  separate 
schools  attended  by  54,745  pupils,  of  whom 
nearly  all  are  Protestants.  The  total  school 
expenditure  for  the  province  in  1916  was  $1!,- 
564,043,64,  the  government  grant  amounting  to 
$1,882,837.73. 

In  each  of  the  three  maritime  provinces 
(New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island)  there  is  a  system  of  public  ele- 
inentary  schools,  normal  schools,  hi^  sdiools 
and  academies  (grammar  sdiools  in  New 
Brunswick),  whose  organization  closely  re- 
sembles that  of  the  Ontario  schools.  In  eadi 
province  the  executive  council,  acting  through 
Its  superintendent  of  education  is  at  the  head 
of  the  system.  The  elementary  schools  are  free, 
co-educational,  non- denominational,  with  com- 
pulsory attendance,  placed  under  trustees 
electea  in  each  school  district,  and  supported 
partly  by  provincial,  county  and  municipal 
grants,  partly  by  local  assessments.  In  these 
provinces  the  annual  'school  meeting"  of  rate- 
payers which  elects  the  trustees,  also  votes  the 
amount  of  money  to  be  locally  assessed.  In 
Prince  Edward  Island  in  1916  there  were  476 
public  schools  with  595  teachers  and  18,362 
pupils.  The  average  salary  for  primary  school 
teachers  is  male  $276-$543  and  female  $220- 
$371.  There  were  28  first  class  schools  (doing 
hieh  school  work)  with  1,563  pupils.  The  total 
school  expenditure  for  the  year  was  $244,572.29, 
the  provincial  expenditure  amounting  to  $173,- 
962,56.  In  Prince  Edward  Island  the  Prince  of 
Wales  College  at  (Hiarlottetown  is  a  secondary 
school  with  governmental  support,  having  a 
normal  school  department  for  the  training  of ' 
teachers.  In  New  Brunswick  in  1916  there 
were  2,020  public  schools  with  2 141  teachers 
and  66,044  pupils.  The  average  salan-  for  pub- 
lic school  teachers  is :  Male  $290-$S73,  female 
$26I-$482.  There  were  39  grammar  and  su- 
perior schools  (hi^  school  grades)  with 
2,365  pupils.  The  total  school  expenditure  for 
the  year  was  $1,221,224.71,  the  government 
grant  amounting  to  $280,^^.35.  In  certain 
towns  and  in  some  French  Canadian  settlements 
there  are  separate  schools  for  Roman  Catholics, 
attendance  at  which  satisfies  the  requirements 
of  the  provincial  law,  but  the  schools  are 
neither  supported  nor  controlled  by  the  state. 
New  Brunswick  has  a  provincial  university, 
whose  president  is  adjoined  to  the  executive 
council  in  its  capacity  of  board  of  education. 
In  Nova  Scotia  in  1916  there  were  2,837  public 
schools  with  3,019  teachers  and  99,463  pupils. 
The  average  salary  for  public  school  teachers 
is:  Male  $3i^~$872  and  female  $238-$482. 
There  were  64  high  schools  (including  18 
academies)  with  9.726  pupils.  The  total  school 
expenditure  for  the  year  vras  $1,620,154,  the 
provincial  government  grant  amounting  to 
$414,738. 

In  Manitoba  die  executive  council,  or  cab- 


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CANADA— TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  CANADA  (Zl) 


ioet,  is  at  the  head  of  public  education.  There 
is  a  minister  of  education  who  is  advised  and 
assisted  by  a  deputy  minister  and  a  su^rin- 
tendcnt.  An  advisory  board,  partly  appointed, 
partly  elected  by  the  teachers,  aids  the  govern- 
ment in  organiiiiie  the  school  curiicnlum,  es- 
tablishing teachers  qualificatioiu,  etc.  The  pro- 
vincial system  includes  public  (primary) 
schools,  a  higher  grade  of  wluch  are  called 
intermediate  sdtooli,  and  secondary  education 
is  provided  for  in  nigh  schools  and  colte^te 
institutes.  Schools  are  free  and  are  supported 
by  provincial  grants,  municipal  grants  and  a 
local  school  tax  levied  by  the  trusteea.  School 
districts  are  erected  by  local  municipalities  and 
trustees  are  elected  therein.  The  whole  system 
cfosely  resembles  that  of  Ontario.  (For  the  pro- 
vincial universty  see  article  Canadian  Uni- 
VEitsrriEs),  The  question  of  s^oiate  schools  for 
Roman  CathoUcs  was  1oi%  a  subject  of  acute 
controversy.  Established  in  1871,  they  were 
abolished  in  189a  The  agitation  in  favor  of 
their  restoration  reached  an  alarming  crisis  in 
1895.  A  compromise  was  made  in  1896  wheretv 
reli^ous  instruction  may  be  given  during  the 
last  half  hour  of  the  school  day,  and  which 
permits  the  Roman  Catholic  school  children  of 
a  district,  if  numbering  25  or  more,  to  have  a 
teacher  of  their  own  denomination.  Manitoba, 
has  two  provincial  normal  schools  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers,  one  in  Wionip^  and  the  other 
in  BiandoQ.  In  1916  there  were  1900  puUic 
schools  with  2,991  teachers  and  97,100  pupils. 
The  aveiwe  salary  for  a  public  scIumI  teacher 
is  S768.  There  were  102  high  schools  and  col- 
legiate institutes  with  6,696  pupils.  The  total 
school  expenditure  for  the  year  was  $6,658,229, 
the  provincial  government  grant  amounting  to 
$901,117.40: 

British  Columbia  has  a  mtem  of  fre&  non- 
denominational  public  schools,  controlled  oy  the 
provincial  government  through  a  superintendent 
of  education.  The  sdiools  are  supported  partly 
.  from  the  provincial  treasui^  and  partly  by  the 
sums  raised  by  the  distnct  assessment  In 
British  Columbia  in  1916  there  were  808  public 
schools,  with  1,984  teachers  and  64,570  pupils. 
The  average  salary  for  puUic  school  teachers 
is  $800.  There  were  40  high  schools,  con- 
trolled by  local  boards  of  trustees,  with  4,770 
pupils.  The  total  school  expenthture  was  $3,- 
216^350,  the  provincial  government  grant 
amounting  to  $1,591^322.  British  Columbia  has 
two  normal  schools  and  a  provincial  univer- 

The  provinces  of  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan 
have  systems  of  public  schools  administered  by 
a  Department  of  EdtKation  i>resided  over  by  a 
minister  of  education,  who  is  assisted  in  the 
case  of  Sasl»tchewan  by  a  superintendent  of 
education,  and  in  Alberta  by  a  deputy  minister 
as  ^rmaoent  administrative  head.  The  organ- 
ization i>  similar  to  that  of  Ontario.  In  the 
provinces  of  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan  the 
minority  ratepayers  in  any  district,  whether 
Roman  <^tholic  or  Protestant,  may  establish 
separate  scfaods  and  become  liable  only  to  as- 
sessment at  such  rates  as  they  impose  upon 
themsetves-'iil  respect  thereof.  In  practice  this 
privilege  is  but  little  used.  In  1917  there  were 
m  Saslratchewan  only  19  separate  schools  out 
of  a  total  of  4,022  etementaiy  schools,  and  in 
Alberta  only  nine  separate  schools.  There  are 
normal  schools  at  Regina,  Saskatoon,  Edmon- 


ton and  Calgary,  and  univeruties  at  Regina, 
Saskatchewan  and  Strathcona.  Alberta. 

Stephen  Leacock. 

, -,    Ji"  c 

'irCill  Univernty. 

21.  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN 
CANADA.  The  term  technical  education  is 
used  with  a  varie^  of  meaninKs.  The  general 
idea  seems  to  be  the  use  of  schools  and  indus- 
trial appliances  in  preparing  young  men  and 
women  for  stalled  occupations.  "Even  in  Ger- 
maiw,*  we  are  told,  *the  old  apprenticeship  b 
dead."  However  even  the  narrower  statement 
seems  to  be  becoming  still  more  limited,  for 
the  legal  and  clerical  professions,  which  seem 
still  to  require  education  and  apprenticeship, 
and  even  the  medical  profession,  which  demands 
a  time  course  and  fixed  laboratory  work,  are  not 
now  regarded  in  the  public  mind  as  coming 
under  the  heading  of  technical  education.  Tech- 
nical eduoation,  in  its  present  more  limited  use, 
seems  to  be  regarded  as  a  joint  course  of  pro- 
portionate time  in  the  class  room  and  another 
period  of  time  in  the  practice  of  handicraft  — 
sometimes  s^ken  of  as  a  'trade*  or  'industry.* 
Whether  this  definition  be  generally  accepted  or 
not,  we  shall  follow  it  in  ubis  article. 

In  Canada  the  most  notable  event  in  con- 
nection with  this  specific  education  is  found  in 
the  appointment  in  1910  of  the  "Royal  Commis- 
sion on  Industrial  Training  and  Technical  Edu- 
cation.* As  one  of  the  commissioners  on  this 
body  the  writer  may  state  that  it' was  consti- 
tuted as  a  court  with  seven  members  from 
different  parts  of  Canada  with  a  skilled  secre- 
tary. This  body,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Dominion  government,  spent  two  years  or  more 
in  (1)  taking  sworn  evidence  in  (^nada  from 
1,400  witnesses  of  every  class  (including  in  the 
evenings  representatives  of  the  "labor  organiza- 
tions*) as  to  their  industrial  needs.  (2)  Visit- 
ifactories,  schools  and  universities  in 


States,  and  in  Europe,  the  British  Isles,  France, 
Geimanv,  Switzerland.  Holland,  Belgium  and 
Denmark.  (4)  Embodying  their  report  in  four 
large  octavo  volumes  aggregating  m  all  nearly 
2,000  pages.  Iq  their  report  the  Royal  Com-  . 
mission  gave  an  elaborate  sketch  of  what  they 
had  seen  in  all  these  lands  and  made  a  recom- 
mendation that  $3,000,000  a  year  for  10  years, 
makins  a  total  of  $30,001X000,  should  be  appro- 
priated for  securing  'industrial  training  and 
technical  education*  for  as  many  as  sought  it 
among  the  Canadian  people. 

In  the  Canadian  Confederation  the  matter  of 


wick,  Prince  Edward  Island.  Quebec,  Ontario, 
Manitoba,  Saslratchewan,  Alberta  and  British 
Columbia.  To  meet  this  case,  the  proposal  of 
the  Royal  Commission  is  that  while  the  Do- 
minion will  give  the  money  to  be  supplied  and 
administered  hy  a  'Dominion  Government  Com- 
mission' appointed  by  itself,  jfet  it  is  to  he  given 
throu^  the  medium  of  boards  and  committees 
under  the  authority  of  the  several  provinces. 
The  suggestion  has  been  cordially  received  by 
the  various  provincial  governments,  and  but  for 
the  European  War,  in  which  Canada  as  a  part 
of  the  British  empirte  is  involved,  would  have 
been  almost  certainly  carried  out 


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CANADA- 'nSCHNICALBDUCATtON  IN  CANADA  <n> 


acres  of  Soor  space)  can  accommotfate  2^500 
day  pupils  and  a  vast  number  of  nifHit  pupils, 

Eving  instruction  in  a  great  varied  of  subjects. 
represents  the  aspiration  of  Toronto  to  be  a 
great  manufacturing  centre.  (4)  Haniilton 
City,  also  aiming  at  being  a  leading  trade  dty, 
in  1909  erected  a  builcUnK,  costing  $10^000. 
exclusively  for  technical  education.  Here,  ad- 
jacent to  a  regular  collegiate  school  efficient 
teachit^  is  given  in  wood- working,  madiincry, 
forging,  dectrical  woilc,  housdiold  science, 
drafting,  printing  and  in  fine  arts.  Brantford, 
called  the  "Sheffield*  of  Canada,  has  lately  fin- 
ished a  commodious  technical  school.  Wood- 
stodq^  Kitchener  (late  BerUn),  Feterborouf^ 
and  Saint  Thomas  are  industrial  centres  with 
excellent  educaticoal  facilities.  In  most  df 
these  schools  wood-working,  buildii^  construc- 
tion, mathematics,  mechanical  drawing,  applied 
science!,  dressmaking,  millinery,  commercial 
work  and  practical  Juiglish  are  largely  tau^t. 
Many  other  Ontario  towns  have  techtuca] 
evening  schools.  In  the  mineral  region  of  On- 
tario on  Lake  Huron  are  two  towns  —  Sault 
Sainte  Marie  and  Sudbuiy,  in  which  apprentices 
and   workmen   receive   training   in  their  craft 

in  Wimiipeg,  Manitoba,  now  the  third  dtv 
in  site  of  the  Dominion, '  two  great  technical 
high  schools  —  called  respectively  the  Kelvin 
and  the  Saint  John's  —  erected  by  the  dty  ttsdf 
at  a  cost  of  $450,000  each  without  site,  are  in 
full  operation,  and  of  the  n^ht  schools  of  the 
dty  nnmbering  5,000  in  attendance  half  are  in 
these  technical  sdiools.  Calgary,  a  considerable 
city  of  Alberta,  has  shown  great  enterprise  in 
this  direction  and  has  large  and  very  mccessful 
schools  in  man_y  tedmicar  subjects. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  city  of  Vancouver, 
British  Columbia,  has  ^ned  a  high  reputation, 
especially  for  its  techmcal  nijdit  schools, 

III.  Railway  Employee  Schools. —  In 
Stratford  (Grand  Tnank  shops),  in  Saint 
Thomas  (New  York  Central  shops),  in  Uon- 
treal  (Canadian  Padfic  shops).  A  sncceasfol 
training  is  given  to  young  lads  who  enter  the 
shops  about  the  age  of  13  to  15.  The  hours 
in  Uie  morning  axe  taken  from  the  company's 
dm^  and  the  teaching  is  done  in  the  shop 
precincts.  Shop  mechanics,  workshop  practice, 
mechataical  drawing  —  also  mechanics,  elec- 
tridty,  car  construction,  and,  if  desired,  teleg- 
raphy and  shorthand  are  taught. 

IV.  Agricultnre  and  Hortictiltare. — The 
cry  of  the  agriculturist  preceded  that  of  the 
manufacturer  and  the  first  ambitious  design  of 
Canadians  was,.to  improve  agriculture.  Hence 
the  provincial  demand  in  almost  every  case  is 
for  technolr^y  on  the  farm.  After  several 
weak  attempts  in  Nova  Scotia  at  agricultural 
teaching  the  college  at  Tniro  was  begun  there 
"    1905.    It  has  been  a  popular  institution  and 


The  Object!  of  the  Royal ' 
These  are:  (1)  The  education  of  trained 
teachers  and  demonstrators  to  carry  out  the 
purposes  of  the  commission.  (2)  'The  estab- 
lishment of  classes,  courses  and  schools  for 
industrial  training  and  technical  education. 
(3)  Provision  to  Ije  made  for  laboratory  ap- 
paratus and  teaching  equiiiment.  (4)  Scholar- 
ships to  be  given  to  deserving  pupils.  (5)  Pro- 
vision for  traveling  experts  to  visit  institutions. 
(6)  Help  for  institutions,  such  as  universities 
and  colleges.  (7)  Promotion  of  diffusion  of 
scientific  and  industrial  research. 

Canada's  Phesent  Equipment. 

I.  Undec  Univecuty  Control.— Com- 
mendng  with  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Halifax 
Technical  College  is  af&liated  with  several  of 
the  universities  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
wick. It  has  a  competent  staff  of  professors 
and  assistants.  En^neering  students  who  take 
two  yrars  in  the  universities  in  a  suitable  course 
enter  in  their  third  year  and  finish  In  their 
fourth  in  the  technical  college.  This  arrange- 
ment has  proved  very  successful.  An  excellent 
engineering  department  is  found  in  McGill  Uni- 
versity, UontreaL  This  department  receives 
efficient  support  from  the  Canadian  Padfic  Rail- 
way. Queen's  University,  Kingston,  Ontario, 
especially  in  its  mining  school,  has  excellent 
courses  in  practical  science.  Toronto  Univer- 
aty  —  the  provindal  university — has  a  strong 
faculty  of  applied  sdence.  Tbe  several  dejrart- 
ments  of  the  faculty  distributed .  in  various 
buildings  are;  Qvil  engineering,  mining  en- 
gineering, mechanical  engineering,  architecture, 
analytical  and  applied  chemistry,  chemical  en- 
gineering and  electrical  engineering. 

II.  Qovemment  and  Mtinidpal  Technical 
Schools. —  1^  several  provinces  of  the  Do- 
minion have  their  different  methods  of  dealing 
with  technical  eduration,  and  the  newer  prov- 
inces are  much  alive  to  the  necessity  of  such 
schools.  Nova  Scotia,  though  not  a  large  prov- 
ince, has  been  forward  in  providing  various 
kinds  of  sdence  schools.  Much  attention  has 
been  paid  to  continuatifm  and  nif;^t  schools. 
The  coal  mining  schools  have  been  efficiently 
used  in  this  province.     Other  mining  schools 

.  also  are  maintained.  Technical  schools  are 
maintained  in  Truro,  Amherst,  Yarmputh,  New 
Glascow  and  Sidney.  The  province  of  Quebec 
has.  two  notable  technical  schools  maintained 
by  the  provincial  government,  besides  a  number 
of  smaller  local  schools  of  this  type.  (I)  Mon- 
treal.—  This  technical  school,  opened  in  1911, 
is  declared  to  rival  any  technical  school  of  its 
class  in  America  or  Europe.  It  was  erected 
and  is  maintained  1^  the  Qudiec  provindal 
ICOverranent  The  dty  of  Montreal  also  assists 
It.  Da^  and  night  dasses  of  every  variety  are 
maintained.  (2)  Qitebec  City. —  A  replica  of 
the  Montreal  scnool,  erected  and  supported  by 
the  government  of  the  province,  is  three-fifths 
of  the  sixe  of  the  Montreal  school.  (3)  The 
Shawinigan  Technical  Institute,  on  the  Saint 
Maurice  'River,  is  a  remarkably  complete  school, 
maintained  in  part  by  the  Quebec  government 
in  a  thriving  manufacturing  town.  In  the 
province  of  Ontario,  in  1915,  a  magnificent 
technical  school  was  erected  in  Toronto,  at  a 
cost  of  $1,400,000  exclusive  of  site  and  equip- 
ment, to  take  the  place  of  one  limited  in  size 
and  efficiency.     The  new  school    (with  seven 


Prince  Edvrard  Island.  The  summer  school  of 
sdence,  which  has  existed  in  Nova  Scotia  for 
some  30  years,  has  been  merged  into  the  Agri- 
cultural Collefre  at  Truro,  wbidi  for  the  last 
ID  years  (1908-18)  has  been  wdl  maintained 
in  this  town.  From  200  to  500  teachers  of 
public  schools  attend  the  six  wedcs'  course  in 
training  supplied  b]^  the  Agricultural  CoII^e  at 
Truro.  The  province  meets  the  expense  of 
traveling  and  maintenance  for  the  seauon  and 
is  doing  a  large  work  for  the  maritime  prov- 


d=,  Google 


CANADA— CATHOLIC  SDUCATIOH  Cm 

incM  of  Canacia.     Two  excellent  ^ricukural      DominiDn. 


^  the  Macdonald  College  at  Saint  Anne  and 
the  Oka  ColleEC  in  the  Ottawa  River  District. 
The  former  ofthese  is  20  miles  from  MontTcsI 
and  its  farms  and  beautiful  buildings  are  the 
gift  of  Sir  William  Macdonald,  a  wealthy 
manufacturer  of  Montreal.  It  is  divided  into 
three  parts :  a  school  of  {^riculture,  a  Khool 
for  teachers  and  a  stJKiol  for  household  science. 
Registration,  tuition,  board  and  laboratory  fees 
are  cjiarged.  Various  courses  are  given  in  hor- 
ticulture, farming,  etc.,  making  the  institution 
a  boon  to  the  province  and  attracting  consider- 
able numbers  from  other  provinces.  Chiefly 
for  the  benefit  of  the  element  of  French-speak- 
ing people  in  Quebec,  who  are  largely  farmers, 
the  Oka  College  was,  after  some  14  years  of 
more  or  less  successful  existence,  reotvaniied 
in  1909.  It  is  affiliated  with  the  French  Uni- 
versity (Laval)  in  Quebec.  It  is  well  housed 
and  has  a  farm  of  1,800  acres,  700  under  culti- 
vation. Its  laboralories  are  well  equiwed  and 
it  has  a  good  technical  laboratory.  Both  the 
French  and  English  languages  are  tauj^it  in  the 
college.  Forestry  u  taught  and  Quebec  has  the 
most  complete  nre  protection  of  its  forests  of 
any  province  of  the  Dominion.  The  college  an- 
nouncement says:  •Agricultural  tastes  and  agri- 
cultural education  produce  a  virile  nationi* 
The  examinations  are  conducted  by  the  authori- 
ties of  Laval  University.  In  Ontario,  the 
Provincial  Agricultural  College  of  the  province 
is  situated  near  the  city  of  Guelifh.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  notable  agncaltural  colleges  on  the 
American  continent.  It  has  a  staff  of  46  in- 
structors, and  lately  a  branch  for  women  was 
opened  In  1909  there  were  1,296  students  in 
attendance.  It  gives  courses  for  rural  teachers. 
The  college  course  that  leads  to  a  degree  at 
Toronto  University  is  four  years.  There  are 
over  5,000  members  of  the  Farmer's  Union  who 
are  conducting  agricultural  experiments  and  re* 
porting  each  year  to  the  college  authorities, 
lliis  college  has  been  the  alma  mater  or  edu- 
cator of  professors  in  agriculture  in  the  other 
provinces  of  the  Dominion,  and  also  in  many 
of  the  agricultural  colleges  in  the  United  Slates. 
The  Agricultural  College  of  the  province  of 
Manitoba,  with  its  8  or  10  buildings,  is  the 
most  magnificent  of  the  agricultural  colleges 
of  the  Dominion,  costing  some  $4,000,000.  It 
is  affiliated  with  die  Umverstty  of  Mamtoba, 
Winnipeg,  and  has  a  complete  staff.  It  has 
educated  bands  of  students  and  conducts  exten- 
sive  courses,  lecture^  etc.,  throughout  the 
province.  It  aims  at  reaching  large  numbers  of 
the  people  by  holding  summer  schools,  uniting 
several  professions  and  devoting  itself  heartily 
to  praine  life.  The  Saskatchewan  Agricultural 
College  is  a  part  of  the  University  of  Saskatche- 
wan,  which  is  located  at  the  city  of  Saskatoon. 
Its  extensive  work  has  been  very  widespread. 
The  faculty  proposes  to  develop  along  lines  of 
investigation,  teaching  and  extension  work.  Its 
extension  work  has  taken  the  following  forms: 
Elncouraging  agricultural  societies  and  competi- 
tion in  stodc  and  farming,  farmers'  institutes, 
excursions  to  exjierimental  farms  and  seed- 
grain  farms,  institutes,  farmers'  and  women's 
clubs.  The  government  gives  a  liberal  appro- 
priation for  this  work.  Alberta  and  British 
Columbia  are  newly  established  universities  and 
both  have  agricultural  fanns  maintained  t^  the  ' 


No  doubt  they  will  develop  largely 

along  the  line  of  those  of  the  provmces  of 
Manitoba  and  Saskatchewan.  The  Conserva- 
tion Commission  of  Canada,  with  its  head- 
quarters at  Ottawa,  has  done  m  its  seven  years 
of  service  in  agricultural  problems,  health, 
town-planning  and  forest  protection,  protection 
of  game  and  fish,  not^e  work  in  technical 

V.  Special  Pestarww— In  different  prov- 
iiKes  are  found  special  features:  (a)  KTining 
schools  with  673  pupils  in  attendance  are  found 
in  29  places  in  Nova  Scotia;  (b)  in  connection 
with  Saskatchewan  agricultural  department  of 
the  University  at  Saskatoon  extension  work 
takes  place  for  experimental  farms,  farmers* 
institutes,  agricultural  societies,  farmers'  and 
women's  clubs,  etc.  This  is  a  peripatetic  ex- 
periment In  1916  the  Dominion  government 
'  by  learned  societies  established  i 


was  cioselj;  attached  to  leading  departm __ 

the  Dominion  government  at  Ottawa.  Several 
scientists  of  world-wide  reputation,  such  as  Dr. 
Macaltnm,  Dr.  F.  D.  Adams,  Dr.  J.  C.  Mc- 
Lennan and  Dr.  A.  S.  Mackeniie  were  placed 
on  it.  Leaders  in  trade,  agriculture,  labor  and 
research  were  chosen  to  deal  with  natural  re- 
sources, waste  products,  forestry,  farming  and 
Essing  industrial  problems.  This  movement 
been  viewed  in  Canada  with  universal 
approbation. 

Geokge  Bryce, 
Member  of  Conservation  Commission  of  Com- 
ada;  Royal  Commission  on  Teeknical  Educa- 
tion (1910-13),  and  of  Royal  Society  Com- 
mittee on  Research  (1916). 

22.  CATHOLIC  EDUCATION.  The 
French  Regime  (1608-1760).—  Dnring  this 
period  education  in  Canada  was  almost  en- 
tirely under  the  control  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  first  permanent  school  was  the  'Little 
School*  founded  by  the  Jesuits  at  Quebec  in 
1635.  The  first  institution  of  higher  learning 
was  the  Jesuits'  College,  also  at  Quebec,  opened 
in  1636  or  1637.  It  maintained  a  classical 
course  similar  to  those  of  the  famous  Jesuit 
colleges  of  France,  and,  after  1707,  when  the 
public  School  of  Hydrography  was  attached 
to  it,  became  a  scientific  centre  of  i 


nary,  a  preparatory  school  for  boys  aspiring 
to  me  priesthood;  and  about  the  same  date  the 
model  farm  and  industrial  school  of  Saint 
Joachim  at  Cap  Tourmente.  From  1666  schools  . 
for  boys  were  maintained  in  Montreal  by  the 
Sulpician  Fathers,  and  in  several  smaller  towns 
and  villages  schools  were  established  by  the 
Recollets.  From  1718  to  1730  the  Hospitaller 
Brothers  of  Montreal,  as^sted  by  a  royal  grant 
maintained  a  kind  of  normal  school,  and  sup- 

erted  eight  teachers  in  Montre^  and  neign> 
ring  parishes.  Convent  schools  for  girls 
were  conducted  by  the  Ursulines  at  Quebec 
(1639)  and  Three  Rivers  (1W7),  and  by  the 
Congregation  of  Notre  Damt^  founded  at  Mon- 
treal in  1659  by  Marguerite  Bourgeoys  and  rep- 
resented by  branches  in  many  of  the  larger  vil- 
lages.    Moreover,  by  the  middle  of  the  18th 


:,  Google 


CANADA— CATHOLIC  EDUCATION  (22) 


teadicrs  were  by  ordinance  placed  under  the 
supervision  of  Ihe  parish  priests,  and  were  re- 

?nircd  to  obtain  licenses  both  from  the  King's 
Dtendant  and  from  the  Bishop  or  Archdeacon 
of  Quebec,  Some  country  schools  had  Latin 
classes.  In  general,  education  was  more  wide- 
Spread  than  might  be  assumed.  A  majority,  or 
at  least  a  very  large  minority,  of  the  habilants 
could  read  and  write.  All  this  was  accom- 
plished by  the  free  efforts  of  Church  and  peo- 
ple; no  assistance  was  obtained  from  govern- 
ment, except  a  few  slight  subsidies  and  some 
grants  of  land  to  religious  teaching  orders.  In 
Acadia  (now  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
wick) education  was  moi«  backward  than  in 
Canada.  We  hear  of  a  seminary  and  a  girls' 
school  at  Port  Royal  (now  Ancapolis)  before 
1640,  and,  after  me  temporary  English  coi^- 
quest  of  16S4,  of  schools  for  boys  and  girls. 
These  disamieared  on  the  final  conquest  in 
1710.  In  Cape  Breton  the  fortress-town  of 
LouisbourfT  had  its  own  schools,  including  a 
convent  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Out 
town  and  schools  alike  disappeared  after  the 
capitulation  to  the  English  in  1758. 

Canada  1760-1887.—  The  British  conquest 
was  followed  by  a  decline  in  education.  The 
Church  in  Canada  was  thrown  on  its  own  re- 
sources by  the  break  with  France,  and  hampered 
by  the  prejudices  of  alien  rulers.  The  British 
government  tolerated  the  religious  orders  of 
women,  but  directed  the  gradual  extinction  of 
those  of  men  and  the  confiscation  of  their  prop- 
erty, properh-  which  Canadians  believed  to  have 
been  granted,  in  large  part,  as  an  endowment  for 
education.  The  Jesuits'  College  was  abandoned 
in  1768.  Both  Jesuits  and  Ricallets  disappeared 
at  the  befcinning  of  the  19th  century,  but  SnU 
pician  exiles  from  Revolutionary  France  were 
admitted  to  Canada,  and  henceforth  that  order 
revived.  The  government  had  ordered  meas- 
ures to  be  t^en  —  especially  the  establishment' 
of  Protestant  schools  —  to  win  the  Canadians 
to  Protestantism,  but  in  fact  little  attempt  at 
proselytism  was  made.  Nevertheless  the  sus- 
picions of  the  inhabitants  were  aroused,  and 
there  was  made  permanent  under  British  rule 
that  close  union  of  religion  and  national  cul- 
ture which  is  so  marked  a  characteristic  of  the 
French  Canadian  people.  In  1791  the  colony 
was  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Lower  Can- 
ada, mainly  French  and  Catholic,  and  U^iper 
Canada,  where  the  inhabitants  were  chiefly 
newly-arrived  English-speaking  Protestants. 
Parliamentary  institutions  were  conceded,  and 
through  these  the  Catholic  people  of  Lower 
Canada  gradually  obtained  control '  o£  their 
schools.  An  attempt  in  1818  to  give  a  monopoly 
of  education  to  the  Royal  Institution  for  the 
Advancement  of  Learning,  a  body  mainly  Eng- 
lish and  Anglican,  was  defeated  by  the  hostil- 
ity of  the  people  themselves.  In  1824  the  in- 
dependent reli^ous  schools,  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant, were  recognized  by  the  Legislature,  and 
in  1829  they  received  state  aid.  After  1829  the 
revenues  from  the  Jesuit  estates  were  devoted 
to  educational  purposes,  and  in  1839  the  Sul- 
pician  estates  were  confirmed  to  that  order. 
In  Upper  Canada  Catholics  were  not  numerous. 
Only  a  few  schools  were  established,  several 
by  the  Rev.  Alexander  Macdonell  (consecrated 
Bishop  of  Kingston  in  1826),  who  brought 
teachers  from  Scotland  and  obtained  a  small 
subsidy  from  the  British  government.    In  1840 


the  two  Canadian  provinces  were  reunited. 
Contrary  to  expectations,  this  strengthened  the 
position  of  the  French,  and,  because  of  their 
support,  of  the  Catholics  of  Upper  Canada. 
The  period  which  followed  was  one  of  con- 
flict between  the  ideal  of  educational  uniform- 
ity—the imposition  on  all  classes  of  a  uni- 
form system,  more  or  less  secular  in  character 

—  and  that  of  freedom  —  the  preservation  to 
each  locality,  and  especially  to  each  religious 
denomination,  of  a  large  liberty  in  shaping  the 
teaching  of  its  children.  The  Act  of  1841  or- 
ganizing primary  schools  allowed  the  religious 
minority  m  any  locality  to  establish  a  separate 
school  and  receive  its  due  proportion  of  state 
aid.  Thence  sprang  the  Separate  Schools  of 
Upper  Canada  and  the  Protestant  Schools  of 
Lower  Canada.  The  independent  denomina- 
tional school  system  was  fully  established  in 
the  lower  province  by  1846,  but  in  Upper  Can- 
ada a  bitter  struggle  preceded  the  complete 
recognition  of  Separate  Schools,  which  was  ac- 
complished by  the  Scott  Act  of  1863.  The  lat- 
ter part  of  this  epoch  was  marked  by  the  found- 
ing ui  Canada,  or  the  introduction  from  abroad, 
01  a  large  number  of  religious  teaching  orders, 
and  also  by  the  opening  ot  many  of  those  class- 
ical and  commercial  colleges  which  play  so 
large  a  role  in  education  in  Quebec,  In  1852 
the  Seminary  of  Quebec  founded  Laval  Uni- 
versity, and  m  1866  in  Upper  Canada  Regtopo- 
lis  College"  (founded  at  Kingston,  1846)  and 
Ottawa  Collie  (founded  as  the  College  of 
Bytown,  1849)  received  charters  as  universities. 

The     HBritime     Provtaces,     1760-1867. — 
After  the  British  conquest  only  a  few  Catholics 

—  Indians,  refugee  Acadians  and  Irish  settlers 

—  remained  in  these  regions.  From  1766  to 
1786  all  teaching  by  'popish  recusants*  was 
sternly  prohibited  tw  law,  and  even  after  that 
date  Catholic  schools  were  few  and  irregular. 
The  repatriition  of  the  Acadians,  and  Irish 
and  especially  Scottish  immigration,  gradually 
improved  the  Catholic  position.  In  ISCG  Father 
Ejfmund  Burke,  afterwards  bishop,  built  a  col- 
lege at  Halifax  but  could  not  find  teachers.  In 
1820  he  had  two  flourishing  schools  in  that  city, 
and  the  beginninf^  of  a  seminary.  As  time 
passed  other  institutions  of  higher  learning 
were  opened,  religious  teachers  brought  in,  and 
Catholic  primary  schools  established,  receiving 
in  some  places  state  aid. 

The  West  1760-1870.— In  1818  Father- 
afterward  Bishop  —  Provencher  established  a 
mission  on  the  Red  River  and  opened  schools 
at  Saint  Boniface  and  Pembina.  He  and  his 
successor.  Bishop  Taehf,  labored  earnestly  in 
the  cause  of  education.  At  Saint  Boniface 
Latin  classes  were  begun  about  1823,  a  girls' 
school  was  established  in  1^9,  and  an  indus- 
trial school  in  1838.  By  1845  five  Catholic 
schools  were  in  permanent  operation  in  the 
West,  besides  several  of  irregular  character. 
Father  Lacombe  opened  a  school  at  Edmon- 
ton in  1862,  and  about  the  same  time  the  foun- 
dations of  Catholic  education  were  being  laid 
in  British  Columbia,  where  colleges  were 
opened  at  Victoria,  1863,  and  at  New  West- 
minster, 1866.  The  Collegp  of  Saint  Boniface 
had  been  established  in  1857.  In  1845  the  Grey 
Nun.i  came  to  Saint  Boniface,  and  in  1859  the 
Sisters  of  Saint  Anne  to  Victoria.  These 
measures  were  for  the  benefit  of  whites  and 
*  Milts.    Indian  mission  schools  were  established 


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CANADA— CATHOLIC  BDDCATION  (22) 


£rom  1B33  on;  &  ^eat  impettu  to'tlus  mission- 
ary vmA  was  siven  after  1845  when  it  wai 
largely  taken  over  by  the  Oblate  Fathers.. 

Confederation  <1867)^Br  the  British 
North  America  Act  of  1867  the  provinces  of 
Canada  (Upper  and  Lower  Canada  becoming 
Ontario  and  Quebec),  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick  were  united' in  federal  union  to 
form  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Other  prov- 
ices  have  since  been  added.  Education  was 
assigned  to-  provincial  control,  but  the  prov- 
inces were  prohibited  from  interfering  wim  d^ 
nominatioDal  ri^ts  as  existent  at  the  onion,  and 
the  Dominion  Parliament  was  empowered  to 
redress  any  other  infringements  on  the  educa- 
tional rights  of  religious  minorities. 

Ontuio. —  Elementary  education  is  free 
and  compulsory,  and  is  provided  by  public  and 
separate  schools,  both  tmder  state  control. 
Since  confederation  the  essential  elements  of 
the  Catholic  Separate  School  system  have  not 
been  changed.     Five  or  more  Catholic  beads 


has  the  full  benefit  of  the  lectures  and  eqn^ 
mcnt  of  the  university.  University  boards,  on 
which  Saint  Michael's  is  represented,  conduct 


school  rates.  Trustees  elected  by  the  school 
supporters  administer  school  business.  Their 
revennes  consist  of  (a)  provincial  grants, 
based  on  attendance,  rfliciency,  etc.,  and  dis- 
tributed impartially  among  public  and  separate 
schools;  (b)  county  and  other  munidpa] 
grants  distributed  on  similar  bases;  (c)  rates 
levied  by  the  trustees  en  &e  property  of  sepa- 
rate school  supporters;  (d)  voluntary  con- 
tributions, chiefly  from  church  funds.  Teadi- 
ers  must  have  tne  same  qualifications  in  sepa- 
rate as  in  public  schools.  By  a  decision  of  the 
Privy  Council  in  1906  religious  teachers  were 
made  subject  to  this  rule;  from  which  thejr  had 
hitherto  been  exempt.  The  older  religious 
teachers  were,  by  legislatioh  of  1907,  f^iven,  on 
certain  conditions,  permanent  qualification.  Rfr. 
ligions  instmction  is  under  the  supervision  of 
the  parish  priCEts.  Secular  instruction  is  identi- 
cal with  that  in  the  public  schools,  and  the  same 
standards  of  efficiency  are  imposed  by  the  pro- 
vincial Department  of  Education.  Textbooks 
are  the  same,  except  in  English  fiterature,  in 
which  extracts  from  Catholic  authors  are  more 
largely  used,  and  to  some  extent  in  history. 
Since  1882  the  Department  has  maintained  a 
distinct  board  of  separate  school  inspectors. 

Secondary  education  is  supported  by  the  - 
province  partly  through  advanced  classes  in 
public  and  separate  schools,  but  mainly  through 
high  schools.  No  separate  high  schools  are  rec- 
ognised. Catholic  secondary  education  is  of- 
fered by  private  institutions,  conducted  gen- 
erally by  religious  orders.     There  are  32  of 


dates  for  the  examinations  set  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  and  many  are  inspected  b^ 
provincial  high  school  inspectors.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Ottawa,  conducted  t^  the  Oblate 
Fathers,  which  was  canonically  erected  by 
Pope  Leo  XIII  in  1889,  is  the  ody  active  Cath- 
olic university.  There  are  Enf^ish  and  Frendi 
courses  in  arts,  and  a  course  in  theology. 
Regiopolis  College,  closed  in  1869  and  reopened 
1896,  ofFers  only  seconda^  instruction.  Saint 
Michael's  College,  one  of  the  federated  arts 
colleges  of  the  provincial  University  of  To- 
ronto,  is  the  most  important  centre  of  higher 
education    for  English-speaking   Catholics.     It 


papers  in  philosophy — and  conie 

degrees.  There  are  9  professors  and  140  stu- 
dents. Women  students  reside  in  Loretto 
Abbey    College    and    Saint    Joseph's    College. 


-arthem  Ontario  colleges  have  been  opened  at 
North  Cobalt  (1912)  and  Sudl»iry  (1913),  The 
principal  theological  teminanes  are  Saint  Au- 
gustine's, Toronto  (1913),  Saint  Peter's,  Lon- 
don (1912)  and  that  attached  to  the  Universi^ 
of  Ottawa.  In  1915  Ontario  had  537  Catholic 
sqamte  schools,  with  1,389  teachers,  67,46t 
pupils  and  an  avera^  daily  attendance  of 
45,733.  The  total  receipts  for  the  maintenance 
of  these  schools  in  the  same  year  were$l,347,S0i 
of  which  $42,131  was  derived  from  provincial 
grants  and  $879,903  from  municipal  grants  and 
assessments.  The  total  expenditure  in  the  same 
year  amounted  to  $1,183,847,  of  which  $503,- 
946  was  for  teachers'  salaries  and  $366,625  for 
sites  and  buildings.  The  expenditure  per  pupil 
enrotled  amounted  to  $17,54, 


religion, .  and  Catholics  and  Protestants  have 
each  a  complete  and  independent  organization, 
receiving  equal  proportional  assistance  from 
government  State  control  is  exercised  throng 
the  Council  of  Public  Instruction  as  reorgan- 
ized in  1876,  It  is  divided  into  two  committees. 
Catholic  and  Protestant     Eveiything  relating 

aecially  to  Catholic  schools,  is  within  the  ex- 
]sive  jurisdiction  of  the  (^tholic  committee. 
The  committees  meet  together  to  consider  mat- 
ters of  common  interest.  The  Catholic  com- 
mittee consists  of  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  the  bishops  of  Quebec,  an  equal 
number  of  laymen  appointed  by  the  lieutenant- 
governor,  and,  since  190^  four  associate  mem> 
hers  chosen  from  the  primary  school  teachersl 
Primary  schools  include  elementary  schools, 
giving  a  four  years'  coursej  intermediate  or 
modeX  two  years;  and  superior,  or  academies, 
two  years.  They  are  "under  control*  or  'inde- 
pendent and  subsidized"  according  as  they  are 
administered  by  elected  school  boards  or  l^ 
other  bodies.  The  province  is  divided  into 
school  nuinicipalities,  each  electing  its  school 
commissioners,  'The  revenues  consist  of  (a) 
rates  levied  on  property  of  Catholics;  (b)  fees; 
(cj  provincial  grants;  (d)  private  funds  of 
independent  schools.  Lay  teachers  must  hold 
diplomas  granted  by  the  central  board  of  ex- 
aminers. The  moral  and  religious  supervision 
of  CZatholic  schools  is  exercised  by  the  parish 
priests.  Secular  studies  are  prescribed  ^  the 
Catholic  committee.  Under  tt  are  a  Catholic 
Inspector  general  and  divisional  inspectors.  Al- 
though education  is  neither  free  nor  compul- 
sory, the  school  attendance  is  good.  In  1912-13, 
with  a  Catholic  population  of  411,701,  of  the 
ages  5  to  16  years,  there  was  an  enrolment  in 
primary  schools  of  3^,934  (including  4.520  over 
16  years)  and  an  average  attendance  of  287,403. 
Secondary  education  is  not  under  slate  con- 
trol, but  the  province  maintains  a  number  of 
.special  schools.  Among  such.  Catholic  institu- 
,  tions   are   normal    schools  —  nine   for   women 


d  6,  Google 


CANADA^  CATHOLIC  EDUCATION  (22) 


luve  been  opened  since  1905, —  agricultural 
schools  at  OIra  and  Ste  Anne  de  la  Pocati^,  a 
■chool  for  higher  commercial  studies  at  Mon- 
treal, schools  for  deaf-mules  and  the  blind, 
domestic  science  schools,  ni^t  schools  and 
schools  of  ans  and  manufactures.  Catholic 
secondary  education  is  offered  by  classical  and 
commercial  colleges  conducted  by  ecclesiastics, 
19  of  vrhich  receive  an  annual  subsidy  of  $1,000 
each,  and  by  convent  academics  for  young 
ladies.  The  only  university  is  Laval,  which  was 
canonically  erected  in  1870.  It  has  faculties  of 
theology,  law,  medicine  and  arts  and  afiiliated 

Srofessional  and  technical  schools.  A  complete 
ranch  of  the  university  was  established  in 
Montreal  in  1879.  Elach  branch  receives  a  grant 
of  $25,000,  and  the  affiliated  Polytechnic  School 
$30,000.  The  Seminaty  of  Quebec  and  the 
Grand  Seminary  of  Saint  Sulpice  at  Montreal 
constitute  the  theological  faculty,  and  there  are 
affiliated  seminaries.  The  Sulincian  Fathers, 
besides  a  college,  a  philosophical  and  a  theolop- 
cal  seminary  in  Montreal,  have  since  1888  main- 
tained the  Canadian  College  in  Rome  for  ad- 
vanced ecclesiastical  studies.  In  1915  there 
were  5,231  elementary  schools,  controlled  5,151, 
independent  80;  with  an  enrolment  of  211672, 
and  an  average  attendance  of  166,125.  Tnere 
were  5,576  lay  and  949  religious  teachers.  The 
model  schools  numbered  673;  controlled  S52, 
independent  121,  with  an  enrolment  of  105^831, 
an  average  attendance  of  89,013 ;  and  3,206 
teachers,  lay  922^  religious  2,284,  The  academies 
were  283  in  number,  of  which  128  were  con- 
trolled and  155  independent.  The  student  en- 
rolment was  75,482,  with  an  average  attendance 
of  65,846;  and  286  lay  and  2,793  religious  teach- 
ers. There  are  13  normal  schools,  2  for  men 
and  It  for  women;  with  1,134  pupils  and  173 
teachers.  There  are  three  schools  for  the 
deaf,  dumb  and  blind,  with  515  pupils  and  115 
teachers.  Schools  of  arts  and  trades  number 
II ;  with  2,515  pupils  and  45  teachers.  There  are 
48  night  schools,  with  3.640  pujnls  and  107 
teachers.     Universities    and    classical    colleges 


separate  schools  are  recogniied  by  law.  Never- 
theless in  practice  many  of  the  public  schools, 
especially  in  the  cities  and  in  Acadian  districts, 
are  really  Catholic  The  law  permits  the  school 
boards  to  direct  religious  exercises  to  be  held 
(or  a  brief  period  within  school  hours,  or,  if. 
objection  is  made,  after  school  hours.  By  a 
good  understanding  among  all  classes,  over  30 
urban  schools,  accommodating  about  10,000 
pupils,  are  recognized  practically  as  being  Cath- 
olic, and  are  so  conducted.  Many  of  them  are 
in  charge  of  religious  teachers.  There  are  two 
academies  for  boys  and  12  for  young  ladies. 
That  attached  to  Saint  Francis  Xavier  Univer- 
sity is  the  county  academy  of  Antigonish,  and 
receives  state  support.  Saint  Francis  Xavier 
University,  Antigonish,  though  a  small  institu- 
tion, maintains  ntgh  educational  standards.  It 
has  faculties  of  arts,  law  and  applied  science. 
Saint  Anne's  College,  Church  Point,  Is  the  diief 


lation.  A  theological  seminary  is  maintained  at 
Halifax.  The  four  Catholic  iastitutioiis  of  nni- 
versily  rank  in  Nova  Scotia  have  54  professors 
and  500  students  and  the  principal  secondaiy 
school^  including  Antigonish  Academy,  Mount 
Saint  Vincent  College  and  Sacred  Heart  Col- 
lege, Halifax;  Our  I^adv  of  Lourdes  School, 
Pictou,  and  Saint  John  Baptist  Academv,  New 
Glasgow,  have  68  teachers  and  1,105  students. 

New  Brunswick^— In  1871  the  legislature, 
which  had  hitherto  granted  some  asdstance  to 
Catholic  education,  established  a  nou-sectariaii 
system  of  public  sdiools.  .The  CathoUc  authori- 
ties tmsuccessfuUy  aou^i  redress  from  the  Do- 
minion under  the  terms  of  the  British  North 
America  Act,  In  1875  a  compromise  wu 
effected;  urban  school  boards  were  permitted  to 
lease  Catholic  school  buildings,  open  public 
schools  therein,  and  employ  qualified  religions 
teachers  and  others  having  the  confidence  of 
the  Catholic  clergy.  Mudi  the  same  work- 
ing arrat^ement  prevails  in  the  towns  and  aties 
of  New  Bnmswick  as  in  Nova  Scotia.  There 
are  14  convent  academies  for  young  ladies,  sev- 
eral preparatory  boys'  schools,  and  three  classi- 
cal colleges  —  Saint  Joseph's,  Memiamcooit 
(1864),  which  has  the  status  of  a  university  and 
forms  an  educational  centre  for  the  Acadian 
people;  Sacred  Heart  College,  Caraquet  (1899), 
and  Saint  Thomas,  Chatham  (1910), 

Prince  Edwird  Island. — This  province  en- 
tered confederation  in  1871,  having  tbea  a 
public  non-sectarian  school  system.  There  are 
no  separate  schools,  but  Catholics  maintain  a 
few  private  schools,  including  seven  convent 
academies  of  the  Congre^lion  of  Notre  Dame 
and  the  classical  college  of  Saint  Dunstan's  at 
Charlottetown. 

HsnitobBr— This  province  was  created  by 
an  act  of  1870  which,  in  terms  resembling  dnse 
of  the  British  North  America  Act,  guaranteed 
the  permanence  of  all  riglits  to  denominatioRal 
schools  as  then  existent,  and  provided  for  an 
appeal  to  the  IDominion  against  infringements 
of  any  other  educational  rights  of  the  fumre 
religious  minority.  In  1871  a  school  sysien 
modeled  on  that  of  Quebec  was  cstabhsbed, 
with  a  board  of  education  di^ded  into  Catholic 
and  Protestant  committees,  12  Catholic  and  12 
Protestant  school  sections,  and  an  equal  division 
■  of  provincial  subsidies.  Later  these  gnnts 
were  divided  in  proportion  to  school  population. 
By  1890  Protestant  school  sections  had  in- 
creased to  629,  Catholic  to  90.  In  that  year  the 
legislature  created  a  political  department  of 
education,  and  absorbed  all  schools  into  one 
non-sectarian  system,  to  be  supported  by  taxes 
which  should  be  levied  equally  on  all  property- 
holders  but  applied  only  to  schools  conducted 
in  accordance  with  the  new  regulations  of  the 
dejwrtment.  These  prohibited  all  relinous  ex- 
ercises except  certain  scriptural  reatungs  and 
prayers,  approved  by  Protestants  but  not  accept- 
able to  Catholics.  The  judicial  committee  of 
the  Imperial  Privy  Counal  decided  in  1892  tb» 
the  new  laws  were  valid,  as  not  infringing  any 
right  in  existence  in  1870,  The  Catholics  then 
sou^t  die  other  means  of  redress  provided,  an 
appeal  bi  the  Governor  Geatnl.  In  1895  tbe 
Privy    Council    declared    their    appeal    f 


•Figurw  for  i 


!■  tor  igi5  ug:  ' 


after  tSTIX    In  1806  the  Dominioa  govcnment 


d  by  Google 


CANADA— LXTSKATUKS  ^) 


introduced  into  ParlJUnent  a  bill  to  remedy  tite 
diiabilitiea  of  Manitoba  Catholics.  Parliament's 
term  expired  before  the  bill  was  passed,  and  in 
die  3i)l«iequent  elections  Wilfrid  Laurter  and 
the  Liberal  party,  who  had  opposed  the  bill, 
were  returned  to  power.  Laurier,  as  Prime 
Minister  of  Canada,  arranged  a  compromise 
under  which  the  Manitoba  schools  are  stilt  ad- 
ministered. The  trustees  of  a  school  may 
authoriie  *ome  sli^t  Catholic  religious  teach- 
ing, and  one  CathoKc  teacher  mtist  be  employed 
in  an  nrban  school  containing  40,  or  a '  raral 
school  containing  25  Catholic  pupils.  The  Pope, 
on  the  report  of  his  special  delegate,  Mgr. 
Merry  del  Val,  declared  of  the  new  settlement ; 
*We  have  no  doubt  that  these  meaxuTes  have 
been  inspired  by  a  love  of  fair  dealing  and 
good  intention.  But  we  catmot  conceal  the 
truth.  The  law  made  to  remedy  the  evil  is 
defective,  imperfect,  insofHcient.*  Catholics 
have  never  accepted  the  settlement  as  satisfac- 
tory, but  have  been  compelled  to  acquiesce  in 
it.  The  French  tnlingnal  school  districts,  137 
in  ntunber  in  1916,  enjoy  considerable  liberty 
and  maintain  schools  practically  Catholic.  In 
Winnipeg  Brandon,  and  a  few  other  centres, 
private  parochial  schools  are  kept  opat  under 
great  difficulties.  There  are  Ruth^ian  paro- 
chial schools  in  Winnipeg  and  Sifton.  Seven- 
teen convent  schools  offer  secondary  education 
for  ^rls.  In  1909  a  Lesser  Seminary  for  boys 
aspini^  to  the  priesthood  was  established  at 
Saint  Boniface.  Hieher  education  is  offered  by 
Saint  Boniface  College,  which  since  1877  has 
been  a  federated  college  of  the  University  of 
Manitoba,  holding  a  position  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  mat  of  Saint  Michael's  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Toronto. 

Brltiab  ColnmUa, —  British  Columbia  en- 
tered confederation  in  1870.  Neither  then  -nor 
since  have  separate  schools  been  recognized. 
Catholics  accepted  without  serious  opposition 
the  Public  School  Act  of  1872,  which  organiied 
a  non-sectarian  system,  but  protested  strenn- 
ously,  thou^  unsuccessfully,  against  the  School 
Tax  Bin  of  1876,  which  levied  a  special  head 
tax  for  the  support  of  these  schools.  Catholics 
maintain  a  number  of  private  schools:  11  paro- 
chial schools,  six  academies  for  young  ladies, 
and  two  colleges. 

Sukatcfaewan  and  Alberta.— That  portion 
of  the  Canadian  West  lying  between  Manitoba 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains  was  in  1875  granted 
a  certain  local  autonomy  by  the  Northwest  'Ter- 
ritories Act,  and  in  1905  was  formed  into  the 
provinces  of  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  The 
Territories  Act  guaranteed  to  the  majority  in 
eacfi  district  the  right  to  establish  such  schools 
as  they  thought  fit,  with  the  concurrent  right  of 
the  minoriy  to  establish  separate  schools.  In 
1884  the  local  legislatnre  organized  a  school 
system  resembling  that  of  Quebec,  with  a  Cath- 
olic and  a  Protestant  section  of  the  board  of 
education,  each  supervising  its  own  schools. 
Gradually  this  system  was  changed  into  one 
approximating  to  that  of  Nova  Scotia,  with 
the  addition  of  a  minority  right  to  separate 
schools  as  in  Ontario.  Under  the  ordinance 
of  1901,  which  was  the  school  law  when  the 
new  prorinces  were  created,  education  wa"s 
administered  by  a  political  de^rtment  of  state, 
with  a  purely  advisory  educational  council,  two 
niembers  of  which  must  be  Catholics.  Re- 
ligious insmtciion  as  directed  by  the  trustees 


m^ht  be  given  daring  the  last  half-hour  of  the 
school  day  in  pubhc  or  separate  schools.  The 
religious  minority  in  any  section  mi|;ht  establi^ 
a  separate  school.  Thus  the  public  school  in 
a  section  predominantly  Catholic  may  be  as 
much  a  Catholic  school  as  the  separate  school 
in  one  predominantly  Protestant  These  rights 
to  religious  instruction  and  to  separate  schools 
were  made  permanent  by  the  Dominion  acts 
creating  the  provinces  of  Saskatchewan  and 
Alberta.  In  estcb  province  all  government 
schools.  Catholic  and  Protestant,  public  and 
separate,  arc  under  control  of  the  iH-ovincial 
d^iartment  of  education,  are  subject  to  the 
same  regulations  and  the  same  inspection,  use 
the  same  courses  of  study  and  the  same  text- 
books and  receive  ^ants  on  the  same  condi- 
tions from  the  provincial  treasury.  In  Saskat- 
chewan the  Catholic  ratepayers  of  a  section 
must  sumort  the  Catholic  school,  if  there  is 
sudi.  CcMnplete  statistics  regarding  these 
schools  are  not  available.  In  1915  there  were 
in  Saskatchewan  14  Catholic  separate  schools. 
There  is  a  considerable  ntmiber  of  private 
educational  establishments,  chiefly  convent 
boarding  schools.  In  Alberta  there  is  a  college 
Saint  Francis  Xavier's,  at  Edmonton  West,  ana 
a  "Little  Seminary"  at  St.  Albert. 

Jaubs  F.  Kkskcx, 
Public  Archives  of  Canada,  Otiana. 
23.  LITERATURE.  In  any  discussion  of 
Canadian  literature  the  lirst  point  one  must  set- 
tle is,  What  is  Canadian  literature?  What 
are  its  essential  characteristics?  Is  it  the  work 
of  men  and  women  living  in  Canada,  whether 
bom  there  or  not;  or  fliust  wc  confine  it  to  the 
writings  of  native  Canadians ;  is  its  essential 
characteristic  to  be  that  its  matter  relates  in 
some  way  to  Canada,  whether  the  author  be 
native  or  otherwise ;  or  is  it  to  be  restricted  to 
work  that  is  in  its  distinctive  manner  Canadian? 
And,  in  any  of  these  cases,  is  it  to  be  under- 
stood as  including  the  quite  respectable  body 
of  French-Canadian  literature?  In  one  of  the 
older  countries,  the  first  definition  would  of 
course  be  rejected  at  once  as  inadmissible ;  but 
the  conditions  are  somewhat  different  in  a 
young  coimtry  such  as  Canada,  where  one  must 
come  down  to  comparatively  recent  times  to 
find  anytiiing  like  a  large  proportion  of  its 
Canada   it 


obviously  give  but  a  very  limited  and  inade- 
quate view  of  the  literary  product  of  the  coun- 
try. The  third  both  includes  too  much  and 
excludes  too  much.  The  fourth  definition  has 
much  to  recommend  it,  but  would  b«  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  amly,  and  if  strictly  adhered 
to  would  nfecessanfy  exclude  many  important 
books  written  by  Canadians.  Probably  the 
safer  ^lan  to  adopt  here,  as  in  so  many  other 
cases,  IS  a  compromise,  to  include  the  best  o{ 
what  is  distinctively  Canadian  in  tone,  whether 
by  native  Canadian  or  by  adopted  Canadian, 
without  excluding  that  which,  otherwise  meri- 
torious, is  not  peculiarly  Canadian  either  in 
manner  or  matter.  Hnally,  one  can  not  justly 
or  logically  confine  a  survey  of  Canadian  litera- 
ture to  that  which  has  been  written  in  English. 
Quebec  is  as  much  a  part  of  the  Dominion  as 
Ontario,  and  the  literature  of  the  French-speak- 
ing province  cannot  be  ^ored  unless  one  is 


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CANADA  — LITERATURB  (23) 


prepared  to  set  aside  a  large  and  important  part 
of  the  intellectual  product  of  the  country. 

Canadian  literature  both  English  and 
French,  has  the  weaknesses,  as  well  as  some  of 
the  elemcDts  of  strength,  of  a  young  country. 
Much  of  it  is  crude,  particularly  that  produced 
in  the  early  pioneer  dajfs  of  the  colony.  At  the 
same  time  one  finds  evidence  of  a  broader  out- 
joolc  a  tone  and  treatment  less  trammelled  by 
artincial  conventions,  than  is  always  noticeable 
in  the  literatures  of  older  countries.  As  the 
country  has  developed,  the  crudity  has  largely 
disappeared,  and  at  the  same  time  much  of  the 
best  of  what  has  been  ^oduced  in  Canada 
since  confederation,  that  is,  within  the  last  50 
years,  retains  the  freshness,  the  atmosphere  of 
youth,  the  virility,  that  helped  to  redeem  the 
literary  product  of  iMoneer  days  from  hopeless 
mediocri^/.  With  a  few  exceptions,  this  sketch 
of  CanatUan  literature  will  be  confined  to  the 
confederation  period.  No  attempt  will  be  made 
to  include  all  the  writers,  or  even  all  the  meri- 
torious writers,  of  the  last  half  century;  &e 
obiect  the  writer  has  in  view  is  rather  to  con- 
sider briefly  the  work  of  a  few,  whose  achieve- 
ment may  be  taken  as  fairly  representative  of 
Oit  quality  and  development  of  Canadian  Ut- 

Of  Canadian  writers  whose  work  was  pro- 
duced in  the  years  before  confederation,  one 
stands  preeminently  first  —  Thomas  Chandler 
Haliburton  (q.v.).  Indeed,  it  would  be  equally 
true  to  say  Aat  Haliburton  stands  head  and 
shoulders  above  any  other  writer  that  Canada 
has  produced  up  to  the  present  time.  He  ap- 
proached more  nearly  to  the  rank  of  fnie  genius 
than  any  other  CanacUan.  He  was  born  in 
Windsor,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1796;  was  educated 
at  King's  College,  in  his  native  town;  practiced 
law  in  the  ancient  town  of  Annapolis;  for  some 
years  sat  on  the  Supreme  Court  bench  of  his 
province ;  removed  to  England  in  1856,  and  be- 
came a  member  of  the  British  House  of  Com- 
mons. He  died  at  his  beautiful  home  on  the 
banks  of  the  Thames  in  1865. 

Haiiburton's  life  was  in  every  sense  a  full 
one.  In  law,  politics  and  literature,  his  bril- 
liant intellect  and  forceful  personality  put  him 
among  the  leading  men  of  nis  generation.  He 
was  an  ardent  Imperialist,  and  at  the  time  when 
the  Little  En^lander  had  tilings  all  his  own 
way  in  the  Bntish  Parliament,  he  preached  the 
doctrine  of  a  Greater  Britain,  and  blazed  the 
way  for  a  closer  union  between  the  mother 
country  and  her  overseas  dominions.  As  a  Nova 
Scotian,  he  was  a  firm  believer  in  the  human 
and  material  resources  of  his  native  province, 
and  used  all  the  power  of  his  virile  pen  to  stim- 
ulate the  ambition  of  his  fellow-countrymen 
and  drive  them  out  of  the  narrow  gfroove  of 
provincial  self-sufficiency  into  which  they  had 
fallen.  The  influence  of  Haiiburton's  writings 
extended  far  beyond  the  boundaries  either  of 
his  own  province  or  his  own  generation. 

Haliburton  was  the  author  of  three  works  of 
an  historical  nature,  "Historical  and  Statistical 
Account  of  Nova  Scotia*  (1829),  'The  Bubbles 
of  Canada'  flSS?)  and  'Rule  and  Misrule  of 
the  English  in  America*  (1851).  His  lasting 
reputation,  however,  rests  upon  his  works  of 
fiction,  or  rather  of  humor.  He  has  been  called 
the  'father  of  American  humor,*  It  is  hardly 
too  much  to  say  that  he  was  the  greatest  humor- 
ist   America   has  yet  produced.     He  did  not 


depend  upon   cxagf 
effects  he  sought  .    „ 

by  both  wit  and  vrisdom.  His  humor  is  always 
genial.  His  satire  is  Idndly,  constructive  rather 
than  destructive.  He  can  be  caustic  enough 
when  laying  bare  hypocrisy,  but  never  loses 
sight  of  the  generous  purpose  that  actuated  all 
his  works.  There  is  very  little  plot  in  any  of 
his  books,  but  his  character  drawing  is  inimi' 
table.  Sam  Slick  has  been  rightly  described 
as  "among  the  best  imaginative  creations  of 
modem  times.*  But  Haliburton  will  probably 
be  remembered  chiefly  bv  reason  of  the 
aphorisms  and  epigrams  that  abound  in  his 
works.  Uany  of  them  have  become  part  of 
our  everyday  speech.  He  indeed  antici^ted 
more  than  one  famous  saying  of  later  writers. 
The  remark  of  the  country  girl  in  'The  Clock- 
maker,*  *I  guess  I  wasnt  brought  up  at  all, 
I  growed  up,*  appeared  a  doxen  years  before  it 
was  repeated  in  'Uncle  Tom's  Cabin' ;  and 
Sydney  Smith's  famous  aphorism  really  belongs 
to  Sam  Slick,  whom  we  find  sayii^  'Ain't  this 
a  hot  day?  I  do  wish  I  could  jist  slip  oS  my 
flesh  and  sit  in  mv  bones  for  a  space,  to  cool 
myself.*  It  would  be  idle  to  attempt  to  bring 
together  ber^  even  if  it  were  desirable,  the 
many  wise  and  witty  saying  that  Haliburton 
puts  into  the  mouth  of  Sam  Slick  and.his  other 
characters.  Two  or  three  examples  will  serve 
the  puipose:  *The  sk'n  is  nearer  than  the 
shirt* ;  "power  has  a  nateral  tendency  to  cor- 
pulenqr*;  "what  people  hope  foF,  they  think 
at  last  they  have  a  right  to* ;  "a  nod  is  as  good 
as  a  wink  to  a  blind  horse* ;  ^a  man  who  is  a 
slave  to  his  own  rules  is  his  own  nigger* ; 
*a  woman  has  two  smiles  that  an  angel  mif^t 
envy;  the  smile  that  accepts  a  lover  before 
words  are  uttered,  and  the  snule  that  lights  on 
the  first-bora  baby  and  assures  him  of  a 
mother's  love.*  'Haiiburton's  first  book  of 
humor  was  'The  Oockroaker;  or.  The  Sayings 
and  Doings  of  Sam  Slick  of  Slickville,'  which 
first  appeared  in  book  form  in  Halifax,  in 
1837.  It  was  followed  bv 'The  Attach^'  (1843- 
44)  :  'The  Old  Judge'  a847)  :  'Wise  Saws  and 
Modem  Instances'  (1853)  ;  'Nature  and  Human 
Nature>  (1855).  There  were  several  others, 
but  these  contain  his  best  work.  'The  Cock- 
maker*  was  translated  into  German,  and  'The 
Old  Judge'  into  both  French  and  German. 

Putting  aside  several  more  or  less  feeble 
essays  in  Canadian  history,  we  find  in  Christie's 
'History  of  Lower  Canada'  (1S18-55)  the  first 
noteworthy  attempt,  after  Haliburton,  to  tell 
the  story  of  a  nortion  of  British  North  Amer- 
ica. Robert  Christie  (1788-1856)  was,  like 
Haliburton,  a  native  of  Windsor.  He  also 
practised  law,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
political  life  of  tus  country.  But  there  the 
resembtonce  ceased.  As  a  writer  he  is  almost 
unbelievably  dull.  Yet  his  history  is  valuable. 
for  Christie  was  a  careful  and  impartial  his- 
torian, and  made  full  use  of  the  documentary 
material  that  he  had  collected,  and  much  of 
which  has  since  been  lost 

'ohn  Charles  Dent  (1841-88),  in  his  'Last 
Forty  Years'  (1881),  deals  wiUi  the  history 
of  the  country  from  the  Union  of  1841,  where 
CThristie  leaves  off,  down  to  the  year_  188L 
Dent  was  as  conscientious  and  painstaking  as 
his  predecessor,  and  had  the  added  qualification 
of  a  clear  and  attractive  literary  style.  He 
also  wrote  'The  Stoiy  of  the  Upper  Canadian 


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CANADA— UTBRATVSS  (23> 


R^lUon>  (I8B5),  an  admirable  work,  tbouRb 
somewhat  controTersial  in  lone.  Dent  wai  no 
adtDirer  of  the  fiery  leader  of  the  rebellion, 
William  Lyon  Mackonne,  and  lost  no  ot^ai^ 
tunity  of  expressing  his  feeliags. 

Tbe  most  ambitious  woHc  of  history  yet 
nroduced  in  Canada  is  'The  History  of  Canada' 
of  WiUiam  Kingsford  (1819-«>8).  Itii^sfonl 
was  65  years  of  age  when  be  began  tbe  ixrepara- 
tion  of  his  neat  work,  and  he  toiled  at  it 
contiauously  Tor  over  13-year3,  Uving  to  see  its 
comi)tetion,  in  10  balky  volumes.  His  history 
is  heavy  in  style,  and  not  always  lo  be  relied 
upon  on  miner  points,  but  generally  speaking 
it  is  authoritative,  and  indispensable  to  tbe 
student  of  Canadian. history. 

A  number  of  short  poptilar  histories  of 
Canada  have  been  written  within  tfce  last  20 
or  25  years^  a  few  of  which  onfy  are  of  sufficient 
importance  to  mention  here.  George  Bryce's 
*Snort  History  of  the  Canadian  People,'  first 
published  in  1887,  and  recently  brought  da>iim 
to  date,  is  a  useful  and  readable  -  work,  in  the 
mannef  of  Green's  history,  though  hardly  com- 
parable in  st^Ie.  Charles  Roberts,  better  known 
as  a  Canadian  poet  and  novelist,  is  also  the 
anthor  of  a  very  readable  'History  of  Canada.' 
A  third  work  of  the  same  class  is  Sir  John 
Bourinot's  '"Story  of  Canada,'  in  the  'Story  of 
the  Nations'   scries. 

Among  more  recent  works  dealing  with  in- 
dividual phases  o£  tbe  history  of  Canada,  much 
die  most  nouble  is  *The  Siege  of  Quebec,'  by 
Arthur'  G.  Doughty,  the  Dominion  archivist, 
and  George  W.  Parmelee.  The  work,  in  sfat 
large  volumes,  is  a  montmient  of  research,  and 
must  always  remain  the  unquestioned  authority 
in  its  particular  field.  It  covers,  with  most 
minute  care  and  scholarly  accuracy,  every  detail 
of  tbe  historic  siege  of  1759,  so  far  as  the  land 
operations  are  concerned.  A  companio*  work 
b  William  Wood's  *Logs  of  the  Conquest  of 
Canada,'  dealiiig  in  the  same  scholarly  way 
with  the  naval  side  of  the  siege.  Colonel  Wood 
has  told  the  story  of  the  siege,  with  equal  cham 
and  accuracy,  in  his  'The  Fight  for  Canada.* 
Dr.  Doughty  has  shown  in  his  three  shorter 
woriis;  'Quebec  under  Two  Flags,'  'The  Cradle 
of  New  France'  and  'Tbe  Fortress  of  Quebec' 
that  an  archivist,  without  sacrificing  any  of 
his  scholarly  principle^  may,  when  he  posseBies 
the  ability,  pot  hfe  ana  cokir  Into  the  dry  bones 
of  history. 

The  War  of  1812  has  been  the  subject  of  a 
number  of  histories  written  by  Canaiuans  and 
from  a  Canadian  {mint  of  view.  In  fact,  the 
most  serious  criticism  that  must  be  brouj]|ht 
against  most  of  them — a  criticism  that  applies 
equally  to  many  of  tfie  attempts  by  American 
writers  to  deal  with  fl^e  same  conflict  — is  that 
they  are  hopdessly  partisan  and  one-sided.  To 
this  class  belong  the  histories  of  William  P. 
Coffin,  Gilbert  Auchinleck  and  James  Hannay. 
A  much  better  piece  of  work  is  the  'War  of 
1812'  of  Major  John  Richardson  (1796-1852). 
It  inevitably  has  the  defects  of  a  book  written 
by  one  who  had  taken  part  in  tbe  campaign, 
but  Richardson,  like  most  honest  soldiers,  was 
not  a  bitter  partisan,  and  he  had  the  advantage 
of  being  a  trained  writer  as  well  as  a  soldier. 
In  1902  A.  C.  Cassebnan  brought  out  a  new 
edition  of  Richardson's  History,  enriched  with 
CDpioas  notes,  an  excellent  biog:rairfiy  and  a 
full  biblic^raphy.     Another  very  readable  and 


useful  book  of  Richardson's  is  bis  'Eight  Years 
in  Canada,'  which  covers  the  period  of  Lord 
Durham's  mission  to  Canada,  and  the  adminis- 
trations of  Sydenham  and  Metcalfe. 

Two  words  that  admirably  illustrate  the 
modem  sdiolarly  method  of  writit^  history, 
are  Sir  C  P.  Lucas'  'Canadian  War  of  1812,' 
and  'A  Historv  of  Canada,  1763-1812.'  Lucas 
has  made  exctilent  use  of  tbe  s^endid  collec- 
tions of  documentary  material  m  the  Domin* 
ion  Archives,  brought  together  by  tb«  late 
Dongas  Brynuier  and  his  worthy  successor, 
Artbnr  G.  Doughty,  and  on  die  whole,  for  the 
two  periods  of  which  be  treats,  his  works  will 
probably  remain,  for  some  time  at  least,  the 
best  available.  With  Wood's  'Fight  for  Can- 
ada' they  form  an  entirely  satis  tactoi-y  treat- 
ment of  the  history  of  Canada  from  the  Con- 
quest down  to  the  dose  of  the  War  of  1812. 

Charlevoix  and  Lescarbot,  Champlain.  La-' 
bontan  and  Hennepin,  althou^  their  Dooks 
relate  to  the  earliest  history  of  Canada,  caa 
scarcely  be  regarded  as  Canadian  writers.  The 
first  noteworthy  history  by  a  French' Canadian 
was  the  'Histoire  du  Canada  sous  la  domnia- 
tion  Francaise'  (1843),  followed  the  next  year 
by  'Histoire  du  (^sda  sous  la  donunatlon 
Anglaise,'  both  by  Michel  Bibaud  (1782-1857). 
Between  1845  and  1848  appeared  a  much  more 
important  work,  one  that  still  ranks  as  the  btst 
general  history  of  the  country  in  French,  the 
'Histoire  du  Canada*  of  Francois  Xavier  Gai^ 
ncan  (t609-{i6>.  Gameau's  infiuence  was 
marked  upon  the  intellectual  life  of  French 
Canada.  In  1852  he  brought  out  a  new  edition 
of  his  work,  earning  the  narrative  down  to 
Iheyear  1840,  the  first  edition  having  stopped  at 
1792.  The  history  is  now  being  reprintra,  with 
an  introduction  and  very  full  notes  by  the  his- 
torian's grandson.  Hector  Gameau,  and  a  pref- 
ace by  (labriel  Hanolaux.  It  has  also  appeared 
in  an  English  translation,  by  Andrew  Bell. 

Other  notaUe  historical  works  in  Frend^ 
are  die  'Cours  d'Histoire  du  Canada'  of  die 
Abb*  J.  B.  A.  Ferland  (1805-65):  <Dix  ans 
d'Histoire  du  Canada,  1840-50,'  by  Antoine 
G^rin-Lajoie  (1824-82)  ;  'Canada  sous  1' Union,' 
by  Lonis  Phihppo  Turcotte  (1842-78);  'L'His- 
toire  de  Cinquante  Ans'  of  T.  P.  Bedard  (1844- 
1900);  and  die  'Histoire  des  CanatUens  Fran- 
cats,'  by  Benjamn  Suite.  The  Abb*  H.  R. 
Casgrain  (1831-1904)  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral historical  wotki,  dealing  with  special 
phases  of  Canadian  history,  and  mark«]  by 
charms  of  style  that  make  them  delightful 
readiiig. 

With  a  few  exceptions,  biography  in  Can- 
ada has  been  confined  to  the  lives  of  men 
closely  identified  with  the  political  history  of 
the  conntn'-  An  important  series  of  biograph- 
ies, published  in  1906,  is  'The  Makers  of  Can- 
ada,' in  20  volumes,  each  by  &  welt-known  Ca- 
nadian writer.  While  inevitably  utiequal  in 
style  and  treatment,  they  are  all  readable  and 
trustworthy.  Adam  Shortfs  'Lord  Syden- 
ham,' D,  C.  Scott's  'John  Graves  Simcoe,' 
Jean  N.  Mcllwraith's  'Sir  Frederkk  Haldi- 
mand,*  W.  D.  LeSuenr's  'Frontenac,'  Georro 
R.  Parkin's  'Sir  JOhn  Macdonald*  and  John 
Lewis'  <(}eorge  Brown,'  are  particularly  worth 
mentioning.  Of  earlier  worics  of  biography, 
two  of  the  most  valuable  are  Sir  Joseph  Pope  s 
'Memoirs  of  Sir  John  Alexander  Macdonald,' 
and  Sir  J.  S.  Willison's  'Sir  Wilfrid  Unrier 


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CANADA— LITBRATUKB  <S) 


and  the  Liberal  Party.'  Another  admirable 
piece  of  biography  is  Charles  Lindse/s  'Life 
and  Times  of  William  Lyon  Mackenzie.'  Sev- 
eral atiempts  have  been  made  to  write  the  life 
of  the  brilliant  Nova  Scotian  statesman,  Joseph 
Howe,  but  none  are  aJtogether  satisfactory.  The 
best,  at  any  rate  from  a  literary  point  of  view, 
is  the  sketch  by  the  late  Principal  Grant,  pub- 
lished in  19(M.  One  of  the  best  of  more  re- 
cent Canadian  biographies  is  George  M. 
Wrong's   'Life  of  Lord  Elgin.* 

Biography  in  French  Canada  has  generally 
been  in  the  form  of  brief  sketches,  or  collec- 
tions such  as  Abbi  Casgrain's  'Biogrsphics 
Canadicnnes, '  Bibaud's  'Le  Panthion  Cana- 
dieo'  and  David's  'Biographies  et  portraits.* 
Notable  exceptions  are  the  lives  of  Papineau 
and  Cartier,  by  the  learned  Librarian  of  Par- 
liament, Dr.  A.  D.  DeCelles;  and  Thomas 
Cbapais'  'Jean  Talon'  and  'Montcalm. >  Gra- 
vier's  'Vie  de  Samnel  Champlain'  is  an  ad- 
mirable piece  of  work,  but  can  hardly  be 
classed  in  Canadian  literature. 

Some  of  the  most  important  books  of  travel 
are  associated  wiih  the  early  history  of  Can- 
ada, or  of  what  is  now  Canada.  Excluding  the 
entertaining  narratives  of  those  who  were 
merely  visitors,  there  remain  such  remackaUe 
works  as  Alexander  Mackenzie's  'Voyages 
from  Montreal  through  the  Continoit  of 
North  America*  (1801);  Bouchette's  'British 
Dominions  in  North  America'  (1832)  ;  Fran- 
ch^e's  'Voyage  to  the  Northwest  Coast  of 
America'  (18m)  ;  Harmon's  'Vojrages  and 
Travels  in  the  Interior  of  North  America' 
(lE^)  ;  Paul  Kane's  'Wanderings  of  an  Artist 


die's  'Roughing  it  in  the  Bush'  (1852);  and 
among  more  recent  works,  J.  W.  Tyrrell's 
'Across  the  Sub-Arctics  of  Canada' ;  Cole- 
man's 'The  Canadian  Rockies';  S.  E.  Daw- 
son's 'The  Saint  Lawrence  Basin  and  Its  Bor- 
der-Lands'; and  L.  J.  Burpee's  'Seardi  for 
the  Western  Sea.' 

French- Canadian  books  of  travel  are  rep- 
resented by  such  readable  works  as  the  Abb* 
Casgrain's  'Un  pelerinage  au  pays  d'EvangeU 
ine>  (1B87):  Sir  Adolphe  Routhier's  'En 
Canot'  (1881)  and  'De  Quebec  4  Victoria' 
(1893)  ;  Faucher  de  St  Maurice's  'De  Quebec 
i  Mexico'  (1866);  and  Arthur  Buks'  'R&atB 
de  Voya«es'  (1890)  and  'Au  Poniqoe  des 
Laurentides'    (1891). 

English- (Radian  verse  seems  to  have  had 
its  beginning  in  Nova  Scotia,  where  in  1825 
Oliver  Goldsmith,  a  distant  relative  of  his 
tnore  famous  namesake,  published  'The  Risiuc 


The  Deserted  Village,'  records  not  im- 
successfully  or  without  a  certain  effectiveness 
the  rude  pioneer  life  of  the  author's  native 
province.  With  Charles  Sangster  (1822-93) 
came  something  more  of  skill  in  the  Ut  of  po- 
etry. His  'Saint  Lawrence  and  Saguenay' 
(1856)  and  'Hesperus'  (1860),  contain  patri- 
otic and  other  verse  of  some  merit,  simple,  un- 
pretentious, not  very  rich  in  ideas,  but  eminently 
^unccre.  A  poet  of  an  entirly  different  type, 
and  of  much  greater  power,  was  Charles 
Heavysege  (18I6-?6).  Heavysege  published 
several  volumes  of  verse,  including  a  number 
of  remarkable  sonnets,  but  the  work  by  which 
he  ia  remembered  is  his  dramatic  poem  'Saul,' 


first  published  in  18S7.  This  is  an  elaborate 
piece  of  work,  divided  into  three  parts,  each  of 
five  acts,  and  altogether  about  10,000  lines. 
Heavysege  was  not  an  educated  man,  in  the 
ordinary  accnttance  of  the  term,  but  bis  mind 
was  saturated  with  the  Bible  and  Shakespeare, 
and  there  are  passages  in  'Saul'  not  unworthy 
of  either  the  sacred  book  or  the  great  Eliza- 
bethan. Saul's  vision,  on  the  eve  of  his  dratb, 
forms  one  of  the  most  dramatic  passages  in 
-English  literature.  Longfellow  descnbed  Heavy- 
sege as   the   greatest   dramatist   since   Sbakes- 


...    __..   servedly.     Isaoella  Valancy  Crawford 

i  1851-87)  published  one  slim  volume  of  verse 
uring  her  lifetime  which,  though  it  won  her  no 
recognition,  contains  verse  of  quite  exceptional 
quahty,  sincere,  musical,  instinct  with  the  poetry 
of  common  things.  Geor^  Frederick  Cameron 
(1854-85)  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
poems,  which  were  collected  and  published 
after  his  death.  He  was  a  passionate  <raponent 
of  tyranny  and  oppression,  and  one  finds  in 
many  of  his  verses  me  lyrical  expression  of  his 
sympathy  with  lost  causes. 

'The  year  1880  has  been  said  to  mark  die 
Canadian  Renaissance,  because  in  that  year  ap- 
peared the  first  volume  of  poetry  of  one  of  a 
group  of  singers  destined  to  put  Canadian  lit- 
erature on  a  higher  plane  than  it  had  lutherto 
reached.  In  this  group  ar^  included  Charles 
Roberts  and  his  cousin  Bliss  Carman,  Archi- 
bald Lampmau,  William  Wilfred  Campbell,  and 
on  or  two  others,  Roberts'  versatile  genius 
has  found  expression  in  history,  fiction  and 
essays  but  he  is  pre-eminently  a  poet  His 
verse,  always  scholarly  and  polished,  gained 
steadilv  in  power  with  the  years.  At  first 
limited  to  classical  themes,  and  more  or 
less  imitative,  Roberts'  more  mature  work 
gives  expression  to  the  atmosuhere  and  color 
of  Canadian  woods  and  hillsiaes,  the  salt  sea 
air  of  the  'Tantraraar  perhaps,  and  the  prob- 
lems of  man's  physical  and  moral  contact  with 
nature.  The  development  of  his  genius  may 
be  readily  traced  from  his  eariiest  work  in 
'Orion'  (1880),  through  'In  Divers  Tones' 
(1886)  and  'Songs  of  the  Common  Dajr' 
(1893),  until  it  reached  its  highest  point  in 
"The  Book  of  the  Native"  (1897).  Equally 
striking  in  their  lyrical  interpretation  of  Caina- 
dian  scenes  are  the  poems  of  Carman,  con- 
tained in  such  of  his  books  as  'Low  Tide  on 
Grand  Fri>  (1893),  'Behind  the  Arras' 
(1895),  'Ballads  of  Lost  Haven'  (1897)  and 
'Pipes  of  Pan'  (1905).  Carman's  verse,  like 
that  of  Rjoberts,  reveals  the  inQuence  of  Shel- 
ley and  Keats,  and  perhaps  Tennyson;  but  each 
of  these  Canadian  singers  has  a  voice  th^  is 
essentially  his  own.  E^  sat  at  the  ieet  of  the 
masters  as  humble  student;  but  with  the 
growth  of  knowledge  and  experience  put  bis 
own  distinctive  personality  into  the  interpreta- 
tion of  themes  old  and  new.  Campbell's  earlier 
work,  in  'Lake  Lyrics'  (1889)  reveals  maay 
of  the  qualities  tliat  mark  the  verse  of  Rob- 
erts and  Carman.  What  they  had  done  to  inter- 
pret the  spirit  of  the  Fundy  shore,  he  achieved 
for  the  great  inland  seas.  In  his  later  books, 
'The  Dread  Voyage'  (1893)  and  'Beyond  the 
Hills  of  Dream'  (1899),  he  strikes  a  more  def- 
initely human  note,  and  touches  with  an  assured 
hand  many  of  the  great  probknas  of  life.    His 


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CUMnA-'UTBEATURB  (2a> 


two  drainas,  'Uordrad'  and  'HUdebnad* 
(1895)  are  powerful  in  conception,  thoti^ 
somewhat  unequal  in  treatment.     Of  all  thia 


group  of  modern  Canadian  poets,  Lampman 
0861-99)  probaUy  stood  6r»t  as  ao  mtcr- 
preter  of  Canadian  socneiy.  He  was  a  poct 
first  and  always.  Most  of  his  short  life  was 
^ent  in  and  about  Ottawa,  and  he  knew  in- 
Umately  eveiy^  beautiful  do<4c  and  cocner  of 
the  countryside.  His  gentle  personality 
breathes  through  every  line  of  the  ahnost  flaw-: 
less  lyrics  he  kft  bdnad.  As  William  Dean 
HowdU  said  of  him:  "Hb  pure  spirit  was 
electrical  in  every  line;  he  made  no  picture  of 
the  Nature  he  loved  in  which  he  did  not  sup- 

ethe  spectator  with  the  tnman  itrterest  of 
own  genial  presence,  and  Ugbt  tip  the  scene 
with  the  lamp  of  fais  keen  and  beautifn)  inteUi< 
gence.*  Only,  two  sUm  volumes  of  verse  were 
published  during  his  Ufeiinie;  'Among  tha 
Millrt>  (1888)  and  'Lyrics  of  Earth'  (1896>; 
but  after  his  deadi  his  friend  and  fellow-poet, 
Duncan  Campbell  Scott,  gathered  together  with 
loving  care  ul  ai  his  mule  that  seemed  worthy 
of  preservatioB  and  published  it  with  an  ad> 
mirably  judicious  memoir, 

Two  other  Canadian  poets  must  be  meet- 
tioned  here.  £acb  stands  in  a  class  by  himself. 
Robert  Service  has  put  into  his  three  bo<dcs  of 
verse,  'Songs  of  a  Sourdough'  'Ballads  of  k 
Checbako,'  and  'Rhymes  of  a  Rcdlinc  Stone,' 
much  of  the  strange  fasdnalion  of  the  Yukon, 
its  magnificent  mountain  scenery,  die  cruel 
beauiy  of  its  winter  niglits,  the  brutaUty  as  weQ 
as  the  primitive  virtues  of  the  mininK  camna. 
WilUam  Henry  DnimmcHid  (1854-1W9)  d^ 
covered  to  the  world  the  simple,  pictnresqus 
figure  of  the  Canadian  habitant,  the  peasant  of 
I^ench  Canada.  In  'The  Habittnt,'  'Jofam^ 
Courtcau'  and  'The  Voyagetir,*  be  interpreted 
with  kindly  synpathyj  tender  pathos  and  mimi- 
table  humor  the  life  and  character  of  the 
shrewd  and  sini|>le-minded  farmer  of  Qud>ec 

As  one  finds  m  the  poetry  of  £ngUih-Cana- 
dian  writers  evidence  of  the  influeitce  oi  Shel- 
ly, Keats  and  Tennyson,  so  the  work  of  French- 
Canadian  poets  reveals  their  indebtedness  to 
Victor  HugOiLamartine  and  Uusset  Octave 
Crimaxie.  (1827-79)  is  justly  regarded  as  the 
father  of  Frendo-Onadian  poetry.  He  has 
only  one  volume  of  verse  to  his  credit  and  that 
was  pub&shed  by  his  friends  after  his  death, 
but  the  sincerity  and  tyrical  quality  of  his 
poems,  no  less  than  the  spirit  of  patriotism  with 
which  they  are  instinct,  have  made  tbem  an 
inspiration  to  hi!:  fdlow-countrymcn.  Louis 
Fr&hette  (1839-1908),  more  versatile  and  pol- 
ished thaa  Cr^atie,  left  behind  him  a  larger 
body  of  crediUe  verse  than  any  of  his  cantem- 
~  iraries.  His  first  volume  of  poetry,  'Mes 
...^isirs.)  appeared  in  1863,  and  this  was  followed 
by  'Voix  d'un  Exil£>  (1869),  <Pele-Mele> 
(1877),  <Fleurs  boriales'  and  'Oiseaux  de 
Meige'  (1879);  <La  Ugende  d'un  Peuple> 
(1887,  and  'Feuilles  volantes'  (1891).  Before 
his  death  he  prepared  a  collected  edition  of  all 
his  verse  that  he  wished  to  be  preserved.  He  was 
essentially  a  lyrical  poet,  but,  like  Crimazie, 
avoided  the  passion  of  human  love,  making  in 
this  sense  the  sharp  line  of  cleavage  between 
the  romantic  school  of  France  and  the  poets-of 
French  Canada,  who  in  other  respects  looked 
to  them  for  inspiration.  Fr&hette  was  beyond 
question  the  greatest  poet  that  French  Caiwda 


por 
Loi 


imaginatiDn,  oas  won  for  himself  a  secure  place 
in  tJEke  hearts  of  Canadians.    He  ^gs  the  songs 


followed  \ 

(1870) :  "Les  Vengeances'  (1875) ;  'fables 
Cana^ennes'  (1881);  'Petita  Poeme9>  (1883), 
and  'Gouttelettes'  (1904),  the  last  a  remark- 
able collection  of  sonnets.  Another  member  of 
the  same  group  was  William  (ibapman  —  a  true 
French-Canadian     d^espite    his_  English 

JuMecquoises' 
(,lfi/0>;  'teuiues  OHraoie'  IIJS90);  'Aspira- 
tmns'  (I9IM),  and  'Les  Rayons  du  Nord> 
(1910).  Id  1895  a  new  school  of  French-Cana- 
Otan  literature  had  its  birth  in  Uontreal,  of 
whkb  Emile  Neltigan  and  Albert  Lozeau  are 
the  most  notable  exponents.  These  modem 
Canadian  poets  Isve  attempted  to  transplant 
the  spirit  of  Verlaiite  and  Beaudelaire  in  the 
not  altc^ther  congenial  atmosphere  of  Que- 
bec. Yet  they  have  produced  some  work  of 
much  more  than  passing  interest 

It  is  impracticable  here  to  do  more  than 
indicate  very  brie^  the  work  in  fiction  thus 
far  achieved  by  Canadians.  James  de  Mille 
^1836-80)  found  leisure  amid  the  preoccu^ 
tions  of  his  life  as  a  college  professor  to  wnte 
■  number  of  romances  and  tales,  the  best  of 
which  were  'Helena's*  Household'  and  'The 
Dodge  Qub.'  William  Kjrby  (1817-1906)  was 
the  first  Canadian  novelist  to  make  use  of  the 
rich  mine  of  romantic  material  ofiered  by  the 
early  history  of  his  country.  His  one  romance 
'The  Golden  Dog,'  still  remains  in  many  re- 
spects the  best  thing  of  its  kind  produced  in 
Canada.  Sir  Gilbert  Parker  stands  easily  first 
among  Canadian  novelists.  Since  the  publica- 
tion of  'Pierre  and  His  People>  in  1892,  he  has 
written  a  succession  of  novels,  i 


__    history.     Charles   W.  Gordon    (Rali^ 

Connor;  has  given  us  in  'Black  Rock'  'The 
Sky  Pilot,'  and  his  later  novels,  a<Wrable 
pictures  of  life  in  the  backwoods,  lumber  camps 
and  mining  camps  of  Canada.  Norman  Duncan 
in  'Dr.  Luke  of  the  Labrador,)   and  his  fine 


Charles  Robert^  already 
is  also  favorably  known 
lai^  number  ot  very  readable 


short  stories.  Lucy  Uaud  Montgomet]^  (Mrs. 
McDonald)  has  made  the  litde  province  of 
Prince  Edward  Island  famous  by  her  altogether 
delightful  stories,  'Anne  of  Green  Gables'  and 
its  successors.  It  may  be  convenient  to  include 
here  the  works  of  Stephen  Leacock,  who  is  per- 
haps rather  a  humorist  than  a  novelist,  and 


shine  Sketches  of  a  Little  Town,>  are  btil- 
Uantly  clever  essays  in  a  field  that  has  hitherto 
been  untried  in  Canada. 

In  French-Canadian  fiction  PhiUMM  Aubeit 
de  (^sp£  stands  pre-eminent.  He  wrote  only  one 
romance,  'Les  Andens  CanadienL*  but  that  ia 
ahnost  a  national  epic,  uid  altogether  a  remark- 
able piece  of  work.    He  began  to  write  it  in  bis 


[I  git  zed 


V  Google 


CANADA  — CANADIAN  UNIVKMITXBS  (24) 


74th  year.  "De  Gaspi,*  says  Camille  Roy,  "is 
3t  once  the  most  eloquent,  the  most  simple,  the 
roost  diarmjng  narrator  of  Canada's  past -^  the 
true  epic  singer  of  a  marvellous  phase  of  its 
history."  <Les  Anciens  Canadiens*  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Charles  Roberts.  P.  I.  O. 
Chauveau  wrote  in  1853  one  of  the  first  dna.- 
dian  novels,  'Charles  Gu6rin,'  a  not  veiy  re- 
markable novel  of  manners.  Antoine  Gtrin- 
Lajoie's  'Jean  Rjvard'  is  of  the  same  type, 
bat  more  successful  as  a  true  picture  of  the 
life  of  a  French-Canadian  habitani,  G.  B.  de 
Boucherville  ifas  the  author  of  a  very  readable 
novel,  'Une  de  perdue  et  Deux  de  trouvtes.' 
Other  novels  with  a  purpose  are  J.  P.  Tardivel's 
'Pour  la  Patrie* ;  Ernest  Choquette's  'Claude 
Paysan.'  and  Hector  Bemier's  'Au  large  de 
rEcueit'  Among  the  best  examples  of  the 
historical  novel  in  French  Canada  are  Joseph 
Marmette's  'Charles  et  Eva,*  'Francois  de 
Bienville,*  'L'Intendant  Bigot,'  and  'Le  Chev- 
xQer  de  Momac>  -  Napoleon  Bourassa'a 
♦Jacques  et  Marie' ;  Mile.  Angers'  'L'Ouhlle'  ; 
and  Sir  A.  B.  Roothier's  'Le  Centurion.* 

What  Camille  Roy  has  written  of  Frendi- 
Canadian  hteratnre  may  very  fairly  be  said  of 
the  entire  body  of  Canadian  literature.  It  has 
do  doubt  at  times  been  unduly  imitative,  yet  'it 
must  be  acknowledged  that,  taken  as  a  whole, 
the  literature  is  indeed  Canadian,  and  that  in  it 
Ae  life  of  Ac  people  is  reflected  and  perpetu- 
ated. Uany  of  its  works,  the  best  in  prose 
and  in  verse,  breathe  the  perfume  of  the  soiL- 
and  are  the  expression  —  original,  sincere  an<l 
profound  — of  the  Canadian  spirit* 

In  dosing  this  sketch  it  is  proper  to  refer 
to  some  of  Ute  intellectual  influences  that  have 
helped  to  make  Canadian  liteniture  what  it  is. 
First  of  these  are  the  universities.  HcGitl  and 
Laval  in  Quebec,  Toronto  and  Queen's  in  On- 
tario, King's  and  Dalhousie  in  the  maritime 
provinces,  to  mention  but  a  few  of  the  more 

Srominent  colleges,  have  had  an  increasing  in- 
uence  in  moulding  the  intellectual  life  of  the 
Dominion.  The  establiriunent  of  the  Dommion 
Archives  at  Ottawa,  and  provincial  archives  at 
Toronto,  Victoria  and  other  provincial  capitals, 
with  their  growing  treasures  of  documentary 
material,  has  helped  to  turn  Canadian  historians 
from  secondary  to  original  sources,  and  to 
make  their  product  more  scholarly  and  more 
accurate.  In  this  and  other  ways  one  sees  also 
the  influence  upon  Canadian  writers  and  Cana- 
dian literature  of  such  societies  as  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada,  the  Ontario  Historical  So- 
ciety,  the  Royal  Canadian  Institute,  the  Quebec 
Literary  and  Historical  Society,  the  Nova  Scotia 
Historical  Society  and  the  Champlatn  Society; 
and  of  such  periodicals  as  the  Untversity  Maga- 
sine.  Revue  Canadienne  and  Canadian  Mapa- 
ginf,  and  the  annual  Review  of  Hiilorieal 
Publieatiofu  Relating  to  Canada.  Nor,  finally, 
should  we  overlook  ttie  peculiar  influence  of  two 
great  'Writers  who  for  many  years  were  closely 
associated  with  Canada,  and  who  each  in  his 
own  way  did  much  for  Canadian  scholarship — 
Francis  Pai-kman  and  Goldwin  Smith. 

BthUomphr.— Among  a  number  of  books 
and  articles  dealing  with  Canadian  literature 
Ae  following  are  ■worthy  of  particular  mention : 
Adam  G.  "Mercer,  'An  Outline  History  of 
Canadian  Literature*  (in  Withrow's  'History 
of  Canada,'  Toronto  1687)  ;  Boorinot,  Sir  John, 
'Intellectual    Development    of    the    Canadian 


People* 

OtherB,  -i_4uuiuiiui  LaLci^iurc  via  ^i_.ditd(i 
Encyclapsdia  of  the  Country,'  Toronto  1898)  ; 
Lareau,  Edmond,  'Histoire  de  la  litt^ralure 
Canadienne'  (Uontreal  1874) ;  McMurchy,  A, 
'Handbook  of  Canadian  Literatdre*  (Toronto 
1906) ;  Uaniuis,  T.  U.,  'English  Canadian  Lit- 
erature' (in  'Canada  and  Its  Provinces,* 
Toronto  1912) ;  Roy,  CamtUe,  'French  Cana- 
dian Literature>  (in  'C^ada  and  Its  Prov- 
ince^' Toronto  1912). 

LaWXENCE  J.  BVSPE^ 

Secretary  Canadiati  Section  of  Intemationai 
Joint  Commission,  Ottawa. 
24.  CANADIAN  UNIVERSITISS.  There 
are  in  Canada  22  univeraitiei,  and  sonie  of 
these  have  federated  and  affiliated  colleges. 
As  each  of  the  mnvcrshiei  and  ,colleges  men- 
tioned in  this  aiticle  is  separately  dealt  with 
nnder  its  own  name  only  a  general  summaiy, 
foUowing:  Ac  line  of  Ac  provinces  from  east 
to  went,  is  attenq>ted  here. 
'  Maritime  Pravincen^— The  University  of 
ICin^a  College,  Nova  Scotia— the  oldest  imi- 
versity  in  Ac  British  ovencas  dominions — had 
its  rise  in  tbc  foundation  of  an  academy  at 
Windsor  in  178S  by  Ae  provincial  k^slatare. 
In  the  following  year  an  act  was  jessed  inoor- 
porating  King's  College,  tmd  in  18Q2  it  received 
a  royal  charter  and  a  provincial  grant  It  was 
foiuded  as  an  Anglioin  institution  —  a  charac- 
ter it  still  retaini.  One  of  its  statutes  provided 
that  *no  member  of  Ac  tmivernty  ^lalt  fre~ 
quent  Ae  Romiili  Has^  or  the  mccting-boases 
of  Presbyteriani,  Baptists,  or  Metbo£sts,  or 
Ac  CoRventido  or  places  of  worship  of  any 
oAer  dissenters  from  Ae  Church  of  England.* 
As  three- fonrths  of  Ae  popniation  came  under 
this  cmnprefaensire  "test,*  an  ^tatiiw  wau 
speedily  set  on  foot  for  its  removal,  whicji 
ftilling,  Pictou  Academy  was  founded  in  1816 
as  an  undenominational  college.  Two  years 
later  Dalfaooaie  Colle^  was  founded  at  Halifax 
aa  a  provincial  maversity  modeled  on  tlie 
Scottish  pattern,  and  waa  opened  for  teadiing 
in  lfi38.  An  applicant  for  a  position  on  ilie 
original  teaching  sMfl  of  Dalhousie  CoilcKe 
was  a  dlitinguisbed  Baptist,  Ae  Rev.  Dr. 
Crawley,  but  as  his  application  was  not  enter- 
tained —  it  was  allegea  on  sectarian  gronnd  — 
and  Ae  Baptists  were  imrepresented  on  tlie 
staff,  Ae  drastic  remedy  was  taken  of  foondii^c 
(1838)  a  dcnominationat  institution,  Acadin 
CollmL  Wolfville.  The  Presbyterian  Collese, 
established  in  affiliation  wiA  Pictou  Academy 
in  1820,  has  made  no  fewer  Aan  (our  roign- 
tioni,  and  is  now  located  at  Pine  Tree  Hill, 
near  Halifax.  Saint  Frands  Xavier  0>llcve 
was  founded  at  Antigonish  in  ISM,  and  is  the 
chief  Roman  Catholic  foundation  in  the  mair- 
time  provinces.  OAer  institutions  belonging  to 
the  same  communion  in  Nova  Scotia  are  Saint 
Mary's  College,  Halifax,  founded  in  1860;  Col- 
lege Sainte  Anne,  founded  on  behalf  of  the 
French  population  by  Ae  Eudist  FaAers  in 
1800;  and  the  Seminary  of  the  Holy  Heart, 
founded  at  Halifax  in  1895,  also  by  the  Eudist 
FaAers.  Two  attempts  have  been  made  to 
Itarify  the  university  system  of  the  provit»ce  by 
the  foundation  of  a  University  of  Halifax, 
embracing  alt  Ae  degree-con fernng  colleges  of 
Ae  province,  but  Aese  have  been  unsuccessful. 
New  Brtinswick  College  was  founded  at  Fred- 


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CANAIIA— CAHADIAH  UNZVSR&ITZBB  CM) 


ericton  in  1800  a«  an  Aufdican  i ,  _._ 

1829  it  received  a  charter  as  Kiiig|8  CoUeicL  and 
in  1859  it  became  undenoviinational  and  re- 
ceived a  charter  as  the  University  of  New 
Bninswick.  The  University  o£  Mount  Allison 
College  was  founded  in  1862  to  serve  the  higher 
educational  needs  of  the  Methodists  of  the 
maritiine  provinces;  and  in  1864  Saint  Joseph's 
<A)U<«e,  Memramcook,  was  establislud  by  the 
Roman  Catholics  for  the  Acadian*  and  others 
of  that  communion. 

Qoebcc— McGill  Universiiy,  Uontreal,  had 
its  -origin  in  the  bequest  by  James  McGill,  a 
public-spirited  citizen  of  Matttrol,  of  land  and 
buildings  on  the  outskirts  of  Montreal,  and  the 
sum  of  £1(XOOO  for  universi^  purposes.  The 
college  received  a  royal  charter  in  1821,  was 
fonnally  opened  in  1S29,  and  has  always  been 
undenominational.  The  University  of  Btsbop's 
College,  LcnnoKvilte,  is  an  An^ican  institution, 
was  founded  as  a  high  school  in  1843,  and  re~ 
ceived  a  royal  charter  as  a  tmiversity  in  1852. 
l^val  University,  Quebec,  was  founded  In  1852 
and  named  in  hmior  of  the  first  bishop 
of  New  France,  who  foimded  the  scmiiary  of 

guebec  in  1663,  and  of  which  it  is  the 
gitimate  descendant.  This  university  has 
a  branch  establishment,  OE  second  scat>  at 
Uontreal. 

Ontario. —  Governor  Simaw  waS  the  first 
(o  propose  the  establishment  of  n  university  in 
Upper  Canada,  but  it  was  lonRafUr  before  any 
scheme  took  definite  shape.  The  cootignity  of 
the  province  to  the  United  States,  the  high 
educational  standard  even  then. attained  in  that 
country,  and  the  absence  of  educatjonal  fac^ 
ities  in  upper  Canada,  forced  the  vrell-to-do  to 
send  their  sons  across  the  border  for  edncatiot^ 
where,  at  the  fonnative  period  of  their  lives, 
they  were  subjected  to  the  influence  of  Ameri- 
can textbooks  and  Anierican  teadiers  anid 
breathed  the  atmosphere  of  an  anti-British 
democracy — a  condition  of  aftairs  that  wU 
little  to  the  liktug  of  the  sealous  chwrch-and- 
state  mni    who    formed    the   ofiicinl   class   is 


..  royal  charter  for  the  founding  of  King's 
College,  which  vu  to  be, an  Anf^ican  institUr 
tion,  subscription  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articlee 
being  a  condition  for  the  holding  o£  office  bjr 
the  staff  and  coundL  This  attempt  to  estabr 
lish  an  Anglican  monopoily  in  higher  education 
was  as  hotly  resisted  by  the  majority  of  the  people 
of  Upper  Canada  was  the  endeavor  to  create 
a  monopoly  in  religions  endowments,  and 
gave  rise  to  an  educational  controversy  that 
continued    for  22   years.     Little    was   accotn- 

E listed  toward  founding  the  college  for  a  num- 
er  of  years;  in  183/  an  amended  charter 
aboli^ied  the  denominational  teat,  but  left  the 
sore  open  by  permitting  the  theological  chair 
to  remain  in  Angfican  control.  In  1843  King's 
College  began  operations  in  Toronto.  Other 
colleges  were  ooncurrently  founded  under 
denominational  auspices.  Rc^opolis  College 
was  founded  by  Biuiop  Uacdonell  at  Kingston 
as  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  in  1837,  but 
owing  to  financial  difficultjes,  closed  its  doors 
in  1869.  Queen's  College,  Kingston,  a  Presby- 
terian institution,  was  incorporated  m  1839  and 
began  the  work  of  teaching  in  1842  in  a  "clap- 
board btulding.*  Victoria  College,  a  Meth- 
odist iBstitutwn,..Has  .incorpoiMed  tw_.act.cEE 


of   1843,    . 

ScoUand  in  ld44.  S^nt  Joseph's  College, 
Ottawa  (College  of  Bytown),  was  founded  by 
Bishop  Gutgues  of  Ottawa  as  a  Roman  Cathol^ 
institution,  and  erected  into  the  University  of 
Ottawa  in  1866.  Between  1843  and  1849  five 
legislative  attempts  were  made  to  deal  compre- 
hensively with  ^e  nniversit^  problem,  and  in 
(be  latter  year  the  Baldwin  Act  completely 
seoilaiizcd  King's  College  and  transformed  it 
into  the  University  of  Toronto.  Bishop 
Strachan,  now  an  cdd  nun  of  72,  faced  the 
new  situation,  which  imposed  a  'godless  uni- 
vorsity*  on  the  province,  with  indomitable 
courtge;  he  proceeded  to  England  and  after  a 
vigorous  campaign  obtained  a  royal  charter  in 
1852  for  the  University  of  Trinity  College, 
which  remains  to  this  day  a  monument  to  his 
pertinacity  and  embodies  his  ideals  in  higher 
education  —  a  denominational,  collegiate  and 
residenttal  itistilulion  modelled  on  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  in  preference  to  the  professorial 
teaching  of  the  Scottish  university  system  of 
which  lie  was  himself  the  product.  Huron 
Collese  (now  the  Western  University)  was 
esublf^d  at  London  in  1863,  and  Wycliffe 
Cbllegv  Torgnto,  was  founded  in  1879  by  the 
Low  Chnrcft  party,  both  being  offshoots  of 
Trinity  College.  Saint  Michael's  College, 
Toronto,  was  founded  as  a  Roman  Catholic 
institntion  by  Bishop  Charbonnel  in  1851.  A 
bill  introdnced  into  the  Parliament  of  United 
Canada,  by  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Francis) 
Htncfcs,  providing  for  the  separation  of  the 
teaching  function  from  that  of  examining  and 
confernng  degrees,  received  the  royal  assent 
in  April  1853,  and  from  that  date  until  federa- 
tion University  College  represented  the  teaching 
side  of  the  University  of  Toronto.  In  I860  a 
Baptist  college  was  opened  at  Woodstock,  the 
theotoeical  teaching  in  which  was  later  merged 
In  McMaster  University,  Toronto,  founded  by 
the  munificence  of  Senator  William  McMaster, 
And  which  obtained  a  charter  in  1887.  The 
provision  of  denominational  colleges  in  Ontario 
was  thus  more  dian  amijie  and  had  vasdy  out- 
run the  means  of  subsistence,  and  meantime 
adei^uate  funds  with  which  to  finance  the  ext- 
pensive  modem  equipment  in  science  and 
medicine  were  urgently  required  A  movement 
for  federation  had  been  ^thering  'force  since 
1874,  and  10  years  later  it  took  active  shape 
wiicn  Mr.  G.  W,  (afterwards  Sir  George)  Ross, 
the  then  provincial  minister  of  education,  sum- 
moned a  meeting  representative  of  the  various 
oollegns,  to  consider  the  question.  Following 
on  a  series  of  discussions  extending  over  three 
years,  a  federation  act  was  passed  in  1887, 
nnder  which  all  the  federating  colleges  find 
representation  on  the  senate  of  the  University 
of  Toronto.  The  theological  colleges  of 
WycUfle,  Knox  and  Saint  Michael's  were  the 
first  to  accept  federation ;  Victoria  entered  in 
1890;  and  the  medical  faculty  of  Trinitv  Uni- 
versity was  incorporated  in  1903.  Queen  s  Unir 
versity,  which  ceased  to  be  a  distinctly  Presby- 
terian institution  in  1912,  and  McMaster  Uni- 
versity remain  ou^de  federation. 

Prairie  Provinces. — The  University  of 
Manitoba  was  first  established  at  V^nnipcg  in 
L877.a&.a  ledention  of..d«na*unukMU.£oUe|w 


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CANADA— KBLiaiOUB  COHOITIOMS  ^) 


on  tfce  model  of  London  Universilj'  —  the  con- 
stituent collcKcs  being  those  of  Saint  Boniface 
(Roman  Catnolic),  Saint  John's  fAnghcan), 
and  Manitoba  (Presbyterian).  Wesley  College 
(Methodist)  became  afSliated  in  1388.  The 
University  of  Saskatchewan  was  founded  at 
Saskatoon  in  1909,  when  Emmanuel  College, 
Prince  Albert,  which  was  originally  founded  oy 
Bishop  McLean  in  1879  as  a  college  for  native 
helpers,  was  transferred  to  that  dty.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Alberta  was  founded  by  the  pro- 
vincial legislature  in  1906,  provision  vras  made 
for  a  site  at  Edmonton  in  1907,  and  the  first 
session  opened  in  1908. 

British  Columbia.— In  1907  an  act  was 
passed  by  the  provincial  legislature  setting 
apart  lands  as  a  university  endowment,  in  the 
following  session  the  institution  was  incor- 
porated, and  in  1915  it  was  opened  at  Van- 

D.  S.  Douglas, 
Editorial  Staff  of  The  Amerieana,-Toront«. 
25.  RBLIGIOUS    CONDITIONS.      The 

religiotia  and  «cclesiastical  life  of  Canada  caih 
not  be  understood  without  some  reference  to 
the  sources  from  which  it  sprang.     Hie  same 

Beat  forces  and  influence  which  molded  the 
stoiy  of  the  Old  World  re-appear  here,  but 
modified  in  their  action  and  combnjations  by 
the  new  and  freer  environment  in  which  they 
work.  Broadly  speaking,  the  three  great  Brit- 
ish peoples  which  form  the  bulk  and  basis  of 
the  Dominion,  brought  with  thetn  the  AngUr- 
cui,  Presbyterian  and  Methodist  forms  of  re- 
ligion, while  latterly  the  tides  of  aiien  imm»- 
nants  have  brought  wiih  them  varieties  of  the 
Eaeteni  and  Western  Catholic  churches.  The 
dominating  religious  life  of  Canada  is  Protest- 
ant, save  in  the  province  of  Quebec  which  is 
almost  exclusively  Roman  Catholic  and  Frcnch- 
spealdng^.  As  a  whole  C^ada  is  distinctively 
a  Chrbtian  country,  not  so  conservative  on  tbie 
one  hand  as  Great  Britain,  or  on  the  other 
band  so  liberal  as  the  United  States,  85  p«r 
cent  of  the  population  belonging  to  the 
Roman,  Prest^teriaii,  Methodist  and  Anglicaa 
churches. 

General  Hiaiorr.— The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  the  oldest  and  brgest  of  the  ecckn- 
astical  bodies  in  Canada.  It  has  its  chief  seat 
in  the  province  of  Quebec.  In  Canada,  under 
French  rule,  it  was  all-powerful,  and  in  its 
origin  it  was  distinctively  missionaiv.  The 
Jesuits  were  the  pioneers  and,  from  the  Saint 
Lawrence  to  the  Rodriea,  have  left  an  impei?- 
ishable  record.  While  tcnday  the  largest  sectioa 
by  far  of  the  Roman  Catholic  is  French  speak' 
ing,  a  considerable  body  of  Roman  Cathohcs  is 
found  in  the  other  provinces  repreKnting  iti 
their  lineage  and  traditions  the  Catholics  of 
the  north  of  Scotland  atid  south  of  Ireland. 
In  the  western  provinces  from  Winnipeg  to  the 
Pacific  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  strong 
in  inflnence  and  membership.  See  the  article 
on  the  RoMAK  Catholic  Cnuiicn. 

The  Church  of  England  in  Canada  began 
with  the  settlement  in  Nova  Scotia  (known 
of  old  as  Acadia)  of  certain  Enjjlish  immigrants 
who  came  in  government  ships  to  Halifax 
in  1749,  and  built  Saint  Paul's  Church  for 
ibe  peoples'  worship  (1750).  The  incoming 
of  the  United  Emi»re  I.oyalists  (Americans 
wbo-  determined  to  rema'i  loyal  to  thcBrit^ 


ish  Crown)  in  1783-84  gave  a  great  impetus 
to  the  Church  of  England,  for  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  them  were  Episcopalians,  and  in 
1787,  Dr.  Chralcs  Inglis  was  consecrated  io 
L.ambeth  in  England,  as  bishop  of  Nova  Scotia, 
the  first  bishop  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
Canada.  His  diocese  included  New  Brunswictc 
Newfoundland;  Prince  Edward  Island  and 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada.  In'  the  year  1793 
Dr.  Jacob  Mountain  was  consecrated  as  bishop 
of  Quebec,  and  all  (Canada  west  of  Quebec  was 
under  this  jurisdiction  until  1839  wh«n  Dr. 
John  Strachan  was  made  bishop  of  Toronto, 
the  Anglican  population  of  Upper  Canada  com- 
prisitwbis  ejttscopate.  About  this  time  the  new 
Canadian  spirit  of  the  church  began  to  manifest 
itself.  Before  this  the  Anglican  Church  had  de- 
pended for  its  support  largely  upon  the  charity 
of  the  missionary  organiiations  of  the  mother 
church  in  England,  especially  the  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  but  in  1642  it 
was  felt  that  self-respecting  Canadian  church- 
men should  begin  to  sui^rt  their  own  church 
and  ministty,  and  the  Church  Society  of  th« 
Dioceie  of  Toronto  became  the  pioneer  of  the 
system  of  parochial  self-support  now  almost 
universal  in  Uie  Canadian  church.  Another 
very  remarkable  event  in  the  life  of  the  Cana- 
dian church  was  the  emergence  o{  the  demo- 
cratic and  independent  spirit  of  self-govern- 
ment. All  the  bishops  of  the  Anglican  Church 
in  Canada  were  accustomed  to  receive  their 
commission  from  the  British  government,  and 
their  coOsecration  in  England,  and  the  members 
of  the  churdi  had  nothing  whatever  to  say  in 
the  matter.  But  after  no  little  discussion  and 
cMflicuIty  ttie  Canadian  tnshops  detennined  to 
have  their  own  jurisdiction  and  synods,  and  in 
the  years  1857-59  asserted  their  ecclesiastical 
independence  by  holding  synods  in  Toronto 
and  Quebec  where  the  clergy  and  laity  meeting 
on  equal  footing  mi^t  transact  the  affairs  ot 
die  church.  The  year  1862  marked  also  a  net* 
era  in  the  history  of  the  Canadian  Church,  for 
in  that  year  Dr.  Lewis  was  elected  bishop  of 
the  diocese  of  Ontario,  and  instead  of  crossing 
the  ocean  for  consecration  at  the  hands  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  was  consecrated  on 
Canadian  soil  by  Canadian  bishops.  From  that 
time  the  church  expanded  remarkably,  and 
whereas  a  -little  over  a  century  ago  there  was 
only  bishop  and  a  few  scattered  cler^  for  all 
Canada  there  are  now  28  dioceses  with  1,750 
dei^,  nine  church  colleges  and  three  church 
universities;  two  missionary  dioceses  in  China 
and  Japan,  a  lar^e  body  of  missionaries  in 
Japan,  China,  India,  Africa,  Palestine  and  South 
America  with  native  workers,  atid  Christian 
sdiools  and  or|d)anages  and  hospitals ;  over 
2,000  churches  and  Sunday  schools;  and  over 
$3,500,000  contributed  annually  For  diurch  pur- 
poses and  missions.  The  laws  of  each  diocese 
are  under  the  control  of  the  Synod  of  the 
Diocese  wiiich  as  a  rule  meets  anntially  and  is 
composed  of  the  clergy  and  lay  representatives 
from  each  parish  and  mission.  The  whole 
church  in  Canada  is  represented  in  the  General 
Synod  which  meets  once  every  three  years,  pre- 
sided over  by  the  leading  archbishop,  who  is 
the  'Primate  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
Canada.    The  outstanding  features  of  tiie  pro- 

f'essive  life  of  the  Anglican    (or  Protestant 
piscopal)  Church  in  Canada  <niring  the  past 
few  years,  luva  boaa- thB-jremaifaUe  ^ogress 


vGoogIc 


CAHADA^KBLIOIOUS  COIfDITIOMS  (28) 


of  the  missMDaTy  life  of  the  church  at  home 
aod  abroad,  the  stimalatioii  of  the  Sunday 
school  and  educational  work  by  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Sunday  school  comnission,  the 
atttborizatioD  of  the  new  Canadian  Giurch 
Hymn  Book  (the  Book  of  Common  Praise) 
as  the  one  book  for  use  in  all  the  churches,  and 
the  revision  of  the  I'l^yer  Book  as  the  Cana- 
dian Bocdc  of  Common  Prayer  approved  by  the 
General  Synod  held  in  Toronto,  September 
1915. 

The  PresbylerioH  Church  in  Canada  traces 
its  descent  to  several  distinct  sources.  The  at- 
tempt made  in  the  I7th  century  to  found 
Huguenot  settlements  failed  disastrously  and 
few  traces  remain  of  their  existence.  Among 
the  PresWterian  Loyalists  who  came  to  Canada 
at  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  there 
yras  a  goodly  number  of  descendants  of  Hugue- 
nots. In  17^  Protestant  colonists  were  brought 
into  Nova  Scotia  from  England  and  the  Con- 
tinent, in  order  to  counteract  the  disaffection  of 
the  Acadians.  Again  in  1755,  after  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Acatnans.  many  Protestants  from 
Great  Britain  and  olfler  colonies  along  the  At- 
lantic coast  were  induced,  by  the  promise  of 
liberty  of  conscience  and  of  worship,  to  occupy 
the  vacant  huids.  Then  there  was  a  large  in- 
flux of  immigration  from  the  north  of  Ireland 
and  from  Scotland.  Some  districts,  such  as 
the  countv  of  Pictou,  were  almost  exclusively 
occupied  by  Scotch  Presbyterians.  These  j>eo- 
ple  naturally  clung  to  the  various  ecclesiastical 
bodies  into  which  Scotch  Presbyterian  ism  was 
divided.  And  accordingflv  there  were  Presl^- 
teries  constituted  with  relations  Co  the  Kirk  of 
Scotland  and  the  Secession  Church  in  its  two 
subdivisions  of  Burgher  and  Anti-Burgher,  and 
also  adherents  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterians 
or  Covenanters.  The  great  disruption  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1843  extended  to  the 
colonies  and  -added  to  the  existing  divisions  the 
Free  Presbyterian  Church.  But  in  1861  the 
process  of  reunion  began  with  the  union  of  the 
United  Secession  Church  (inclusive  of  both 
Burglier  and  An ti- Burgher)  and  the  Free 
Church  of  the  Maritime  provmces  into  one 
synod. 

The  history  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  Western  provinces  followed  similar  lines 
but  with  new  complications.  Soon  after  the 
con((uest,  Presbyterian  congregations  were  or- 
ganized in  the  cities  of  Quebec  and  Montreal. 
Among  the  Loyalists  were  not  a  few  Presby- 
terians. But  there  was  scanty  provision  for 
their  religious  needs.  Applications  for  minis- 
ters made  to  the  churches  in  Scotland  met  with 


the  United  States  resulted  in  the  incoming  of 
a  number  of  ministers  from  that  country.  Other 
ministers  followed  from  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
In  1818  was  or^nized  "The  Presbytery  of  the 
Canadas."  In  1831  there  was  organized  a  synod 
in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  In 
1840  the  two  synods  were  united  into  one.  But 
in  1843  the  great  disruption  in  Scotland  again 
rent  it  assunder  and  two  synods  resulted,  one 
in  connection  with  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  and  the  other  in  connection  with  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Besides  these  there 
were  other  independent  Presbyteries,  one  at 
Niagara  and  the  other  at  Stamford,  composed 
of  ministers  from  the  United  States,  and  ■  third 


originated  by  ministers  from  Scotland  and  from 
Nova  Scoda,  connected  with  the  "United  Pres- 
byterian   Church.*    The    first 


and  the  combined  body  received  the  name  of  the 
Canada  Presbyterian  Church,  In  1875  the 
greater  union  was  consummated  l^  which  all 
ttte  Presbyterian  bodies  throu^out  Canada 
from  east  to  west,  were  united  in  one  great 
Canadian  Presbyterian  Church.  This  was  an 
epoch  making,  and  epoch-marking  event  in  the 
history  of  Canadian  Presbyterianism.  It  uni- 
fied the  life  of  the  church,  and  became  the  start- 
ing point  of  its  missionary  energy  both  in  the 
Canadian  and  world-wide  field. 

Until  the  greater  union  was  consummated 
little  had  been  attempted  by  the  Presbyter- 
ians in  the  evangelization  of  the  Nortfiwest 
In  1812  and  1816  a  large  body  of  Hi^landers 
had  settled  in  the  Red  River  district,  but  the 
(Hily  ministers  they  had  were  those  of  the 
Church  of  England  until  1852,  when  the  Rev. 
John  Black,  a  devoted  missionary,  organ iied 
them  into  a  congregation.  Little  more  was 
done  until  after  the  federation  of  Canada  and 
the  complete  unbn  of  the  Canadian  Prest^ 
terians.  In  1881  the  General  Assembly  ap- 
pointed the  Rev,  Dr.  Tames  Robertson  to  be 
superintendent  of  Presbyterian  missions  in  the 
Northwest.  This  remarkable  man  laid  the 
foundations  of  Presbytenan  organization 
throughout  those  vast  territories  and  covered 
the  whole  country  with  a  network  of  Presby- 
terian missions,  so  ^t  now  (1916)  in  place  of 
one  there  are  eight  district  superintendents. 
The  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada  is  one  of 
the  dominating  religious  forces  of  the  Do- 
minion, and  to-day  with  1,899  ministers,  3^15 
Sabbath  schools,  333,457  communicants  eight 
theological  colleges,  church  property  valued  at 
$23,447,000,  it  stands  at  the  very  forefront  of 
the  Protestant  life  of  the  Dominion,  The  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Canada  was  the  first  branch 
of  the  church  in  the  world  to  put  sddat  service 
and  evangelism  together,  having  evangelical 
social  settlements  and  redemption  homes  from 
Sydney  and  Montreal  and  Toronto  to  Winnipeg, 
C^gary  and  Vancouver. 

The  Methodist  Church  in  Canada  traces  its 
origin  to  two  distinct  sources,  England  and  the 
United  States,  In  1770  Lieutenant-Governor 
Franklin  sou^t  English  settlers  for  the  prov- 
ince  of  Nova  Scotia  in  the  East  fUding  of 
Yorkshire.  Among  them  were  the  earliest 
Methodists  of  Canada,  one  of  whom  was  the 
noted  preacher  and  evangelist,  John  Black.  In 
1784  he  went  to  the  United  States,  and  his  ap- 
peal to  the  Baltimore  conference  led  to  the 
coming  of  a  number  of  Methodist  ministers  to 
the  Maritime  provinces.  In  Quebec  the  first 
Methodist  preachers  were  connected  with  the 
British  regiments.  As  early  as  1778  M^odists 
from  New  Yoric  State  came  to  the  Eastern 
Townships  and  to  Upper  Canada.  The  Metho- 
dists did  a  noble  work  in  laying 'the  founda- 
tion of  religious  life  and  worship  in  many  dis- 
tricts in  C^ada,  especially  in  the  province  of 
Ontario,  a  great  impetus  being  given  by  the 
labors  of  Barbara  Meek.  Until  the  War  of  1812 
Canadian  Methodism  was  closely  connected 
with  that  of  the  United  States.  Negotiations 
were  then  entered  into  with  the  British  We»- 
leyans.    Unhappy  dissensions  followed.    Wb^ 


Ci.i 


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CANADA— SXLIOIOU8  COHDXTIOira  (2S) 


one  party  was  anxious  to  maintain  the  Ameri' 
c^  connection,  the  other  insisted  tliat,  as  loyal 
British  subjects,  they  should  look  to  the  roother 
land  A  compromise  was  arrived  at  by  which 
the  American  ctinnection  was  to  be  observed  in 
Upper  Canada,  whil;  the  British  missionaries 
were  to  be  free  to  enter  Lower  Canada,  and  the 
Maritime  provinces.  This  coirmromise  was  of 
short  duration;  for  when,  in  18^  the  American 
conference  relinquished  its  jurisdiction  over 
the  Canadian  conference  and  the  latter  was  in- 
dependently organized  under  the  name  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Canada,  the 
British  conference  decided  not  to  confine  its 
work  to  Lower  Canada.  After  much  contro- 
versy, in  1833  a  union  between  these  two 
branches  of  Methodism  was  consummated  under 
the  name  of  "The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church 
in  North  America.'  But,  notwithstanding  this 
union  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  sur- 
vived in  a  new  form  and  increased  vei^  rapidly. 
Methodist  missionary  work  bad  its  origm 
amcHig  the  Indians  of  Ontario  in  1829,  and 
in  the  Northwest  began  about  1840.  Its  annals 
abound  with  noble  achievements.    There  then 


already  mentioned,  different  branches  of  British 
Methodism  had  been  brought  into  the  country, 
namely,  the  Methodist  New  Connection,  the 
Primitive  Methodist  body  and  the  Bible  Chris- 
tians. All  these  became  nrmly  rooted  in  Canada 
and  developed  into  strong  bodies.  The  need  of 
unification  began  to  be  earnestly  discussed  as 
early  as  1666.  In  1873  a  union  was  consum- 
mated between  the  Wesleyan,  the  New  Connec- 
tion, and  the  Eastern  British,- American  Con- 
ference, but  it  was  not  until  1883  that,  at  a 
general  conference  held  in  Belleville  the  union 
was  consummated.  Then  all  the  Methodist 
bodies,  hitherto  locally  or  ci:clesiastically 
separated,  were  brought  together;  and,  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  there  is  now  one  great 
Methodist  Church  of  Canada,  with  2,337  or- 
dained ibinisters,  3321  churches  and  1,639  other 
preaching  places,  376,761  church  members,  and 
3,824  Sunday  schools  with  41,929  ofiicers  and 
teachers  and  420,210  scholars.  There  was 
contributed  for  all  missionary  work,  throu^ 
her  various  boards  and  funds,  $1,170,434;  she 
has  invested  $7,200,391  in.  her  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  her  activities  seek  the  evangelism 
of  both  die  individual  and  society,  and  the  ap- 
|>lication  of  the  principles  of  the  gospel  of  Jesui 
to  all  the  moral,  economic,  social  and  poiiticEJ 
relations  of  life. 

The  Baptist  Chttrchts  derived  their  origin 
from  the  American  Baptists.  From  1760  on- 
ward there  are  traces  of  individual  Baptists  in 
different  localities  in  Nova  Scotia.  In  18Z0  the 
first  Baptist  association  was  formed  for  the 
Maritime  provinces.  The  first  Baptist  Church 
in  Lower  Canada  was  formed  in  1>^,  and  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  Loyalist  refugees  from  Con- 
necticut. In  1795  another  was  organized  in 
Upper  Canada.  The  first  Baptist  Church  in 
Montreal  was  not  orgamzed  until  1830.  The 
Baptists  of  Canada  to-day  <1917)  occupy  a  very 
Strang  position.  With  885  ordained  ministers, 
1.335  churches,  and  a  membership  of  138,197, 
tney  represent  a  very  strong  religious  force  in 
Uie  life  of  the  Dominion.  Their  leading  edu- 
cational institutions  are  the  Acadia  University 
and  Seminary,  in  Wolfvilk,  NovA..5coti9,  thp 


Woodstock  College  in  Woodstodc,  Ont.,  the 
Brandon  Collese  in  Brandon,  Manitoba,  and 
chiefly  the  McMaster  University  in  Toronto. 
In  Sunday  school  woric,  missions  both  home  and 
foreign,  and  in  social  service,  the  Canadian 
Baptists  are  always  to  the  fore. 

Congregalionalism  has  never  found  a  strong 
footing  in  Canada.  A  few  scattered  adherents 
came  from  New  England  to  Nova  Scotia  in 
1758.  In  the  eastern  townships  Coner^ation- 
alism  was  founded  in  1811  by  settlers  from 
Massachusetts,  and  in  Ontario  some  10  or  12 
years  later.  Nothing  was  done  west  of  Ontario 
until  1879,  when  work  was  begun  in  Winnipeg. 
There  are  in  Canada  about  13,000  members,  and 
100  ministers  mostly  in  Ontario,  with  a  few 
congregations  in  Nova  Scotia,  Quebec  and  the 
Northwest 

The  Evongelkal  LtUheraH  Ckwch  in  Canada 
dates  from  the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  The 
first  German  Lutheran  landed  at  Lunenburg, 
Nova  Scotia,  in  1749.  The  first  Lutheran  con- 
gregation in  Upper  Canada  was  founded  in 
1'77S.  Others  came  in  with  German  immigra- 
tion. In  1853  the  Canada  Conference  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  was  founded.  The  main  body 
of  Lutherans  is  in  the  (iistrict  of  Ontario  near 
he  city  of  Berlb  (in  1916changedlo  Kitchener) 
and  in  the  Northwest  where  Targe  numbers  of 
Swedes  and  Norwegians  are  found.  There  is 
an  Icelandic  branch  of  the  Ludieran  Church  in 
the  Northwest 

There  ere  a  number  of  small  religious  bodies 
in  Canada,  none  of  which  exercises  any  appre- 
ciable influence  upon  the  relignous  life  of  the 
country;  chief  amoiw  them  are  The  Disciples 
and  The  Brethren,  The  Adventists  and  Men- 
nonites.  There  are  a  few  Unitarians  and 
Quakers,  and  the  Russellites,  Theo»ophists  and 
Christian  Scientists  have  increased  not  a  little, 
especially  in  the  dties.  The  Salvation  Army 
has  acquired  a  considerable  foothold  in  the 
larger  cities  and  towns,  and  has  latterly  given 
much  of  its  strength  to  the  development  of 
social  work  in  the  towns  and  cities. 

There  are  four  paramount  considerations 
which  have  profoundly  affected  the  whole 
religious  history  and  development  of  the  Do- 
minion namely,  the  relations  of  the  churches 
to  the  state  and  to  education,  their  benefident 
and  missionary  activities,  and  the  problem  of 
church  union. 

Church  and  State.— In  the  18th  century 
the  authorities  believed  that  an  Established 
Church  was  necessaiy  in  order  to  secure  the 
loyalty  of  the  colonists,  and  it  was,  without 
doubt,  the  intention  of  the  British  government 
to  maintain  an  Anglican  estabhshment  in 
Upper  Canada  the  counterpart  of  the  Rotnan 
CaUiolic  establishment  in  Lower  Canada.  In 
1791  the  Constitutional  Act  was  passed  reaffirm- 
ing the  provision  of  previous  l^slatiou  which 
gave  the  King  the  nght  to  set  apart  for  the 
support  of  the  'Protestant  clergy"  the  seventh 
part  of  all  ungranted  Crown  lands.  This  was 
the  origin  of  the  "clergy  reserves'  (sec  Can- 
ada—The CXergy  Reserves).  The  amtuguity 
of  the  term  "Protestant  dergy"  admitted  of  a 
variety  of  interpretations.  T  '  "' 
maintained  that  they  alone  » 


Anglican  clergy 
intended  by  the 


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CANADA— SSLimOUS  CONDITIONS  (35) 


general,  resMed  soch  an  amropnation  of  the 
paUic  lands,  but  the  Bridui  Wesleywu  urged 
an  acceptasce  of  a  {mrtiov)  of  the  *clergr  re- 
ferves.*  After  yean  of  fnutkas  ecclesiastical 
rtrife,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  legislature  of 
Upper  Canada,  by  which  the  lands  were  handed 
over  to  the  mmucipal  corporations  of  the  prov- 
ince for  secular  purposes,  provision  bang  made 
to  satisfy  the  dauns  of  existing  incumbents.  In 
lieu  of  these  claims  there  was  paid  over  to  the 
Church  of  £ug]and  the  sum  of  $1,103,405;  to 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  $509,739;  to  other  Pres- 
byterians, $8,062;  to  the  Werieran  Uethodists, 
U9,074;  and  to  the  Roman  Cattiolics  in  Upper 
Canada,  $83,731.  The  Anglican  Church  was 
thus  delivered  from  -what  mi^t  have  been  its 
nitn  in  Carttada,  and  ^e  people  of  the  province 
released  from  a  grievous  injustice  and  a  source 
of  political  discontent  and  strife.  In  those  days 
the  representatives  of  the  churches  of  England 
and  Scotland,  especially  the  former,  had  a  cer- 
tain status  accorded  to  them,  dented  to  other 
dcnominatiiMts.  The  Methodists  were  most  ttn- 
jttstly  charged  with  disloyalty,  to  whidi  dieir 
connection,  in  origin  and  government,  with  the 
United  States  gave  some  color  of  plausituUty. 
Until  1830  the  Methodists  and  other  dissenters 
bad  no  right  to  hold  land  for  places  of  worship 
or  for  die  burial  of  their  dead,  nor  had  the 
Methodists  and  dieir  ministers  the  ri^t  to 
solemnize  matrimony,  even  among  their  own 
people.  It  was  only  after  long  and  bitter  coi»- 
troversy  that  laws  were  passed  authorizing  the 
various  religious  bodies  to  hold  land  for 
churches,  parsonages  and  burial  grounds,  and 
empowering  their  ministers  to  celebrate  mar- 


Christian  bodies  are  in  a  position  of  practi 
equality,  and  marriages  can  be  performed  by 
members  of  every  church  and  religious  de- 
nomination duly  ordained,  and  also  by  any 
elder,  missionary  or  evangelist  of  the  so-called 
Congregation  of  God  and  of  Christ,  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ,  the  Brethren  or  any  duW  ap- 
pointed commissioner  or  staff  officer  of  the 
Salvation  Army.  Marrij^rs  by  a  magistrate  (^ 
instice  of  the  peace  are  unknown  in  Canada. 
No  civil  official  is  qualified  by  any  legislative 
act  in  Canada  to  celebrate  marriage.  It  is 
evident  then  that  there  is  throughout  Canada 
cranplete  separation  of  church  and  state,  with 
die  exception  of  the  peculiar  position  held  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Qiun±  in  Quebec,  secured 
bv  treaty  and  the  terms  of  British  occupancy  o£ 
that  province.  Canadians  believe  in  a  chorclw 
supported  state,  not  in  a  state- supported 
church,  and  with  a  few  exceptions  the  religious 

Sliirit  of  the  Dominion  is  remarkably  free  and 
emocratic 
The  Church  and  Bdncation. —  So  long  as 
France  held  Canada,  education  was  cntirelyin 
the  hands  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
Jesuits,  Franciscans  and  other  orders  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  colleges  and  seminaries 
which  hold  an  important  place  in  the  education 
of  Lower  Canada.  Thns  the  system  of  educa- 
tion was  entirely  ecclesiastical.  Under  British 
rule  the  attempt  was  made  to  establish  free 
schools  common  to  the  whole  population  and 
unsectarian  in  character.  This  was  found  to  be 
hnpracticable.  With  the  union  of  the  two 
provinces  in  1841  separate  schools  had  to  be 
coiKcd»d  (9  tilt  ProMstants  In  Lower  Canada 


because  the  public  sdiool  system  'was  essentially 
Roman  Catholic;  and  when,  in  the  same  year, 
die  first  attempt  at  a  Keneral  system  of  public 
schools  was  made  in  L^per  Carada,  the  K<Mnaa 
Catholics  there  secured  the  concession  of 
separate  schools,  but  in  a  very  limited  way. 
This,  for  many  years,  was  a  subject  of  con- 
troversy, poliucal  as  well  as  religious,  the 
Liberal  party  detnanding  the  abolition  of  separ- 
ate schools  ai>d  the  Roman  Catholic  authorities 
seeking  the  complete  control  of  the  education  of 
their  children.  Finally,  on  confederation  in 
1867,  the  separate  school  ^tem  was  bound 
upon  the  province  of  Ontario;  although,  as  is 
noteworthy,  there  are  more  Roman  Catholic 
children  in  the  public  schools  of  Ontario  than 
in  the  separate  schools.  In  the  Uaritime  prov- 
inces and  in  northwestern  Canada  there  are  no 
separate  schools. 

While  public  sdiool  education  has  been  re- 
moved from  the  control  of  the  churches  (ex- 
cept in  Quebec)  the  great  body  of  tlie  people 
are  anxious  that  it  should  iwt  be  divorced  from 
the  sanctions  and  influences  of  religion.  In 
the  province  of  Ontario,  the  public  schools  are^ 
with  few  exceptions,  opened  daily  with  prayer 
and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  In  not  a 
few,  the  Bible  is  carefully  taught  But  much 
depends  not  only  upon  &e  ct^racter  of  the 
teachers,  but  also  upon  the  disposition  of  the 
school  trustees,  to  whom  the  law  gives  a  large 
discretion  in  this  matter.  There  is  a  strong 
feeling  growing  in  the  community  at  lar^  and 
caqiressed  by  restriutions  of  the  differeat  church 
legislatures  that  there  is  urg«nt  need  of  more 
ethical  and  Biblical  teaching  in  the  schools  and 
that  it  is  possible  to 'secure  it  upon  lines  accept- 
able to  the  great  majority  of  the  people  and 
with  proper  regard  for  the  conscientious  con- 
victions of  those  who  may  differ  from  them. 

Sectarian  jealousies  greatly  hindered  the  de- 
velopment of  higher  education  in  all  the  older 
provmces.  The  stmgsle  in  Ontario  occupied  a 
very  lai^  place,  bo^  in  the  politics  and  the 
religious  lite  of  the  province.  The  attempt  to 
create  a  national  university  was  for  a  long  time 
prevented  by  the  exclusive  policy  of  the  An- 


obtained  in  1827)  upon  s 
clusively  AngUcan  basis  in  spite  of  the  desire  of 
the  first  bishop  who  de^red  to  have  it  upon  a 
broader  national  line.  In  1849  King's  College 
became  the  Uiuversity  of  Toronto,  upon  a 
broad  undenominational  basis,  but  not  until  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  shut  out  from  King's  Col- 
lege, had  estaUished  Queen's  University,  and 
the  Methodists  founded  Victoria  University, 
which  is  now  federated  with  the  University  of 
Toronto.  Other  denominational  colics  sprang 
into  existence.  After  the  secularuation  of 
King's  College,  Trinitv  University  was  estab- 
lished  by  Bi^op  Stracnan,  upon  an  exclusively 
Anglican  basis.  The  leaders  of  the  broader 
polic;^  had  been  broad-minded  Anglican  laymen, 
and  It  was  laymen  of  the  same  type  who,  in 
1877,  established  Wycliffc  College,  federated 
with  the  University  of  Toronto  and  upon  a  dis- 
tinctively evangelical  or  Low  Church  basis,  as 
op;>osed  to  the  High  Church  position  of  Trinity 
University.  The  latter  has  not  realized  the 
expectations  of  its  founders  and  in  1904, 
abandoned  its  position  of  isolation  and  con- 
nected itself  wtui  the  Unlvecii^  of  Toronta  m 


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CANADA— RSLIOIODS  CONDITIOHft  <3SJ 


a  federateil  collegt!.  The  resuh  is  that,  in  On- 
tario to-day,  there  are  Church  of  Enghnd, 
Presbyterian,  Methodist  and  Boman  Catholic 
colleges  federated  with  the  Provincial  Uni- 
versity; while,  apart  from  it,  there  still  stand 
the  Presbyterian  University  of  Queen's,  the 
Baptist  University  of  McMaster  and  several 
Roman  Catholic  institutions.  In  Montreal. 
McGill  is  virtually  a  Protestant  university,  and 
has  affiliated  with  it  Presbyterian,  Methodist, 
Con^egational  and  Anglican  schools  of  the- 
ology,   which    are    themselves    affiliated    '-    - 


uid  money  from  the  public  treasu^,  but  upon 
an  eicluaively  Anglican  basis.  The  one  in 
Ftxdericton  was  remodeled  and  became  the 
University  of  New  Brunswidc  upon  a  broad, 
ondenominational  basis;  the  other,' in  Windsor, 
Nova  Scotia,  ceased  to  receive  provincial  sop- 
port  but  remained  an  An^ican  imiversity  and 
Aeotogical  college.  Dalhousie  University,  in 
Halifax,  while  undenominational,  has  not  the 
status  of  a  provincial  university.  The  Presby- 
terians have  a  theological  college  in  connection 
with  Dalhousie.  The  Baptists  have  a  university 
in  Acadia,  Nova  Scotia;  and  the  Methodigtx  a 
tiniversiiy  and  theolo^cal  college  in  Sackville, 
New  Brunswick. 

The  Work  of  the  Chnrcbet^Tbe  Roman 
Catholic  Church  carries  on  a  great  variety  of 
ehariiabk  work  in  atylums,  bouses  of  refuge 
and  reformatories.  In  the'province  of  Qaebec 
al)  the  provincial  institutions  are  under  Roman 
Catholic  control.  In  the  cities  the  Protestants 
have  distinct  institutions  controlled  by  boards 
representative  of  the  chief  Protestant  churdies. 
In  Ontario,  the  Roman  Catholics  are  upon  the 
tame  footing  with  Protestants  in  the  provincial 
Institutions.  In  many  cities  and.  towns  the 
former  have  their  own  hospitals  and  reform- 
atories,  which  receive  provincia]  aid  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  patients  treated.  This 
elan  also  prevails  in  the  other  provinces  to  a 
less  extent.  In  other  cases,  special  provision  is 
made  for  Roman  Catholic  religious  services  in 
addition  to  the  Protestant  services. 

"Die  charitable  work  of  the  Roman  Cathc^ic 
Church  is  carried  on  by  the  various  religious 
orders,  many  of  whidi  are  specially  devoted  to 
the  relief  of  the  poor,  die  sick,  and  the  ^en. 

The  work  of  home  missions  within  the 
Dominion  in  connection  with  the  different 
cbctrches  reaches  out  to  every  comer  of  the 
land,  and  to  the  Indians  end  Esinmag.  For> 
eign  missionary  work  is  prosecuted  with  great 
vigor  by  all  denominations.  Among  other  good 
works  of  an  inter-denominaticmal  character  may 
be  mentioned  the  Bible  Society,  the  Religious 
Tract  Society,  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  the  ereat 
Christian  movement  organized  by  Mr.  Mott 
amon^  university  students^  the  young  people's 
societies,  such  as  the  Chnstian  Endeavor,  the 
Ep  worth  I..eague  and  the  Saint  Andrew's 
Brotherhood,  and  aboive  all  the  Laymen's  Mis- 
sionary Movcmenl  which  has  doiic  so  much  to 
unify  the  evangelical  forces  of  the  Dominion, 
and  to  stimulate  the  missionary  and  evangelistic 
life  of  all  the  churches  in  Canada.    The  dp- 


ganization  of  women  in  the  home  and  foreieo 
missionary  work  of  all  the  churches  and  m 
various  other  associations  has  greatly  stimulated 
religions  life  and  work.  The  reverent  observ- 
ance of  the  lord's  Day  throu^out  Canada  lias 
been  a  marked  feature  in  its  religious  life. 
Church  attendance  has,  on  the  whole,  been  well 
maintained.  The  laws  against  Sundn^  excur- 
sions and. other  violations  of  the  Sabbath  rert 
are  effectively  enforced.  The  Lord's  Day  Alli- 
ance has  the  co-operation  of  the  labor  imiotu 
aa  welt  as  of  the  churches  in  the  protection  of 
the  Lord's  Day.  The  Protestant  churches  in 
Canada  exercise  a  very  strong  influence  upon 
legislation,  education  and  the  press.  While  not 
nnalTected  by  modem  controvert,  their  attitude 
generally  has  been,  on  the  whole,  conservative, 
while  the  general  tone  is  more  liberal  and  less 
acrimomous  than  in  the  past. 

Old  prejudices  are  passing  awa^.  A  note- 
worthy illustration  of  this  is  funushed  in  the 
public  worship  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  one 
section  of  which .  refused  to  use  anything  ex- 
cqM  the  metrical  version  of  the  Ps^ms,  regard- 
ing even  the  use  of  the  paraphrases  as  a  serious 
and  hurtful  innovation.  Now  all  are  united  in 
the  use  of  a  hymn  book  which  contains  hymns 
of  all  sections  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  In 
many  cases  the  worship  has  become  more 
liturgical  even  in  non-liturgical  churches.  Old 
controversies  have  passed  into  oblivion. 
Greater  liberty  both  in  action  and  is  thou^t  is 
found  in  alt  communions. 

It  is  more  than  possible  that  with  this  en- 
largement and  liberty,  there  has  been  a  cor- 
responding diminution  in  the  intensity  of  the 
religious  spirit  and  a  growing  laxity  within  the 
churches  which  roaity  regard  with  apprehension. 
Family  worship  is  not  observed  as  it  once  was, 
the  cmldren  ao'e  not  as  familiar  with  the  Scrip- 
tures, as  were  their  parents,  and  many  things 
are  tolerated  in  professedly  Christian  families 
which  would  a  generation  ago  have  been  rigidly 
excluded.  It  is  a  time  of  unrest  and  transition, 
midst  of  much  change,  the  churches 
'  '  1  firmly  to  the  fundamentals  of 
th,  and  in  all  are  found  devoted 
who  earnestly  follow  after  the 
ideals  of  truth,  purity  and  righteousness. 

Among  the  Anglicans,  while  the  Oxford  or 
Tractarian  movement  has  exercised  considerable 
influence,  especially  among  the  clergy,^  it  has 
seldom  reached  the  extremes  seen  in  England. 
The  majority  of  the  laity  have  only  been 
slightly  affected  by  it,  and  tncy  have  craitinued 
decidedly  Protestant.  The  Presbyterians  have 
exercised  a  strong  influence  upon  the  national 
ideals  of  righteousness,  and  have  set  a  Udi 
standard  in  the  education  of  the  ministry.  The 
Methodists  have  been  leaders  in  Qiristian 
liberality  and  in  benevolent  enterprises.  The 
Baptists  and  Congregationalists  have  borne  con- 
sistent testimony  to  the  supremacy  of  the  in- 
dividual conscience  and  the  independence  of 
the  Church  from  state  control.  Thus  each  de- 
nomination has  contributed  essential  elements 
to  the  general  religious  well-being  of  Canad^ 
each  has  in  its  own  sphere  accomplished  a  good 
work  and  manifested  distinctive  excellence,  the 
value  of  which  is  coming,  more  and  more,  to  be 
recogniied  by  alL 

Church  tltiity, —  The  general  tendency 
among  the  Protestant  denominatioRS  has' been 
toward  the  unifying  of  the  Christian  dmrches. 


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CANADA*^ ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CBUfiCH  IN  CANADA  (J8) 


snd  this  amean  tbe  more  remaricable  when  tbc 
present  refigious  condition  is  compared  witb 
that  of    100  or  even   50  years  ago,   with  it* 

Eolemics  and  antagonisms.  There  has  been  a 
rcaldng  down  of  barriers  and  a  marked  dimi- 
Dution  oi  the  jealousies  and  riralries  of  the 
past.  Tlie  old  sectarian  spirit  has,  to  a  larst 
extent,  disappeared  and  a  cordial  spirit  of  good- 
will has  manifested  itself  even  in  those  bodies 
which  special  privilegea  or  'exclusive  theories 
had  tended  to  separate  from  others.  This  is 
seen  in  the  iDcreasing  co-operation  in  ^ood 
works,  in  the  frequent  inter-denominational 
comilv  and  in  tbe  general  attitude  of  the 
churdies  toward  each  other.  It  is  remarkabti 
manifested,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  changed 
attitude  of  most  of  tbe  churches  in  regard  to 
higher  education.  Federation  of  denomina- 
tional  colleges  in  a  ojnnnon  state  university  hat 
been  accepted  by  many  who  were  once  strenr 
uously  opposed  to  it,  as  the  best  solution  of 
our  educational  problems.  In  the  three  cUef 
Protestant  churches  of  Canada,  the  MethoAst, 
the  Presbyterian  and  the  Anglican  (they  are 
named  in  the  order  of  their  numerical  strength), 
which  are  each  now  a  unit  throughout  the  Do- 
minion, the  tendency  is  toward  a  still  larger 
union.  In  1902  a  joint  committee  of  the  Pres- 
b^erian  and  Methodist  churches  met  to  con- 
sider the  problem  of  co-operation,  and  com- 
mended the  principles  of  comity  and  non-in- 
trusion, until  some  scheme  of  orj^anic  union 
was  a^eed  upon.  For  some  years  after^  this 
the  -luuon  movement  progressed,  the  Anglicans 
and  Baptists  favoring  co-operation  and  fra- 
ternal comity,  the  Presbyterians,  Methodists 
and  Congregationalists  an  organic  anion  of 
their  churches.  In  1909-10  the  Congregational 
and  Methodist  bodies  approved  of  the  union 
sdieme  by  lar^e  majorities,  _  the  Presbyterian 
Ciurch  referring  tne  basis  of  union  to 
the  presbyteries,  793  of  which  approved 
and  476  opposed.  The  general  assembly 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada, 
which  met  in  Winnipeg  June  1914,  definitely 
committed  their  Churdi  to  union  with  the 
Methodist  and  Congregational  churches  by  a 
Yery  large  majority.  The  name  of  the  churcfi 
formed  by  the  union  is  to  be  "The  United 
Churqh  of  Canada,"  with  20  articles  of  faith 
as  doctrine,   and  an  accepted  polity  of  church 

Kvernment,  administration  and  ecclesiastical 
vs.  There  is  however  s  small  but  powerful 
minority  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  opposed  to 
the  unity  movement,  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
protest  of  this  opposing  section  and  the  ex> 


Dyson  Hague, 
Vicar  of  the  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  Toronto; 
Professor  of  LUmrgmt,  Wycltffe  College,  TO' 
ronio;  Sometime  Canon  of  Saint  Paitf  Ca- 
thedral, London,  Ontario. 
26.  ROMAN      CATHOLIC      CHURCH 
IN  CANADA  will  be -treated  in  this  article 
under  three  headings :  1.    The  Oiurch  under  die 
French,  from  the  discovery  of  Canada  until  the 


1763  until  the  present  day;  3. 


bert  de  Dieppe  (ISOS),  Veraxiano  (1S22),  and 
especially  Jacques  Cartier  (1S34),  it  was  dis- 
covered about  the  begituiing  of  die  16tii  cen- 
tury. Cartier  paietrateid  the  estuary  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  (10  Aug.  1535),  and  took  possession 
of  tbe  country  in  the  nante  of  King  Francis  L 
While  endowing  his  faiherlaad  with  new 
countries,  he  proposed  also  to  disseminate 
therein  tke  Catholic  faith,  as  related  in  the  ac- 
count of  his  travels  inserted  in  the  'Histoir« 
de  la  Nouvelle  France*  br  Marc  Lcscarbot 
(Paris  1609). 

From  Cartier  to  Champlain  (1542-1606)  a 
few  attempts  at  colonial  settlement  in  Acadia 
were  succttded  by  the  foundation  of  Port  Royal 
(now  AnnapoUs,  N.  S.).  There  appeared  tbe 
first  misaioaaries,  Jesmts  and  secnlar  priests. 
Champlain  visited  Canada  in  1603,  and  in  1608 
founded  the  town  of  Quebec  and  settled  there. 
In  1615  he  invited  Recollet  Fathers  from 
France,  who  became  the  first  apostles  to  the 
Indians,  and  inaugurated  those  missions  in  the 
interior  of  Canada  so  famous  duriiur  the  l7th 
century,  and  in  which  the  Jesuits  (1625)  and 
the  Stupicians  (1657)  soon  took  such  a  glorious 

Two  distinct  and  savage  races,  the  Algcm- 
quins  and  the  Huron-Iroquois,  inhabited  the 
countries  just  opening  up  to  missionary  zeal. 
To  the  Algonqum  race  belonged  the  Abenalds, 
the  Montagnais,  the  Altikam^ues  or  Poissonst- 
Biases,  tbe  Otawawas,  and  several  other  tribes 
scattered  from  Hudson'  Bay  to  the  western 
prairies.      From    the    Huron-Iroquois    . 


Saint  Claire  and  Simcoe,  and  the  Iroqucds  who 
dwelt  south  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  were  divided 
into  five  nations:  Mohawks,  Onondagas,  Sen- 
ekas,  Oneidas  and  Caiyoquos.  It  would  appear 
that  the  total  population  of  these  tribes  was 
not  above   100,000  individuals. 

The  RecoUets  were  the  first  to  devote  them- 
selves to  evangelization  among  the  Indians. 
Father    d'Olbeau   instructed    the    Montagnais; 


while  several  fathers  remained  at  Quebec 
preaching  among  the  colonists  and  the  sur- 
rounding sav^es.  During  10  years  they  multi- 
plied their  travels,  their  preachings,  opened 
schools  for  Indian  children,  called  to  their  as- 
sistance new  recruits,  and  among  them  Father 
Viel,  who'perishcd  in  the  Ottawa  Rivet,  victim 
of  the  perfidy  of  a  Huron.  '  Consult  Sagard,  F, 
'Histoire  du  Canada'  (Paris  1686);  Beaubien, 
Ch„  'Histoire  du  SauU-au-RicoIlet'  (Montreal 
1897).  Unable  to  (ill  the  wants  of  the  missions 
alone,  the  Recollets  called  upon  the  Jesuits 
(1625),  and  on  their  invitation  Fathers  Brebeof 
and  Lalemant  with  other  missionaries  came  to 
Canada.  Their  efforts  for  the  conversion  of 
the  savages  were  not  attended  with  the  success 
hoped  for,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  Com- 
pany of  Merchants,  to  whom  the  French  King 
baa  conceded  the  monopoly  of  traffic  in  these 
regions,  on  the  condition  of  founding  a  colony. 
Louis  XIII  and  Richelieu  replaced  diem  (1627) 
by  the  Company  of  New  France  who  engaged 
to  lead  <the  people  inhabiting  Canada  to  the 
knowledge  of  GoA,  and  to  instruct  them  in  the 
Cadiolic,  Apostolic  and  Roman  religion.* 
There  was  no  time  to  see  the  effects  of  these 
(ood  intentions,  for  leas  than  two  years  later 


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CANADA—KOMAM  CATHOUC  CHURCH  IH  CANADA  <»> 


(1629),  Quebec  and  the  colony  fell  into  the 
power  of  David  Kerdi.  wfao  fought  on  the  side 
of  Engluid.  The  missionaries  and  their  helpers 
were  obliged  to  return  to  France. 

When  Canada  was  returned  to  France  by 
the  Treaty  of  Saint  German-cn-Laye  (1632), 
the  Jesuits  at  the  reqiKst  of  Cardinal  de  Richo- 
IJeu  again  took  up  their  missions.  Father 
Lejeune  organized  religious  service  at  Quebec 
and  openeiT  the  college  of  that  town  (1635), 
then  he  pltinged  into  the  interior  in  search  of 
the  wandering  tribes  of  Montagnais.  Others 
established  a  mission  at  Miscou,  and  from  there 
Inanched  forth  into  the  peninsula  of  Gasp^  into 
Acadia  and  Cape  Breton,  Trob  Rivieres  and 
Tadousac  on  the  banks  ftf  the  Saint  Lawrence 
became  centres  of  evangdization.  Consult  <l.es 
Jfsuites  <t  La  Nouvelle  France  au  XVIIe 
si*cle,'  par  le  PSre  de  la  Rochemontaix,  S.  J. 
(Paris  1895). 

Meanwhile  hospital  religious  and  Ursulines 
arrived  at  Quebec  (1639),  the  first  to  direct  a 
Hotel-Oieu  endowed  by  the  Duchess  of  Aij^il- 
ion,  niece  of  Richelieu ;  the  second  at  the  head 
of  whom  was  Marie  de  I'lncamation,  to  pro- 
vide for  the  education  of  the  girls.  These 
heroic  women  were  rivals  in  leal  for  the  con- 
version of  the  savages.  Consult  Abb*  Casgrain, 
'Histoire  de  I'Hotel-Dieu  de  Quebec'  (Quebec 
1876);  id.,  'Histoire  de  la  Venerable  Marie  de 
I'lncamation'  (Quebec  1880):  'Lettres  de 
M^re  Marie  de  I'lncamation'   (Paris  1681). 

About  this  time  the  Company  of  Montreal 
was  formed.  Its  originators  were  two  men  of 
God,  M.  Olier,  founder  of  the  Seminary  of 
Saint  Sulplce,  and  M.  de  la  Dauversiire^^  a 
pious  laic.  Its  sole  aim  was  the  'glory  of  God 
and  the  estabKshment  of  religion  in  New  France 
without  charge  to  the  clergv  or  to  the  people.'  ■ 
Encouraged  by  Urban  VIII,  it  found  in  Paul 
Chomedey  de  Maisonneuve  a  faithful  executor 
of  its  intentions.  This  illustrious  man  landed 
on  the  island  of  Montreal  which  the  Society 
bad  acquired,  18  May  1642,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  Villemairie,  now  Montreal,  With  him 
came  Mile.  Mance,  foundress  of  the  Holel-Dieu, 
and  they  were  soon  joined  by  Mar^erite  Bour- 
geoys,  an  energetic  and  saintly  woman,  who 


S'ris.  In  16S7,  Mr.  Olier,  when  dying, 
e  colony  the  first  four  Sulpicians :  de  Queylus, 
Sotiarl,  Gallinier  and  d'AlleL  Consult  Dotlier 
de  CassoR,  S.  S.,  'Histoire  du  Montreal.'  pub- 
lished by  the  Historical  Society  of  Montreal 
(1869);  Faillon,  S.  S.,  'Histoire  de  U  colonic 
fTani;aise  en  Canada'  (^Montreal  1865) ;  id., 
'Vie  de  la  V^nfcrable  Mere  Bourgeoys';  'Vie 
de  Mile.  Mance'  (Paris  1854);  id..  'Vie  de  M. 
(ilier,   founder  of  the  Seminary  of  Saint  Sul- 

?ice>  (3  vols.,  Paris  1873);  P,  Rousseau,  S.  S. 
Vie  de  Paul  Chomedey  de  Maisonneuve' 
(Uontreal  1886). 

The   hour   of   martyrdom   sounded   for   the 

Jesuits.  After  escaping  twke  from  the  ferocious 
iohawks.  Father  Jogues  died  beneath  their 
blows  (1646).  Two  yeara  later  (1648),  the 
6ourishing  mission  among  the  Hurons  was 
completely  destrared  by  the  Iroquois,  and  five 
Jesuits,  Fathers  de  Brehcnf,  Daniel,  LalemaiU, 
Gamier  and  Chahand; .  were  orerwhelmed  in 
die  massacre  of  thar  -  neophytes.  Father 
Boteux  also  tell  a-mtliB  to  tticlroqutHt  wha 


.._     .     :ttlty    from    these 

barbarians,  Ctmsult  Charlevoix,  'Histoire  et 
Descriptioa  gte£rale  de  la  Nouvelle  France' 
(Paris  1744);  'Ration  dc3  Jisuites'  (Quebec 
18S8) ;  these  two  works  with  the  'Relations  in- 
<dites  de  la  Nouvelle  France*  (1672-1779).  and 
other  documents  have  been  collected  and  pub- 
lished with  an  En^ish  translation  in  the  edi- 
tion of  Reuben  Thwaites,  Oeveland,  1897,  un- 
der the  title;  'Travels  and  Explorations  of  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  in  New  France*  (1610- 
1791)  ;  Parkman,  'The  French  pioneers  in 
North  America.'  These  attacks  of  the  Iroquois 
became  the  terror  of  Ae  colony,  Montreal 
owed  its  salvation  onlv  to  the  bravery  of 
Maisonneuve  and  to  tBe  heioie  devotion  of 
young  Dollard,  who  at  die  head  of  16 
companions  for  several  days  faced  over  700 
Iroquois,  and  resisted  them  to  the  death. 

The  year  1659  marks  Ae  commencement  of 
the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  in  Canada.  Mon- 
signor  Francois  de  Montmorency-Laval  was 
named  bishop  of  Fetrea  and  apostolic  vicar 
of  New  France  by  Alexander  VII.  The  prelate 
had  numerous  difficulties  with  the  governors 
d'Avangour  and  de  Misy  (1663-65)  over  the 
traffic  in  brandv  which  was  causing  ruin  among 
the  Indians.  He  opened  a  small  seminary  for 
the  training  of  future  clerks,  and  10  years  later 
(1678)  laia  the  foundations  of  a  large  seminary 
tor  preparation  for  the  priesthood.  In  1674 
Quebec  was  created  a  bishopric  by  Clemen;  X; 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  new  see  extended  over  all 
North  America  until  1789,  the  year  in  which 
the  bishopric  of  Baltimore  was  created.  To 
Monsignor  Laval  are  also  due  the  creation  of 
charges  with  resident  priests,  the  incorporation 
of  the  Seminary  of  Quebec  and  its  union  with 
the  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions  at  Paris,  the 
creation  of  a  chapter  of  canons;  in  one  word 
a  good  diocesan  organization.  He  came  in  con- 
flict with  Governor  Fronlenac  and  Intendant 
Talon  to  maintain  the  ri^ts  of  the  Church  and 
to  extirpate  the  abuse  of  the  liquor  traffic 

Under  his  episcopacy  the  missionaries  con- 
tinued their  work.  The  Sulpicians  saw  two 
of  their  number  fall  beneath  the  blows  of  the 
Iroquois  at  Villemane  (1663).  Shortly  after 
Messieurs  Trouv6  and  de  Salisnac-Fineloi^ 
brother  of  the  illustrioiu  archbishop  of  Cam- 
brai,  founded  the  mission  of  Kent^  (1668),  at 
the  point  on  Lake  Ontario  where  debouches  the 
Saint  Lawrence.  During  14  years  it  wu 
a  centre  whence  the  true  faith  radiated  throne- 
out  all  the  surrounding  region  as  far  as  Niagara. 
The  following  year  (1669)  Mesueurs  Doilier 
de  Casson  and  Br&an  de  Galliufa,  Sulpidans, 
left  ViHemarie  in  the  company  of  Cavalier  de 
La  Salle  with  the  resolution  of  advancing  west 
to  the  Mississippi.  Abandoned  by  the  <tis- 
coverer  they  traversed  alone  the  re^on  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  returned  to  Montreal  after 
one  year  of  exjiloration  and  research-  there  M 
de  Galling  prepaid .  a  relation  and  made  a 
map  of  the  expedition.  We  should  mention 
also  die  Si)lpician  missions  of  la  Montagite, 
Gentilly,  TIle-aux-Tourtes  and  Lac-des-Deux- 
Uoniagnes,  all  in  the  environs  of  Montreal. 
The  Jesuits  on  their  side  ^osecuted  arduously 
their  missions.  Father  Menard  evangelized  the 
Outaouais,  Father  Atlouet  penetrated  as  far  as 
lake  Siqierior    (1665)    and    Fathers    d'Abloa 


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CANADA— MBHUM  CATHGUC  CHURCH  IN  CANADA  <») 


and  Uftnmette  planted  tha  cvok  m  Sault  Saiatt 
Marie.  Other  Jesuits  i^Atikig  tbe  explorers 
Saint-Lnssofi  and  de  La  Salle,  to^  possession 
of  the  bank*  of  Lake  Huron;  atid  two  years 
after  (IftTO)  Father  Albanel  penetrated,  while 
tnTcline  by  tbe  Sagueiuy,  as  far  as  Hudson 
Bay.  llie  missions  to  the  Iroquois  were  re- 
sumed, but  without  KTcat  success.  In  1U9  the 
sedentary  mission  of  tne  Prairie  de  la  Madeleine 
was  founded  to  the  south  of'  Uontreal.  There 
expanded  the  lily  of  Canada,  that  Catherine 
Tegakouita,  who  died  in  her  23d  year, 
•nd  for  iriiom  the  III  Council  of  Bahiniore  has 
asked  the  process  of  canonization.  This  nus- 
sion  transterrcd  to  Sault- Savit-Louis,  now 
CauF^nawaga,  is  still  flourishing  (having;  over 
2,000  members), tmdaftertitnnerous  viciisitudes 
has  again  corae  into  tbe  hands  of  tiie  Jesuits. 
From  Canada  also  went  Joliet  and  Father  Mar- 
quette on  their  fecovecy  of  the  Mississippi 
(1673).  Consult  'R^t  des  voyaees  et  dc- 
convntes  du  Pdre  Marquette '  (New  York 
IfSS) ;  Thwaitee,  Reaben  Gold,  (Father  Mar- 
quette)   (New  York  1902). 

Recalled  to  Canada  by  Talon,  the  RecoUet 
Fathers  (16^)  esUUished  themselves  at  Que- 
bee  and  bad  four  raisnons :  TroiS'Riviires,  file 
Percte  (Gaspi),  Saint-John  River  and  Fort 
Frontenac  on  Lake  Ontario.  In  lfi82,  Mr.  Dot- 
tier de  Casson  called  diem  M  Montreal,  and  in 
1602  the  missions  of  Cape  Breton  and  of 
Plaisance  in  Newfoundland  were  confided  to 


Meanwhile  Monsigfaor  Laval,  worn  out  with 
Ids  administration,  gave  in  his  resignation  to 
Louis  XIV  (1684).  After  four  years'  sojonm 
in  France,  he  returned  to  Quebec  (1688),  where 
he  lived  inprofound  retirement  tmtil  his  death 
in  1708.  The  episcopacy  of  Monsignor  Laval 
marks  one  of  the  most  prosperous  q)ochs  of 
the  Canadian  Chuxch  and  of  the  colony.  Be- 
tween 1665  and  1680,  thanks  to  the  intelligent 
activity  of  Colbert  and  de  Talon,  more  colon- 
ists came  to  Canada  flian  tn  the  preceding  half 
century.  A  strict  supervision  was  exercised  in 
the  dtoice  of  the  yoimg  women  sent,  as  much 
U  regarded  their  physical  as  their  moral  quali- 
ties. Several  whose  loose  manners  might  have 
become  a  cause-  of  corruption  and  decadence 
rather  than  of  growth  were  rejected.  Consult 
Gailly  de   Taurines,    'La   nation    eanadienne' 

Sns  1894);  Ferland,  <Cours  dliistOTre  du 
ada* ;  Verreau,  'Des  Commencements  de 
rEglise  du  Canada  —  Archives  Society  Royale' 
(Mai  1884);  'Souvenir  des  fetes  du  2™  cen- 
lenaire  de  Francois  de  Laval'  (Quebec  1908); 
Gosselb,  <Eviques  de  Quebec' 

Monsignor  de  Saiat-Vailier  succeeded  Mon- 
siffnor  Laval.  The  new  bishop  founded  the 
Beneral  hospital  of  Quebec,  endowed  it  with  his 
own  contributions,  built  the  episcopal  palac^ 

Enblisbed  a  catechism  for  the  diocese,  estab- 
shed  ecclesiastical  conferences  and  held  the 
first  synods.  In  1690,  the  American  Phipps, 
having  attacked  Qnebec  with  32  vessels  the 
pelate  in  a  pastoral  letter  exhorted  the  Cana- 
™ns  to  bravely  do  their  duty.  When  after 
toeless  efforts  the  enemy  had  departed  the 
Msnbp  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  Victory  the 
fhurdi  in  the  Lower  Town,  still  standing,  as 
»  monument  to  Beaven*s  protection. 

The  era  of  great  missions  passed;  ncverthe- 
K*)  Cadillae  and  a  missionary  fcnnded  tbe  town 


uid  colony  of  Detroit  (ITOO) ;  the  priests  of  tbe 
Seminary  of  Quebec  became  the  apostles  of  the 
Tamarms,  betwem  the  Illinois  and  the  Ohio 
rivers;  the-lesuits  evanmlized  the  Miamis,  the 
Sioux,  the  Otawawas,  the  Illinois  and  held  their 
ground  amid  the  Iroquois.  Widi  the  opening 
of  the  16th  century,  commenced  the  furious  and 

Xted  assaults  of  England  and  its  American 
ies  BgainK  the  little  Catholic  colony,  in 
wUcb  tile  French  govemnent,  careless  of  the 
foturev  became  less  and  less  interested.  The 
auigraticn  to  New  Prance  ceased  toward  the 
«od  of  the  preceding  century.  No  more  were 
to  be  seen  the  great  conveys  setting  sail  for 
America  crowded  with  new  populations  full  of 
fkidi  and  energy.  In  1713  tbe  French  Canadian 
populatian  w«s  18,000,  and  in  1739  scarcely 
reached  42,000.  It  was  a  small  number  to  re- 
sist an  adversary  which  counted  in  1706  260,- 
000  individuals,  and  which  was  increasing  each 
year. 

Acadia  especially  was  weak,  having  but 
2,000  inhabitants  of  French  origin.  The 
first  attacks  w^re  directed  against  her.  After 
having^  resisted  m  1704  and  in  1707,  she  fell 
(1710)  into  the  power  of  the  English  colonists, 
and  three  years  later,  die  Tveaty  of  Utrecht 
<q.T.)  (1713)  ceded  Acadia,  Newfoundland  and 
Hudson  Bay  to  England.  From  this  epoch  to 
^t  of  the  violent  dispersal  of  the  Acadians 
by  Lawrence  (1755),  the  Catholics  found  de- 
TOted  support  in  the  Snlpidans  and  the  priests 
of  the  Seminary  of  Quebec  who  were  their  mis- 
sionaries. The  names  of  C>eofFroy,  Baadoin, 
Troavi,  de  Breslay,  Metivier,  de  m  Goudaht 
de  Miniac  Chauvreuse  and  Desenclavea,  of 
Saint-Sulpice;  of  Petit,  Thsry,  (Saulin,  of  th« 
Seminary  of  Quebec, -deserve  to  be  rstnembered' 
b^  posterity.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
Fattier  Rasles,  5.  J.,  missionary  to  the  Abenakis, 
who  was  killed  by  the  English.  We  will  not  re* 
call  here  tbe  incredible  atrocities  which  have 
relegated  Lawrence's  memory  to  Ae  execra- 
tion of  hmnanify^  and  which  Longfellow  bat 
ImmortaHied  in  his  touching  poem  'Evangeline.* 
Consult  Richard,  'Acadia,  Missing  Linlu  of  a 
Lost  Chapter  of  American  History'  (Montreal 
Id95);  -Abbi  Casgrain;  ^Les  Snlpiciens  en 
Acadie>:  (Quabea  1897) ;  ^id.,  'Un  p^irinage  «i 
pays  d'Ev»^ine>  (Quebec  1885). 

These  pamfal  events  only  toa  plainly  fore- 
shadowed the  fate  awaiting  the  Canadnui  col- 
ony. Instead  of  semiing  men,  France  persisMd 
in  raising  at  great  expense  useless  fortifications 


The  episcopacy  of  Monsignor  de  Saint-Val- 
ller  lasted  until  1727.  The  endowments  with 
w4iich  be  enriched  the  various  religious  estab- 
H^ments  of  the  country  have  been  estimated 
at  ^600,(KX).  His  successor,  Monsignor  Du- 
plessis-Momay,  never  came  to  Canada.  He 
governed  his  dioccse  by  an  administrator.  Re- 
signing in  1734  he  was  replaced  by  Monsignor 
Dosquet  who  devoted  himself  to  promoting  the 
education  of  youth  and  the  religious  life  in  the 
cornmnnities.  Monsignor  de  Lauberiviire,  who 
succeeded  him,  died  a  month  after  his  arrival  in 
his  diocese,  victim  of  his  chari^  m  attentfing 
soldiers  attacked  with  scurvy  (IWO).  His  suc- 
tessor  was  Monsignor  de  Pontbriand  (1741- 
60),  the  last  bishop  under  the'  French  regime. 
He  built  a  cathedral,    restored    tibe    Urmfine 


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nonastery  at  Trois-Riviiret  and  the  Hdtel-IKeu 
of  Quebec,  which  had  beea  destroyed  by  fire, 
estaUished  ecclesiattical  retreats,  and  b^ 
his  »cieace  and  virtue  w«s  the  model  of  hit 
dei^. 

Among  eminent  ^ests  of  this  epocli  should 
be  mentiooed  M.  dc  Belmont,  superior  of  Saint- 
Suliuce  at  Montreal  (1701-32),  who  covered 
the  region  with  his  liberalities  and  his  works) 
U.  Normant  du  Faradon,  his  successor  (173^ 
59),  who  with  the  Venerable  Mother  d'You- 
vtlle  shares  the  glory  of  having  founded  the 
admirable  charitable  institution  of  the  Grey 
Sisters.  Oinsult  Faitlon,  S.  S„  <Vie  de  la 
Vin^rable  M^re  dTouville'  (Montreal  1852). 
To  Saint-Sulpice  belonged  also  that  abbe  Fio 
quet  to  whom  the  town  of  Ogdensburg  eTecte4 
0899)  a  m<mument,  as  well  as  to  its  founder. 
Consult  ^Lettres  ^iiantes  et  curieuses'  (Lyon 
1S19) ;  (Mimoire  sur  la  vie  de  U.  Pirauet'  by 
ii.  de  la  Lande,  of  the  Acadamy  oE  Science^ 
p.  262:  'Biographie  universelle  -  ancicnne  «t 
modeme'  (Paris  1823,  Vol,  XXXIV,  p.  289): 
'Revue  canadienne,  Janvier  et  fevner  1870,' 
Vol.  VII  r  'I'abb^  Picquet,>  ^  J.  Tassi. 

The  events  which  precipitated  the  fall  of 
Canada  are  well  known,  Quebec  was  taken 
(1759),  but  the  bishop,  Monsignor  de  Pont- 
briand,  died  at  Montreal  (1760)  withoid 
tedog  that  town  in  the  hands  of  the  ^glish, 
M.  Briand  undertook  the  administration  of  the 
region  of  Quebec;  M.  de  Moptgolfier,  Sulpician, 
o£  that  of  Montreal.  The  Treaty  of  Paris  ^ich 
ceded  Canada  to  England  was  signed  10  Feb. 
1763.  The  period  of  establishment  dosed 
for  the  Canadian  Church,  and  that  of  conflicts 
and  of  progress  opened. 

2.  After  1763^  All  the  natural  chiefs  of 
the  Canadians  recrossed  the  ocean  with  the 
French  flag.  A  population  of  70,000  souls  was 
abandoned  without  a  guide.  The  der^  alone 
remained,  invested  with  the  double  mission  to 
preserve  the  ancestral  faith  and  direct  the  i>eo- 
ple  in  the  attainment  of  their  dvil  and  political 
rights.  They  understood  their  mission  and  it 
can  be  truthfully  said  that  they  did  not  fail 
therein. 

The  Treaty  of  Paris,  it  it  true,  guaranteed 
the  Canadians  'the  free  exercise  of  their  re- 
ligion,* but  with  the  addition  'so  much  as  the 
laws  of  Great  Britain  will  permit."  This  re- 
Btriction  left  a  great  latitude  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  trea^.  In  fact  it  was  a  species  of 
persecution.  The  government  of  London 
thought  to  substitute  the  AngUcan  hierarchy 
and  religion  for  the  Catholic  hierarchy  and  re- 
ligion and  flat(ered  itself  in  easily  overcom- 
ing the  conscience  of  a  handful  of  colonials. 
The  French  laws  were  abolished  and  the  oath 
of  allegiance  exacted  from  all  Canadians.  They 
notified  the  priests  that  they  would  have  to 
subscribe  to  it  or  prepare  to  leave  Canada.  It 
was  a  demand  to  abjure  and  rebel  against  the 
authority  of  the  Roman  See.  At  the  same  time 
ibty  prepared  a  list  of  the  diurches,  the  priests, 
their  charges,  thdr  revenues,  their  property, 
also    one    of    the    religious    communities    with 


governors  to  found  Protestant  schools  so  that 
Rie  Church  of  England  could  be  established  in 
prindple  and  in  practice,  and  the  inhabitants 
gradually  be  brought   to   embrace    the   Prot- 


estant rel^oo,  and  ttwir  cUldren  educated  ja 
the  principles  of  that  religion. 

The  comnuinities  of  men  were  also  con- 
demned to  die  out  RecoUetB,  Jesuits  and  Sul- 
picians  were  prohibited  from  recruiting  in  the 
countnr  or  from  recdving  members  from 
abroad.  They  took  possession  of  the  properties 
of  the  first,  and  as  to  the  Sulphidans,  they 
were  reduced  from  30  which  they  were  in  176^ 
to  two  septuagenarians,  whose  deaths  they 
awaited  to  take  possession  of  thdr  efieclst 
when  the  French  Revolution  broke  out  The 
English  government  then  relaxed  its  rigoroni 
attitude  and  offered  the  victims  of  the  furious 
revolutionists  an  hospitality  which  does  them 
honor.  The  peopie  thou^  wejc  not  better 
treated.  For  them  there  were  no  public  posi- 
tions, no  place  in  the  councils  of  the  colony. 
A  species  of  ostradsm  followed  them  every- 
where. In  the  midst  of  diese  painful  con- 
junctions the  Catholics  did  not  despair;  they 
lent  to  London  petition  vvpn  petition  daiming 
on  the  faith  ql  the  treaties  the  preservation 
of  thdr  reli^on,  thdr  priests,  their  language 
and  thdr  dvil  r^ts.  At  last  in  1766,  George 
III  consented  to  the  consecration  of  Monsigirar 
Briand,  as  bishop_of  Quebec,  without,  recogniz- 
ing any  other  title,  however,  than  that  of 
superintendent  of  the  Catholic  cult 

Meanwhile  a  storm  was  arising  in  the  Anglo- 
American  colonies.  The  metropolis  understood 
that  it  should  conciliate  the  Canadians.  The 
Act  of  Quebec  (1774)  restored  the  French  dvil 
laws,  dispensed  with  the  test-oath  and  rec- 
ognized thdr  dvil  and  political  rights.  Dur- 
ing the  war  which  followed  and  wnidi  termi- 
nated with  the  death  of  Montgomery  (1775) 
under  the  walls  of  Quebec  the  Canadian  people 
docile  to  the  voice  of  thdr  decgy,  remaineo 
faithful  to  the  soverdgn  which  Providence  had 
given  them. 

During  these  years  the  Catholic  papulation 
had  grown:  in  1784,  it  numbered  130.000 
French-Canadians;  the  Maritime  provinces  were 
being  peopled  bv  Insb  and  Scotch  Catholics,  and 
the  Acadians,  dispersed  in  1755,  were  grouping 
silently  and  mn]tipl3ring,  supnorted  By  such 
apostles  as  the  abus,  DesjardJns,  Sieogne,  de 
Calonne  and  Gquart,  Sulpician.  "To  these  con- 
fessors of  the  faith  the  Acadian  race  owed  its 
organization ;  these  were  the  true  founders  of 
its  nationality.*  Consult  'Vie  de  raU»i&  de 
Calonne'  (Trois-Rievl^res  18921 ;  Casgrain, 
'Pderlnage  au  pays  d'Evangiline.' 
._  After  having  courageoustr  combated,  Mon- 
tixnor  Briand  resigned  in  1784,  Hb  successor, 
Monsignor  d'Eselis,  was  an  old  man  of  75  years. 
He  speedily  took  a  coadjutor  in  the  person  of 
Monsignor  Francois  Hubert  who  became  titular 
bishop  in  178S.  In  a  remarkable  memoir  to  the 
Holy  See  (1794),  the  prelate  states  that  his 
diocese  contained  160,000  Catholics;  that  the 
efforts  of  the  AngUcans  to  win  the  Canadians 
to  thdr  relimon  were  in  vain ;  that  his  diocese 
is  too  vast  for  hin)  to  administer  conveniently. 
But,  he  added  'every  plan  of  'division  would 
find  insurmountable  obstades  on  the  part  of 
Great  Britain  which  is  occupied  on  the  other 
side  in  the  means  to  establish  in  this  country  a 
Protestant  clergy.*  Consult  'Mandemcnts  ita 
iveques  de  Oul&ec>  Vol.  XI,  p.  474. 

Monsignor  Denaul  (1797-1806)  succeeded 
Monsignor  Hubert    Under  bis  ^scopacy  dw 


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CANADA— SOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHUKCH  IH  CANADA  (28) 


fi^l  aaainM  Angticanism  is  summed  up  in  the 
Rajrsl  Institution.  Thus  was  named  a  cleverly 
composed  ora»nmition  desiRned  to  monopolize 
iiutniclioa  of  every  degree  6y  concentrating  the 
power  in  the  hands  of  the  governor.  The 
Anglican  Bishop  Mountain  was  chosen  as  pre^- 
dent  of  the  tDstitution.     Profiting  by  a  legal 


restriction  the  Caltaolics  prevented  i 

Consult  Pagnuelo,   S..    'Etudes  histori^cg  et 

Ugales    sur  la   liberte   religieuse    en   Canada' 


{Montreal  1872). 

From  1806  to  1825  the  Episcopal  See  of  Que- 
bec was  occupied  by  Monsignor  Octave  Plessis, 
a  prelate  distinguished  as  much  by  the  breadth 
of  his  intelligence  and  the  force  of  his  char- 
acter, as  by  his  courtesy  in  all  proceedings.  He 
had  to  hold  his  own  against  a  powerful  oli- 
garchy which  would  not  recoil  from  extreme 
measures,  and  which  was  resolved  to  make  the 
Church  the  vassal  of  the  civil  power,  the  slave 
of  the  govenunent;  In  fact  to  lead  insensibly 
Canada  to  Anglicanism  by  the  governmental 
channel.  The  soul  of  this  plan  was  a  certain 
Witzius  Ryland,  secretary  of  the  governors  of 
Canada  from  1790  to  1812.  It  would  take  too 
long  to  enter  into  the  details  of  this  struggle, 
into  which  Sir  James  CraiR  was  weak  enough 
to  enter;  it  suSkes  to  say  that  Monsignor  Ples- 
sis by  his  inttividuality  embodied  Canadian  re- 
nsBnce  without  ever  wounding  English  senti- 
tnent;  that  he  obtained  for  himself  official 
raoognitlon  of  his  title,  bishop  of  Quebec 
(1818) ;  that  he  removed  the  pretensions  of  the 
gOTemmmt  to  nominate  rectors;  that  he  cd- 
sured  the  independence  of  the  Church  against 
tbe  State;  and  that  he  inspired  bis  adversaries, 
even,  with  resi^ct  and  admiration  for  his  great 
character.  Faithful  besides  to  the  Crown  of 
England,  his  was  the  act  of  a  loyal  subject  in 
caUmg  to  amis  his  diocesans,  on  the  occauon 
of  the  invasion  of  the  United  States  in  1812. 
Well  and  j\ittly_  could  Lord  fiathurst  reply  to 
the  Anglkan  Ushop  of  Quebec,  J.  Mountain, 
who  protested  again  the  ^vors  accorded  Mon- 
lignor  Pleesis  by  the  Londfxi  government  'It 
■a  not  vbat  Canadians  arc  fighting  for  Eng- 
land that  such  questions  should  be  agitated.' 
Consult  Pagnuelo,  'Etudes  sur  la  liberti  re- 
ligieuse  en  Canada.>  c  IX-XI.  p.  86-120;  <Le 
Corre^KHidant,'  April  1877;  'La  France  Cana- 


sis,>  p.  59:  'Mfmoire  au  gouvemeur,'  p.  79; 
French,  'Biographical  notice  of  J.  O.  Plessis, 
Bishop  of  QneW»  (Quebec  1864);  1-.  O. 
David,  'Biographies  el  portraits'  (Montreal 
187^  p.  80);  BMard,  'Histoire  de  Cmquante 
ans'  (mi-l841),  (Quebec  1869,  c.  IV  et  V). 
Monsignor  Plessis  understood  the  nKessity 
for  dividing  his  vast  diocese  so  that  it  might  W 
efficiently  administered.  Already  in  1817  New 
Scotland  was  detached  with  Monsignor  E. 
Butke  as  apostolic- vicar.  This  did  not  suf- 
fice. SooD  the  apostolic-vicarates  were  created 
of  Upper  Canada  with  Monsignor  MacDonellas 
titular;  of  New  Brunswick  and  Prince  Ed- 
ward's IsJaod,  with  Monsignor  MacEachem', 
of  the  Northw«tt  with  Uonngnor  ProvenclKr; 
«f  tbe  district  of  Montreal  with  Monsigitor 
Lartiguc,  Swlpiciati  (1820).  These  divitions. 
were  «oinpkted  ^ter  tbe  death  of  Monsignor 


Plessis,  by  the  creation  pf  the  sees  of  Kings- 
ton (1826)  ;  Ourtottetown  (1829)  ;  and  of  Mon- 
treal (1836). 

In  the  course  of  years  the  number  of  French- 
Canadians  kept  on  increasing.  In  1831  it  at- 
tained 380,000.  In  less  than  50  years,  it  had 
increased  by  nearly  280,000  souls.  This  prog- 
ress was  not  of  a  nature  to  reassure  the  intol- 
erant and  exclusive  set  which  existed  on  the 
side  of  the  Anglo- Protestants.  Already,  about 
1820,  they  had  tried  to  abolish  the  constitu- 
tion of  1791,  which  assured  an  independent  ex- 
istence to  the  province  of  Quebec,  and  wished 
to  unite  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  with  the 
scarce^  voled  object  of  outnumbering  the 
French  Catholic  population.  This  plan  bad 
failed,  thanks  to  the  firmness  of  Bishtv  Plessis 
and  his  clergy,  who,  rallying  the  forces  of  the 
country,  victoriously  opposed  Protestantism. 
Unfortunately,  after  the  death  of  the  bishop^ 
several  influential  members  of  the  legislative 
body  deserting  the  sure  ground  of  legal  resist- 
ance, slipped  uj)on  the  slope  of  ■  revolution, 
fanned  the  sfrint  of  revolt  l^  their  indignant 
philippics,  and  provoked  the  troubles  of  1837-38, 
when  several  hundred  countrymen,  led  astray  by 
thrir  representatives,  flew  to  arms.  Neverthe- 
less, let  us  say  that  the  voice  of  the  Catholic 
clerry  was  sufficiently  powerful  to  keep  the  mass 
of  the  population  in  the  path  of  duty.  The 
result  of  this  insurrectionaf  movement  was  the 
union  of  the  two  Canadas,  The  Act  of  Union 
was  passed  by  the  Britannic  Parliament  23  July 
1840. 

Before  this  act  of  despotism  (consult  Tur- 
cotte,  <Le  Canada  sous  I'Union,'  p.  60),  which 
marks  an  important  date  in  the  history  of 
Canada,  several  works  had  been  created,  several 
deeds  accomplished  which  interest  the  Churdi. 
The  seats  of  education  had  multiplied:  the  Col- 
lege of  Montreal  (1767)  founded  by  M.  Curat- 
teau,  priest  of  Saint-Sulpicc,  and  then  (1806- 
28)  so  prosperous  under  the  direction  of  M. 
Roqnes;  the  colleges  of  Nicolet  (1804),  of 
Saint-Hyacinthe  (1811),  of  Sainte-Ther^ 
(18ZS),  of  I'Assomptior  (1832),  of  SMnie-Anne 
de  la  Pocatiire  (1827).  Mention  should  be 
niade  also  of  the  formation  of  the  Socift^ 
d'£ducation  of  Quebec,  to  promote  primary  in- 
struction, and  the  rtcceptance  of  ■Fabriques' 
Schools  Law  ( 1824) ,  so  favorable  toward 
tbe  same  end.  To  this  same  period  b^ngs 
the  acknowled^ent  of  the  properties  of  the 
Seminary  of  Saint-Snlpice  at  Montreal  by  the 
government  of  Queen  Victoria   (1839).     This 


cover  the  Montreal  region  with  its  intelligent 
liberalities. 

To  Consignor  Panet,  who  had  replaced 
Mon^gnor  Plessis  (1825-32),  succeeded  Mon- 
signor Signay.  His  episcopacy  was  marked 
by  many  niisfortunes :  cholera  (1832),  civil  war 
(1837-38),  two  fires  in  (Juebec  (1845),  typhus 
brou^t  by  the  Irish  driven  from  their  cotutir 
(1847).  The  15  years  which  followed  1840  were 
more  fmitfol  for  the  Canadian  Church.  Five 
commnniiies  of  men,  and  15  of  women  dedicated 
to  die.  ministry,  to  touJiing  or  to  charity,  caroe 
from  France  to  settle  in  Canada.  The  Oblate 
Fathers  of  the  Immaculate  Mary  (16tl),  the 
Jesuits  (lft42),  the  clerks  of  Saints Viateur.  the 
Coogr^atioii  of  SaiMe^roix  (1847),  and  ds 


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Brothers  of  the  Christian  schooh  answered  to 


Sistera  of  Providence  (1843),  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary  (1843),  of  Mercy 
(1848),  of  Saint  Anne  (1849).  At  the  same 
tmie  the  Episcopal  Sees  were  multiplied:  To- 
ronto with  Monaignor  de  Charbonnel,  5.  S. 
(1842) ;  Saint  John,  N.  B.  (1842).  Quebec  ele- 
vated to  the  dignity  of  an  archbishopric  received 
as  suffr^an  sees  Montreal,  Kingston  and  To- 
ronto. Tlie  same  year  (1844)  the  trishopric  of 
Arichat,  N.  S.,  transferred  to  Antigonisn  since 
1886,  was  created :  in  1847  the  see  of  Bytown 
or  Ottawa  and  of  Saint  John,  Newfoimdland. 
Umted  in  council  at  Quebec  (1851),  the  bishops 
decided  on  the  foundation  of  Laval  University 
and  asked  the  Holy  See  to  establish  &e  sees  of 
Trois  Riviires  and  Saint  Hyacinthe  (1852). 
Let  us  mention  also  the  foundation  of  sodetiei 
for  colonization,  for  temperance,  of  Saint-Vin- 
cent de  Paul  and  of  an  educational  system  for 
wperate  schools  for  Catholics. 

Meanwhile  the  Catholic  population  had  in- 
creased considerably.  In  the  province  of  Que- 
bec it  more  than  doubled  in  30  years ;  in  1831  it 
counted  425,000,  in  1861,  9423X1  souls;  in  On- 
tario it  attained  260.000.  This  development  de- 
manded the  multiplication  of  primary  schools. 
This  was  the  work  of  J.  B.  Meillcur,  of  whom  it 
can  be  said,  *he  undertook  the  direction  of 
Public  Instruction  from  its  cradle ;  that  he  had 
to  create  everything  even  to  the  love  of  in- 
struction among  the  people*  Consult  Meillcur, 
J.  fi..  'M^orial  sur  I'Mucation  «u  Bas- 
Canada>  (Quebec  1876).  The  Catholic  colleges 
were  opened  of  Joliette  (1846),  of  Rigaud 
(I8S0),  of  Saint-Lawrence  (1847).  of  Saint 
Mary  of  Monnoir  and  Levis  (1853).  That 
same  year  (1853),  the  Seminary  of  Quebec  un- 
dertook the  heavy  but  glorious  tadc  to  build 
Laval  University  which  was  inaugurated  in  the 
[iresence  of  Lord  Elgin,  14  Sept  1854,  and 
which  since  has  rendered  such  immense  serv- 
ices to  the  Catholic  cause  and  to  the  country. 
Consult  Roy,  C,  'L' University  Laval  et  les 
fetes  du  Cinquantenaire*   (Quebec  1903). 

While  these  worlcs  were  bang  accomplished 
in  the  East,  the  West  was  opening  to  evangelixa- 
tion.     With  Monsignor  Provencher,   the  first 

r sties  of  these  districts  had  penetrated  along 
Red  River.  Wishing:  to  ensure  the  future 
of  these  missions,  the  bishop  of  Sainte- Boniface 
called  to  his  assistance  the  Oblate  Fathers  and 
even  chose  from  them  Father  Tach£  as  coadjn- 
lor.  Monsignor  Provencher  died  in  1853  and 
was  succeeded  by  Monsignor  Tachi.     He  had 


the  limited  scope  of  this  essay  to  recount  the 
works  of  the  Oblates  in  the  Far  West,  although 
they  constitute  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
chapters  of  the  CathoHc  missions.  The  apos- 
to! ic-vica rates  and  the  Episcopal  sees  embrace 
in  their  juriadictTon  every  point  in  these  distant 
regions  which  came  under  the  indefatigable 
xeal  of  diese  missionaries.  Consult  Dugas,  G., 
'Monsigneur  Provencher  et  les  Missions  de  la 
Riviere-Rouge'  (Montreal  1889) ;  Piolet,  S.  J,. 
'Les  missions  Catholiques  francaises'  (Paris 
1902) ;  Monsignor  Tadi^  'Vingt  annfes  de 
mi.>!$ions  dans  ie  Nord-Oiiest  de  I'Amiriqnc' 
(Montreal  18«>) ;  Don  Benoit,  'Vie  de  Mon- 


signeur Tacb^'  (Saint  Boniface  1904);  P^ 
Jonquet,  O.  M.  J-  <Vie  de  Monsigneur  Gran- 
din  (Montreal  1904);  Cooke,  R..  O.  M.  I., 
'Sketches  of  the  Life  of  Moniigjior  de  Ma- 
ienod>  ^London  1879) :  ^Dictiotmaiie  des  Ca- 
nadiens  de  I'Ouest,*  par  Rev.  P.  Uorice  (Quebec 
1908);  'Histoire  de  rEdiae  Catfudiqae  dans 
rOuest  Canadien.'  1659-1905  par  Rev.  P. 
Morice  (Montreal  1912). 


dis  of  Quebec  show  us  the  bishops  preoccupied 
with  the  progress  of  impien,  wtth  evil  books, 
widi  the  weakening  of  ihe  faith,  and  painfully 
affected  by  the  events  which  led  to  the  invasion 
of  the  pontifical  domains  by  the  armies  of  Vic- 
tor HnunanueL  The  Canadians  flew  to  arms 
and  several  detachments  of  zouaves  offered 
their  services  to  Pope  pius  IX  (186S). 

The  Catholic  heirarcfay  had  developed  in  the 
course  of  years.  In  1852,  Halifax  was  created 
an  archbishopric  with  Charlottetown,  Saint 
John,  N.  B.,  Arichat,  N,  S.,  and  soon  after 
Chatham,  N.  B.  (I860),  as  suffragan  sees.  The 
year  1871  marked  the  creation  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical province  of  Saint  Boniface  (Manitoba), 
with  the  bishopric  of  Saint  Albert  (1871),  and 
the  apostolic-vicarates  of  Athabasca- Mackenzie 
and  of  Saskatchewan  for  snffragans.  In  the 
preceding  year  (1S70)  Uiq»er  Canada  was 
created  an  ecclesiastical  province  with  Toronto 
for  archbishcqiric  and  KinKston  and  Hamilton 
for  suffra^ns.  Since  then  Kingsten  has  become 
an  archietnscopal  sec   (1878)   with  two   suffra- 


,  —  -,,    Nicolet     (1885)     

bishoprics.  In  1S8£^  Montreal  was  created  an 
archbishopric  under  Monsignor  Fabre,  with 
Saint  Hyacinthe  and  Sherbrooke  as  suffragan^ 
to  which  have  since  been  added  Valleyfield 
(1893),  and  Joliette  (1904).  The  same  year 
Leo  XHI  created  the  ecclesiastical  province'of 
Ottawa,  which  received  as  suffragan  the  ^>i*co- 
pat  See  of  Pembroke  (1898).  To  crown  this 
nourishing  hierarchy,  Leo  aHI  honored  with 
the  cardinal  purple  Monsignor  Taschereau, 
archbishop  of  Quebec  (1886).  To  conclude  the 
studjr  of  the  second  half  of  the  19th  century, 
"'  "  "'    *      made    of    three    particular 


From  the  25,000  that  they  were  in  1815,  the 
Acadians  increased  to  the  number  of  80,000 
(1864),  and  125,000  (1899).  To  Father  Le- 
febvr^  a  Canadian  pnest,  is  due  the  merit  of 
having  amalgamated  them  and,  in  founding  die 
college  of  Memramcook,  N.  B,  of  having  con- 
tributed powerfully  to  render  them  a  force  for 
Catholicism  in  the  Maritime  provinces.  To- 
day the  Catholics  of  French  origin  in  that 
region  amount  to  155,000.  Consult  P.  Poirier, 
<LeP*reLefebvre  et  I'Acadie*  (Montreal  1898). 
(b)  The  Schools  of  New  Brunswick  and  of 
Manitotra. —  In  1867  when  the  Canadian  Con- 
federation was  founded,  the  educational  system 
of  New  Brunswick  allowed  the  Catholics  of  that 
province  to  have  separate  schools.  This  right 
was  refused  them  in  1871,  the  aim  being  to 
compel  them  to  send  their  children  to  the  public 
schools,  tiiat  is  to  say,  Protestant  schools.  An 
'  organiied  renstance  spread  everywhere  and  to 
avoid  a  sanguinary  conflict  a  compromlM  was 


d=,  Google 


1  HoM  Rer.  P*al  Bnichail,  DJ>.,  Archbiihoii  of  I  Hnt    Her.    Jm.    Tho*.    DuluoMl,  D.D.,   Lal> 

Uontiml  Aictabiibop  of  Oltam 

t  HMt  Rev.  L.  N.  Bscln,    D.D.,    Archbiibop  of                                               "■ 
Ooebec;  CuiiaJiiat*  IS  UtLi  I»I4 

*  llo«t  R«T.  Charlu  Hafh  OaatUof,  D.D.,  Atdi-  G  Hoit  Bav.  Dcdli  O'Coniuir,  DJ>.,  Lata  irol>-i-^/~\rT  1 1:* 

biihop    of    Kiacnoa;   tnuulalsd  to   OKam,  Wcbopof  Toronfiigitized  bv  V_?wVJV  LC 

t  Sopt.  l»l»  "              '                 ,     O 


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CANADA— ROHAH  CATHOLIC  CHUKCH  IN  CANADA  (2S) 


efF«ted.  The  unjust  law  was  not  abrogated 
but  the  concessions  were  of  such  a  nature  that 
peace  was  re-established  <1874). 

An  injustice  of  the  same  kind  wronged  the 
Manitoban  Catholics  in  1890.  Despite  the  vigor- 
ous fight  led  by  MoDsi^or  Langerin,  successor 
to  Monsi^or  Tachi  in  the  see  of  Saint  Boni- 
face, the  iniquity  was  not  amended,  but  a  com- 
promise was  arranged  between  the  Lauder  gov- 
ernment and  the  Hdjy  See,  which  for  want  of 
a  better  softened  without  destroying  the  dis- 
astrous effects  of  the  law.  Thisquestion  which 
so  impassioned  the  minds  in  t69o  gave  rise  to 
the  creation  of  the  Apostolic  Delegation  to  Can- 
ada, (c)  The  foundation  of  Laval  University 
at  Montreal. —  For  a  long  time  Uontreal  was 
in  want  of  a  Catholic  university.  Monsignor 
Bourget  aijplied  to  the  Propaganda.  Not  to  in- 
jure the  rights  of  Quebec,  a  branch  in  Mon- 
treal was  granted  ^  the  pontifical  bull  tnler 
varias  solhcitudines  (1876).  The  powers  and 
the  autonomy  of  this  branch  were  signally  in- 
creased by  Leo  XITI  (1889).  In  need  of  the 
necessary  buildings,  the  liberality  of  the  Semi- 


nary of  Saint  Sulpice,  governed  then  \rv  M. 
CoUn,  filled  this  void.  Laval  University  at  Mon- 
treal now  has  spacious  premises  and  numerous 
professorships. 

3.  Present  Condition.—  (a)  EcdesiasHcal 
provinces. —  The  total  Canad;3n  oopuUtion  in 
Canada  is  estimated  at  2,230,008  by  the  census 
of  1901.  Since  then  it  has  increased  about 
100,000  through  immigration.  With  1,430,000 
Catholics,  the  province  of  Quebec  alone  com- 
prises three-fitflis  of  the  faithful  followers  of 
Rome  in  Canada.  Nearly  900,000  are  scattered 
throughout  the  other  provinces.  Everywhere, 
except  in  Ontario,  in  Manitoba  and  in  British 
Columbia,  Catholicism  exceeds  in  the  number 
of  its  adherents  any  of  the  separate  Protestant 
sects.  It  embraces  42  per  cent  of  the  total 
population  of  the  Dominion,  whid  is  5^71,315. 
Prom  1890  to  1900  the  Catbotics  increased  tv 
over  250,000  souls.  This  gain  was  effected 
despite  a  very  pronounced  enugration  movement 
of  French  Canadians  to  the  Northeast  of  the 
United  States.  The  following  table  gives  at  a 
glance  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  Domin- 
—n  of  Canada: 


..„«™» 

Titukiminl916 

..^. 

1 

1 

SiSsr-::::: 

B.  UcCvthr. . . . 

15,000 
62,000 
S5.000 

43.001 

iii 

SS,000 

}    M.OOD 

)    U,4M 
lO.SOO 
M.OOO 

140 

i 

N 
7 

.: 

181 
Ifi 

103 
37 

27 
13 

'g 

i«r 

£»«»«, 

75 

tSaxa^t^ii^:. 

^j~".-b::: 

& 

w 
lai 

&UWT  BomrAci.  in- 

ISi.:::: 

I«-"'^ 

Atlubuka  (VicJ.  | 

iSSr:;:::; 

M.OOO 

10.000 

Vamcouvu 

IM 

TOb  CktluilMi  Dmnbtr  tboot  I,B73,70(K  for  the  wlnla 
Dominkia.  tbe  provimx  of  QocbM  hanna  abiRit  1.766.0001 
The  otbar  ei^t  provinca  have  aboiit  1,107.700.  It  a  to  b« 
remarked  ijHo  (htt  of  th«  1,107,700  Catholki  dw—minafd 
throoi^inLt  ttaa  dolit  pnmiiciB,  ■  little  ov«r  ane-ttaiid 
(MO.DOO)  tn  CstteEa  otPrmeh  daceot. 

On  the  death  of  a  bishop,  the  bishops  of  the 
province  send  a  list  of  three  names  to  Rome 
and  the  Pope  chooses  and  names  a  successor. 
The  bishop-designate  cannot  be  consecrated  be- 
fore recaving  his  bull  from  the  Holy  See.  He 
enters  immediately  on  his  functions  without 
having  to  fulfill  any  civil  formalily,  and  the 
diocesans  render  their  homage  and  obedience  as 
to  his  [tredecessor.  The  state  recognizes  in  him 
the  li^s  of  a  civil  corporation.  He  enjoys 
betides  the  greatest  Uber^  while  regarding 
canonical  rules,  in  nonuoating  vicars,  creating 
[arises,  erecUng  churches  and  parsonages. 
Each  vicar  kens  a  r^str^  of  births,  marriages 
and  deaths.  In  French-Canada  the  vicar  has 
the  right  of  tithes  for  his  maintenance.  This 
tithe  in  spite  of  its  name  is  but  a  twenty-sixth 
part;  it  is  raised  on  grain  alone,  and  the  tend- 
ency is  more  '.and  more  to  p^*  it  in  money. 
No  vicar  is  irremovable. 

(6)  Reiigioiu  CommunitUs. — There  are  to- 
dav  in  Canada  about  38  communities  of  men, 
eitner  priests  or  brothers;  and  about  83  com- 
munities of  women.  The  luiests  devote  them- 
selves to  various  forms  of  charity,  of  teaching, 
to  parochial  ministry  or  to  preaching.  Thqr 
inclnde  Sulpiciani,  Jesuits,  the  Oblate  Fathers 
of  Mary  the  Immaculate,  the  clerks  of  Saint 
Viator,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Redemptor- 
iitH,  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross,  of  the 
Cnmpaiw  of  Mary,  Eudistes,  Basihans,  of  the 
Holy    aactament    and    several    others.      The 


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«08 


CANADA  — THB  FRENCH  CANADIAN  (27) 


Brothers  of  tbe  Christian  Schools  1 

ber  of  760  have  66  establishments,  and  i 

25,000  pui)ils.  The  Sisters  are  to  be  found 
in  every  kind  of  devoted  work:  hospitals,  asy- 
lums, industrial  schools,  almshouses,  refuges, 
orphanages,  in  one  word  all  the  miseries  tnat 
the  crowded  cities  multiply  find  succor  from 
them.  Uention  will  be  made  only  of  the  orders 
found  in  Canada: 


■(c)  UniveriitietaHdSemiaariej.~T:htTe»n 
'  three  Catholic  universities  in  Canada :  Laval 
m  Quebec,  Laval  in  Montreal,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Ottawa,  founded  by  Monsignor  Guigues. 
The  'first  two  comprise  all  faculties  except 
sciences.  Medicine,  law  and  letters  have  well- 
■  endowed  chairs.  Theology  has  distinctive 
faculties  in  the  great  seminaries  of  Quebec  and 


.  the  faculties  of  theology  and  arts.  Secondary 
education  is  disseminated  by  17  colleges  tn  the 

■province  of  Quebec,  all  affiliated  to  I^val  Uni- 
versity, which  alone  confers  university  degrees. 
To  these  colleges  must  be  added  others  opened 
in  recent  years,  namely  Loyola  College  in  Mon- 
treal, Sudbury  in  OnUno,  Saint  Albert  in 
Alberta  and  Saint  Boniface  in  Manitoba.  Saint 
Augustine's  Seminary  in  Toronto,  opened  in 
1913,   is   a    faculty  of   theology.     Young  men 

■  destined  for  the  priesthood  prepare  ll^  two 
years  of  philosophy  and  four  of  theology.  This 
preparation   begins   in   a.   great   seminary;   that 

.of  Montreal  has  nearly  300  aspirants  for  the 
priesthood,  that  of  Quebec  over  100.  There 
IS  besides,  one  at  Halifax;  and  each  religious 
community  of  men  is  endowed  with  an  academy 
where  dogmatic  and  moral  theology,  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  patrology,  canon  law.  Church 
history  and  the  pastorate  are  taught  Those 
young    priests    who    are   most    disttoguisbed 


for  their  intelligence  are  sent  by  Iheii 
bisfaops  to  Rome  to  the  Canadian  Collie, 
founded  by  the  Sulpicians  in  188S,  where  th«y 
follow  courses  given  by  learned  professor? 
of  the  Roman  universities  and  return  with  the 
degrees  of  doctors  in  philosophy,  in  divinity  or 
in  canon  law.  Consult  Hopkins,  'Canada:  an 
Encyclopedia  of  the  Country,*  Vol.  V  (To- 
ronto 1898).  Two  important  events  took^lace 
in  recent  years;  one  in  1910,  the  Pienaiy  Coun- 
cil of  Quebec,  at  which  all  the  bishops  of 
Canada  assisted,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
papal  delegate,  Monsignor  Sbaretit.  At  this 
council  new  laws  were  enacted  and  the  old  lawi 
were  confirmed.  The  other  event  was  the 
solemn  Eucharistic  Congress,  the  XXIst  of  tbe 
series,  which  proved  to  be  a  wonderful  success. 
the  whole  papulation  of  Montreal,  Frotestaoti 
as  well  as  Catholics,  joining  bands  in  the  cele- 
bration of  this  great  event. 

French- Canadian  Catholics  believe  thai  tbey 
have  been  called  by  Providence  to  personate  on 
American  soil  the  role  that  France  personated 
in  the  Old  World.  They  look  upon  them- 
selves as  destined  to  fill  a  mission,  and  that 
mission  the  one  that  France  has  filled  in  Eu- 
rope; to  carry  high  the  banner  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  among  races  more  inclined  to 
positivism,  maintain  and  propagate  the  instinct 
of  disinterested  devotion,  and  the  worship  of 
the  ideal.  Consult  Casgrain,  'Histoire  de  la 
Venerable  de  I'lncarnation,'  t.  I.  p.  95;  Gailly 
de  Taurines,  'La  nation  Canadienne,'  ch.  XXV, 

fp.  280-91 ;  Massom,  'Le  Canada  francais  et  la 
'rovidence'  (Quebec  1875);  Ragey,  P.,  'Une 
nouvelle  France*   (Paris  1902). 

A.  FOUHNET,  S.S., 
Late  Professor  in  Montreal  College. 
Revised  by  J.  VL.  Neven.  Professor  of  Chunk 
History,  Laval  University,  Motilrecu, 
27.  THE  FRENCH  CANADIAN.  Geo- 
craphical  Distribution.— In  1911,  accordiiqt  f 
the  hist  Dominion  census,  2,055,000  inhabitants 
of  Canada  were  of  French  origin,  being  over  2S 
per  cent  of  the  whole  population,  and  showing 
an  increase  of  24  per  cent  since  the  census  of 
1901.  Of  these  by  far  the  greater  part,  1,605,- 
000,  were  settled  in  the  province  of  Quebec, 
forming  80  per  cent  of  the  total  popubtion  of 
that  province.  But  considerable  numbers  were 
located  in  some  of  the  other  provinces:  2l32fff) 
in  Ontario,  98,000  in  New  Brunswick,  51,000  in 
Nova  Scotia,  13,000  in  Prince  Edward  Island, 
31.000  in  Manitoba,  23,000  in  Saskatchewan, 
20,000  in  Alberta,  and  700  in  the  Yukon  and  the 
Northwest  Territories,  The  French  population 
of  Canada  has  doubled  every  27  years  for  the 
past  200  years.  Then,  according  to  the  last  Uni- 
ted Slates  census,  there  were,  m  1910,  through- 
out the  Union,  over  400,000  Canadian-bom 
French ;  and  the  total  number  of  people  of 
French  Canadian  extraction  in  the  United 
States,  if  local  statistics  are  to  be  credited, 
would  exceed  1,000,000,  From  the  point  of  view 
of  physical  and  social  geography,  the  French 
Canatlian  element  in  North  America  t'  — ■*■ 


up  -. 


i  follov 


(1)  The  main  body,  1.800,000  strong,  ( 
,  tends  uninterruptedly  over  Quebec,  eastern  a 
northern  Ontario  and  northern  New  Brui 
wick.    The  nucleus  of  this  main  body  is  a  coi 


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CANADA— THB  VRBStCK  CAHADIAN  (27> 


tributaries.  Gn  the  outskirts  of  this  central 
group,  over  the  wooded  and  rocky  htfthlands, 
Dorth  and  south  of  the  great  river,  but  more 
especially  throo^iout  the  plateaus  of  northern 
Quebec,  northeastern  Ontario  and  northern 
New  Brunswick,  farmins:  is  largely  supple- 
mented by  lumbering,  and  not  infrequently  by 
mining;  while  along  the  Gulf  and  sea-coast  of 
Labrador,  the  Gaspe  Peninsula,  Chaleurs  Bay 
and  eastern  New  Bmnswick  it  is  more  or  less 
superseded  by  fishing. 

(2)  Then  hardly  separated  from  these,  and 
from  one  another,  we  have,  oS  the  extreme 
eastern  limit  of  this  central  n'oup,  die  French- 
speaking  conuDunities  of  fisnennen  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island;  while,  as  a 
projection  from  the  opposite  extreme  western 
border,  in  Ontario,  we  find,  alon^  the  shores  of 
the  Saint  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lake^  a 
string  of  small  settlements  of  French  Canadian 
rivennen,  boatmen  and  woodsmen,  forming  an 
almost  continuous  chain  around  that  province 
and  connecting,  as  it  were,  the  two  large  French 
groups  of  Detroit  River  and  Georgian  Bay  with 
the  still  larger  one  ocoipyicuf  the  western  bank 
of  the  Ottawa.  Over  one-third,  namely,  about 
680,000  of  the  total  French  element  composing 
this  main  bo^y  and  its  projections  are  coocre- 
gated  in  villages,  towns  or  cities,  where  Siey 


(3)  As  distinct  outliers  from  the  above 
main  group,  we  have,  in  the  first  place,  the 
many  Frencb^peaking  communities  of  urban 
population^  which,  in  very  large,  though  fluctu- 
ating numbers,  are  spread  throughout  the  man- 
ufacturing towns  of  the  North  Atlantic  States 
of  the  Union,  principally  Massachusetts;  in  the 
second  place,  smaller  and  sparser  groups  of 
French- speaking  farmers  (at  times  woodsmen 
and  miners  as  well),  to  be  found  in  the  Western 
country,  in  Manitoba,  Alberta  and  in  some 
Slates  of  the  North  Central  division  of  the 
Union,  especially  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota and  Illinois;  in  the  third  place,  still  smaller 
and  sparser  groups  of  Frencb  Canadian  pros- 
pectors or  miners,  spread  in  the  camps  and 
towns  of  British  Columbia,  the  Yukon  and  some 
of  the  States  of  the  Western  division  of  (he 
Union,  principally  Montana  and  California. 
Lastly,  French  Canadian  families  or  individuals 
are  to  be  found  in  eveiy  part  of  the  Union, 
thoueh  in  the  States  of  die  South  Atlantic, 
South  Central  and  Western  divisions  they  ag- 
gregate in  most  cases  a  few  units  or  a  few 
hundred  only.  About  40  per  cent  of  the  total 
French  Canadian  element  in  the' United  States 
are  located  in  160  prin^>al  cities. 

Social  Features. —  Tlie  most  widespread, 
fundamental  and_  characteristic  type  of  the 
French  Canadian  is  die  habitant,  or  farmer,  of 
the  i>rovince  of  Quebec  (q.v.).  From  a  study 
of  his  conditions  there  ma^r  be  gathered  the 
clearest  idea  of  the  capabilities  and  limitations 
of  the  race  as  a  whole.  Three  main  groupings 
are    distinctive    of    social    life   in    the    Frendi 


rangA  the  parish. 

(1)  The  habitant's  household  normallv  con- 
sists of  two  families,  that  of  the  senior  house- 
holder, and  that  of  an  associate  son  and  heir; 
it  includes  generally  sisters  and  younger 
brothers  of  the  heir,  children  of  the  younger 
coupt^  and,  in  some  cases,  sisters  of  the  senior 


.    __    ._    persons,   closely  bound   __ 

aether,  not  only  by  ties  of  kinship  and  family 
love,  but  by  co-operative  effort,  community  of 
interest  and  habits  of  mutual  dependence, 
which  extend,  in  a  measure,  even  to  those  mon- 
bers  of  the  proup  who  have  settled  outside  of 
the  family  arde.  The  habitant's  household  is 
primarily  a  labor  organism,  a  workshop.  Agri- 
culture 13  its  mainstay;  but  it  is  of  a  t3q>e  neither 
extensive  nor  intensive^  its  scope  being  nar- 
rowed down  to  the  task  of  satisfyiuK  directly 
the  household's  needs,  and  limited  by  the  house- 
hold's internal  supply  of  labor.  The  farms 
seldom  exceed  100  acres  in  area,  and  outside 
help  is  resorted  to  in  very  exceptional  cases 
only.  To  avoid  this  contingent,  women  and 
children  are  called  upon  to  work  in  the  fields, 
especially  in  haying  and  harvesting  time.  On 
the  other  haod,  the  object  being  to  provide 
directly,  as  far  as  circumstances  will  permit,  for 
all  the  requirements  of  the  family,  habitant 
farming  is  greatly  diversified.  On  almost  every 
farm  there  are  to  be  found,  beside  the  Idtcben- 

Sarden  and  its  few  fruit  trees,  small  patches  of 
ax,  tc^oco,  potatoes,  Indian  com,  buckwheat 


barley,    while   larger 

and  pasturage.     Similarly, 
kept  on  each  farm,  thou^ 


other  cereals,  hay 
all  kinds  of  stock  ai 

large  numbers 


pentry,  joinery,  cooperage,  brush-making, 
leather- working,  etc..  are  an  important  factor 
on  many  farms.  Agriculture  is  seldom  the 
sole  means  of  living  of  the  habitant  since  in 
the  newer  settlements  the  mere  gatnering  of 
natural  products,  such  as  fish,  game,  wild  fruits 
and  wood  is  largely  resorted  to,  while  in  the 
older  and  more  densely  populated  sections  by- 
industries  are  conspicuous.  Then  a^ain  tempo- 
rary emigration  to  and  employment  in  the  man- 
facturing,  mining  and  lumbering  centres  of 
Canada  and  the  United  States  is,  in  all  situa- 
tions, an  occasional  means  of  securing  capital 
to  start  out  in  life  or  of  bridging  over  hard 
times.    The  methods  of  farming  of  the  habitant. 


of  crops,  his  processes  of  retting 
J  flax,  (^ing  wool,  makir 
are  traditional  and  have  been  i 


g  wool,  making  candles, 


his  _ 

and  breaking  fl 
etc.,  are  traditional 

centuries  in  certain  provinces  of  France.  How- 
ever, in  recent  years,  the  wave  of  modern  prog- 
ress has  been  felt,  agricultural  machineiv  has 
come  into  fairly  i^eneral  use,  co-operative  butter 
and  cheese  factories  have  been  established,  and^ 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  railways,  improved 
methods  and  a  more  specialised  type  of  farm- 
ing have  been  adopted.  Through  hard  work 
and  close  economy  a  capable  habitant  will  suc- 
ceed, with  the  help  of  his  family,  in  building  up 
a  homestead  of  student  area  to  meet  the  wants 
of  the  household.  Should  his  acquisitions  of 
land  during  his  lifetime  remain  within  that 
limit,  then  the  homestead  will  be  transferred 
in  its  entirety  to  the  associate  son  or  heir,  who 
in  turn  will  be  charged  with  providing  for  the 
whole  family,  in  the  same  way  as  the  testator 
would  have  done.  On  the  other  hand,  should 
the  acquisitions  of  the  father  of  family  exceed 
the  area  required  for  the  support  of  an  ordinary 
household,  the  lots  in  excess  are  freely  used 
in  helping  out  other  sons  who,  after  contrib- 
uting to  me  sustenance  and  welfare  of  tiK  pater- 


.Google 


4M 


CANADA— THB  FRENCH  CANADIAN  (27) 


nal  household  in  their  early  life,  undcTtake  to 
make  ui  independent  living  tbrongh  aRriculfure. 
Girls  receive  very  little  aid  from  the  family 
estate,  as  it  is  considered  they  will  be  provided 
for  either  through  remaining  as  members  of  the 
paternal  household,  or  through  marrying  into 
some  neighboring  family.  Lucewise,  sons  who 
are  sent  to  college  and  enter  the  liberal  profes- 
sions or  the  priesthood  recdve  very  little  else 
from  their  parents.  In  the  manaKement  of  the 
family  affairs,  the  influence  of  me  mother  is 
about  on  a  par  widi  that  of  the  fadier.  As  a 
rule  she  is  letter  educated  than  her  husband!, 
sees  to  tlie  corresfkindence  and  accounts,  is 
consulted  in  all  matters  of  importance  and 
leads  in  the  family  worship.  Through  working 
with  their  parents  on  the  farm  the  children 
acquire  a  variety  of  aptitudes,  but  no  particular 
profidetKy  in  any  of  the  arts,  nor  any  strong 

desire    of   attaining    — '      ''  " 

walks  of  life,  bar — 

politics.    Educalio 

take  to  the  liberal  professions  and  the  Church. 
The  style  of  livin^.is  plain,  and  in 'many  respects 
old-fashioned.     Food  is  in  abundance,  thou^ 


..  few  families  in  isolated  sections,  is  fast  being 
replaced  by  the  cheap  cotton  and  woolen  goods 
supplied  t^  the  trade.'  Births  are  numerous, 
but  owing  to  defective  hygienic  conditions,  or 
to  overwork  on  the  part  of  mother^  this  ad- 
vantage is  partially  offset  by  the  high  propor- 
tion of  deatns  among  infants.  Amusements  are 
sinnile,  pertaining  to  the  daily  work,  the  family 
circle.  Church  festivals.  Many  of  the  songs  and 
dances  are  importations  or  adaptations  from 
Old  France.  However,  here,  as  throu^out  the 
whole  range  of  social  phenomena,  outside  influ- 
ences are  apparent,  and  features  of  recent  origin 
are  found  grafted  on  old  .and  quaint  -usages. 
(3)  The  farms  are  in  the  shape  of  long, 
narrow  rectangles,  20  or  30  arpents  in  length, 
bv  2  or  3  in  breadth.  The  farm  buildings  are 
all  built  at  one  end  of  these  rectangles,  along 
,  die  public  road,  which  crosses  them  at  right 
angles,  thus  giving  a  close  succession  of  houses 
and  bams.  Not  infrequently  the  buildings  of 
two  abutting  ranges  are  situated  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  same  road,  making  a  double  row  of 
almost  contiguous  houses,  scmewhat  like  a  vil- 
lage street.  The  ranges,  of  which  there  are  four 
or  five  in  parallel  line  in  every  parish,  connect 
with  one  anolfjer  and  with  the  village  by  means 
of  'routes*  or  transverse  roads,  along  which  no 
bntldings  are  erected;  so  that  each  range  is  iso- 
laicd  from  the  rest  and  forms  a  distinct  group- 
ing within  the  parish.  This  tvp*  of  settlement, 
which  differs  from  that  of  the  isolated  bomfr- 
stead  to  be  found  in  some  parts  of  France  and 
throu^out  the  Ando-Saxon  world,  and  also 
from  the  central  village  type  observed  in  other 
parts  of  France  and  Europe,  is  a  distinctly 
French  Canadian  creation,  which  the  habitant 
takes  with  him  wherever  he  settles  in  num- 
bers. The  range  seems  to  have  been  the  out- 
come of  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  habitant, 
while  residing  on  his  own  farm  (which  the  vil- 
lage settlement  would  not  allow  him  to  do), 
to  secure  the  benefit  of  his  neighbor's  assist- 
ance and  company  in  a  more  effective  way  than 
the  isolated  nomestead  would  permit.     What 


the  habitant  cannot  accomplish  with  the  help  of 
his  family  he  endeavors  to  do  through  the  fret 
help  of  his  neighbors.  However,  while  the 
nearest  neighbor,  on  either  side,  may  be  called 
upon  now  and  then  to  lend  a  hand  in  the  onli- 
nary  work  of  the  farm,  the  summoning  in  num- 
bers of  the  near-by  farmers  is  resorted  to  in 
exceptional  cases  only,  such  as  the  clearing  of 
land,  the  'lifting"  of  a  bam  or  the  rdicf  o( 
some  destitute  family.  Each  range  looks  after 
its  poor,  b^  means  of  voluntary  contributions, 
principally  in  kind.  Each  range  has  its  cheese 
or  butter  factory,  its  schoolhottse,  also  its  large 
wooden  cross  along  the  highway,  in  commen]- 
oration  of  some  rel^ous  revival. 

(3)  The  roads  leading  from  the  various 
ranges  all  centre  toward  a  village,  generally 
sm^l,  comprising  a  few  lodgings,  workshops 
and  stores,  besides  the  priests  house  and  t« 
church.  A  community  wierein  the  highest  aim 
of  the  farmer,  the  basal  element,  is  to  cater  to 
all  the  needs  of  his  household  directly  tbrou^ 
the  labor  of  his  own  family  and  the  occasional 
assistance  of  his  neighbors  does  not  leave  much 
scope  for  the  development  of  other  social  fac- 
tors. The  ambitions  and  efforts  of  the  most 
capable  being  restrained  within  that  limit,  fquil- 
Ity  and  similarity  of  condition  is  the  rule.  Com- 
merce, industry,  the  liberal  professions  remain 
embryonic.  In  the  absence  of  leaders  in  agri- 
culture, industry  and  commerce,  learning  be- 
comes the  standard  of  distinction.  A  few  wise 
old  farmers,  the  doctor,  the  notary,  the  lawyer, 
are  looked  u^  to;  but,  on  account  of  the  exalted 
nature  of  his  function,  the  parish  priest  is  de- 
cidedly the  dominant  factor.  Like  the  family 
and  the  range,  the  parish  is  primarily  an  organ- 
ism for  mutual  support,  both  in  uie  physical 
and  moral  order.  It  plays  to  a  certain  extent 
the  part  of  an  insurance  company,  as  bams, 
for  instance,  destroyed  by  fire  are  reslored 
through  contributions  from  all  the  parishioners 
in  material  or  labor.  On  Sundays  and  feast 
days  the  habitant  meets  at  church  his  coparish- 
ioners,  who  are  all  relatives  or  close  acquaint- 
ances, the  doctor,  the  notary;  he  listens  to  the 
admonitions  of  the  'cur^'  to  the  announcements 
made  by  the  public  crier,  and  'receives  the  mlel- 
ligence  end  impressions  which  will  be  his  mental 
food  for  the  remainder  ofthe  week.  To  all  in- 
tents, the  parish  may  be  considered  as  an  en- 
largement of  the  family  with  the  parish  priest 
as  Its  patriarchal  head.  Then,  the  parish  is  die 
main  organ  of  local  government  in  the  French 
Canadian  country,  the  school  commission  and 
the  municipal  corporation,  of  British  origin  and 
of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  remaining 
mere  adjuncts,  only  partially  developed,  o!  tbe 
parish  proper.  The  revenues  of  the  latter  often 
exceed  those  of  the  school  commission  and 
municipal  body  put  together.  Many  localities 
have  no  town-ball  other  than  the  vestry.  In 
practice  the  cur^  is  much  more  the  maiotainer 
of  the  peace  and  the  arUttator  of  disputes 
within  the  parish  than  are  the  mayor,  the  local 
magistrates  and  court  His  powers  extend 
even  to  a  close  supervision  of  family  affairs. 
The  law  of  the  province  allows  him  the  26th 
bushel  of  all  cereials  grown  by  his  parishioners 
within  his  territory,  and  his  influence  over  the 
church  wardens  ana  flock  enables  him  to  obtain 
from  close-fisted  farmers  the  eoqienditure  of 
comparatively  large  sums  of  money  oa  cburcn 


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CANADA— POPULATION  (2S) 


buildings.  His  inflnence  ia  exerted  as  well  over 
the  school  conunission  and  municipal  council, 
wbose  policy  and  decisions  are  usuallv  made  to 
conform  to  his  wi^es.  On  the  outer  hand, 
practically  the  on)y_  check  on  the  curi  is  the  far- 
off  bishop,  who  visits  the  parish  and  inspects 
the  books  eyety  third  year,  and  may  remove 
him  at  will.  The  school  commission  and 
mtmicipol  coi^ratioB  are  administered  in  a 
sinrit  of  panunony.  School  buildings  are  in- 
aaequate,  and  the  teachers,  gcneraUy  girls^  re- 
ceive very  little  pay  and  give  correspondingly 
poor  results.  Illiterates  are  stilL  in  large  ntii»- 
bers.  As  each  mdividi^  farmer  is  reauired  to 
look  directly  after  that  part  of  the  public  hi^i- 
way  which  faces  his  property,  and  to  contribute 
his  share  of  the  labor  necessary  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  cross-road  leading  to  the  village 
the  municipal  council  has  little  to  do  apart  from 
supervisinft  in  a  general  way,  the  repairing  of 
roads  or  the  occasional  builduig  or  rep^riiu;  of 
bridges  within  the  limits  of  the  pansh.  Sim- 
ilarly, county  councils  have  not  acqtiired  in  the 
French  country  anything  like  the  importance 
which  the:^  have  in  English  sections,  and  are 
content  with  looking  after  roads,  bridges  or 
water  courses  common  to  two  or  more  parishes. 
On  the  other  hand,  provinci^  and  Federal  poli- 
tics have  taken  quite  a  hold  on  the  habitant; 
but  the  interest  which  he  takes  in  them  is 
more  the  outcome  of  his  inclination  for  claimish 
warfare  and  oratory,  and  o£  his  craving  for  the 
pct^  favors  of  officialism,  than  the  result  of  a 
desire  on  tes  part  to  ensure  the  Draper  man- 
agement  of  public  affairs,  which  lie  docs  not 
always  grasp.  These  are  the  prey  of  organized 
political  parties,  wbose  leaders  are  recruited 
mainly  from  the  liberal  professions  and  the 
cities.  Church  and  politics  are,  in  the  mind  of 
die  habitant,  the  only  avenues  open  to  those 
desirous  of  rising  in  the  world.  And  this  ac- 
counts for  a  rather  remarkabk  development  of 
institutions  of  classical  and  literary  teaching 
in  a  community  wherein  common  schools  are 
markedly   deficient  and  technical  and  business 


cation  of  societies  proposed  by  t.  Lei'lw  and 
his  followers,  H.  Oe  Tourville  and  the  French 
school  of  social  science,  the  French  Canadian  is 
a  semi-patriarchal  or  semi-communistic  type; 
that  is  one  in  which  social  organization  and  hfe, 
while  swayed  by  tradition  and  habits  of  mutual 
dependence  to  a  less  degree  than  in  the  purely 
patriarchal  or  communistic  types  of  the  Orient, 
still  are  not  permeated  and  uplifted  by  that  spirit 
of  private  independence  and  enterprise  dis- 
tinctive of  the  individualistic  or  'particularistic* 
types,  as  exemplified  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  races. 
His  semi-communistic  training  the  French 
Canadian  holds  from  France.  His  social  an- 
cestors were  mainly  the  Gaul,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  Frank  on  the  other.  The  former,  with  his 
clan  organization,  village  life  and  neglect  of 
agriculture,  was  a  distinctly  communistic  type. 
"Die  particularistic  Frank  broke  up,  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  clannish  and  communistic  spirit  and  in- 
!  of  the  Gaul,  and  gave  a  strong 


forth  here,  was  not  so  lasting  nor  so  far-reach- 
ing in  France  as  was  that  of  his  duplicate,  the 
Saxon,  in  England.  Thus  there  sprang  up  an 
intermediate  type  presenting  numy  of  l£e  qual- 


ities and  defects  of  ths  Celt,  with  something 
of  the  qualities  of  the  Saxon,  A  farmer,  an 
artisan,  a  trader,  thqugh  generally  m  a  small 
wav  and  still  conserving  a  fondness  for  nature 
ana  primitive,  easy-goin^  occupations;  a  race 
lacking  amotion  and  ability  to  rise  in  the  ordi- 
nary callings  of  life,  having  for  its  sole  leaders 


cases  sprung  from  the  people,  isolated  from 
them  by  d^ss  interests  and  training  and  unfit  to 
lead  adequately  in  practical  pursuits.  Under 
the  trying  conditions  of  New  France  —  the 
dense  forest  to  clear,  the  rigorous  climate  to 
provide  against,  the  lurking  Iroquois  to  evade 
—  the  peasant  from  north  central  France,  sin- 
gle-handed, made  rather  slow  progress  at  colo- 
nization. A|[riculture  was  neglected,  while  the 
more  attiaclive,  more  remunerative,  though  de- 
ceptive, fur  trade  became  the  means  of  sus- 
tenance of  both  the  individual  and  the  colonial 
government,  with  a  consequent  rapid  but  su- 
perficial expansion  of  the  colony  and  constant 
warring.  The  French  settler,  fond  of  home 
and  of  quiet,  evolved  into  the  adventurous  and 
hardy  type  of  the  coureur  des  bois.  Under 
British  rule,  and  especially  in  the  course  of 
the  19th  century,  through  the  restoration  of 
peace  and  the  advent  from  Great  Britain  of  a 
class  of  business  men,  the  fur  trade,  carried  on 
by  large  companies,  receded  toward  Hudson 
Bay  and  the  Far  West,  vast  lumbering  opera- 
tions were  carried  on,  with  a  consequent  im- 
pulse to  agriculture,  extension  of  settlements, 
ihcrease  in  population;  a  period  of  unprece-  ' 
dented  prosperity  tor  French  Canada.  Then,  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  19th  century,  the  world- 
wide evolution  of  commerce  and  industry  set 
in,  with  its  marvelous  applications  of  steam 
and  electricity,  its  powerful  machinery  and 
means  of  transportation,  the  progress  of  manu- 
facturing centres;  and  the  French  Canadians 
developed  a  class  of  factory  operatives,'  to~ 
gether  with  a  vigorous  undergrowth  of  artisans 
and  traders  in  the  large  cities.  See  also  the 
articles  in  this  series:  Undex  French  Rule; 
Population'  and  Racial  Distbibution  ;  Caih- 
ouc  Education;  Reucious  CONsrrioNS. 

L£0N  G6uN,  LL.B.,  F.R.SC, 
MembtT  dt  la  Sociiti  Jntemationaie  de  Science 

28.  POPULATION;  RACIAL  DISTRI- 
BUTION AND  IMMIGRATION.  In  a  new 
country,  population  grows  by  additions  from 
without  rather  than  by  natural  increase,  and 
questions  relating  to  immigration  and  the  for-' 
eign  element  become  of  primary  significance 
Especially  is  this  the  case  in  Canada  after  the 
experiences  of  the  present  century,  when  in 
less  than  20  years  the  inflow  from  abroad 
amounted  to  not  less  than  60  per  cent  of  the 
original  people.  A  considerable  portion  of  this 
was  'floating*  labor  whose  stay  m  the  country 
was  brief,  but  even  so  the  situation  which  the 
figures  reveal  is  sufficiently  arresting.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  the  stock  of  1900  was  in 
its  turn  largely  composed  of  persons  bom  in 
other  countries,  the  importance  of  a  careful 
analysis  of  the  Canadian  population  from  the 
point  of  view  of  origins  is  further  emphasized. 

Popttlation  According  to  Origm.— The 
immigration  returns  do  not  offer  the  final  ave- 
nue to  racial  origins,  yet,  as  above  hiated,  they 


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400 


CANADA  — POPULATION  C2S> 


throw  so  powerful  a  li^t  on  Canada  in  the 
makiiig — on  the  process  whose  result  it  is  the 
purpose  of  the  present  article  to  describe — 
that  comparative  statistics  of  1900,  1911  and 
1914-16  may  be  quoted  as  having  a  bearing  on 
the  matter  to  follow.  The  accompanying  tabu- 
lar statement  (Table  I)  shows  also  the  extraor- 

TabLE  I.     lUMIGKATION  TO  CANADA  BY  NaTION- 

AUTiEs,  FBou  1  July  1900  to  31  Mar.  1916 
(Fiscal  Year). 


1«0- 
1901 

1911 

1914- 
1913 

1916 

Totala 
1901-1916 

jaisisi 

U.BIO 

123.013 

2,691 
10,2(5 

l:SS 
■■1 

5,U6 

'■1 

2T0 
616 

11 
5:5!; 

1,298 

■"i:m 

S9 

1,97, 
361 

48 

1! 

S.664 

"f 

88 
186 
ISO 

3SS 
401 

34 

1 

591 

42 

3 

• 

I,i6a,!9i 

A  o  ..t  t  0  -  Hun- 

■?!« 

1 

2,76; 

162 

giss:^ 

661 

Ill'™ 

ferr^;;;- 

".■Z 

1.J77 

S-sKSl 

i?;^ 

66,620 
121, «1 

59;  7  J! 

K'.9y. 

1,0951373 

49,  U» 

311. OM 

144.789 

48.337 

3.099,348 

dinary  range  from  which  Canada  has  drawn 
population  since  1900,  -whether  as  settlers  in- 
tending to  adopt  the  country  permanently,  or 
as  laborers  attracted  by  the  great  construction 
•boom*  of  1900-12.  The  figures  of  earlier 
years  are  not  available  in  similar  detail,  but 
doubtless  differ  mainly  in  degree.  It  will  be 
seen  that  roughly  38  per  cent  of  the  recent, 
heavy  drafts  came  from  the  British  Isles,  35 
per  cent  from  the  United  States  and  27  per 
cent  from  the  countries  of  continental  Europe. 


As  has  been  said,  not  all  of  Qn%  influx  re- 
mained Indeed  the  census  shows  an  increase 
in  the  mimber  of  those  resident  in  Canada,  but 
bom  outside,  of  only  887/461  dnring  the  first 
decade  of  the  century  (see  Table  II), 
whereas  the  immigrants  during  the  same  years 
were  at  least  double  that  number.  The  two 
sets  of  figures,  however,  in  the  absence  of 
statistics  of  emigration  and  of  reliable  vital 
statistics  cannot  be  collated  with  the  immigra- 
tion returns,  and  Table  II  is  to  be  regarded 
merely  as  a  further  introductory  sidelight  on 
the  sobject  in  hand. 

Latest  CenaoB  Retorts.— For  the  analysis 
of  the  population  as  it  stands  to-day  from  a 
racial  standpoint,  recourse  must  be  had  to  the 
specific  results  of  the  decennial  census.  The  last 
census  for  the  whole  of  Canada  was  taken  in 
June  1911.  It  contained  altogether  41  questions 
on  population,  oite  of  which  reauired  the  ra- 
cial or  tribal  origin  of  each  individual.  The 
Canadian  census  does  not  take  cognizance  of 
"color,"  as  there  is  onlv  a  small  admixture  of 
the  red,  black  and  yellow  races,  which  it  is 
thought  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  returns 
of  origins.  Enumerators  in  taking  the  census 
are  instructed  to  trace  racial  or  tribal  origin 
through  die  father,  A  person,  for  example, 
whose  father  is  English,  but  whose  mother  is 
Scotch,  would  be  ranked  as  "English."  It  was 
pointed  out,  however^  to  the  enumerators  that 
such  terms  as  "Amenean*  or  •Canadian'  ought 
not  to  be  applied  in  a  tribal  sense.  In  the  case 
of  Indians,  the  origin  is  traced  through  the 
mother,'  and  the  name  of  thdr  tribe  given,  as 
(Chippewa,  Cree,  etc  Persons  of  mixed  white 
and  red  blood,  usually  called  ■half-breeds,* 
were  to  be  described,  in  addition  to  the  tribal 
name,  with  the  name  of  the  white  race  infused 
in  the  blood.  Thus  *Cree  F,  B.'  would  denote 
that  the  person  is  a  mixture  of  Cree  and 
French,  "aiippewa  S,B."  that  the  person  was 
a  mixture  of  Chippewa  and  Scottish.  Children 
of  marriages  between  white  and  black  or  yel- 
low races  were  to  be  classed  as  Negro,  Mon- 
golian (Chinese  or  Japanese)  as  the  case 
might  be.  Throughout  the  census  no  attempt 
was  made  at  classification  b);  physical  types, 
such  as  form  of  the  head,  facial  features,  etc., 
as  this  is  essentially  a  matter  of  expert  inves- 
tigation. A  question  as  to  country  of  birth 
was  added  in  which  distinctive  sections  are 
particularized,  as  _  for  example,  between  Bo- 
hemia and  Galicia  in  Austria- Hungary,  England 
and  Scotland  in  Great  Britain,  eta,  etc.  This 
question  was  inserted  largely  as  a  check  on  the 


Table  II.    Population  of  Canada  by  Biethplace. 

Poputation  born  in  jpedfled  hirtlipl«<»  by  — 


BmnrPLACB  1901  1911 

Tol»1 S.371.31S  7.206,643 

Empirei 3,092,866  6,453,911 

CanMit 4,671,813  3,619.682 

BhtiihUuidi 390,019  7M.526 

Biitiahpocsewiona 15.864  29.188 

Buropg 12s!349  404)941 

/Mt' 23.SB0  40,946 

United  8t«t«,,.. '*'■!??  *'3'?!9 

■  Indnd*>  Britidi,of  unreoordsd  tnrthplace  (od  "  bora  at  Mft." 


89.56 
77.98 
10.89 


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CAHAOA— POPULATION  (28) 

population  inunedutely  derived  from  the  Uni-     which  has  for  many  years  been  characteristic 


ted  States. 

The jwneral  results  of  the  census  are  exhib- 
ited in  Table  HI,  which  has  been  constructed  so 
as  to  aflotd  comparisons  with  1901,  the  pre- 
ceding census  year,  and  thus  to  reveal  recent 
tendencies  as  well  as  present  facts.  Of  the  total 
Canadian  population  (7,206,643),  it  will  be  seen 
those  of  British  race  make  up  well  over  one- 
half,  whilst  the  other  pioneer  race,  the  French, 
contribute  considerably  more  than  half  the  re- 
mainder. Together,  the  British  and  French 
races  represent  82.6  per  cent  of  the  population. 
Those  of  German  extraction  follow  with  5.5 
per  cent  Of  (he  20  other  racial  strains  that 
are  enumerated,  only  fonr  — the  Austrian,  the 
Scandinavian,  the  Indian  and  the  Jewish- 
amount  to  more  than  1  per  cent,  none  of  them 
exceeding  2  per  cent. 


the  province  of  Quebec.  (The  number  o£ 
Canadian  residents  bom  in  France  was  only 
7,944  in  1901,  and  rose  to  only  17,619  in  1911). 
The  German  proportion  has  similarly  fallen 
slightly,  diough  a  substantial  flow  of  immi- 
grants persisted  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
war.  For  the  very  marked  percentage  in- 
creases which  are  shown  in  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian,  Scandinavian  and  Italian  elements  we 
nave  undoubtedly  to  thank  the  great  railway- 
and  town -building  era  of  15W-13,  whicn, 
financed  by  British  capital  drew  so  heavily 
upon  these  reservoirs  of  labor.  It  need  occa- 
sion no  surprise  to  »ee  a  recession  in  these 
elements  by  the  time  of  the  next  census,  for 
the  enumeration  of  1911  came  when  the  ex- 
pansion was  at  its  bei^t  and  the  numbers  of 
these  more  or  less  temporary  residents  were 


]{ mpiuiiitkni 


i'.Mi 

^•is 

MS.  76 

-S'SJ 

>  Inoludsd  uodlr  tlU  gtoaal  U 

•  iDctodKl  h>lt-bn>di  in  IWI. 

*  Indndad  with  Auttro-Huiiguiuu,  Germuu  anl  K 


abMlute  gain  during  recent  years  has  been  — 
the  persdns  of  British  origin;  it  bas  not  snf- 
ficetC  however,  to  prevent  a  fatling  off  in  the 
proportion  of  British  to  the  whole,  which 
dropped  from  57  per  cent  to  54  per  cent  in  the 
decade,  notwithstanding  the  heavy  immigration 
from  the  Brituh  Isles  shown  in  Table  I.  The 
French  stock  has  similarly  declined  from  30 
to  28  per  cent  of  At  whole,  but  its  net  accre- 
tion of  405,519  (less  than  half  that  of  the  Brit-^ 
ish),  has  been  without  any  such  adventitious 
help  as  the  latter  received,  being  accotmted  for 
almost   wbolfy  1^  the  large   natural  ' 


M  In  1901.  but  given  ■epantely  is  thii  table. 

at  their  maximum.  Many,  of  course,  came  as 
agriculturists,  and  these  wilt  count  as  perma- 
nent. The  Greek  and  Balkan  races  made  prac- 
tically their  first  appearance  in  Canada  since 
1900. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  among  British 
stocks,  the  Englisn  alone  have  increased  their 
proportion,  advancing  from  23.4  to  25.3  per 
cent  of  the  whole,  and  gaining  44.5  per  cent  in 
actual  numbers.  The  Scotch  have  gained  24.7 
per  cent,  but  this  has  not  prevented  them  from 
shrinking  from  a  proportion  of  14.9  per  cent  in 
1901  to  one  of  13.8  per  cent  in  1911-  The 
Irish  on  the  other  hand  have  risen  only  6.2 
per  cent  in  numbers  and  have  rather  markedly 
declined  in  proportional  standing,  namely, 
from  18.4  per  cent  to  14.5  per  cent.    The  Eng- 


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CANADA  — POPULATION  (28) 


li^  in  Canada  niimbered  1323,150,  tbe  Irish 
1.050,384  and  the  Scotch  997,800,  in  1911.  The 
FrcDch  totaled  2^54jB90. 

Diatribution  of  Races  by  Provlacet, — To 
deicribe  the  distribution  of  the  different  races 
by  provinces  would  be  to  write  the  history  of 
the  settlement  of  Canada.  Table  IV  will  show 
the  general  situation  as  it  exists  to-day.  The 
earliest  movement  to  dispossess  the  native  In- 
dian was,  of  course,  that  of  the  French  into 
Acadia  and  Quebec.  It  ceased  at  the  Conquest, 
1759,  when  the  population  of  Canada  was  esti- 
mated at  82,000,  but  the  remarkable  natural 
fertility  already  remarked  upon  has  left  the 
French  not  only  paramount  in  Quebec,  but  con- 
stitutine  the  second  element,  and  that  a  con- 
siderable one,  in  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia 


Dominion  also  witnetscd  three  special  immigra- 
tions —  the  precursors  of  several  of  lilce  nature 
—  into  the  West  These  early  movements  con- 
sisted of  Mennonites,  Icelanders  and  Russian 
Jews,  the  victitBS,  for  the  most  part,  of  eco- 
nomic or  political  disadvantaee,  from  which 
they  sought  a  refuge,  and  with  success,  in  the 
New  World.  A  better  remembered  episode  of 
the  kind  is  the  migration  of  the  religious  body 
known  as  Doukbobor^  who  came  to  Canada  in 
the  dosing  years  of  the  19th  century  to  escape 
the  long  and  relentless  persecution  with  whicb 
they  had  been  followed  in  Russia.  The  taUe 
will  show  how  ail  these  newer  elements  have 
been  distributed,  and  what  the  racial  problem 
connotes  for  each  of  the  provinces.  How  that 
problem  is  capable  of  taking  o  ' 


and  Prince  Eldward  Island,  the  third  in  Ontario  pected  forms  has  been  demonstrated  since  the 
and  the  fourth  in  Manitola.  The  first  marked  outbreak  of  the  great  war,  when  extensive 
infusion  of  British  stock,  on  the  other  hand,  internments  of  alien  enemies,  as  well  as  modi- 
wu  that  of  the  Loyalists  from  the  thirteen  fications  of  the  Franchise  Act,  have  been  made 
Table  IV.    Obicins  of  TRB  Canadiait  People  by  Pxovimces,  1911, 


Briti<ii  Bmnt- 

Ouana  Alberta  Cohni^iu  Hkniloba  wick 

Britilh 191, 6M  2S2,6R3  2M.4IS  229, SM 

Bnath 91,95S  133,186  111.T98  106,017 

buh 36,739  40,642  SS,463  74.970 

:     Scotch 54.8a4  74.493  82.861  47.949 

I     Wrtih J,0«  4.1§6  2,247  1.348 

Otbar 51  176  46  12 

Fnoch 19.SI5  ■,907  30,944  9S.611 

Oarmwi 36.B62  11,880  34,330  3,144 

Autn-HuiBvlaiii 26,427  7,015  39,66!  73 

Bclflui,  .  t.lM  9.U  7.tS\  76 

Dattii. ...... ...........  21951  i;255  2,853  4,320 

Greek 129  SlD  317  40 

Kudu 3  2.192  13  2 

{Ddiui 11,630  20.134  7.ST6  1,S41 

It^lien 2,139  9.721  972  384 

japUHK 147  S,SS7  S     

Jewiah 1,486  1.263  10,741  1,021 

Ntgro 979  473  209  1 .079 

Pi£h> 2,243  561  12,310  67 

RnanaiK 9.421  6,896  8,841  60 

"       *■                      28.047  IS. 968  16,419  1,479 

1,200  796  396  63 

1.596  2,438  4,829  433 

31,766  20.074  14,81B  9,406 

Tfrtal 374,663  391.480  455,614  351,889 


Ontario 

leluul 

'■•V 

l.IWi 

2.224 

382 

192,338 

J, 523,274 

93 

728 

1,003,233 

491,432 

I         *Not  ffna  ■« 

colonies,  40,000  of  whom  crossed  into  Canada 
during  the  years  immediately  following  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles,  1783.  About  one-half  of 
these  were  divided  between  New  Brunswick  and 
Nova  Scotia,  and  the  rest  between  Quebec  and 
Ontario,  where,  and  especially  in  Ontario,  they 
became  the  nucleus  of  a  fast-growing  popula- 
tion recruited  from  the  British  Isles.  In  On- 
tario alone  by  1841,  the  population  had  risen  to 
455,688,  and  to-day,  as  the  accompanying  state- 
ment shows,  the  British  is  the  predominant 
race  in  all  but  one  of  the  provinces.  The  pre- 
dominance; naturally  enough,  in  view  of  recent 
history,  is  less  marked  in  the  West,  but  even 
Saskatchewan,  which  may  be  said  to  have  been 
created  as  a  community  by  the  immigration  of 
the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  has  more  than 
half  of  its  people  of  British  extraction,  whilst 
the  next  prevailing  strain  numbers  but  14  per 
cent.  The  German  movement  to  Canada  began 
to  be  noticeable  about  the  time  of  Confedera- 
tion  (1867).     The  first   10  years  of  the  new 


in  the  national  interest.  It  was  already  appre- 
ciated in  the  increasing  stringency  wtuch  may 
be  seen  in  the  regulations  regarding  immigrants 
during  the  jiast  few  years.  On  the  whole,  in 
the  absorption  of  these  diverse  and  polyglot 
additions  to  her  population,  Canada  has  pro- 
ceeded rapidly  and  with  success,  and  if  the 
result  still  leaves  some  unevenness,  it  will  com- 
pare not  unfavorably  with  the  same  in  other 
new  countries. 

Racial  Conceatratloii.—  Special  examples 
of  local  racial  concentration  may  be  noted  in  die 

Eesence  of  Jews  to  the  number  of  27,948  in 
ontreal,  18,237  in  Toronto  and  9,023  in  Wlii- 
nipeg;  oi  Germans  to  the  number  of  10,633  in 
Kitchener,  9,775  in  Toronto,  8.912  in  WinnipeR 
4j619  in  Hamihon  and  2,758  in  Regina;  and  of 
Chinese  and  Japanese  in  Vancouver  to  the  nuni- 
ber  of  3,559  and  2,036,  respectively. 

Aboriginal  Population.^  The  aborHinal 
population  of  Canada,  in  points  of  numbers, 
IS  standing  stilL    The  latest  census  (1916)  bf 


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CANiU>A  — IMMIGRATION  <29) 


400 


s  been  so  much  adnixtute  by  intermarriage 

at  several  of  the  government's  Indian  agencies 
that  it  is  unpossible  to  classify  the  present 
Indian  population  comj^etcly  accordtng  to 
tribes,  and  the  table  accounts  for  only  72,509. 
There  are,  however,  106,511  Indians  on  the 
<^cial  records  which  differentiate  the  Canadian 
Indians  according  to  linguistic  stodcs.  Of 
these  59,222  are  Algonldns,  13,747  Athabascan, 
595  Haida,  12,142  Iroquois,  515  Kutenai,  9JSS& 
Sali^  1338  Siouan,  2334  Tsimshian,  3,230 
KwalauU-Nootka  (Wabaskau)  and  %500 
nomads  of  British  Columbia  unclassified. 

Table  V.  Census  ot  Canawan  Ihsians,  1916, 

BY  PhINOPAJ.  TBIBE3. 

Tribe                                 Locstion  ben 

Abefuld  (AlstniUn  rtoek) .  Quebec 333 

Algonquin (^^fmkbiBoclO  Oatano  and  Quetwc.....  til 

Aamiboins  (Souan  ilock)  Suk.  tud  Alta JOT 

Athabusin  Uibea   (Attu-  NTW.  T..  Alt*.    Btituh 
bukui  ilock) ,  " 


()>Dilot>a 


7,916 


BIu±foot'(Ate 

CiMMSaliih  is . 

DeUvue  (Aloonldn  i ,  . 

HwtU  (H«(U  or  SkJtUca- 

tui  (tock) Brrtidi  Ctdumlna 

Hurona  (InuiKMn  ctoek) ,  Qu^mc  and  Ontuio. . . 
Intnior       OtUih        I&limh 

h  Columbia 


KmkiiiU  (  W  a 

(todc) _.._ - 

Ualeola  (Alpnikui  (tod)  OBeb«  ud  New  StBD» 


Micmaci  (Algonkin  atock)  Qiiebec,  Kev  Bniniwick 


Mootaonaia 

■toc£>... 

Nootka  (Wa . 

Oiibira  or  Chippeva 

—"in  .took) 


3.5M 

Oueboc.. 2.071 

British  Columbia 1.719 

itchann,      Albarta, 

lUiia  and  Manitoba  16,31S 


Pottawatoml         ^ , 

itodO  -  ■ .  - - .  Oatano . 

Sanec  (Athahaaloin  (taclO  Anrnia. . . 

Sioux  (Sionao  ilock) Manitoba, 

Swampr    Cree    (Ajffonkin  Manitoba 


■tock) 

ToMl... 


T1.30» 

Negro  Population.— The  Negro  is  not  a 
problem  in  Canada.  All  told,  he  numbers  less 
than  17,000.  More  than  three-fourths  are 
divided  between  Nova  Scotia  and  the  southern 
counties  of  Ontario.  The  latter  are  descend- 
ants mainly  of  fugitive  American  staves,  but 
the  former  came  originally  from  Jamaica,  a 
band  of  nepro  "maroons'  having  been  broDf^t 
b^  the  Bntish  government  to  construct  the 
citadel  of  Halifax,  whence  they  scattered  over 
the  nei^borhood.  Windsor,  Ontario,  has  over 
a  thousand  negroes  and  Halifax  800,  and  these 
are  the  largest  colonies. 

Oriental  Popnlation.— The  problem  of  the 
Oriental  immigrant  calls  for  special  remark. 
Against  the  Oriental  alone  a6  a  race  has  Can- 
aoa  reared  a  barrier  which  is  intended  to  pre- 
vent ingress.  In  fhe  case  of  the  Chinese,  a  head 
tax  of  $50  was  imposed  as  far  back  as  1885. 
In  1901  this  was  increased  to  $100,  and  in  1904 


to  $500.  So  many,  however,  have  been  the 
opportunities  for  profitable  labor  for  the  China- 
man  in  Canada  that  after  a  couple  of  years' 
Gctsation  'the  movement  recommenced,  and 
over  28,000  landed  in  Canada,  paying  over  balf 
a  milHon  dollars  in  head  tax,  between  1905  and 
1915.  In  the  case  of  tlie  Japanese,  the  matter 
was  less  easy  of  adjustment;  no  such  means 
could  be  employed  against  a  proud  and  power- 
ful nation,  the  ally  of  the  mother  country.  An 
arrangement,  however,  was  arrived  at  by  nego* 
tiations,  and  since  190/  the  arrivals  of  Japanese 
have  been  voluntarily  limited  to  a  few  hundred 
a  year.  The  Hindu  immigration  presented  a 
scarcely  les*  onbarrassing  problem,  owing  to 
the  inter-imperial  relations  of  the  two  coun- 
tries. In  all  cases,  the  policy  of  the  Dominion 
was  based  on  the  same  principle  —  the  desire 
not  to  be  overstocked  by  a  people  of  lower 
standards  of  living,  incarable  of  assimilation 
with  Eunmean  races.  The  employing  class 
upon  the  whole  has  favored  the  freer  admission 
ot  Orientals,  but  labor  has  resolutely  set  its 
face  against  it,  and  has  thus  far  secured  the 
backing  of  pubUc  opinion. 

Populatian  and  Langnage. —  Race  and 
language  go  hand  in  band.  By  the  British 
North  American  Act,  1867,  the  Dominion  has 
two  official  languages,  Engjish  and  French. 
The  province  of  Quebec  is  likewise  tri-lingual. 
With  the  growth  of  the  French  population  in 
Ontario,  an  agitation  has  arisen  for  the  exten- 
sion ot  the  privileges  conferred  npon  the 
French  tongue  in  the  schools,  and  the  door  has 
been  opened  upon  a  persistent  and  disturbing 
controversy.  No  record  of  the  language  spoken 
by  the  people  was  taken  at  the  1911  census,  but 
in  1901  there  were  3.709,370  over  five  years  of 
age  able  to  speak  English  and  1,514,97?  able  to 
speak  French.  The  number  of  French  able  to 
speak  both  languages  has  always  exceeded  that 
of  the  English  similarly  endowed.  In  1901  it 
was  529,55^  compared  with  126,078  English  able 
to  spe^  French.  There  were  in  1901  1,019,261 
unable  to  speak  English,  3,213,654  unable  to 
speak  French  and  160.814  (chiefly  Indians  and 
recent  immigrants)  unable  to  speak  either  of 
the  official  languages. 

R.  H.  Coats, 
Dominion  StatisttdoH  and  Controller  of  Centus. 

29.  IMMIGRATION.  Opportunities  for. 
The  Dominion  has  witnessed  within  recent 
years  a  great  increase  of  immigration,  more 
especially  from  the  British  Isles  and  the  United 
States,  buE  also  from  the  Scandinavian  king- 
doms, France  Belgium  and  other  countries  of 
Europe.  Within  the  past  decade  the  Dominion 
has  received  more  than  2,000,000  immigrants, 
nearly  all_  of  a  most  desirable  class,  and  the 
large  majority  devoted  to  agriculture,  ready 
and  able  to  do  their  part  in  developing  the 
practically  unlimited  wealth  of  Canada's  vast 
grain-growing  area,  estimated  at  171.000,000 
acres,  of  which  about  35,000,000  acres  are  now 
under  cultivation.  During  the  year  1915,  12,- 
986,400  acres  produced  wheat,  and  the  entire 
wheat  crop  harvested  was  more  than  393,000,000 
bushels,  almost  double  the  annual  importation 
of  wheat  for  the  British  Isles. 

The  cheapness  of  land,  its  unparalleled  pro- 
ductiveness, the  certainty  of  comfort  and  inde- 
pendence as  the  reward  of  industry  and  thrift, 
and  the  security  of  life  and  prc^rty  under  a 


CiQ 


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410 

wdl-r^ulated  administration,  are  the  chief  in- 
ducements which  have  already  attracted  hun- 
dretls  of  thousands  of  Britons  and  Americans 
to  the  Canaan  West,  and  which  are 'continuing 
to  britiK  them, 

English-speaking  settlers  from  the  British 
Istes  and  the  United  Stales  form  the  much 
^eater  part  of  the  new  population.  Scandina- 
vians, French,  Belgians,  Russians,  Swiss,  Ital- 
ians and  other  nationalities  are  also  rep  re- 
lented in  the  arrivals.  The  Doukhobora  from 
Russia,  have  proved  an  industrious  and  valu- 
able addition  to  Canada's  population.  They 
are  almost  exclusively  engagea  in  farming. 

The  lands  offered  to  settlers  by  the  Cana- 
dian government  are  situated  west  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  to  (he  north  of  Minnesota,  North 
Dakota  and  Montana,  and  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  the  provinces  of  Manitoba,  Sas- 
katchewan and  Alberta.  The  land  is  for  the 
most  part  prairie,  and  can  be  secured  abso- 
lutely free  from  timber  and  stones,  if  desired, 
the  soil  being  the  very  best  alluvial  black  loam, 
from  one  to  two  feet  deep,  with  a  d^  sub- 
soil.    It  is  just  rolling  enough  to  give  it  good 


secured  by  homesteading.  The  entry  fi 
homestead  of  160  acres  is  $10,  there  being  no 
further  money  consideration.  The  settler,  be- 
fore receiving  his  patent,  must  live  upon  the 
land  three  years,  a  residence  of  six  months  in 
each  year  being  necessary,  and  he  must  als6  do 
a  small  amount  of  cultivation. 

An  alien  that  is  a  person  not  a  British  sub- 
ject, may  make  application  for  a  free-  home- 
stead at  once  on  his  arrival  in  (^ada,  but  he 
must  become  naturalized,  or  give  proof  of  in- 
tention to  become  naturalized,  before  he  can 
obtain  a  patent  for  the  land.  A  rendence  of 
five  years  in  British  Dominions  —  the  last  year 
Canada  —  is  necessary  to  acquire  naturalization. 
In  the  meantime  the  homesteader  may  reside  on, 
and  exercise  every  right  of,  iMssession, .  save 
that  he  may  not  mortgage  or  sell  the  land  until 
he  gets  his  patent  or  title. 

Though  there  are  tracts  of  forest  in  the 
Canadian  Northwest,  there  are  localities  where 
the.  quantity  of  buildmg  timber  and  other  build- 
ing material  is  limited,  and  the  government  has 
made  provision  for  such  cases.  Should  a  man 
settle  on  a  quarter  section  of  land  void  of  tim- 
ber, he  can.  by  making  application  to  the  Do- 
minion lands  agent  in  the  locality,  obtain  a  per- 
mit to  cut  on  government  lands  free  of  charge 
the  following:  (1)  3,000  lineal  feet  of  building 
timber,  measuring  no  more  than  12  inches  at 
the  bntt,  or  9,250  feet  board  measure.  (2)  400 
roofing  poles.  (3)  2,000  fencing  rails  and  SOO 
fence  posts,  seven  feet  long,  anJ  not  exceeding 
fire  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end.  (4) 
30  cords  of  firewood.  The  settler  having  all 
diese  free  of  charge  has  only  the  expense  of 
cutting  and  hauling  them  to  his  homestead, 
which  cannot  cost  him  a  great  deal.  He  is 
also  very  likely  to  have  the  benefit  of  cheap 
coal ;  there  are  areas  of  coal  in  western  Can- 
ada of  such  an  extent  as  to  be  practically  inex- 
haustible. The  principal  dis^ncls  of  western 
Canada  are  wilhin  easy  reach  of  firewood,  while 
the  settlers  of  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan  are 
particularly  favored,  especially  along  the  vari- 
ous streams,  at  which  they  may  get  all  the  coal 


CANADA  — MILITARY  SY8TBH  (30) 


they  require,  very  frequently  at  the  cost  of 
handling  and  hauling  it  home.  If  a  settler 
should  desire  to  go  into  stock  raising,  and  his 
quarter  section  of  160  acres  should  not  prove 
sufhcient  to  furnish  pasturage  for  his  stodc.  he 
can  make  application  to  the  land  commissioner 
for  a  lease  ot  grazing  lands  at  a  very  low  cost 

The  public  school  system  b  established  all 
through  the  country,  and  there  are  schools  in 
all  the  organized  sdiool  districts.  There  is  a 
ready  market  for  cereals  and  other  produce; 
the  dimate  is  healthful  and  agreeable. 

The  aim  of  the  Dominion  government  is  to 
attract  to  Canada  industrious,  intelligent,  enei^ 
getic  settlers  with  the  purpose  and  ability  to 
do  their  part  in  building  up  a  nation  imperial 
in  its  natural  resources  and  in  the  extent  of 
its  magnificent  territory:  in  the  carrying  out 
of  this  policy  the  govenmieDt  is  meetmg  with 
eminent  success.  Sec  Canada  — Populatiom, 
Racial  Distubiition  and  Imhksation. 

W.  D.  Scorr. 
SitptrinUndenI  of  Immigration,   Olfawa. 

30.  UILITARY  SYSTEM.  HUtorioL 
The  Canadian  military  syatem  has  its  roots 
in  the  principle  of  universal,  comipulsory  mili- 
tary service.  This  prindple  was  firmly  estab- 
lished in  the  French  colony  on  the  Saint  Law- 
rence; when  this  colony  passed  under  the  Brit- 
ish flag  and  was  supplemented  by  English- 
speaking  colonies  to  the  east  and  the  west  the 
prindple  was  maintained.  The  general  system 
of  defense  in  use  by  Great  Britain  for  her 
North  American  colonies  in  the  first  half  of 
the  19th  century  provided  wholly  against  attack 
from  the  south ;  at  that  period  there  existed  an 
antagonism  between  the  British  empire  and 
the  United  States  which  a  century  of  peace 
fortunately  has  removed.  The  method  adopted 
was  (1)  to  maintain  in  the  North  Amencan 
colonies  (Um)er  and  Lower  Canada,  New 
Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  etc)  a  garrison  of 
the  British  regular  army,  which  until  about  1840 
was  rou^ly  equal  in  strength  to  the  regular 
army  of  the  United  States;  (2)  so  to  organize 
the  male  inhabitants  of  the  colonies  as  to  fadli- 
tate  thdr  embodiment  in  emergency  in  firmly 
organized  corps,  under  regular  conditions  and 
discipline  and  under  the  leadership  of  regular 
officers;  (3)  to  provide  in  advance  arms,  stores 
and  equipment  for  these  native  troops.  By 
the  militia  until  1862  was  meant  the  peace 
organization  of  the  male  inhabitants  oi  the 
country  suited  to  this  scheme.  No  attempt  was 
made  at  peace  training;  the  effort  made  was 
to  impress  upon  the  people's  minds  the  uni- 
versal obligation  of  service  and  to  provide  for 
the  rapid  and  orderly  raising  of  service  corps. 
There  was  an  annua!  muster  parade  of  all  men 
of  military  age,  and  all  liable  to  serve  were 
divided  into  regiments  and  companies ;  local 
officers  were  appointed,  but  these  officers  were 
for  duties  of  administration  rather  than  of 
leadership,  and  if  the  need  of  mobilization 
had  occurred  their  function  would  have  been 
to  select  from  thdr  formations  suitable  men 
to  be  organized  into  service  corps,  which, 
as  already  stated,  would  have  been  trained 
and  led  under  the  supervision  of  the  regular 
army.      The    mainspring    of    this    system    was 


:,  Google 


CANADA  ~  UIUTAS Y  SYSTBH  .(30> 


411 


Great  Britun  gradmlly  denuded  the  calonies 
of  regular  troopa,  and  at  last  withdrew  these 
almost  altogether  from  Canada,  the  old  organ- 
izalion  fell  into  decay.  Early  in  the  second 
half  of  the  19tfa  century  the  second  phase  set 
in  with  the  organization  of  a  number  of  sepa- 
rate volunteer  corps;  the  citizen  soldiers  com- 
prising these  drilled  in  their  Spare  time  after 
the  manner  now  familiar  on  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent,  and  the  volunteers  gradually 
supplanted  the  old  militia.  The  slight  Fenian 
raids  of  1866  and  1870  were  repelled  mainly 
by  the  use  of  these  volunteers,  and  after  con- 
federation in  1867  the  whole  defense  of  Canada 
was  committed  to  a  new  volunteer  miUtia  of 
this  type.  The  principle  of  universal  compul- 
sory service  remained  on  the  statute  book  but 
in  practice  there  was  no  compulsion  and  the 
Dominion  kept  up  a  voluntarily  enlisted  citiieu 
force.  In  corps  enlisted  in  the  cities  the  regi- 
ments trained  by  evening  drills;  the  corps 
raised  in  rural  districts  went  to  camp  for  12 
days  in  the  year.  The  training  was  imperfect, 
and  higher  organization,  stores  for  mobiliza- 
tion and  staS  services  were  neglected.  In  1870 
the  British  troops  were  finally  withdrawn  from 
the  Dominion,  with  the  exception  of  the  naval 
stations  of  Halifax  and  Esquimalt,  and  from 
that  year  to  the  period  of  the  South  African 
War  the  military  equipment  of  the  country  was 
slight.  A  revolt  by  a  few  half-breeds  and 
Indians  in  the  Northwest  territories  in  188S 
was  put  down  wholly  by  the  forces  of  the  Do- 
minion, about  5,000  being  employed.  To  the 
struggle  in  South  Africa  the  Dominion  con- 
tributed about  8,000  men ;  of  these  7,000  crossed 
the  sea,  while  the  remainder  undertook  the 
garrisoning  of  Halifax,  and  so  released  an 
equivalent  number  of  the  British  regular  army 
for  active  service.  All  the  corps  so  employed 
were  specials  raised  for  the  war.  The  ex- 
perience of  this  war,  and  the  gradual  deepen- 
ing of  the  diplomatic  dangers  which  led  to  the 
great  European  War,  caused  Canadian  states- 
men and  soldiers  to  reor^nize  the  defensive 
forces  of  the  country.  The  process  was  a 
pradual  one;  it  began  about  1902  and  was  still 
m  progress  when   the  explosion  of   1914  oc- 

The  HiUtia  Act.— The  foundation  of  the 
new  organization  is  the  Militia  Act  of  19(W,  and 
as  this  constitutes  the  legal  authority  by  virtue 
of   which  the  land   forces  of   Canada  exist,  it 


gpects,  partly  by  statutes  and  partly  by  regula- 
tions enacted  under  tiie  authority  of  the  War 
Measure  Act.  The  command  in  chief  is 
vested  in  His  Uajesty  the  King,  with  the  gov- 
emor-geneTal  as  his  representative.  The  ad- 
ministration of  the  force  is  entrusted  to  the 
Minister  of  Militia  and  Defense;  he  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Dominion  Cabinet,  he  must  be  a 
member  of  Pariiament  and  he  can  be  held  to 
account  by  that  body.  In  the  summer  of  1916 
a  parliamentary  under-secretary  was  appointed 
to  assist  the  Minister  in  administering  the  de- 
partment; early  in  1918  this  office  was  discon- 
tinued.  Following  recent  British  example,  the 
Minister  is  assisted  by  a  militia  council,  com- 
posed of  four  military  and  two  civil  members. 
The  military  members  are  the  chief  of  the  gen- 
eral staff,  the  adiutant-general,  the  quarter- 
master-genera) and  the  master-general  of  the 


ordnance.  The  civil  members  are  the  deputy 
minister  and  the  paymaster-general.  Each  of 
dieK  officers  presides  over  a  branch  of  the  de- 
partment, and  the  business  of  administering  the 
force  is  distributed  among  these  branches. 
The  Minister  presides  over  the  meetings  of  the 
council  and  acts  affecting  the  administration  ol 
the  militia  technically  issue  from  the  Minister 
in  council;  in  practice  the  decision  lies  with 
the  Minieter.  Outside  of  the  militia  council 
stand  two  inspectors-general,  officers  of  rank, 
who  report  upon  the  quality  of  the  training 
etc.,  of  the  troofis.  The  country  is  divided  into 
11  military  districts,  each  under  a  district  officer 
commanding,  who  is  either  a  colonel  or  a  gen- 
eral officer;  in  the  interests  of  decentralization 
con^derable  powers  of  administration  are  en- 
trusted to  these  officers. 

All  the  male  inhabitants  of  Canada  from 
18  to  60  years  of  age  are  liable  to  military 
service.  To  this  general  rule  there  are  some 
exceptions,  such  as  judges,  clergymen  and  pro- 
fessors in  colleges.  In  cases  of  great  emer- 
gency a  "^Levee  en  Massr"  may  he  ordered, 
when  all  male  inhabitants  capable  of  bearing 
arms  can  be  summoned  Those  ordinarily  lia- 
ble to  service  are  divided  into  four  classes : 
(1)  Those  18  years  of  age  to  30.  unmarried,  or 
widowers  without  children;  ^2)  30  years  of 
age  to  45,  unmarried,  or  widowers  without 
children;  (3)  18  to  45  who  are  married,  or 
widowers  with  children ;  (4)  45  and  upwards, 
but  under  60.  The  principle  of  substitution  is 
recognized.  It  is  in  this  order  (hat  the  Militia 
Act  of  1901  contemplated  the  summoning  of 
the  male  population  to  the  colors.  When  in  the 
Stress  of  the  Great  European  War  resort  was 
had  to  compulsion  for  overseas  the  foregoing 
classification  was  rearranged,  and  the  principle 
of  substitution  disappeared.  The  Militia  Act 
limited  compulsory  service  in  the  field  to  18 
months  at  most ;  this  limitation  disappeared.  The 
militia  may  be  sent  on  active  service  "anywhere 
in  Canada  and  also  beyond  Canada  for  the  de-  . 
fense  thereof.*  When  in  time  of  war  the 
■militia  is  called  out  for  active  service  to  serve 
conjointly  with  His  Majesty's  regular  forces. 
His  Majesty  may  place  in  command  thereof  a 
senior  general  officer  of  his  regular  army."  In 
the  census  year  of  1911  the  number  of  males 
in  Canada  between  18  and  45  was  1,720,000;  of 
these  1,109,000  were  native-bom,  306,000  were 
British  bom  and  304,000  were  foreign-bom. 

Later  Organizatiotu — During  the  period 
1902  to  1914  the  professional  soldiers  of  Great 
Britain  once  more  influenced  the  military  pol- 
icy of  Canada,  but  this  time  in  a  manner  con- 
sistent with  the  autonomy  attained  by  the  Do- 
minion in  the  British  empire.  During  the 
greater  portion  of  this  period  the  sailors  and 
soldiers  of  the  empire  were  preparing,  as  far 
as  political  policy  allowed,  for  the  great  war 
which  they  foresaw,  and  which  came  in  1914. 
The  general  policy  pursued  was  for  the  United 
Kingdom  to  prepare  its  forces  to  meet  the  first 
shodc  of  the  conflict,  and  for  the  Dominions  — 
Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South 
Africa  —  so  to  organize  their  citizen  forces  as 
to  enable  them  in  the  event  of  war  rapidly  to 
raise  forces  which  would  fit  into  the  general 
British  military  system.  This  implied  ( I ) 
common  establishments-  it  was  understood,  for 
example,  that  if  Canada  raised  a  division  for 
war  service^  it  would  be  identicBl  as  to  number 


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4ia 


CAI^ADA  — MILITARY  SYBTKU  <3D> 


of  battalions,  proporticm  of  artillery,  deuils  of 
staff,  etc.,  with  th«  divisions  of  the  British 
army.  (2)  A  considerable  amount  of  staff 
work,  in  the  shape  of  mobilization  arra^e- 
ments,  plans  of  organization,  elc  (3)  "Hie 
provision  of  arms,  stores,  equipment,  etc.,  for 
a  force  of  the  size  which  Canada  might  reason- 
ably be  expected  to  raise.  Such  plans  were 
prepared  and  carried  out  to  a  certain  extent  in 
Canada.  The  foundations  of  them  are  to  be 
found  in  a  series  of  agreements  made  at  the 
Imperial  Conferences  of  1907,  1909  and  1911  and 
set  forth  in  bine-books  published  in  those  years; 
these  agreements  were  concluded  between  the 
statesmen  of  the  mother  country  and  the  Do- 
minions, assisted  by  soldiers  and  sailors  rep- 
resenting the  several  parts  of  the  empire  con- 
cerned. The  details  were  worked  out  by  a 
number  of  staff  otEcers,  in  part  supplied  from 
tiie  British  army,  in  part  belonging  to  the 
Canadian  establishment.  The  organization  of 
the  Canadian  forces  was  stimulated  by  two 
visits  of  inspection  paid  by  distinguished  of- 
ficers, by  Sir  John  French  m  1910,  and  by  Sir 
Ian  Hamilton  in  1912;  their  advice  proved  of 
^at  value.  The  general  Canadian  organisa- 
tion was  based  on  the  theory  that  the  militia 
was  to  provide  the  framework  of  corps,  offi- 
cers, arms,  training  establishments,  etc.,  of  an 
army  to  resist  invasion ;  the  first  line  was  to 
be  125,000  strong  and  behind  was  to  be  a  sec- 
ond line  of  reinforcing  units,  also  125,000 
strong.  The  country  east  of  Lake  Superior 
was  divided  into  six  areas,  each  of  which  was 
to  provide  a  self-contained  division  of  all  arms. 
in  the  region  west  of  Lake  Superior  were  a 
considerable  number  of  mounted  units  and  a 
number  of  infantry  corps,  which  it  was 
planned  ultimately  would  form  a  Seventh  Di- 
vision. Provision  also  was  matle  tor  a  num- 
ber of  mounted  brigades.  Theoretically  this 
organization  faced  southward ;  in  point  of 
fact,  the  real  danger  apprehended  ^as  across 
the  Atlantic, 

In  this  period  the  organization  and  num- 
bers  of  the  militia  changed  ra[Hdly.  the  gen- 
eral aim  being  to  attain  a  proper  oislribution 
of  arms;  the  force  had  comprised  too  large  a 
proportion  of  infantry,  with  too  small  a  supply 
of  cavalry  and  artillery.  Several  instructionid 
corps,  known  as  the  Permanent  Force,  had  ex- 
isted from  about  1880;  early  in  the  20th  cen- 
tury this  force  was  considerably  increased, 
IMrtly  because  the  Dominion  undertook  to  gar- 
rison the  Imperial  fortresses  of  Halifax  and 
Esquimalt,  and  partly  because  the  militia 
needed  more  ample  facilities  for  training.  By 
1914  the  authorized  establishment  of  this  Per- 
manent Force  was  5,000  and  the  actual  strength 
was  about  3,000.  Thi;  organizations  included: 
cavalry,  4  squadrons ;  horse  artillery,  2  bat- 
teries; garrison  artillery,  5  companies;  engi- 
neers, 3  companies;  infantry,  1  l^ttalion;  and 
also  army  service  corps,  army  medical  corps, 
army  veterinary  corps,  ordnance  corps,  army 
pay  corps,  military  staff  clerks,  etc.  The  active 
militia  comprised  in  1914:  cavalry,  130  squad- 
rons; field  artillery,  38  batteries;  heavy  artil- 
lery, 5  batteries ;  siege  artillery,  2  batteries ; 
garrison  artillery,  13  companies ;  engineers,  4 
field  troops,  9  field  companies,  9  telegraph  de- 
tachments, 1  wireless  telegraph  detachment ; 
infantry,  104  battalions;  signal  corps,  4  com- 


panies and  3  independent  aecdoiis;  army  service 
corps,  18  companies ;  army  medical  corps,  21 
field  ambulances;  and  sundry  auxiliary  serv- 
ices. The  war  establishments  of  these  units 
wouM  not  be  far  short  of  150,000. 

These  corps  were  distributed  into  higher 
formations  in  accordance  with  the  plan  already 
outlined:  the  orguiization  was  not  complete  in 
1914,  there  still  being  an  excess  of  infantry  and 
deficiency  of  some  of  the  other  arms,  notably 
of  artillery.  A  feature  of  this  period  was  the 
provision  of  special  troops  for  the  auxiliary  serv- 
ices—  army  medical  corps,  army  serrice  corps 
(for  supply  and  transport),  ordnance  store 
corps,  a  corps  of  guides  (for  intelligence 
woiic),  and  similar  organizations.  Otizen 
soldiers  proved  particularly  adapted  to 
these  ancillary  services,  and  often  at- 
tained much  proficiency  in  them.  The 
nimiber  of  the  active  militia  trained,  which 
before  the  South  African  War  had  been  fewer 
than  20,000,  bj;  1914  had  risen  to  nearly  60,000. 
With  all  this  improvement  in  organization  the 
progress  in  training  was  slower.  Something 
was  done  In  substituting  practical  work  for  the 
older  close-order  drill  and  ceremonial,  and  riflc- 
shooting  was  encouraged,  but  the  bulk  of  the 
militia  had  to  content  themselves  with  12  days' 
training  in  the  year. 

Training  establishments  had  been  increased 
daring  these  years.  The  oldest  of  these  is  the 
Royal  Military  Colle^  at  Kingston;  founded  in 
1876  in  professed  imitation  of  West  Point,  this 
institution  gives  an  excellent  genera]  education, 
and  in  addition  fits  its  graduates  to  be  officers 
in  the  regular  army.  A  proportion  of  its 
graduates  nave  entered  the  Imperial  forces, 
others  are  in  the  Canadian  Permanent  Force, 
while  the  larger  number  have  entered  civil  life, 
but  have  constituted  a  reserve  of  military  skill. 
Schools  of  artillery,  cavalry  and  infantry  long 
have  been  conducted  at  certain  centres,  and 
these  of  late  have  been  multiplied,  while  instruc- 
tion has  been  carried  to  the  militia  by  detach- 
ing instructors  from  the  permanent  corps  to 
conduct  temporary  courses  at  the  headquarters 
of  militia  units.  Riile-shooting,  for  many  years 
a  popular  pastime,  has  been  stimulated,  partly 
by  the  establishment  at  Rocklilfe,  near  Ottawa, 
of  a  School  of  Musketry,  modelled  upon  the 
British  institution  at  Hythe,  partly  by  the  en- 
couragement of  rifie  clubs,  both  for  military 
and  civilian.  Persons  enrolling  themselves  in 
civilian  rifle  clubs  did  so  on  the  condition  that 
'in  case  of  emergency*  they  should  at  once  be- 
come members  of  the  active  militia.  The  bov- 
emment  in  addition  to  aimual  grruits  supplied 
a  limited  number  of  rifies  to  each  dub,  with  a 
fair  proportion  of  free  ammunition ;  much 
energy  was  shown  in  providing  ranges  for  these 
numerous  and  widely  scattered  clubs.  By  1914 
these  institutions  had  increased  to  167  military 
and  433  civilian  clubs,  and  had  attained  a  mem- 
bership of  52,000.  Shooting  by  members  of  the 
militia  is  actively  encouraged.  Both  the 
Dominion  and  provincial  governments  c^ve 
monetary  grants  to  the  Oommion  and  provin- 
cial rifle  associations,  the  annual  meeting  of 
these  bodies  being  well  attended,  both  by  militia- 
men,   members  of   the  rifle    associations    and 

To  serve  as  feeders  to  the  militia,  and  to 
disseminate  militai?  knowledge  and  aptitude  at 


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CANADA—  HILITAfiV  SYSTEM  (30) 


an  age  when  lessons  are  earilT'  teamed,  the 
militia  department  befot«  1914  had  done  its 
uCmoat  to  encoura^  the  cadet  movement 
Corps  were  fonned  ra  the  schools,  the  provin- 
cial governments  (in  whose  hands  the  control 
of  education  is  vested  under  the  Canadian  con- 
stitntion)  co-openitiiig  with  the  Dominion  gov- 
ernment.   The   movement  b^fan  in    1906;   by 

1911  there  were  492  companies  and  19^50 
cadets;  by  31  March  1916  the  numbers  had  in- 
creased to  1,428  companies  and  S7,000  cadets. 
Of  these  units  76  were  affiliated  or  attached  to 
militia  organizations;  36,000  cadets  were  di^wn 
from  secondary  schools,  25,500  from  primary 
schools  and  5,000  were  in  corps  fostered  by 
municipalities   or  government   institutions.    In 

1912  cadet  camps  were  formed,  and  in  the 
years  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  these 
camps  were  attended  by  from  12,000  to  20.000 
lads ;  a  good  deal  also  was  done  to  teach  cadets 
rifle-shooting. 

In  regard  to  the  provision  of  arms  the 
most  important  step  t^en  was  the  establish- 
ment in  1904  of  the  Ross  rifle  factory  at 
Quebec;  this  institution  until  the  summer  of 
1916  manufactured  the  Ross  rifle,  a  type  of 
weapon  difTering  in  many  respects  from  the 
Lee  Enfield,  the  military  rifle  used  elsewhere 
in  the  British  empire,  but  of  the  same  calibre 
and  taking  the  same  ammunition.  The 
capacity  of  this  factory  before  the  war  was 
12,000  rifles  a  year,  and  in  1914  there  wer« 
about  7ft000  Ross  rifles  in  the  country,  some 
of  them  of  an  earlier  make  which  was  im- 
siiitable  for  campaigning.  In  1916  the  Can&- 
dian  troops  in  France  were  rearmed  with  the 
L«e  En£eld,  and  the  Ross  rifle  factory,  wiacb 
had  been  much  enlarged,  was  changed  to  the 
manufacture  of  that  weapoa  In  1917  this 
factory  was  taken  over  by  the  govemntenL  A 
small  arsenal  exists  at  Quebec,  capable  in  1914 
of  turning  out  several  milHon  rounds  anmiat^; 
it  also  made  a  limited  quantity  of  18-pounder 
shells.  A  second  arsenal  has  been  established 
St  Lindsay,  Ontario;  it  began  to  manufacture 
anunnnitian  in  1917.  The  government  bv  1914 
had  provided  about  100  guns,  mostly  13-  and 
Impounder  horse  and  field  quick-finng  guns; 
it  also  had  a  few  mediiun  guns,  4.7-iiich  and 
60-paunders.  The  supply  of  machine  guns  was 
■can^.  Something  was  done  toward  providing 
mobiluation  stares,  i.e.,  clothing  and  other 
necessary  articles  which  would  be  required  by 
flie  new  men  who  would  be  brou^t  into  the 
regiments  when  they  were  increased  to  their 
war  strength. 

Participatioii  in  the  Great  War^  Canada 
uohesttatin^y  took  part  in  the  European  War. 
Mention  already  has  been  made  of  the  plans 
framed  by  the  military  authorities ;  these  tn- 
cluded  confidential  plans  for  the  dispatching 
abroad,  in  the  event  of  a  war  in  Europe,  of  an 
eicpeditionary  force  comprising  a  division  (Le^ 
12  battalions  of  infantry,  with  the  necessary 
complement  of  artillery  and  other  troops,  in  an 
about  18,000  men)  and  a  mounted  brigade 
(about  2,000  mounted  rifles).  Detailed  plans 
for  die  enlistment  and  mobilization  of  these  had 
been  matured;  the  troops  were  to  be  specially 
mlisted,  the  militia  organization  bang  em- 
ployed to  raise  this  force.  On  1  Aug.  1914 
the  Canadian  goverrmient  telegraphed  to  Lon- 
don offering  a  contingent,  and  on  6  August 
the  British  government  r^ied  accepting,  and 


sug^sting  that  the  force  sent  consist  of  one 
division  and  a  'first  reinforcement"  of  10  per 
cent ;  in  all,  including  subsidiary  service^ 
some  22,000  of  all  ranks.  Recruiting  was  so 
ardent  and  districts  so  vied  in  providmg  corps, 
that  instead  of  12  battalions  17  were  raised 
almost  instantaneously ;  in  addition  another 
battalion,  the  Princess  Patricia's  Canadian 
Light  Infantry,  was  raised  from  former  Brit- 
ish soldiers  residing  in  Canada.  These  18 
battalions,  with  other  corps,  numbering  in'  alt 
33,000  all  ranks,  sailed  from  Quebec  late  in 
September  and  landed  at  Plymouth  on  15  Oct. 
1914.  This  was  a  force  raised  ad  hoc,  and  in 
a  sense  was  outside  the  active  militia,  although 
it  was  based  upon  that  force.  The  liability 
of  the  militia  to  serve  abroad  has  been  noted 
earlier;  no  attempt  was  made  to  apply  this 
liability,  die  course  followed  being  to  organize, 
under  the  Militia  Act,  a  new  force  known  as 
the  Canadian  Expeditionary  Force.  The  term 
of  service  is  the  duration  of  the  war,  with  a 
minimum  of  one  year.  The  active  militia 
sui^lied  nearly  all  of  the  oflicers  and  many 
of  the  men  of  the  first  division,  and  its 
whole  machinery  was  employed  in  raising, 
organizing  and  outfitting  this  overseas  army. 
Uai7,  however,  of  the  rank  and  file  had 
not  previously  served  in  the  militia,  and 
this  fact,  coupled  with  the  slight  training 
afforded  in  any  case,  made  it  necessary 
to  give  the  whale  force  several  months  of 
training  before  sending  it  to  the  Continent 
Somctlu^  was  done,  especially  in  the  way  of 
musketry,  at  the  great  mobilization  camp  at 
Valcartier,  near  Quebec  On  landing  in  Eng^ 
land  the  division  was  placed  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  British  general,  and  it  spent  the 
winter  upon  Salisbury  Plains  training  amid 
diacoura^g  conations  of  weather  —  condi- 
tions which  were  shared  by  scores  of  divisions 
of  new  troops  which  had  been  raised  in  Great 
Britain.  In  February  1915  the  First  Division, 
as  it  now  was,  crossed  the  Channel,  leaving 
the  surplus  five  battalions  in  England  to  serve 
as  feeders.  This  division  was  hcsivilv  'eng^ed 
in  April  at  the  second  battle  of  Vpres,  or 
Saint  Julien  as  it  sometimes  is  termed,  sufr^ 
tainlttg  some  6,000  casualties.  Before  the  First 
Divisidn  was  we!!  clear  of  the  Saint  Lawrence 
a  Second  Division  was  offered;  its  organiza- 
tion wem  on  through  the  winter  of  1914-15, 
the  battalions  crossmg  the  Atlantic  in  singile 
ships  instead  of  in  one  great  convoy  as  with 
the  First  Division.  The  same  deliberate  train- 
ing was  given  to  the  new  troops,  and  the 
Second  Division  was  fairly  organized  by  mid- 
Btunmer  of  1915.  When  it  was  sent  to  France 
the  two  divisions  w«re  imited  in  a  Canadian 
Army  Corps.  New  battalions  kept  worldng 
their  way  across  the  Atlantic  and  through  th6 
training  c^mps  in  England,  and  by  the  end 
of  the  winter  of  19IS-16  a  Third  Division  was 
complete  and  the  Canadian  Army  Corps  had 
three  divisions  and  upward  of  60^000  men. 
The  array  corps  suffered  upward  of  IftOOO 
casualties  at  Hooge  In  May  1916,  the  Third 
Kvision  being  die  heaviest  loser.  A  Fourth 
Division  was  then  organized  and  in  the  summer 
of  1916  it  joined  the  Canadian  Army  Corps  in 
France.  "Hie  Canadian  corps  was  heavily  eor 
^ged  in  the  Battle  of  the  Somme  in  1916,  and 
at  vimy.  Lens  and  Passchendaale  in  1917.  Its 
casualties  in  1917  were  in  excess  of  84,00a    At 


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C ANAPA  — HIUTAKY  SYSTBU  (30) 


the  b^inning  of  the  campaign  of  1918  ttw 
Onadian  Annjr  Corps  consisted  of  four  di- 
visions, numbering  78,000  all  ranlcs,  and  about 


90^000  troops,  this  being  the  standard  large 
formation  in  the  British  Army.  The  general 
commanding  the  Army  Corps,  Sir  Arthur  Cur- 
rie,  was  a  Canadian  militia  officer,  who  had 
raised  a  battalion  of  the  First  Division.  In 
addition  there  was  a  Canadian  Cavalry  Brigade 
serving  elsewhere  in  the  British  Army,  and 
there  were  large  numbers  of  railway  and 
forestry  troops,  as  well  as  man^  line  of  com- 
munication units;  all  told,  the  Canadian  troops 
in  France  of  the  various  categories  mustered 
approximately  150,000. 

To  provide  for  3.  steady  flow  of  reinforce- 
ments to  the  troops  in  I^ ranee,  and  for  the 
care  of  wounded  and  sick,  an  extensive  estab- 
lishment was  maintained  in  England,  over 
which  after  the  autumn  of  1916  a  Minister  of 
the  Canadian  Calunet  presided- with  the  litle 
of  Minister  of  the  Overseas  Milita^  Forces  of 
Canada.  At  one  time  a  fifth  division  was 
formed,  but  the  need  for  drafts  to  keep  the 
other  divisions  up  to  establishment  was  so  great 
that  it  was  broken  up.  The  establishment  in 
England  comprised  numerous  training  school^ 
ana  the  general  policy  settled  upon  in  1917  and 
1918  was  to  forward  recruits  from  Canada  to 
the  United  Kingdom  as  soon  after  their  em- 
bodiment as  convenient,  so  as  to  receive  their 
training  close  to  the  fighting.  This  was  part 
of  a  general  reorganization,  more  especially  of 
the  infantry.  At  first  the  method  of  recruit- 
ment was  to  authorize  the  raising  of  numerous 
single  unrelated  battalions,  and  in  all  more  than 
250  such  battalions  were  formed.  The  four 
divisions  in  the  field  cranprised  no  more  than 
52  battalions  of  infantry  and  pioneers,  and 
these  were  reinforced  whenever  depleted;  as  a 
necessary  consequence  on  arriving  in  Elngland 
four-fifths  of  the  infantry  units  raised  were 
either  converted  into  depot  or  reserve  bat- 
talions, or  were  broken  up  to  furnish  drafts 
for  the  battalions  in  die  fighting  divisions ;  a 
course  which  entailed  considerable  hardships 
upon  the  senior  officers  of  corps  so  treated,  as 
the  majority  of  them  could  not  obtain  employ- 
ment in  France.  In  1917  the  raising  of  new 
battaUons  was  discontinued  and  the  whole  of 
the  Canadian  infantry  were  organized  in  12 
territorial  regiments,  each  of  several  battalions. 
These  re^ments  were:  The  Western  Ontario 
Regiment;  the  1st  Central  Ontario  Regiment; 
the  2d  Central  Ontario  Regiment;  the  Eastern 
Ontario  Regiment;  the  1st  Quebec  Regiment; 
the  2d  Qoebec  Regnnent;  the  Nova  Scotia  Regi- 
ment; the  New  Brunswick  Regiment;  the 
Manitoba  Regiment ;  the  British  Columbia 
Regiment;  the  Saskatchewan  Regiment;  the 
Alberta  Regiment.  Each  of  these  regiments 
had  several  fighting  battalions  in  France,  one 
or  more  reserve  battalions  in  England,  and  one 
or  more  depot  battalions  in  Canada.  By  this 
arrangement  steadier  and  more  equitable  rela- 
tions were  established  between  the  several 
services  of  procuring  men,  training  them  and 
employing  them  in  battle.  Canada  maintained 
in  England  and  France  numerous  auxiliary 
service?,  such  as  hospitals,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  huts, 
etc.  In  addition  to  the  forces  despatched  to 
Europe,  the  Dominion  contributed  to  the  gar- 


risons of  Bcmnida  and  the  West  Indian  idand 
of  Saint  Lucia.  Many  individual  Canadians 
obtained  commissions  in  the  forces  of  die 
United  Kingdom,  the  air  services  in  particular 
attracting  several  thousand  men. 

The  reorganiotioo  just  described  ooindded 
with  a  change  in  the  method  of  recrmtment 


and  in  1914  and  1915  great  eagerness  was 
shown.  In  all  about  375,000  effective  recruits 
were  obtained  in  this  manner,  or  more  than 
5  per  cent  of  the  population.  In  1916  the 
stream  of  enlistment  slackened  and  in  1917  the 
government  decided  to  have  recourse  to  com 
pulsion.  After  some  delay  due  to  political 
difGculiies  the  Military  Service  Act  was  passed, 
and  its  operations  began  in  Oct<^r  1917.  The 
general  principle  was  that  100,000  men  were  to 
be  drafted  from  the  unmarried  men  of  die 
country  between  the  ages  of  20  and  34;  liberal 
provision  was  made  for  exemption  ou  grotmds 
of  medical  unfitness,  the  dependence  of  others 
upon  the  draftee,  in  dispensability  for  purposes 
of  food  production,  war  industries,  etc  A 
system  of  tribunals  was  set  up,  the  general  prin- 
ciple of  administration  being  that  the  draftees 
were  obtained  by  the  dvil  power,  and  by  it 
turned  over  to  the  military  authorities,  who  did 
not  themselves  come  into  contact  with  the 
civilian  population.  The  military  authorities  on 
receiving  the  recruits  so  produced  outfitted 
them  in  depot  battalions,  gave  them  preliminary 
training,  and  sent  them  to  Great  Britain  in 
comparatively  small  drafts.  In  1916^  toward 
the  dose  of  voluntary  enlistment,  replacement 
troops  were  sent  across  the  Atlantic  at  die 
rate  of  about  10,000  a  month;  in  the  early 
months  of  1918,  when  the  new  system  was 
beginning  to  work  well,  the  rate  of  reinforce- 
Qient  was  about  the  same.  Side  by  side  widi 
compulsory  service  volunteering  persisted  aT>d 
was  encouraged;  those  coming  forward  Tolun- 
tarily  going  principally  into  the  air  forces  and 
q>ecial  services, 

A  featnre  of  Canadian  participation  in  the 
war  _  has  been  the  unexpected  production  of 
munitions  of  war.  Soon  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  the  then  Minister  of  Hilitia,  Maj.- 
Gen.,  the  Hon.  Sir  Sam  Hughes,  formed 
a  shell  conunittee,  composed  mainly  of 
manufacturers,  and  this  body,  acting  for  the 
British  government,  placed  laiige  orders  for 
munitions,  both  in  Canada  and  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  latter  part  of  1915  it  was  re- 
modelled, the  new  organization  being  styled  the 
Imperial  munitions  board.  The  two  bodies  were 
remarkably  successful  in  inducing  and  en- 
couraging Canadian  industries  originally  de- 
signed for  peaceful  purposes  to  turn  to  the 
making  of  munitions.  Up  to  tiiie  end  of 
January  1918  the  orders  given  to  firms  in 
Canada  and  the  Umted  States  aggregated 
rather  over  a  $1,000,000,000.  It  may^  added 
diat  the  voluntary  giving  of  die  people  of 
Canada  to  Red  Cross,  Belgium  Relief,  the 
Canadian  Patriotic  Fund  {an  organization  for 
caring  for  soldiers'  dependents]  so  far  have 
been  about  $50,000,000. 

Naval  Defeiue,— Canada  took  little  inter* 
est  in  the  question  of  helping  with  the  naval 
defense  of  the  empire  until  March  1909.  The 
excitement  whidt  arose  in  Eingland  in  that 
month    over    the    naval    rivalry   of    Germaiqr 


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CANADA— THE  ACADIAN  RBFUOBSS  (31) 


415 


deephr  impressed  Canadian  public  cnrinion,  and 
the  Canadian  House  o£  CommoDS  by  a  unan- 
ioious  resolution  approved  the  principle  of  par- 
ticipation. In  the  autumn  of  ItKN  representa- 
tives of  the  Canadian  government  attended  the 
defense  conference  of  the  several  parts  of  the 
empire  held  in  London,  and  as  a  result  the 
government  of  the  day  put  forward  in  1910  a 
project  for  the  establishment  of  a  separate 
Canadian  navy;  two  old  cruisers,  the  Niobe  of 
11.000  and  the  Rainbov)  of  3,600  tons,  were 
bought  to  serve  as  training  stups,  and  it  was 
proposed  to  build  in  Canada  four  light  cruisers 
of  the  Bristol  class  and  six  destroyers.  In 
time  of  war  this  force  was  to  be  placed  under 
the  British  Admiralty.  A  number  of  officers 
were  borrowed  from  the  Royal  Navy,  and  a 
few  hundred  men  enrolled,  many  of  tnese  also 
coming  from  the  British  navy.  This  proposal 
encountered  political  resistance  on  two  grounds, 
one  sdtool  of  thought  regarding  it  as 
iasuSdent,  and  another  school  disliking  any 
coDtribution  to  naval  defense.  The  ad- 
ministration was  defeated  at  the  polls  in 
1911  and  retired  without  having  ordered 
the  ships.  The  administration  which  suc- 
ceeded it  consulted  the  Imperial  goverri- 
ment  afresh,  and  in  1912  proposed  to  drop  the 
idea  of  a  separate  navy  and  to'present  to  the 
British  navy  a  gift  of  three  battleships.  The 
<M)position  resisted  this,  putting  forward  an 
alternative  _plan  for  a  Canadian  navy  of  2 
battle  cruisers,  6  ti^t  cruisers  and  12 
destroyers.  The  proposal  of  the  govertmient 
pKSsed  the  Hotue  of  Commons,  but  was  re- 
jected by  the  Senate,  in  which  the  opposition 
commanded  a  majority.  The  great  war  began 
before  any  further  steps  were  taken  by  the 
government  On  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  the 
Canadian  naval  forces  —  the  two  cruisers  al- 
ready mentioned  and  two  submarines  hastily 
purchased  from  an  American  shipyard  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  with  some  hundred  seamen  — 
were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  AdmirRlty. 
The  Canadian  vessels  took  part  in  the  patrol- 
ling of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  for  the 
protection  of  commerce.  The  department  of 
the  Naval  Service  administered  the  movement 
of  ships  from  Canada,  to  Great  Britain. 

C.   T.    Hamilton, 
Deparlment  of  Militia  and  Defense,  Ottawa. 

31.  THB  ACADIAN  RSPUGEES.  After 
the  conquest  of  Acadia  in  1710  —  the  first  and 


(see  Utmcht,  Peace  ofJ  provided  for  the  free 
exercise  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  by  such 
of  the  French  inhabitants  as  were  willing  to  re- 
main there,  tjut  also  stipulated  that  any  who 
should  choose  might  remove  within  a  year. 
Nearly  all  remained;  but,  under  various  ex- 
cuses, in  the  hope  of  a  return  of- French  power, 
tbcy  postponed  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  Sritish  Crown  until  1730.  In  1745  war 
broke  out  agwn,  and  in  1749  the  founding  of 
Halifax  (q.v.)  ay  several  thousand  British 


jnple  and  densely  illiterate  peasantry,  . „_. 

to  obey  their  missionaries  in  everything.  These 
missionaries  were  chosen  and  directea  by  the 
bishop  of  Quebec  and  the  governor  of  Canada  as 
agents  oi  French  policy,  and  hence  a  very  diffi- 


cult position  existed,  both  for  the  English  and 
for  the  Acadiang.  Through  the  promptings  of 
the  fanatical  Abb£  Louis  Jose^  Le  Loutre 
(q.v,),  and  the  duplicity  of  Governor  La  Jon- 
duiere  of  Canada  and  die  court  of  France,  the 
Indians  were  encouraged  to  murder  Englisb 
settlers  and  commit  other  outrages,  some  of  the 
■  Acadians  even  taking  part  Jn  these  crimes. 
These  charges  are  proved  hy  the  citations  from 
French  secret  documents  given  in  Parkman's 
'Montcalm  and  Wolfe';  and  have  not  been 
effectively  answered.  Le  Loutre,  who  was  vicar- 
general  of  Acadia  and  missionary  to  the  Mic- 
macs,  even  paid  100  livres  each  for  Enghsh 
scalps  in  time  of  peace ;  and  the  money  was  re- 
imbursed to  him  by  the  intendanl  of  Louisburg. 
He  held  constant  threats  of  Micmac  massacre 
over  the  Acadians  themselves,  compelling  them 
to  acts  antagonistic  to  the  English,  and  moving 
many  of  them  from  their  farms  and  possessions 
to  suit  his  plans.  Yet  his  inhumanities  wer« 
evidently  justified  in  his  own  warped  heart  and 
intellect  as  services  to  bis  Church  and  country. 
The  people,  as  a  whole,  would  have  been  quite 
content  to  live  in  peace,  being  very  well  treated. 
In  1751,  La  Jonquiire  issued  a  proclamation 
commanding  all  Acadians  to  enroll  themselves 
in  the  Frendi  militia.  A  claim  was  put  forward 
that  only  a  small  part  of  the  province  was 
'Acadia,'  as  ceded  to  the  British  under  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht,  and  consequently  that  all  the 
rest  was  still  under  die  rule  of  the  French. 
The  latter  now  conceived  the  definite  design  o( 
reconquering  the  province;  but  the  English,  ob- 
taining exact  information  throu^  the  sp^ 
Pichon,  struck  first  by  captnrii^  Fort  Beaus^ 
jour,  on  the  neck  of  the  Acadian  peninsula,  on 
16  June  177S.  Fort  Gaspereau,  12  miles  distant, 
then  surrendered,  and  the  French  fort  at  Saint 
John  being  burnt  and  abandoned  on  the  ap- 
proach of  an  English  force,  the  whole  cotmtry 
was  left  under  British  control.  This  entire  plan 
of  re-establishment  was  due  to  the  forethoudit 
of  Governor  Lawrence,  aided  with  due  vigor  by 
Governor  Shirley  (see  Shirley,  Willlah)  of 
Uassacbu  setts. 

The  chief  interest  in  the  Acadians  will  al- 
ways, however,  he  centred  in  the  incidents  of 
the  famous  dispersion,  which  were  now  about 

begin.    The  projected  French  i 


aroused  the  apprehension  of  the  small  Bridsh 
DODuladon    and    authorities,    an    apprehension 
ed  by  the  Indian  outrages  of  Le  Loutre 


and  the  fear  of  the  neighboring  stronghold  of 
Louisburg.  The  whole  of  the  Acadians  also 
persistently  refused  the  oath  of  allegiance.  In 
this  state  of  affairs,  which  not  .only  seemed  a 
great  danger  but  appeared  to  imply  a  great  in- 
gradtude,  after  the  mild  treatment  and  privi- 
leges of  property  and  religion  so  long  extended 
to  them,  it  was  determined  by  (jovemor  Law- 
rence that  the  only  safety  lay  in  removing  the 
Acadian  populadon  and  replacing  them  by  New 
Englanders.  That  view  had  been  held  for  some 
time  by  Governor  Shirley  of  Massachusetts  and 
others.  Lawrence  had  complained  bitterly  to 
the  Lords  of  Trade  before  the  capture  of  the 
French  forts  *that  this  lenihr  has  had  so  little 
efiect,  and  that  they  still  hold  the  same  conduct, 
furnishing  them  fuie  French]  with  lat)or,  pro- 
visions, and  intelligence,  and  concealiiig  their 
designs  from  us.*  On  die  capture  of  Beaiui> 
jour,  Lawrence  exacted  an  unqualified  oath  of 
allegiance  from  the  Acadians;  and  in  responM 


Cig 


v  Google 


CANADA— THE  ACADIAN  RBFqGBBS  (31) 


410 

two  successive  deputations  came  to  Halifax, 
representine;  together  nine'tenths  of  their  entire 
population.  Both  absolutely  refused  to  take 
the  simple  pledge  of  fidelity  and  allegiance  to 
the  British  soverdgn.  The  governor  and  coun- 
cil therefore  resolved  that  it  was  necessary  to 
deport  their  people,  and  in  order  that  they 
should  not  strengthen  the  enemy,  they  were 
to  be  distributed  among  the  English  colonies. 
Lawrence  now  ordered  Colonels  Moncton  and 
Winslow  and  Major  Hanfield, — at  Beausijour, 
Basin  of  Minas  and  Annapolis,  respectively, — 
to  seize  the  inhabitants,  and  if  necessary  to  burn 
their  houses.  The  principal  scenes  of  the  ex- 
pulsion  took  olace  under  Winslow  at  Grand  Pri 
and  Fort  Edward,  in  the  Basin  of  Minas,  just 
after  completion  of  the  harvest  at  those  fair  and 
populous  settlements.  At  Grand  Pr£  all  the 
males  over  10  were  ordered  to  the  parish 
church,  where  Winslow  read  them  the  order  of 
removal  ind  detained  them  as  prisoners.  They 
were  kept  several  weeks  before  deportation,  and 
the  year  was  nearly  ended  before  all  were  gone. 
Tragic  scenes  of  lamentation  and  distress  ac- 
companied the  leaving,  althou^  it  was  carried 
out  as  humanely  as  possible.  The  whole  nuni>- 
ber  removed  from  the  province  is  usually  staled 
as  a  little  over  6,000,  although  Richard  and 
others  place  the  figures  much  higher.  Some 
took  refuge  in  the  forests  or  fled  to  the  French 
territories.  Lawrence  sent  the  ships  deporting 
them  to  the  different  colonies  from  Massachu- 
setts to  Georgia,  where  they  became  a  charge 
on  the  people  and  their  gradual  departure  was 
connived  at.  Many  in  the  South  eventually 
reached  the  French  settlements  of  Louisiana, 
where  their  descendants  are  still  found  in  cer- 
tain parishes  and  were  estimated  at  40,000  a  few 
years  ago.  The  sorrows  of  the  dispersion  were 
great,  and  the  death  rate  considerable.  It  is 
regrettable  that  those  who  reached  Canada  and 
the  French  West  Indies  suffered  perhaps  the 
most  terrible  miseries  of  all  from  select  and 
ill-treatment  Most  of  the  refugees  at  length 
found  their  way  back  to  Nova  Scotia  and  were 
progenitors  of  the  greater  part  of  the  present 
French  populatian.  Their  woful  story  was  told 
in  an  idealized  form  in  the  pages  of  Haliburton, 
from  whom,  passii^  throu^  a  medium  of  fem- 
inine sentimental!^  in  the  pages  of  a  lady 
writer,  it  reached  Lon^ellow  and  was  immor- 
talized in  his  'Evangehne.'  The  unhappy  facts 
were  afterward  the  subject  of  heated  recrimina- 
tions, especially  by  French  writers  such  as  Abbi 
Cauratn  and  Raineau,  against  the  New  £ng- 
ianoers,  whose  leading  defenders  are  Parkman 
and  Hannay.  Edouard  Richard  in  his  ^Acadia* 
ascribes  all  to  Lawrence  personally.  The  dis- 
pas^onate  view  would  seem  to  lie  in  fair  allow- 
ances for  the  difficult  situation  and  training  of 
the  actors  on  both  sides.  In  this  light  the 
Acadian  population  must  be  remembered  a»  a 
densely  ignorant  people.  Without  some  educa- 
tion, the  measure  of  natural  shrewdness  they 
possessed  could  not  be  expected  to  clear  up  for 
most  of  them  the  mor^l  problems  connected 
with  alle^ance  to  the  British  Crown,  and  the 
political  problem  of  the  ownership  of  Acadia 
as  it  was  represented  to  them.  Most  of  them 
were  tmdoubtedly  trying  to  be  loyal  to  France 
and  ready  to  return  the  country  into  its  pos- 
session, and  duplicity  did  not  seem  to  taem 
improper.  This  is  not  only  deducible  from  all 
the  events  but  plainly  set  forth  in  the  petition 


of  1^500  Uiramichi  refugeei  to  Governor  de 
Vaudreuil  in  1756. 

For  the  Indian  atrocities,  to  which  some  of 
them  gave  support,  we  cannot  hold  the  people 
as  a  whole  responsible.  In  view  of  these  con- 
siderations the  Acadian  people  mast  be  regarded 
as  unfortunate  and  misled,  and  their  condition 
as  a  conquered  people,  torn  from  their  com- 
patriots and  coreligionists  by  the  fortune  of 
war,  as  they  ho^d  only  temporarily,  must  be 
considered.  As  in  the  case  of  i^orant  papa- 
lations  generally,  it  is  chiefly  their  leaders  and 
advisers — Le  Loutre,  Jonquiere  and  the  bishop 
of  Quebec  —  who  must  be  held  responsible.  Re- 
garding Le  Lontre,  althou^  his  character  of 
the  peculiarly  savage  and  relentless  fanatic  led 
him  into  acts  which  place  him  among  the  class 
of  murderous  criminals,  his  guiding  motives 
appear  to  have  been  a  distorted  patriotism  and 
allegiance  to  his  religion.  These  are  in  a  dif- 
ferent class  from  the  mean  duplicities  and  false 
quibbles  of  La  Jonquiere  and  the  French  min- 
istry who  were  well  aware  both  of  the  untruth 
of  tneir  pretensions  concerning  the  extent  of 
Acadia,  and  of  the  dangerous  position  in  which 
they  were  placing  the  Acadian  people.  When 
we  examine  the  motives  of  the  British  side,  we 
have  to  deal  with  practically  only  Lawrence 
and  his  council  at  Halifax.  A  state  of  war 
existed,  and  in  their  judgment  desperate  meav- 
UTCf  were  necessary  lor  the  safety  of  the  little 
British  colony.  The  British  settlers  were 
greatly  outnumbered  and  held  but  a  small  part 
of  the  country.  Le  Loutre  and  the  French 
authorities  were  pursuing  a  treacherous  course 
of  savage  mnrder  against  them,  with  Acadian 
participation.  The  entire  people  absolutely  re- 
fused to  take  a  simple  oath  of  allegiance,  al- 
though repeatedly  and  plainly  warned  of  the 
consequence.  In  Lawrence's  judgment  no  athe^ 
course  thas  d^ortation  then  seemed  safe;  and 
although  a  harsh  measure,  like  its  modern  ana- 
logue, RecoDcent  ration,  it  proved  effectual  in 
removing  all  doubt  respecting  the  security  of 
the  colony.  Harsh  and  drastic  as  his  measures 
were,  he  is  entitled  to  be  judged,  in  part  at 
least,  as  a  military  man  bound  to  perform  a 
duty;  and  his  freedom  of  discretion  at  a  diffi- 
cult juncture  must  be  respected  even  if  it  nay 
have  been  badly  used.  On  the  side  of  France, 
two  instances  of  a  similar  deportation  policy 
are  cited  in  defense  — the  proposal  of  Governor 
de  Calli^res,  endorsed  by  the  French  King  in 
1689,  to  seize  the  province  of  New  York  and 
deport  all  the  Protestant  population  (Doc  HisL 


N.  Y,  Vol.  I,  pp.  285-97) ;  and  the  actual  de- 
portation of  Uie  English  settlers  from  the  island 
of  Saint  iGtts  in  1666,  to  the  number  of  2,500, 


occurrence   marked   by  the    striking   of  l 

medal  by  Louis  XIV,  inscribed  *Ang.  Ex  Insub 
St  Chnstoph  Exturbat* 

BlUIomphy.—  Abbi  Raynal,  ^Histoire  des 
lndcs,>  2d  ed. ;  Haliburton,  'History  of  Nova 


*Acadia>  (1884);  Casgrain,  'Pilirinage  au 
Pays  d'Evangeline'  (1888);  Parianan,  ^Mont- 
cahn  and  Wolfe*  (1884);  Hart.  <Fall  of  New 


d=v  Google 


CANADA— THB  QUBBIC  ACT  (S» 


See  also  Nova  Scotia  ■— Hirttwy. 

WUXIAU   DoUW   LiGHTHALL, 

Autkar  of  ^The  Faht  ChevtUier> ;  Fovndtr  of 
Ckhteait  de  Ramreay  Hittorical  UuMum,  tic. 

3i  THK  QUEBEC  ACT.  From  the 
cajHtulation  of  Montreal  in  1760  down  to  the 
ratification  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763  Can- 
ada was  without  any  form  of  civil  ^vemment, 
the  affairs  of  the  colony  being  administered  by 
the  officer  in  command  of  the  British  annies  of 
occupation.  But  with  the  conclusion  of  peace 
and  the  definite  cession  of  the  colony  to  the 
British  Crown  thia  tentative  arrangement  came 
to  an  end  and  in  the  autumn  of  1763  a  royai 
proclamation  decreed  the  establishment  of  a  civil 
govemraent  in  the  newly-acquired  colony,  nrom- 
ising  that  as  soon  as  circumstances  would  per- 
mit representative  assemblies  would  be  con- 
vened. In  the  meantime  the  laws  of  England 
were  to  be  in  force.  In  virtue  of  this  arrange- 
ment Gen.  James  Murray  (q.v.)  was  appointed 
to  the  governorship  of  the  colony  and  a  council 
of  eight  members  was  nominated  to  assist  him 
in  the  woric  of  administration.  For  the  time 
being,  justice  continued  to  be  administered  by 
the  military  courts  at  Quebec,  Three  Rivers  and 
Montreal,  but  in  September  1764  a  proclamation 
was  issued  by  the  govemor-in-council  establish- 
ing a  Court  of  King's  Bench  for  the  trial  of  all 
causes,  both  civil  and  criminal,  agreeabty  to  the 
taws  of  England  which  the  royal  proclamation 
of  the  preceding  year  had  declared  to  be  in 
force.  At  the  same  time  a  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  was  established  for  the  trial  of  actions 
which  had  arisen  before  the  publication  of  die 
proclamation  of  1763  and  in  re^rd  to  which  the 
old  French  law  had  to  be  apphed. 

The  inmiediate  result  of  this  change  was  to 
inaugurate  a  r6gime  of  utter  judicial  diaos,  for 
the  new  judges  were  completely  at  a  loss  to 
apply  the  principles  of  English  common  law  to 
the  causes  which  came  before  them,  especially 
where  questions  of  real  property  were  -coi*- 
cemed.  Accordingly,  the  govemor-in-council 
during  the  month  of  November  1764  iasued  a 
furtlier  proclamation  declaring  that  *in  alt  ac- 
tions relative  to  the  tenure  of  land  or  the  rights 
of  inheritance,  the  French  laws  and  ilsages  shall 
be  observed  as  the  rule  of  decision."  But  in 
all  odier  dvil  cases  and  in  ail  crinunal  cases  the 
common  law  of  England  was  to  be  apphed. 
This  change  improved  matters  but  alighuy  for 
the  new  English  judges  were  slow  to  master  the 
intricacies  of  French  law  and  applied  it  very 
imperfectly  where  they  endeavored  to  malce  it 
apply.  To  the  apphcation  oE  the  English 
cnminat  >aw  the  French  inhabitants  of  the 
province  made  no  great  objectiML  altliougji  for 
the  time  being  many  of  them  failed  to  take 
Idndly  to  the  institution  of  trial  by  jury;  but 
there  was  a  widespread  demand  for  the  exten- 
sion of  French  law  to  all  dvil  causes.  Com* 
plaints  were  likewise  made  that  the  judicial 
ofGcers  of  the  colony  were  for  the  most  part 
ignorant  of  the  French  language;  that  they 
were  often  dishonest  and  tlrat  the  legal  feed 
cJiarged  the  inhabitants  were  exorbitant  For 
all  of  these  complaints  there  seems  to  hsve 
been  considerable  foundati<m  and  in  fact  the 
law  officers  of  the  Crown  in  England  reported 
a  recommendation  that  the  French  langus^e 
should  be  restored  in  judicial  proceedings  and 


that  the  old  French  law  should  be  extended  to 
all  dvil  cases. 

Matters  rested  as  they  were  until  the  ap- 
pointment  of  Gen.  9r  Guy  Carleton  (q.v.) 
to  the  post  of  governor  in  lft7.  The  new  gov- 
ernor was  not  long  in  grasping  the  situation 
and  in  deciding  that  the  restoration  of  the  whole 
fabric  of  French  civil  law  would  be  advisable. 
To  this  end  he  had  the  coumme  de  Paris  of  the 
old  r^me  carefully  re-edited  by  several 
colonial  jurists  of  acknowlet^ed  ability  and  the 
revised  text  at  once  became  the  acknowledged 
source  of  law  in  all  cases  of  land  tenure 
and  inheritance.  Carleton  pressed  his  proposal 
on  the  h<nne  authorities  and  in  1770  went  to 
England  to  urge  its  adoption.  There  he  man- 
aged to  secure  the  appointment  of  a  commission 
to  examine  into  the  merits  of  the  whole  matter 
and  the  report  of  this  body,  atthougli  if  was  not 
presented  until  the  closing  days  of  1772,  was  on 
the  whole  in  favor  of  the  governor's  ■  recom- 
mendation. In  the  meantime,  however,  there 
was  a  grovring  demand  airiong  the  British  inhab- 
itants of  the  colony  for  the  establishment  of  a 
representative  assembly  in  accordance  with  the 
promise  made  in  the  j)roclamation  of  1763.  At 
meetings  of  the  British  inhabitants  resolutions 
calling  upon  the  home  authorities  to  take  steps 
in  this  directioR  were  passed  and  forwarded  to 
England.  But  to  the  adoption  of  such  a  step 
there  was  grave  difficulty,  namely,  the  decision 
of  the  question  as  to  whether  Roman  Catholics 
would  be  penhittcd  to  sit  in  the  new  assembly. 
The  disabilities  of  Roman  Catholics  had  not 
been  removed  in  England  at  this  time  and  it 
was  hardly  to  be  expected  that  Parliament 
would  extend  to  Roman  Catholics  in  a  colony 
prinleges  whkh  it  denied  them  at  home.  Chi 
the  other  hand,  an  assembly  from  which  Roman 
Catholics  were  excluded  would  be  very  far 
from  representative  in  a  colony  where  nine- 
tenths  or  more  of  the  population  professed  that 
religion.    This  difficulty,  together  with  the  fact 


tic  seaboard  at  this  time  was  not  calculated  to 
inspire  the  home  authorities  with  a  favorable 
regard  for  popular  colonial  representation, 
seems  to  have  determir»ed  the  ministry  in  its 
decision  that  Canada,  for  the  time  being,  should 
not  be  trusted  with  an  assembly  representing 
the  people.  On  some  other  points,  however,  the 
home  authorities  evinced  a  desire  to  meet  the 
wishes  of  the  colonists. 

On  2  May  1774  a  bill,  popularly  known  as 
the  Quebec  Bill,  was  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Lords  where  it  passed  with  little  opposition. 
In  the  House  of  Commons  the  measure  was 
vigorous^'  opposed  br  a  strong  minority,  but 
with  some  amendments  was  eventually  passed, 
and  toward  the  end  of  June  recuved  the  royal 
assent.  By  the  provisions  of  the  act  the 
boundaries  of  the  province  of  Quebec  were  ex- 
tended to  include  all  andent  Canada,  includioK 
Labrador,  and  all  the  territory  lying  north  of 
the  Ohio  and  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Roman 
Cathbltcs  were  released  from  all  peaal  restric- 
tioita;  the  obligation  of  the  tithe  was  reimposed 
in  favor  of  the  ChUr^  and  all  classes,  with  the 
exception  of  the  religious  orders,  were  con- 
firmed in  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  proprie. 
tary  li^ts.  French  law  was  hereafter  to  be 
Bp^ied  in  qU  dvil  cases  while  the  law  of  Ei^ 


d=,  Google 


CANADA— THB  ASMBUBTON  TKEATY  (33) 


118 

land  was  retained  for  the  decision  of  all  crimi- 
nal causes.  Both,  however,  might  be  modified 
by  ordinances  of  the  governor  and  leaislative 
council.  Inasmuch  as  it  was  "inexpedient  to 
call  an  Assembly*  the  act  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  a  legislative  council  to  consist 
of  not  less  than  17  nor  more  than  23  mentters 
nominated  by  the  Crown.  To  this  body  in  con- 
junction with  the  governor  waa  given  a  limited 
power  of  internal  administration,  including  the 
right  to  levy  internal  and  local  taxes.  But 
Parliament  expressly  reserved  to  itself  the  right 
of  external  taxation  and  every  ordinance  passed 
by  the  council  was  to  be  transmitted  to  England 
where  it  might  be  disallowed  if  the  home  au- 
thorities  deemed  advisable. 

In  the  New  England  colonies  the  passage  of 
the  Quebec  Act  was  bitterly  resented,  partly  be- 
cause of  the  privileges  which  it  granted  a 
French  and  Roman  Catholic  population  but 
more  especially  because  it  placed  under  the 
almost  complete  control  of  the  British  authori' 
ties  the  vast  expanse  of  territory  west  of  the 
AUeghanies  in  iLe  conquest  of  which  the  sea- 
board colonies  bad  borne  a  heavy  share.  In 
Quebec  the  French  inhabitants,  while  many  re- 
gretted that  provision  bad  not  been  made  for 
the  establishment  of  a  popular  assembly  open 
to  Roman  Catholics,  for  the  most  part  wel- 
comed the  substantial  concessions  which  the  act 
conveyed.  There  is  little  doubt  that  these  con- 
cessions served  in  some  measure  to  assure  the 
British  authorities  of  at  least  their  neutrality 
during  the  turbulent  days  of  the  next  few  years. 
The  British  inhabitants  of  the  provitice,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  naturally  disappointed  tnit  the 
course  of  events  during  the  next  half-decade 
was  such  as  to  preclude  any  important  mani- 
festation of  their  feelings.  Under  the  provisions 
of  the  Quebec  Act  the  administration  of  the 
province  was  carried  on   for  the  ensuing   17 

Bibliography.— Coflin,    'The    Province    of 

Suebec  and  the  American  Revolution'  (1896) ; 
art,  'The  Quebec  Act'  (1885);  Kiiigsford, 
'History  of  Canada,'  passim;  Marriot,  'Flan  ot 
a  Code  of  Laws  for  the  Province  of  Quebec' 
(London  1774)  ;  Maseres,  'Frojet  des  Lois 
pour  Quebec'   (Quebec  1770). 

WiLUAM  Bennett  Munko, 
Professor  of  Municipal  Government,  Harvard 
ifniversity. 

33.  THE  ASHBURTON  TREATY. 
The  Ashburton  Treaty  (also  called  Treaty  of 
Washington),  a  treaty  between  the  Utdted  States 
and  Great  Britain,  signed  9  Aug.  1S42,  is  chiefly 
important  for  its  settlement  of  the  northeast- 
em  botmdary  qnestion.  The  boundary  between 
Massachusetts  (subsequently  Maine)  and  Brit- 
ish North  America  had  been  in  dispute   since 


disimtes  which  mi^t  arise  in  future  _-  — _ 
subject  of  the  boundaries  of  the  said  Untied 
Stales  may  be  prevented  it  is  hereby  agreed  and 
declared,  that  the  following  are  and  shall  be 
their  boundaries,  namely,  from  the  northwest 
angle  of  Nova  Scotia,  namely,  diat  angte  which 
is  formed  by  a  line  drawn  due  north  from  the 
source  of  the  Saint  Croix  River,  to  the  High- 
lands; along  the  said  Highlands  which  divide 
those  rivers  that  ■  empty  themselves  into  the 
river  Saint  Lawrence  from  those  which  fall  uto 


the  Atlantic  Ocean,  to  the  northwestemmost 
head  of  the  Connecticut  River ;  east,  by  a  line 
to  be  drawn  along  the  middle  of  the  river 
Saint  Croix,  from  its  mouth  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  to  its   source,  and  from   its  source   di- 


Ocean   from  those  which   fall  into  the  i 

Saint  Lawrence.*  The  article  was  doubtless 
drawn  in  good  faith,  but  owing  to  the  imper- 
fect knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the  terri- 
tory concerned,  its  meaning  was  soon  involved 
in  doubt  The  identity  of  Uie  river  Saint  Crwix, 
the  location  of  the  Hi^lands  referred  to  and 
the  ownership  of  the  Passamaquoddy  Islands 
became  matters  of  dispute.  The  identity  of  the 
Saint  Croix  was  settled  by  a  commission  in 
1798,  appointed  under  the  treaty  of  1794.  Un- 
der the  Treaty  of  Ghent  (see  Ghent,  Tbeaty 
of)  (1S14)  a  commission  was  appointed  which 
settled  the  Passamaquoddy  question  by  com- 
promise (1817).  But  the  demarcation  of  the 
mland  boundary  seemed  loi^  impossible  of 
solution.  The  American  claim  located  the 
'northwest  angle'  at  the  point  where  the  line 
due  north  from  the  source  of  the  Saint  Croix 
met  the  Highlands  between  the  rivers  Bowing 
into  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  those  flowing  into 
the  Atlantic;  this  established  the  angle  in  ques- 
tion "at  a  place  about  144  miles  due  north  from 
the  source  of  the  River  Saint  Croix,  and  about 
66  miles  north  of  the  River  Saint  John' 
(United  Slates  commissioner,  4  Oct  1821). 
The  extreme  British  claim  (at  any  rate  after 
1814)  placed  the  angle  *at  or  near  the  mountain 
or  hill  called  Mars  Hill,  distant  about  40  miles 
on  a  due  north  line  from  the  source  of  the 
River  Saint  Croix,  and  abont  37  miles  south  of 
the  Riva"  Saint  John"  (note  of  British  com- 
missioner 4  Oct.  1821).  In  each  case  the 
boundary  proceeded  westward  and  southward 
along  the  Highlands  to  the  head-walers  of  the 
Connecticut  Between  the  two  there  thus  lay 
a  disputed  territory  of  12,000  square  miles. 
After  fruitless  negotiations  a  convention  of 
27  SepL  1827  referred  the  boundary  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  the  King  of  the  Netherlands.  His 
award,  however,  in  1631  was  rejected  by  the 
United  States. 

Meantime  the  district  of  Maine  had  become 
(1820)  a  State,  and  was  eager  in  the  defense 
of  its  claim  to  the  disputed  region.  The  prog- 
ress of  settlement  naturally  led  to  conflict  and 
(Usturbance  on  the  border  line,  known  as  the 
"Aroostook  War."  By  the  year  1840  matters 
had  reached  an  apparent  deadlodc  in  whidh  the 
adoption  of  a  conventional  tine  seemed  the  only 
solution.  In  addition  to  the  northeastern  bound- 
ary, various  other  matters  of  controversy  were 
outstanding  between  the  two  nations.  The 
English  claim  of  a  'right  of  search*  for  the 
suppression  of  the  slave  trade  created  a  stand- 
ing diificully.  The  destruction  of  the  Carotitu 
(q.v.),  an  American  vessel,  by  a  party  of  Cana- 
dians during  the  revoh  of  1837  had  led  to  a 
demand  for  redress.  The  British  government 
had  met  this  claim  by  assertin^p  that  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  vessel  was  a  legitimate  act  of  war, 
the  Caroline  having  carried  supplies  for  the  in- 
surgents. A  Captain  McLeod.  a  Canadian,  ac- 
cused of  participation  in  the  anair,  was  arrested 
and  brought  to  trial  in  New  York;  in  all  prob- 
ability nothing  but  his  acquittal  prevented  actual 


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CANADA— GLBSOYR^tBRVSg  (W) 


Itostilities.  A  furthec  c«npItcation  had  ariBoi 
in  the  case  of  the  Creole,  a,  slave  ship  on  whicfa 
the  negroes  had  revolted  (1841),  and  which 
thor  had  carried  to  a  British  port  in  the  West 
loves,  where  they  were  allowed  to  go  unmo- 
lested. There  was  also  in  question  the  bound- 
ary of  Oregon.  To  settle  these  various  points 
at  issue,  Lord  Ashburtcm  (see  AsHBunon, 
Alexandex  Baking,  Lord)  was  sent  to  Wash- 
ington (April  1S42)  and  in  conjunction  with 
Danie]  Webster,  Secretary  of  State,  arranged 
the  treaty  commonly  known  by  his  name.  Ash- 
burton,  fonnerl)'  Mr.  Alexander  Baring  a 
prominent  financier,  and  for  nearly  20.  years  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  had  (previ- 
ously resided  in  America,  where  be  mazried  a 
daughter  of  Senator  Bingham.  His  known  de- 
sire for  a  good  understanding  between  Britain 
and  Ajneria  rendered  his  relations  at  Wash- 
in^ou  most  cordial.  He  was  widely  enter- 
tained, and  is  said  to  have  °^spread  a  social 
charm  over  Washington,  and  fiUed  everj^NxW 
-with  friendly  feelings  toward  England.*  With 
Webster  his  relations  were  especially  amicable, 
and  their  negotiations  assumed  an  altogether 
infonnal  character.  (See  Schouler  'His- 
tory of  the  United  States*  Vol.  IV,  ch.  xvii). 
To  this  fact  has  been  partly  due  the  impression 
ever  since  prevalent  in  Canada  that  the  inter- 
ests of  that  country  were  sacrificed  to  the  ex- 
pan  si  ven  ess  of  Lord  Asb  burton's  feelings. 
Under  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  northeast 
boundary  was  settled  dius  (Art.  1)  :  'It  Is 
herebv  agreed  and  declared  that  the  line  of 
boundary  shall  be  as  follows:  Bcf^nin^  at 
the  monument  at  the  source  of  the  River  Saiat 
'Croix,  as  designated  and  agreed  lo  by  the  com- 
missioners under  the  fifth  article  of  the  treaty 
of  1794  between  the  governments  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States;  thence  north, 
following  the  exploring  line  run  and  maileed  by 
the  surv^ors  of  the  two  governments  in  the 
years  ISlZand  1818,  under  the  fifth  article  of 
tfae  Treaty  of  Ghent,  to  its  intersection  with 
the  River  Saint  John,  and  to  the  middle  of 
the  channel  thereof;  thence  up  the  middle  of  the 
niain  channel  of  the  said  River  Saint  John  into 
the  mouth  of  the  River  Saint  Francis_;  thence 
Up  the  middle  of  the  channel  of  the  saul  River 
Saint  Francis,  and  of  the  lakes  through  which 
it  flows,  to  the  outlet  of  the  Lake  Pohena(»- 
mook;  thence  southwesterly  in  a  straight  Ime 
to  a  point  on  the  northwest  branch  of  the  River 
Saint  John.*  This  locates  the  main  part  of  the 
boundary ;  for  details  of  the  further  extension 
of  the  bne,  the  text  of  the  treaty  tnav  be  con- 
sulted ('Treaties  and  Conventions,'  Washing- 
ton 1^;  'Annual  Register,'  1842).  The 
treaty  provided  further  for  the  survey  and  per- 
manent marking  of  the  boundary,  which  was 
completed  in  1847.  Of  the  disputed  territory 
the  United  States  received  about  seven- twelfths 
and  Canada  five-twelfths.  Rouse's  Point,  on 
Lake  Champlain,  was  also  declared  to  belong  to 
the  United  Slates,  the  government  of  thai  coun- 
try binding  itself  to  pay  to  Maine  and  Massa- 
chusetts $300.CK)0  on  account  of  the  relinquished 
territoiy.  The  right  to  carry  timber  down  the 
Saint  JcAn  River  was  granted  to  the  United 
States.  By  article  S  of  the  treaty,  it  was 
agreed  that  each  country  should  maintain  on 
^e  coast  of  Africa  a  sufficient  naval  force, 
carrying  not  less  than  80  guns,  for  the  purpose 
of    enforciiig,  separately  and  respectively,  the 


Ihws,  rigbts  and  obligations  of  each  contracting 
party  for  the  sumression  of  the  slave  trade. 
The  treaty  passed  over  the  Caroline  and  Creole 
cases  (see  Creole  Case),  but  declared  (Art. 
10)  that  'each  party,  on  requisition  from  the 
other,  shall  deliver  up  to  justice  persons 
charged  with  murder,  assault  with  intoit  to 
murder,  [uracy,  arson,  robbery  or  loTgery,  upon 
sufficient  proof  of  their  criminality.'  The  ^ues- 
^tion  of  the  Oregon  boundary  was  also  omitted. 
The  boundary  award  of  the  treaty  met  with 
great  dissatisfaction  in  Canada.  It  was  cur- 
rently believed,  and  the  belief  largely  persists, 
that  the  interests  of  (Canada  had  been  unduly 
sacrificed.  The  Canadian  view  of  the  case  is 
presented  in  Dent's  'Last  Forty  Years  of  Can- 
ada' (1881),  and  in  more  extreme  form  in 
Coffin's  'Quirks  of  Diplomacy'  (1874).  The 
supposed  sacrifice  of  Canada  by  Lord  Ashbur- 
ton  has  become  a  commonplace  of  Canadian 
political  discussion.  Later  mvesiigation,  how- 
ever, is  strongly  in  favor  of  the  American 
claim.  The  whole  subject  of  the  boundary  has 
recently  been  exhaustively  treated  in  an  admi- 
lable  paper  by  Dr.  Wilham  Ganong  of  Smith 
CollcKe  ('Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Socie^  of 
Canada,'  2d  series,  VoL  VII,  1901).  Dr. 
Ganong,  thou^  a  Canadian,  decides  that  Maine 
was  ri^t  and  New  Brunswick  wrong  in  the 
northwest  angle  controversy.  He  bases  his  de- 
cision on  the  text  of  the  treaty  of  1783,  on  the 
jii^s  of  the  tim^  on  the  admissions  of  Gov- 
ernor Carlton  and  others  and  on  a  petition  of 
the  New  Brunswick  legislature  of  IS14,  virtu- 
ally admitting  the  American  claim.  The  Mars 
Hill  boundai7  line  was  not  advanced,  he  says, 
until  1814.  In  the  controversial  discussion  ot 
the  treaty  the  episode  of  the  "red  line*  map 
has  played  a  considerable  part  (see  North 
American  Review,  April  1843,  ana  Winsor's 
'America,'  VII,  180).  This  was  a  map  found 
in  the  French  archives  and  supposed  to  have 
been  given  to  Vergennes  by  Franklin  in  con- 
nection with  the  treaty  of  1783.  A  boundary 
line  favoring  the  English  claim  was  marked 
upon  it  in  red  ink.  A  copy  of  this  map  was  in 
Webster's  possession  during  the  negotiations 
but  was  not  shoWn  by  him  to  Lord  Ashburton. 
It  was  shown  by  him  to  the  Maine  commission- 
ers and  played  some  part  in  securing  their  as- 
sent to  the  Ashburton  Treaty.  But  it  is  not 
proved  that  the  marking  of  the  map  was  by 
Franklin,  and  it  is  also  possible  that  it  was 
wrongly  marked  with  intent  to  deceive  (see 
Hinks,  'Boundaries  Formerly  in  Dispute,' 
1885).  To  offset  this  map,  the  original  of 
whidi  has  disappeared,  there  is  still  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  an  English  map  favoring  the  Amer- 

Stepkeit  Leacock, 

.,  ics 

tcGill  Universily. 

34.  CLERGY  RESERVES,  The.  The 
dergy  reserves  were  lands  set  apart,  by  virtue 
of  Uio  Constitutional  Act  of  1791,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Protestant  clergy  in  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada.  The  intention  of  Ae  act 
was  to  reproduce  in  the  colony  an  e^sco^ 
establishment  similar  to  that  of  Great  Britain, 
'to  whoae^  primate  it  was  to  be  subordinate. 
The  provincial  governors  were  directed  under 
the  act  to  reserve  one-seventh  of  the  land  for 
the  support  of  the  Protestant. clergy.    Tfae  ra- 


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400 


CANADA  •SKIOHIOUAL  TBHUBB  (35) 


served  blocks  of  Und  were  to  be  distributed 
amoDK  those  ei^"!!^  to  settlers.  In  Upper 
Canada  a  full  seventh  of  all  the  land  was  to  be 
granted.  In  Lower  Canada  reserves  were  to 
be. made  only  in  proportion  to  new  settlemeot 
and  not  in  respect  of  lands  already  occupied. 
No  reservations  were  made  in  the  latter  prov- 
ince until  1796.  Reservations  were  made  each 
year  until  1838  (except  in  1813).  The  total 
reservations  made  in  Lower  Canada  amounted 
to  over  930,000  acres;  in  the  upper  province  to 
about  2,400,000  acres.  The  Crown  was  also  em- 
powered to  autliorize  the  lieutenant-governor 
of  each  province  from  time  to  time  to  erect 
parsonages,  to  endow  them  with  a  portion  of 
the  reserve  lands  and  to  present  incumbents  to 
them  (Constitutional  Act,  Sees.  38.  39,  40).  Tbe 
operation  of  the  system  thus  established  was 
not  at  first  felt  as  a  serious  grievance.  Land 
being;  stilt  plentiful,  the  reservations  remained 
unsold  and  were  leased  at  extremely  low  rentals 
(10  shillings  for  200  acres  during  first  seven 
years).  With  the  progress  of  settlement  how- 
ever the  rentals  constantly  rose.  The  question 
of  the  cler^  reserves  became  a  subject  of  in- 
creasing complaint.  The  members  of  'the 
Church  of  England  were  in  a  decided  minority, 
not  only  in  the  lower  province,  but  in  Upper 
Canada  itself.  The  question  early  arose 
whether  the  wording  of  the  act —  ■allotment 
and  appropriation  of  lands  for  the  support  of 
a  Protestant  clergy" — could  not  be  construed 
in  favor  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Dissenting 
denominations.  The  matter  being  referred  to 
the  home  government,  the  law  officers  of  the 
Crown  decided  (November  1819)  that  rile 
"Scotch  Church  had  a  claim  for  a  share  of  the 
rentals,  but  that  no  other  denominations  had  a 
claim  at  all.  The  irritation  thus  caused  ren- 
dered the  question  one  of  acute  difficulty  during 
the  succeeding  30  years,  and  has  been  desig- 
nated by  Dr.  Bryce,  the  Canadian  historian,  the 
■Thirty  Years'  Religious  War  in  Upper 
Canada.*  The  distribution  of  the  population 
of  Upper  Canada  among  the  different  denom- 
inations in  1839  was  as  follows;  Church  of 
England,  79,754;  Methodists,  61,088;  Presby- 
terians, 78,383;  Roman  Catholics,  43,029;  Bap- 
lists,  12.9S-  others  57,572.  The  claims  of  the 
Church  of  England  were  stoutly  upheld  by  the 
Rev.  John  Stracban,  subsequently  bishop  of 
Toronto  (1839).  Egerton  Ryerson  (see  RyeIi- 
SON,  A.  E.),  a  yoimg  Methodist  minister,  strove 
with  equal  zeal  on  behalf  of   the  Methodist 

In  1827  the  assembly  of  Upper  Canada 
asked  (he  Crown  to  devote  the  reserves  to  the 
creation  of  schools  and  of  churches  of  all  de- 
nominations. The  same  re9uest  was  repeated 
in  each  of  the  three  following  years  with  con- 
siderable popular  a^talion.  Meantime  the  en- 
dowment of  rectories  as  provided  by  the  act 
of  1791  was  authorized  by  instructions  from 
the  Crown  in  1825.  Tbe  excited  sate  of  public 
feeling  delated  for  some  years  the  execution 
of  tills  project,  fant  in  1836  54  rectories  were 
endowed  with  400  acres  eadL  The  discontent 
thus  caused  hriped  to  precipitate  the  rebellion 
of  1837.  With  the  suppression  of  that  move- 
ment the  question  of  the  clergy  reserves  still 
earnestly  demanded  solution.  An  act  of  the 
-legislature  of  Upper  Canada  in  1839,  pro- 
posing to  reinvest  the  reserves  in  the  Crown, 


and  Scotland,  and  tbe  other  to  be  divided 
among  the  other  religious  denominations.  Tliis 
a^in  vras  abortive  the  British  judges,  on 
question  by  the  House  of  Lords,  decidmg  that 
me  provincial  legislature  had  exceeded  its 
authority.  The  Imperial  Parliamoit  now  in- 
tervened and  passed  an  act  (]7  Ai^.  1840)  for 
the  settlement  of  the  question.  Fart  of  the 
reserves  had  already  been  sold  by  authority  of 
a  statute  of  1827.  The  proceeds  of  theje  sales 
were  to  be  divided  between  the  diurches  of 
Fggland  and  Scotland,  the  former  receiving 
two-thirds;  the  unappropriated  lands  (l,8O0,0Cn 
acres)  were  to  be  sold,  and  the  amotmt  realized 
to  be  invested,  one-half  of  the  interest  being 
given  to  the  two  above  churches,  in  the  pro- 
portion already  mentioned,  tbe  other  half  to  be 
ai^lied  by  the  goryemor  and  executive  council 
for  public  worship  and  religious  instruction. 
The  income  thus  accmiRg  was  divided  in  the 
ensuing  years  among  the  churches  of  England 
and  Scotland,  the  Wesleyan  Methodist,  Roman 
.  Catholic  and  Synod  Presbyterian  churdies  and 
the  United  Synod  Presbytery.  The  qoesdon 
was  still  far  from  settled.  It  was  claimed  that 
the  lands  were  sold  by  the  Crown  at  insufficient 

?ricc^  and  Bishop  Strachan  led  an  agitation 
or  the  sharing  up  of  the  lands  themselves. 
The  assemblv  refused  to  petition  the  Crown  to 
this  effect,  bat  demanded  the  repeal  of  the 
act  of  1840.  The  Imperial  Parliament  complied 
by  a  statute  of  1853,  which  placed  the  reserves 
in  the  control  of  the  provincial  Parliament 
(the  two  Canadas  being  now  united).  The 
Canadian  Parliament  elected  in  1854  strongly 
reflected  the  general  public  feeling  in  favor  of 
secularization.  A  statute  to  that  effect  was 
passed.  A  lump  sum  of  £188,3^  was  paid  to 
the  Church  of  England,  representinK  the 
guarantee  of  stipends  then  charged  on  toe  re- 
serve fund,  called  for  by  the  Imperial  act.  The 
reserved  lands  were  sold  and  the  proceeds 
l|iven  to  the  municipal  authorities  for  educa- 
tion and  local  improvement.  Consult  Lindsay, 
'The  Oergy  Reserves'  (1851);  'Memoir  of 
Bishop  Strachan'  (1870)  ;  Ryerson,  'Story  of 
My  Life»  (1883). 

Stephen  Leaoock, 
Professor  of  Economics  and  Political  Scienet. 
McGill  University. 

35.  SEIGNIORIAL  TXNURB.  The  sys- 
tem of  Seigniorial  Tenure  was  that  system  of 
public  and  private  relations  based  upon  tbe 
tentwe  of  land  which  the  French  government 
undertook,  during  the  course  of  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries,  to  introduce  into  its  North 
American  colonies,  and  more  especially  into  the 
colony  of  Kew  France,  now  Canada.  The  sy^ 
tern  of  feudal  —  or  as  in  its  later  stages  it  came 
to  be  called —  seigniorial  tenure,  was  deeply 
rooted  in  France,  and  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  its  introduction  into  the  colonies  Appealed 
to  Richelieu  as  a  means  of  providing  estates 
for  many  of  the  landless  aristocrats  of  France. 
Moreover  as  feudalism  was  now  so  far  ad- 
vanced in  decay  as  to  be  no  longer  a  menace  to 
the  central  power,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the 
system  appealed  to  the  Bourbon  monarxrhs  as 
luCely  to  penni^  in  the  colonies,  of  that  cCD- 


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CAHADA— SElGHKniAL  TBMURff  (8S) 


491 


traliation    of    autboritr   which    characterized 
Fiance  at  this  time. 

As  regards  Canada,  Ae  seigniorial  system 
bad  its  origin  in  1627  when  th«  French  King 
granted  to  the  Company  of  New  France,  more 
eommonly  known  as  the  Company  of  One 
Hundred  Associates,  the  whole  of  the  French 
possessions  in  North  America  as  one  immense 
fief  with  foil  power  to  sub-grant  it  in  seign- 
iories to  settlers.  During  the  whole  35  yean 
of  its  existence,  however,  this  company  de- 
voted almost  its  entire  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ItKrative  far  tmde;  vtry  few 
settlen  were  sent  out  to  the  colony,  with  the 
result  tlwt  while  over  60  «•  txlenso  grants  of 
seigniories  were  made,  almost  none  at  all  were 
ever  taken  possession  of  by  the  grantees.  But 
hi  1663  the  company  was  compelled  to  atr- 
render  its  charter  and  extensive  territorial 
rtgliu,  the  Crown  taking  into  its  own  hands  the 
•upervision  of  colonial  affairs  and  providing 
New  Fnince  with  a  rayal  government  corre- 
sponding roughly  to  that  estaMiihed  in  the 
French  provinces  at  hcmie.  From  this  time  on 
Mttlers  came  ki  inciesiang  nuiberv ;  power  was 
given  the  colonial  governor  and  intcndant  to 
iD«fce   grants   of   seigniories  subject  to   royal 


case  were  grants  made  to  absentees ;  cadi  ap- 
plicant for  a  seigniorial  ^rant  had  to  prove 
himself  a  bona-fide  colonist.  Large  numbers 
of  Ae  settlers  were  sent  over  at  *e  royal  ex- 
pense and  once  in  the  colony,  every  rndtic^' 
tnent  was  given  them  10  remain.  Even  the 
d^diments  of  French  regular  troops  seal  out 
to  the  colony  were  disbanded  there  and  boA 
officers  and  men  were  enoonraged,  by  liberal 
grants  both  of  land  and  money,  to  become 
permanent  residents  of  New  France. 

As  to  the  sice  of  ttic  seigniories  granted, 
there  was  no  fixed  nile :  they  varied  from  smdl 
plots  containing  a  few  square  orpentt  to  huge 
tracts  10  by  12  teases  in  area.  Much  de- 
pended on  the  ^position  occupied  by  the  settler 
before  his  immigration  to  the  colony  and  upon 
the  available  means  which  he  had  for  the  de- 
velopment of  hb  frrant  Bat  whatever  the  area 
of  tne  grants,  they  almost  invariably  assumed 
the  same  shape, —  that  of  a  parallelogiam  with 
the  shorter  end  fronting  on  the  river.  On  t*- 
cMving  his  grant  the  new  seignior  was  under 
obligation  to  repair  at  once  to  the  Chiiteau  de 
Saint  Louis  in  Quebec,  there  to  render  his 
fealty  and  homage  to  die  governor  as  the 
representative  of  the  Crown.  Within  the  next 
40  days  he  -*m«  revuircd  to  file  with  the 
registrar-general  ins  aven  el  dinombrynunt,  or 
statement  showing  clearly  the  location,  extent 
and  nature^  of  his  seigniory.  A  similar  state- 
ment containing  full  iofotmation  regarding  the 
development  of  the  holding  was  required  every 
time  the  seigniory  changed  owners.  No  pay- 
ment was  exacted  from  the  seignior  in  return 
for  the  original  grant,  but  an  exaction  known 
as  the  quint  became  payable  on  each  mutation 
of  ownership  by  sale,  ^ft  or  inheritance  other 
than  in  direct  succession.  This  amounted  to 
one-fifth  of  the  estimated  value  of  the  seign- 
iory, but  of  this  amount  it  was  the  custom  of 
the  Crown  to  give  a  rebate  of  one-third.  As 
the  seigniories  increased  in  value  very  slowly 
this  burden  was  never  an  onerous  one.  In 
niaking  the  grants,  the  authorities  usually  re- 


served the  rif^t  of  taking^  from  the  granted 
seigniories,  such  locations  as  might  at  any  time 
be  found  necessaiv  for  the  construction  of 
fortifications  or  other  public  works,  such  oak 
and  pine  timber  as  mi^t  be  fonnd  suitaUe  for 
use  m  the  roj^  shipyards  and  the  rif^t  to  a 
share  in  all  mines  and  mineral  deposits  found 
in  the  seigniory. 

In  France  the  seignior  was  under  no  obliga- 
tion to  sub-grant  the  lands  within  his  seigniory, 
but  by  a  series  of  royal  edicts,— more  notably 
the  Edict  of  Marly  (1711),  this  obligation  was 
imposed  upon  the  seigniors  of  New  France  in 
the  iotereat  of  colonial  development.  From 
I7ll  onwards  it  was  incumbent  on  all  seigniors 
in  Canada  to  sub-grant  portions  of  the  unoc- 
cnpied  lands  of  their  seigniories  to  any  settlers 
who  applied  for  such  grants,  on  whatever  terms 
were  costomary  in  the  neighborhood  without 
exacting  any  bonus  or  prix  ifenlree.  If  the 
seignior  refused  to  do  this,  power  was  given 
the  governor  and  intendant  to  step  in  and  to 
make  the  grant,  the  seigniorial  dues  in  such 
case  to  become  payable  to  the  Crown.  Furdier- 
more,  from  time  to  time  various  edicts  revoked 
or  curtailed  the  grants  made  to  such  seigniors 
as  did  not  seem  to  be  showing  sufflcient  zeal  in 
having  their  lands  granted  to  settlers.  In  diis 
way  every  seignior  was  compelled  to  become, 
after  a  fashion,  the  immigration  agent  of  the 
colonial  authonties,  and  it  was  this  particular 
feature  which  serves  most  proniinentty  to  dif- 
erentiate  the  seigniorial  system  in  Canada  from 
its  prototype  at  home. 

Grants  made  by  the  seigniors  to  settlers 
were  called  grants  en  centivi.  These  likewise 
varied  considerably  in  life,  but  almost  in- 
variabl;^  astumed  the  same  shape  as  the  sei^- 
iory  within  which  they  lay.  Over  them  the 
seignor  retained  a  varien  of  rights,  some 
financial,  some  judidat  and  some  merely  cere- 
monial or  honorary  in  their  nature.  Among 
the  former  was  the  annual  payments  known  as 
the  eem  el  rentes,  the  former  p»able  in  money, 
the  latter  usnally  in  produce.  The  cent  was  a 
very  small  due,  amounting  usually  to  a  few 
toui  per  superficial  orfient  and  valuable  to  the 
seignior  mainly  as  establishing  his  claim  to 
odier  and  more  important  rights.  The  rentes 
was  payabif  annually  in  grain,  cattle  or  poultry 
bm  might  be  commuted  by  agreement  of  the 
parties  into  a  fixed  money  payment.  Then 
there  was  the  lods  et  ventes,  a  mutation  fine 
payable  at  evety  chanse  of  ownership.  This 
amounted  to  one-twelfth  of  the  mutation  pric^ 
and  of  it  the  seignior  usually  remitted  one- 
fourth,  although  he  was  under  no  legal  obliga- 
tion so  to  do.  To  guard  himself  against  loss 
of  his  I>rc^r  lods  et  venles  throudi  sales  oi 
en  c*H«ee  holdings  at  less  than  flieir  actual 
value,  the  seignior  possessed  the  droit  de 
retrmte  by  virtue  of  which  right  he  might  pre- 
empt any  holding  thus  sold  by  ^yment  to  the 
purchaser  of  the  mutation  price,  witfah)  49 
days  from  the  date  of  die  sale.  Then  there 
was  the  droit  de  banalitf  or  the  exclnsive  r^hf 
of  the  sdenior  to  erect  a  grist  mill  within  um 
limits  of  Eis  seigniory  and  to  compel  bis  ten- 
tilaires  to  have  their  grain  ground  there  and 
not  elsewhere  on  ^in  of  confiscation.  The 
amount  of  toll  receivable  for  this  service  was 
fixed  by  a  royal  edict  at  one- fourteenth  of  the 
lorain' ground.  DuMng  the  greater' part  of  die 
French  rig^e  thb  inddent  bor^  more  heavily 


d  6,  Google 


CANADA— HUDSOirS  BAT  COKPAHT  <36) 


upon  the  aeiRnior  than  upon  his  ceitsilairef,  for 
except  in  tne  more  populous  seigniories,  the 
amount  of  toll  received  rarely  sufficed  to  pay 
expenses.  At  the  same  time  the  colonic  au- 
thorities compelled  the  seigniors  to  provide 
mills  in  their  seigniories  on  pain  of  losing  the 
right  for  all  future  time.  Finally,  there  was 
the  much-detested  corvif,  or  ri^t  of  the  sdgn- 
iors  to  exact  from  their  censitairrs  a  certain 
quota  of  labor  on  the  seigniorial  lands  without 
compensatioQ.  The  amount  allowable  varied  in 
different  seigniories  but  as  a  rule  the  crtisitaires 
were  permitted  to  commute  it  into  a  fixed 
jaaaey_  payment.  An  ordinance  of  the  superior 
council  in  1716  forbade  the  exaction  of  corvte 
during  seed  time  and  harvest.  In  addition  to 
the  fore^ing  main  rights  the  Beignor  ordinarily 
reserved  for  himself  the  privilege  of  taldng 
iKiOi  the  lands  of  the  ctniilaires  such  wood 
and  stone  as  might  be  found  necessary  in  the 
erection  of  the  seigniorial  manor  house,  mill  or 
church,  and  in  some  cases  the  right  of  taking 
wood  for  fuel.  In  many  cases  he  likewise  re- 
served the  right  of  claiming  a  share  in  alt  the 
fish  caui^t  by  his  ctnsilairei  in  the  waters  of 
the  seigniory. 

Most  of  the  seigniors  possessed  certain 
judicial  ri^ts.  These,  however,  were  not  in- 
ncrent  in  the  ownership  of  a  seigniory,  but 
were  specifically  granted  by  the  Crown.  This 
grant  might  convey  merdy  the  right  of  basu 
luttiee  in  which  case  the  seignior  was  em- 
powered to  deal  with  minor  causes  in  which 
the  amount  in  dispute  did  not  exceed  a  few 
40ls.  The  grant  of  moyenne  justict  gave  him  a 
large  jurisdiction,  while  the  grant  of  hatUe 
jtutiee  gave  full  judicial  power  in  al!  cases 
except  those  such  as  treason  and  counter feiting 
in  which  the  Crown  was  directly  concerneo. 
As  a  rule  all  three  degrees  of  judicial  power 
were  conferred  on  the  seigmor.  But  in  every 
case  an  appeal  lay  to  the  to^\  courts  of  the 
colony.  As  the  exercise  of  his  judicial  powers 
brourait  the  seignior  very  little  profit  the  seign- 
iorial courts  never  became  a  very  important 
element  in  the  colonial  judicial  system. 

The  remaining  rights  of  the  sctgnior  were 
merely  honorary  and  afforded  him  no  financial 
return.  He  was  entitled  to  the  fealty  and  hom- 
age of  his  cfMsilaires,  to  a  front  pew  in  the 
parish  church,  to  certain  precedence  at  the 
sacraments,  to  the  erection  of  a  Maypcde  at  his 
door  each  Mayday  and,  in  general,  to  the  re- 
spect and  deference  of  his  dependents.  A 
number  of  seigniors  who  showed  zeal  in  the 
development  of  their  holdings  received  patents 
of  nobility  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  possession  of  a  sdgniory  in  New  France 
did  not  of  itself  give  noble  rank.  Herein 
Canadian  feudalism  t^ain  differed  from  its 
prototype  in  France.  The  French  sei^iior  was 
always  a  noble ;  the  Canadian  very  rarely. 

At  the  close  of  the  French  r^i^e  nearly 
8.000,000  arptnU  of  land  had  been  granted 
oat  to  be  holden  under  the  seigniorial  tenure. 
Hie  system  had  become  so  deep^  rooted  in  ihc 
colony  that  the  English  authonties,  after  the 
conquest,  did  ttot  venture  to  take  the  drastic 
step  of  supplanting  it  in  favor  of  the  English 
system  of  tenure  in  free  and  common  soc^ige. 
The  old  system  was  allowed,  therefore,  to  re- 
main intact,  but  as  the  colony  became  more 
thickly  settled  many  of  the  seigniorial  ex- 
actions   became    buraensone.      Tbit    droit    d» 


centitaires  that  protection  against  the  seigniors 
which  the  authorities  of  the  old  rfk^me  bad 
given.  From  time  to  time  the  legii^ture  of 
Lower  Canada  sought  to  deal  with  tne  growing 
complaint  that  the  operation  of  the  system  was 
retarding  the  develoixnent  of  the  province  but 
found  it  extremely  difficult  to  devtsc  any  plan 
which  would  be  satisfactoiy  to  the  tenants  and 
at  the  same  time  protect  the  vested  interests 
of  the  seigniors.  In  1825  an  act  was  passed 
giving  to  the  parties  concerned  the  right  to 
commute  all  seigniorial  dues  into  a  lump  sum 
by  mutual  agreement  but  very  few  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  legal  permission  thus  accorded. 
It  was  not  until  1854  that  by  the  Seigniorial 
Tenures  Abolition  Act  a  general  scheme  for 
the  compulsory  commutation  of  all  seigniorial 
obligations  received  the  assent  of  the  Cana- 
dian legislature.  This  act  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  a  special  court  to  deter- 
mine just  what  seigniorial  claims  were  justi- 
fiable and  on  a  basis  of  its  decisions  each  sagn- 
ior  was  awarded  a  certain  indemnity  for  the 
loss  of  his  rights.  Part  of  the  amount  was 
pAid  him  from  the  pid>lic  treasury;  the  balance 
became  an  annual  rent  charge  on  the  lands  of 
the  tenants,  which  annual  char^  again,  mij^t 
be  commuted  into  a  tump  sum  if  the  tenant  so 
desired.  In  any  case  alt  lands  formerly  holden 
fM  seiannttit  or  en  censwe  were  thereafter  to 
be  holden  in  fee  wmple.  Thus  by  one  stroke 
of  legtslation  the  whole  system  of  territorial 
law  in  Lower  Canada  was  revolutionized  and 
the  bst  vestige  of  Canadian  feudalism  disap- 
peared 

BiblloKTapfay,— Paikman,  'The  Old  Regime 
in  Canada':  Kii^ford,  'History  of  Canada,' 
Vol.  X;  Wrong,  'A  Canadian  Manor  and  Its 
Scwneurs'  <1912);  La  Fontaine,  'Judgments 
an<r  Deliberations  of  the  Special  Court 
for  the  Abolition  of  the  Seigniorial  Tenure'; 
Lareau.  <De  la  Ffodaliti  en  Canada'  (in  his 
'Utianges  historiques  et  litt^irea');  Doutre 
ct  Lareau,  'Histoire  du  droit  Canadien' ;  Titles 
and  Documents  relating  to  the  SeiRniorial 
Tenure  (1654);  E)awels,  'Histoire  des  Grandes 
Families  Canadiens-Francais' ;  Munro,  'The 
Seigniorial  System  in  Canada'  (\9W),  'Docu- 
ments Relatuig  to  the  Seigniorial  Tenure' 
(1906)  and  (fhe  Seigneurs  of  Old  Canada' 
0914). 

WiLUAM  Bennett  Uunbc^ 
Profistor  of  Municipal  Covtrmmtnt,  Harvard 
Univtrtity. 

36.  HUDSON'S  BAY  COMPANY,  Hie.* 
This  great  trading  company  has  been  in  opera- 
tion under  its  present  charter  for  two  and  one- 
third  centuries.  Its  charter,  wtucli  is  a  very 
fenerous  one,  was  given  by  ea^-going  Charles 
I.  The  company  owes  its  origin  to  the  adven- 
tures in  the  New  World  of  two  French  Ho- 
Senots,  Pierre  Esprit  Radisson  and  Medard 
ouart  (afterward  Sleur  de  Grosdlliers,  or 
familiarly  'Mr.  Gooseberry").  It  is  claimed 
diat  in  1462  these  daring  spirits  readied  James 


•  Thed 


Bmor  uid  Compuy  ^   A^lventimrs  of    BngUnd 
into   Hadnn'm  Bky."      IVica  tlui   it    hu   bean   a 
•nploy  thg  tttlB   "RadioB's   Bay   Coraixay,"  •■•■' 
Haaiann  /orm  li  tb*  luin*  of   Hudson,    the 
fbe    bay    iti^.    u   in  Vat  aise,o(   U\  ' 


:    ipeH    t 


trapb*  and  i. 


d=,  Google 


CANADA  — HUDSOirS  BAY  COKPANT  (36) 


«2S 


Bay,  the  seathem  lobe  of  Hudson  Bay.  This 
is  entirely  iniprobable,  as  in  thai  year  they  arc 
known  to  have  been  in  Lac  des  milles  Lacs,  now 
nordiem  Minnesota.  (S«e  the  discuation  on 
this  matter  in  the  anthor's  'Remarkable  History 


En^imd  and  thence  to  England,  where  th^  tmd 
an  audience  with  the  King,  and  tbrougn  the 
influence  of  Prince  Rupert  (see  Rupekt, 
PtiNcz),  the  King's  cousin,  a  strong  compaixy 
was  afterward  formed,  being  created  by  royal 
diarter.  The  first  expedition  to  Hudson  Bay. 
was  made  for  the  adventurers  in  the  ship  Non^ 
nteh  Ketch,  Capt.  Zachariah  Gillam,  a  New 
England  mariner.  Arrived  at  the  destination, 
a  fortress  was  erected  on  James  Bay  (lat  51° 
ay  N.,  long,  78°  W.),  called  Charles  Fort.  On 
the  return  of  the  vessel  to  England  the  charter 
was  granted  (1£70).  Prince  Rupert  was  made 
the  first  governor,  and  the  vast  territory  cov- 
ered 1^  tnc  charter  became  known  as  Rupert's 
Land.  He  was  followed  by  the  King's  brother, 
James,  Duke  of  Yoric,  and  the  third  gavemor 
was  the  famous  Duke  of  Marlborough,  who  has 
left  his  family  name  on  Fort  Churchill.  Ens' 
land's  great  rival,  *La  Belle  France,"  immedi- 
ateiy  began  to  lay  claim  to  the  bay  as  a  part  of 
C^ada.  Several  expeditians  were  sent  oat  to 
drive  off  the  Engli^,  the  most  notable  being 
that  under  Pierre  Le  Moyne  d'lberville.  (See 
Ibeiville,  PaasF.  Le  Moyne  i/.)  He  achieved 
so  great  a  naval  victory  that  the  whole  bay  fell 
into  French  hand^  comprising  at  that  time 
seven  forts,  of  which  Charles,  Nelson,  Moose 
and  Albany  were  the  chief.  The  territory 
under  dispute  was  restored  to  England  by  the 
famous  Treaty  of  Ryswicfc.  1»7.  Up  to  the 
time  of  the  French  forays  rich  dividends  had 
been  declared  by  the  partners,  tliat  of  1690 
being  75  per  cent  of  the  original  slodc  and  the 
King's  share  was  rendered  in  guineas  instead 
of  pounds.  The  company,  which  included  many 
distinguished  men  such  as  the  Duke  of  Albe- 
marle ((^neral  Monk),  (see  Monk,  Gbokcx), 
and  Sir  George  Carteret  (see  Cartsret,  Sitf 
George)  was  very  influential.  Prince  Rupert 
pre^ded  at  the  London  meetings,  and  a  sub- 
committee met  regularly  to  buy  and  sell,  went 
to  Gravesend  to  see  the  Roods  shin>ed>  the  men 
^d,  and  the  like,  in  the  good  ships  Prince 
Rubert,  Wyvenkoe,  or  J5arfe  Cravtn,  wbick 
sailed  around  the  north  of  Scotland  and  thence 
to  Hudson  Bay.  Every  year,  about  1  June,  for 
more  than  2()0  years,  one  ship  at  least  has 
cleared  for  its  northern  port  on  the  bay,  lat- 
terly generally  York  Factory.  How  small  the 
beginmngs  of  trade  were  may  be  seen  in  tha 
inventory  of  goods  sent  out  in  1672:  "Two 
hundred  fowling-pieces,  and  powder  and  shot; 
200  brass  kettles,  siie  from  5  to  16  gallons;  12 
gross  of  knives;  900  or  1,000  hatchets.*  In 
October  the  ship  returned  with  its  valuable 
cargo  of  furs,  which  was  sold  in  London,  often 
by  auction. 

The  second  period  of  Hudson's  Bay  Cob»- 
pany  history  is  that  involving  the  local  opposi- 
tion in  England  to  the  traders.  Between  the 
treaties  of  Ryswick  (1697)  and  Utrecht  (1713), 
the  menaces  of  the  French  destroyed  vac  hu 
trade,  but  after  the  latter  treaty,  from  which 
time  the  ba^r  has  remained  continuously  En^ 
lish,  the  affairs  of  the  company  improved.  This 
roused  the  envy  of  a  number  of  merckmts,  a 


leader  among  them  being  an  Irish  gentleman 
named  Arthur  Dobbs.  He  advocated  an  expedi- 
tion to  explore  the  Northwest  Passage,  raised 
by  subscription  a  large  sum  to  send  out  a  ship 
to  rival  the  company,  and  thoiwb  bis  expedition 
did  not  accomplish  much,  yet  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  was  disturbed,  was  put  on  its  mettle, 
and  the  struggle  as  recorded  in  the  government 
Uuebook  of  1749  became  very  interesting.  A 
more  serious  movement,  however,  began  in 
French  Canada.  The  charter  of  the  company 
gave  it  the  trade  of  all  the  lands  and  streams 
within  'Hudson's  Streights,*  with  one  most 
important  limitation,  namely,  except  those 
'which  are  not  now  actually  possessed  by  any 
of  our  subjects,  or  by  the  subjects  of  any  other 
Christian  prince  or  state.'  Long  before  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  penetrated  Rupert's 
Land,  the  French  ascended  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  20  or  30  years  before  the  English  had 
reached  the  Saskatchewan  River  from  Hudson 
Bay  explored  the  river  ^stem  of  Rupert's 
Land  and  came  in  sight  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. This  feat  was  accompUsbed  by  Sieur  de 
ia  Verendrye,  who  in  1738  ca.used  a  fort  to  b^ 
erected  on  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Winni^ 
peg,  and  took  possession  of  the  country  for 


show  left  it  a  part  of 

Canada.     Soon  after  the  conquest  of  Canada, 
however,  a  critical  movement  took  plac 


effort  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  pene- 

■'        ■    ior  from  the  bav,  on  whose  shores 

century  it   had   lain   in   slumber. 


ttate  the  it 


This  advance  was  under  the  leadership  of  one 
of  the  captains  of  exploration,  Samuel  Hearae, 
a  Hudson's  Bay  Company  ofGcer,  sometimes 
called  the  'Mnngo  Park  of  Canada."  Heame 
discovered  the  Coppermine  River  and  followed 
it  to  its  mouth  on  the  Arctic  Sea.  He,  too, 
first  of  white  men  saw  Great  Slave  Lake.  But, 
also,  diortly  after  the  transfer  of  Canada  from 
France  to  England,  Scottish  traders  from 
Montreal  began  lo  ascend  the  waterways  of- 
Canada,  and  to  pass  from  Lake  Superior  on  to 
Lake  Winnipeg  and  the  Saskatchewan  IUver,< 
the  very  centre  of  Rupert's  Land.  Alexander 
Henry  (1760),  Thomas  Curry,  James  Finlay 
and  the  brothers  Frobisher,  traders  from 
Montreal,  led  the  way  and  reached  the  Saskat- 
chewan. Heame  from  Hudson  Bay  beard  of 
Ae  Canadian  traders  having  built  a  fort  at 
Sturgeon  Lake,  and  two  years  later  (1774)  ac- 
'  ccpted  the  gage  of  battle,  and  built  Fort 
Cimiberland  alongside  of  his  rivals  on  the 
Saskatchewan.  The  war  of  the  giants  had  now 
b^un,  and  for  well-nigh  50  years  it  raged  with 
increasing  rancor  and  luttemess.  Out  of  the 
movement  of  the  Scottish  merchants  named, 
from  Montreal,  grew  the  union  of  traders 
(1783-84)  known  as  the  Northwest  Company. 
Its  leading  traders  were  Frobisher,  Mackenzie, 
McLeod,  Uc(]illivray,  Grant,  Cameron  and 
greatest  of  all  Simon  McTavlsh — familiarly 
called  "Le  wemier,"  and  the  founder  of  the 
Northwest  Company.  The  magnates  of  this 
great  company  Washington  Irving  has  charac- 
teriied  as  the  "Lords  of  the  Lakes  and  Forests.' 
Their  trade  was  enormous  and  extended  to  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  itself.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  century  (17%-99)  one  year's  produc- 
tion of  furs  was  106,000  tieavers,  32  martens, 
11,800  mtnli^  17,000  musquash— countios  glto- 


Coogic 


CANADA— HUDSOini  BAY  COKPAHT  (M) 


gather  184,000  skim.  At  this  time  the  North- 
west Company  employed,  besides  officers  and 
partners,  SO  higher  cledcs,  71  interpreters  and 
clerks,  1,200  canoemen  and  35  g:uidcs.  Bnt  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  not  to  be  beaten. 
They  were  able  to  carry  goods  from  the  sea- 
coast  of  Hudson  Bay  to  the  inland  parts  of 
Rupert's  Land  earlier  in  the  season,  even  in  the 
Red  River  districts,  than  the  Nor'-Westera  were 
able  to  do  by  the  long  river  and  lake  route 
from  M«ntreal.  They  duplicated  all  die  forts 
of  the  Northwest  Company.  The  confusion  be~ 
came  worse  confounded  when  the  Northwest 
Company  divided  (1796)  into  two  rival  fac- 
tions, the  rebels  forming  themselves  into  the 
•New  Northwest  Company*  or  *  Alexander 
Mackenzie  and  Company,*  more  familiarly, 
however,  known  as  the  'XY,*  the  name  being 
from  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  following  the 
initials  of  the  old  company  N.W.  The  youDg 
company  was  intensely  active,  and  about  this 
time;  but  only  for  a  short  period,  the  introduc- 
tiMi  of  dangerous  amounts  of  strong  drink 
took  place  among  the  Indians.  After  og^t 
years  of  unprofitable  trade  the  two  sections 
were  reunited  as  the  'Northwest  Company.* 

Early  in  the  19th  century  a  new  problem 
arose.  A  Scottish  nobleman,  the  Earl  of  Sel- 
Idrlc,  obtained  control  of  the  stock  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  and  proceeded  to  settle  up 
the  fertile  lands  along  the  Red  River,  bringing 
his  colonists  chiefly  from  Scotland  ay  way  Of 
Hudson  Bay.  This  invasion  of  the  fur-country 
(1812-15)  ^  farmers  the  Nor'-Wcsters  strong 
resented.  They  several  times  drove  out,  or  m- 
vdgled  away  many  of  the  Midland  settlers, 
who  were  beginning  to  till  the  soil  within  two 
or  three  miles  of  the  site  of  the  sresent  city 
of  Winnipeg.  Two  forts  represented  the  oppos- 
ing parties  ■— Fort  Gibraltar,  the  Northwest 
Company  fort  —  Fort  Douglas,  the  Lord  Set- 
kirk  stronghold.  The  descendants  of  the  Nor'- 
wester  French  voyageurs,  whose  mothers  were 
Indian  women,  were  now  becoming  ounierous 
and  went  by  the  name  of  Metis  (Halt-breeds)  or 
Bois-Brul&  (Charcoal  faces).  They  were 
chiefly  in  the  employ  of  the  Montreal  Com^ny, 
while  the  servants  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com~ 
pany,  largely  Orkneymen,  were  called  by  their 
Opponents  *Les  Orcanais.*  Attacks  on  tne 
forts  were  begun  by  the  hostile  factions,  and  in 
1816  Governor  Semple  and  20  of  bis  of5cers 
were  killed  by  the  Bois-Brulis,  and  Fort  Doug- 
las was  captured.  In  the  next  year  Lord  Set- 
kirk  arrived  supported  by  a  band  of  several 
hundreds  of  discharged  mercenary  soldiers  who 
.  had  fought  in  the  War  of  1812-15  in  eastern 
Canada.  These  his  lordship  had  hired  and  with 
their  aid  Fort  Douglas  was  retaken  and  die 
colonists  re-established  in  their  farms.  About 
the  year  ISU  John  Jacob  Astor  of  New  York 
efigaged  a  number  of  men  who  had  been  in  the 
Northwest  Company  and  with  Aese  estab- 
lished Astoria,  a  trading  post,  on  the  Columbia 
River.  This  movement  took  place  by  way  of 
the  Cape  Horn  route  and  the  rendezvous  was 
in  what  was  known  as  the  Oregon  region.  The 
Nor'-Westers  taking  advantage  of  the  state  of 
war  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  seized  Astoria  and  eranloyed  the  greater 
number  of  the  Astorians  in  tneir  posts  in  New 
Caledonia,  as  the  region  of  British  Columbia 
was  then  called.  The  conflicts  of  the  various 
companies  in  different  parts  of  Rupert's  Land, 


the  Mackeusie  River  district  and  New  Cale- 
dcMiia  well-nigh  destroyed  the  fur  trade.  Now 
arose  a  man  who  was  to  be  the  pacificator  umI 
leader  of  all  the  fur-traSers.  This  was  a  yDnng 
Scottish  clerk  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company — 
George  Simpson  (see  Simpsov,  Sik  _Ghmge}. 
On  tne  union  of  the  worn-out  companies  m 
1S31,  Simpson  was  made  chief  officer  and  in  time 
he  became  'Emperor*  of  the  fur  company.  For 
40  years  be  built  up  the  united  company,  and 

rit  a  portion  of  his  time  at  Fort  Garry,  the 
f  point  in  Rupert's  Land,  as  it  was  also  the 
capital  of  Assiniboia,  as  the  Sdkirk  colony  was 
legally  called.  In  Assiniboia  a  coromimity  of 
12,000  grew  up.  5,000  Metis,  5,000  EugUsb- 
spealdng  or  locally  called  Scotch  half-breeds, 
and  some  2,000  whites.  Not  only  in  this  chief 
settlement,  but  from  Labrador  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  to  Vancouver  Island  on  the  Pacific  did 
the  little  despot  r^le.  Great  forts  were  scat- 
tered over  this  wide  domain,  such  as  Fort 
Victoria  on  the  Pacific  shore.  Fort  Simpson  in 
the  Mackenzie  River  district.  Fort  Chipewyan 
on  Lake  Athabasca.  Fort  Edmonton  on  die 
Saskatchewan  River,  old  Fort  Cumberland  on 
the  same  river,  Norway  House  on  Lake  Winni- 
peg, Yorlc  Factory  and  Fort  Churchill  on  Hud- 
son B3>%  Fort  William  on  Lake  Superior,  Sault 
Sainte  Marie,  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Su- 
perior, the  King's  post  on  the  lower  Saint  Law- 
rence River,  and  Rigolette  in  extreme  Lab- 
rador. From  Lachine,  his  reddence.  Sir  George 
Simpson  dictated  law  thmugbout  this  vast  ex- 
tent of  country,  and  compelled  order  and 
industry.  The  cofflpany  quoting  its  diarter- 
ri^ts  was  from  die  first  repressive  in  dealing 
in  its  territory  with  traders  other  than  its  own. 
The  usual  metaphor  for  describing  Rupert's 
Land  was  that  it  was  'surrounded  by  a 
Oiinese  wall.*  After  a  revolt  of  the  Metis 
in  1849  this  largely  ceased  to  be  the  case.  The 
company  always  retained  the  confidence  of  the 
Indians,  and  with  practically  no  police  or  mili- 
tary maintained  a  fair  state  of  law  and  order. 
The  fertile  plains  of  Rupert's  Land  were  visited 
by  several  exploratory  expeditions  shortly  after 
tne  middle  ot  the  19th  century.  Some  of  these 
were  that  of  PatUser  and  Hector,  1857,  of  H.  Y. 
Hind  in  the  same  year  and  of  Milton  and 
Cheadle  a  few  yean  afterward.  A  famous  par- 
liamentary investigation  took  place  in  London 
in  the  year  of  Palliser's  expedition.  Canada 
was  at  this  time  becoming  alive  to  the  import- 
ranee  of  the  Northwest  Negotiations  took 
place  between  the  British  and  Canadian  govem- 
ments  which  culminated  in  1868-70  in  the  vir- 
tual decinon  that  Rupert's  Land,  and  the  North- 
ern and  Western  territories  which  were  leased 
to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  should  become 
Canadian.  Unskilful  dealing  on  the  part  of  the 
Dominion  government  with  the  people  of  Red 
River  Settlement  led.  however,  to  the  Riel  re- 
bellion, 1869-70.  A  military  expedition  o£ 
British  troops  and  Canadian  volunteers  was  sent 
by  the  old  fur  traders'  route  to  Red  River,  but 
the  rebels  disappeared  before  the  arrival  of  the 
troops.  In  1870  the  sum  of  $1,500,000  was  paid 
by  Canada  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to 
satisfy  its  claims,  the  new  province  of  Manitoba 
was  formed  by  the  Canadian  Parliament  and 
thenceforward  the  West  as  far  as  the  Rodcy 
Mountains  became  a  part  of  Canada.  Several 
rears  afterward  British  Colombia  came  into  the 


?5* 
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d=v  Google 


CANADA  — WABHIHOTOH  TRSATT  (37) 


The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  thougk  sham 
of  atl  politkal  power,  still  survives,  and  is 
vigorous.    It  still   sedcs   iot   furs  in  the   far 


North,  and  is  the  largest  land  company  n 
Canada,  owning  one-twendeth  of  every  new 
township,  which  the  government  surveys.  This 
serves  to  give  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  a 
strong  interest  in  building  up  and  developing 
the  newer  portions  of  the  country.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  the  company  has  largely  devoted  it- 
self to  conducting  ^i^c  shops  in  the  leading 
business  centres  of  western  Canada;  The 
largest  of  these  is  the  store  in  Winnipeg. 
This  with  its  different  departments  does  an 
enormous  trade  not  only  in  Winnipeg,  hut  in 
supplying  by  the  use  of  the  mails  the  needs  of 
all  parts  of  the  country.  Important  stores  are 
maintained    hy    the    company    in    Portage    la 


governor  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  till  1914 
was  the  predominating^  figure.  Lord  Strathcona, 
the  Canadian  commissioner  in  London.  As  the 
writer  has  elsewhere  said,  "for  the  last  15 
years  the  veteran  of  kindly  manner,  warm  heart, 
and  genial  disposition,  Lord  Strathcona  and 
Mount  Royal    (q.v.),_  has  occupied   this  hi^ 


shores  of  Hudson  Bay  and  Labrador;  the  <.___ 
inissioDCr  who,  as  Donald  A.  Smith,  soothed 
the  Rjel  rebellion,  and  for  years  directed  the 
reorganization  of  the  company's  affairs  at  Fort 
Garry  and  the  whole  Northwest;  the  daring 
speculator  who  took  hold  with  his  friends,  of 
the  Minnesota  and  Manitoba  Kallway,  and  with 
Midas  touch  [umed  the  enterprise  to  gold;  a 
projector  and  a  builder  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway;  the  patron  of  art  and  education,  and 
the  patnot  who  sent  out  at  a  cost  of  between 
$1,000,000  and  $2,000,000  the  Strathcona  regi- 
ment of  horse  to  the  South  African  War  has 
worthily  filled  the  office  of  governor  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  company,  and  with  much  success  re- 
oreaniied  its  adimnistration  and  directed  its 
a&irs.*  See  also  the  articles  Tbe  Eka  of 
Eaxly  Discovery  ;  and  Comkekce,  Tariffs 
AMD  Trahspobtatiok. 

Gcaacs  Biyc^ 
Author  of  ^History  of  Iht  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany.^ 
37.  WASHINGTON  TREATY,  The. 
The  Treah-  of  Washin^on,  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  was  signed  on  8  May 
1871.  and  had  reference  to  the  Alabama  claims 
(ct-v.),  the  fisheries  question,  the  lake,  river  and 
canal  navigation,  the  bonding  privilege  and  the 
Vancouver  water  boundary  question.  In  the 
years  immediately  following  the  Gvil  War  sev- 
eral causes  of  acute  friction  existed  between 
the  two  countries.  Of  these  the  principal  was 
the  question  of  indemnity  for  the  depredations 
committed  by  the  Alabama  and  other  Sonthem 
cruisers,  whose  construction  m  England  was 
daimed  by  the  United  States  to  be  a  violation 
of  neutrality.  The  second  main  cause  of  con- 
tention was  the  question  of  the  coast  fisheries. 
Under  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1854,  the  fish- 
ermen of  each  nation  were  admitted  to  the  in- 
shore coast  fisheries  of  the  other.  With  ibt 
expiration  of  tbe  treaty  in  1866  the  rights  of 
American  fishermen  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  of 
Canada  were  limited  to  the  privileges  secured 


under  the  convention  of  ISIE^  with  a  modifica- 
tion of  1845  admitting  them  to  the  Bay  of 
Ftmdy.  By  this  they  were  excluded  from  talc- 
ing fish  within  three  marine  miles  of  anv  coasts, 
bays,  creeks  or  harbors  of  British  North  Amer- 
ica, except  in  special  parts  of  the  Newfound- 
hnd  and  Labrador  coast,  and  oS  the  Magdalen 
Idands.  Tbe  proper  interpretation  of  this  three- 
mile  limit  had  been  a  staaoing  subject  of  contro- 
versy. It  was  claimed  by  Great  Britain  that  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  precluded  entrance  into  the 
bays:  by  the  United  States  that  it  merely  forbid 
a  nearer  ai^roach  to  the  shores  of  the  bay  than 
a  distance  of  three  miles.  This  left  in  tuspute 
the  right  to  fish  in  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs  and 
other  im^rtant  places.  (See  Cushing,  'Treaty 
of  Washington,'  ch.  v).  As  a  temporary  ex- 
pedient since  1866^  the  Canadian  govertunent 
had  scrfd  licenses  to  Amerit^n  fishermen  for  a 
nominal  fee.  This  scheme  had  proved  abortive^ 
for  the  fusing  of  the  license  fee  in  1868  had  re- 
sulted in  an  almost  complete  cessation  in  their 
use,  only  25  being  taken  out  in  1869.  The  Do- 
minion government,  in  consequence,  by  an  order 
in  council  (8  Jan.  1870)  abandoned  the  system 
of  licenses  and  equipped  cruisers  to  protect  its 
claims  of  the  coast  fisheries.  Hie  Alabama 
claims  and  the  fisheries  had  been  for  some  time 
a  standi!^  subtect  for  negotiations.  A  treaty 
of  January  1869  (known  as  tbe  Johnson-Qaren- 
don  Treaty)  was  rejected  by  the  Senate. 
N^otiatioRS  were  renewed  under  President 
Grant  and,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Bridsh 
government,  it  was  filial^  decided  to  aptmint  a 
Jmnt  hi^  commission  to  meet  at  Washington 
to  settle  outstanding  matters  of  dispute.  The 
commbsioners  for  the  United  States  were 
Hamilton  Fish,  Secretary  of  State;  Gen.  Robert 
Schcncic,  Judge  Nelson  of  tlw  Supreme  Court, 
Ebenezar  Hoar  and  George  H.  Williams.  The 
British  commissioners  were  Lord  de  Grey,  Sir 
Staflford  Northcote,  Sir  Edward  Thornton, 
Prof.  Montague  Barnard  and  Sir  John 
Macdonald,  Prime  Minister  of  Canada.  "Their 
deliberationg  lasted  from  27  Feb.  until  6  May 
1871.  Of  the  different  points  in  the  treaty 
agreed  upon  the  most  important  is  that  in 
reference  to  the  Alabama  claims,  on  account  of 
its  bearing  upon  international  taw.  The  matter 
at  issue  here  was  the  extent  to  which  Great 
Britain  had  been  guilty  of  a  breach  of  neutrality. 
The  AUihama  had  been  built  in  Bidcenbead. 
The  purpose  of  her  construction  had  been  a 
matter  of  general  notoriety.  The  British  gov- 
ernment had  refused  to  listen  to  any  representa- 
tions that  fell  short  of  being  technical  evidencR 
Even  when  the  American  consul  at  Liverpool 
furnished  the  needed  proof,  the  dilatory  action 
of  the  government  oermitted  the  cruiser  to  de- 
part unmolested.  The  question  was  whether, 
«i  reference  to  the  Aliutama  and  other  Con- 
federate cruisers,  the  .government  of  Great 
Britain  had  shown  the  di^ence  demanded  of  a 
nentral  power    (see  42d   Congress,  2d  Sessn. 


arising  "shall  be  referred  to  a  tribunal  of  aHri< 
tration  to  be  composed  of  five  arbiters,*  one  to 
be  named  t^'  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
one  hy  Her  Britannic  Majes^,  one  by  the  King 
of  Italy,  one  by  the  President  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation  and  one  by  the  Emperor  of 
BraziL    The  questions  considered  were  to  be 


Google 


CANADA  — JB6UIT  B8TATBS  ACT  (SB) 


decided  by  a  majority.  Article  6  of  the  treaty 
declares :  "In  deciding  the  matters  submitted  to 
ttK  arbitrators  they  Ehal)  be  governed  by  the 
following  three  rules,  which  are  agreed  upon 
by  the  nigh  contracting  parties  as  rules  to  be 
taken  as  applicable  to  the  case,  and  by  such 
principles  o£  international  law  not  inconsistent 
therewith  as  the  arbitrators  shall  determine  to 
have  been  applicable  to  the  case :  A  neutral 
government  is  bound :  First,  to  use  due  dili- 
gence to  prevent  the  fitting  out,  arming  or 
equipping,  within  its  jurisdiction,  of  any  vessel 
which  it  has  reasonable  ground  to  brieve  is 
intended  to  cruise  or  to  carry  on  war  against 
a  power  with  which  it  is  at  peact;  and  also  to 
use  like  diligence  to  prevent  tne  departure  from 
its  jurisdiction  of  any  vessel  intended  to  cruise 
or  carry  on  war  as  above,  such  vessel  having 
been  specially  adapted,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
within  such  jurisdiction,  to  warlike  use.  Sec 
ondly,  not  to  permit  or  suffer  either  belligerent 
to  make  use  of  its  ports  or  waters  as  the  base 
of  naval  operations  against  the  other,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  renewal  or  augmentation  of  military 
sui>plies  or  arms,  or  the  recruitment  of  men. 
Thirdly,  to  exercise  due  diligence  in  its  own 
fwrts  and  waters,  and,  as  to  all  persons  within 
lis  jurisdiction,  to  prevent  any  violation  of  the 
foregoing  obligations  and  duties.'  The  tribunal 
thus  arranged  met  at  Geneva  (December  1871) 
and  in  September  1872  rendered  its  decision 
.  'that  the  British  povermnent  had  failed  to 
use  due  diligence  in  the  performance  of  its 
neutral  obligations.*  and  awarded  an  indemnity 
of  $15,500,000  to  the  United  States.  In  regard 
to  the  fisheries,  the  treah"  practically  re-estab- 
lished the  status  under  the  Reciprodh'  Treaty 
of  1854,  throwing  open  the  inshore  fineries  of 
the  Atlantic  Coast  north  of  latitude  39°  to  the 
fishermen  of  both  nations  (Art.  XVIII,  XIX}. 
It  also  established  redprocal  free  trade  in  fi^ 
and  fish  oil  (Art.  XXI)  and  decided  that  com- 
missioners should  be  ap^inted  to  determine 
what  extra  compensation,  if  any,  should  be  paid 
by  the  United  States  for  the  privileges  thus 
acquired.     A   compensation    of   ^.S(K),000   was 


western  boundary  (see  Nmthwbst  Boundast 
Dispirra)  which  under  the  treaty  of  1846  wa* 
declared  to  follow  the  49th  parallel  «to  the  mid- 
dle of  Ac  channel  which  separates  the  conti- 
nent from  Vancouver's  Island  and  thence  south- 
erly through  die  middle  of  the  said  channel  and 
Fuca  Straits  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,*  was  kit 
(Art  XXXIV)  to  the  decision  of  the  Ger- 
man Emperor.  It  was  further  agreed  (Art. 
XXVI)  that  the  navigation  of  the  river  Saint 
Lawrence  shall  forever  remain  free  and  open 
for  the  purpose  of  commerce  to  the  citizens  of 
the  United  States.  The  United  States  in  re- 
turn declared  the  Yukon,  Porcnpine  and 
Stildne  open  to  British  commerce  (Art. 
XXVI),  granting  also  to  British  subjects  the 
right  of  navi^ting  Lake  Michigan,  the  use  of 
the  Saint  Clair  Flats  Canal  on  terms  of  equality 
with  inhabitants  of  the  United  States.  The 
bonding  privilege  (Art  XXIX)  was  mutually 
conceded.  The  fisheries  provisions  were  not  to 
go  into  effect  until  the  "laws  required  to  carry 
them  into  operation'  should  be  passed  by  the 
British  and  Canadian  Parliaments,  the  legisla- 
ture of  Prince  Edward  Island  and  the  Congress 


of  the  United  States.  The  oitirc  trca^  was  to 
remain  in  force  for  10  years,  after  which  certab 
articles —  the  fisheries  arrangement,  the  right  o( 
navigating  Lake  Mich^n  and  me  bonding 
privilege  —  might  be  terminated  on  two  yraiv 
notice  from  either  party.  The  fisheries  dauses 
of  the  treaty  were  subsequently  renounced  by 
the  United  States,  and  after  due  notice  ex- 
pired 1  July  1885.  For  further  details  the  work 
of  Cushing  (mentioned  above)  may  be  con- 
sulted. The  text  of  the  treaty  is  in  <Treatie; 
and  Conventions  of  the  United  States'  (1889). 
For  the  part  played  t?  Sir  John  Macdooald 
(q.v.)  in  the  negotiations  and  their  rdation  to 
Canadian  politics,  see  Pope,  'Memoirs  of  Sir 
John  A.  Uacdonald,'  Vol  II,  ch.  xix-xxi. 

Stephen  Leaoock, 
Proftssor  of  Economics  and  Political  ScieHce, 
McGiU  Univertity. 

38.  JESUIT  ESTATES  ACT.  This  meas- 
ure^ passed  by  the  legislature  of  Quebec  in 
1S88,  gave  rise  to  an  agitation  which  ot:cu[ned 
public  attention  throughout  all  parts  of  Canada 
auring  the  following  year  and  for  a  time  threat- 
ened to  bring  about  a  reconstruction  of  political 
jjarties.  Under  the  French  regime,  which  ended 
in  1763,  the  Jesuits  had  owned  considerable 
landed  estates  at  various  points  in  the  valley  of 
the  Saint  Lawrence  —  particularly  at  Quebec, 
Montreal  and  Laprairie.  After  the  conquest  of 
Canada  by  the  English  the  religious  orders  were 
permitted  to  retain  the  property  which  thej'  held 
under  grant  from  the  Frcndi  Crown  or  by 
other  legal  title,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Jesuits.  This  order  had  been  banished  from 
France,  1767,  and  was  suppressed  generally  by 
the  papal  brief  Dominu!  ac  Redemhtor  (1773). 
Although  General  Amherst  brought  influence 
to  bear  upon  the  government  to  secure  for  him- 
self the  estates  of  the  Jesuits  in  Canada,  his 
efforts  proved  unsuccessful.  Despite  personal 
pressure  and  the  papal  brief  the  "black  robes* 
at  Montreal  and  Queboc  were  not  immediately 
molested  by  the  British  authorities  who  re- 
frained from  taking  over  their  property  until 
the  death  of  Father  Casot,  the  last  remaining 
member  of  the  Society,  This  event  occurred  in 
1800.  Once  possessed  of  the  Jesuits'  estates 
the  Crown  had  to  determine  what  should  be 
done  with  them,  and  after  a  certain  amount 
of  indecision  it  was  decided  that  their  income 
should  be  used  for  the  support  of  education  in 
the  province  of  Lower  Canada,  In  vain  die 
Roman  Catholic  bishops  maintained  the  legality 
of  the  Church's  claim  to  the  property.  The 
government  stood  its  ground  and  appropriated 
the  revenues. 

From  having  been  originally  assigned  to 
Lower  Canada,  the  Jesuits'  estates  passed  at 
Confederation  (1867)  into  ttie  hands  of  the 
province  of  Quebec.  It  was  found,  however, 
by  the  local  government  that  their  actnal  value 
was  impairedby  die  ecclesiastical  claims  which 
stood  against  them.  The  bishops  did  not  cease 
to  protest  a^nsl  their  retention  by  the  stale 
anci  the  Jesuit  order,  revived  under  jwial  war- 
tant,  defended  the  Justice  of  its  own  title.  Had 
these  lands  been  situated  in  a  Protestant  com- 
munity the  representations  of  bishops  and 
Jesuits  might  have  carried  little  weight,  inas- 
much as  uey  could  not  be  vindicated  by  an 
appeal  to  the  courts  but  where  the  mass  of  the 
population  was  CathoUc  the  reiterated  claims  of 


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CANADA— AGRICULTUJEB  CM) 


the  Church  had  their  effect  upon  the  matiet. 
After  ConfederatioD  the  rent  of  the  property 
decreased  until  it  became  almost  negligible  in 
comparison  with  the  valuation,  and  when  the 
governiDent  sought  to  effect  a  sale  no  purchaser 
could  be  found.  In  1887  afUr  the  question  liad 
been  put  off  by  several  preceding  administra- 
tions, Mr.  Merdee,  a  French  Nationalist  o£ 
pronounced  viewl,  endeavored  to  effect  a  final 
settlement  of  it  Whatever  the  motives  which 
actirated  him,  to  criticize  them  would  be  to 
raise  a  matter  of  opinion.  He  introduced  a  bill 
which  gave  $400,000  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  as  compensation  for  the  property  which 
the  Crown  had  seized  in  1800.-  This  sum  was, 
for  the  moment,  to  constitute  a  special  deposit 
which  eventually  should  be  distributed  by  the 
Pope  ia  return  for  a  relinouishment  of  all 
claims  to  the  Jesuits'  estates  that  had  been  ad- 
vanced tnr  the  bishops  or  by  the  Jesuits  them- 
selves. As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Pope  divided 
the  money  between  the  Jesuits,  the  bishops  and 
Laval  Umversity,  but  in  the  meantime  this  rec- 
ognition of  his  right  to  allot  what  were  consid- 
ered public  funds  among  members  of  his  own 
ChuriDi  drew  forth  cri's  of  remonstrance  from 
a  large  number  of  Protestants.  .  A  simultaneous 
grant  of  $60,000  to  Protestant  schools  in  Qtiebec 
did  not  allav  the  feeUng  of  hostility. 

It  shoula  be  observed  that  two  distinct  ques- 
tions were  raised  by  the  agitation  which  pro- 
ceeded  from  the  Jesuits'  Estates  Act  The  first 
bad  its  root  in  the  opposition  of  religious  sys- 
tems; the  second  was  due  to  Federal  char- 
acter of  the  Canadian  consdtution.  In  188B, 
Colonel  O'Brien,  a  Protestant  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  proposed  that  the  Dominion 
Parliament  should  disanow  the  action  of  the 
Quebec  legislature  in  appealing  to  the  Pope  and 
settjna  aside  $400,000  as  a  subsidy  to  Roman 
Catholic  institutions.  The  debate  which  fol- 
lowed was  marked  by  a  series  of  able  and  ag-- 
gressive  speeches  from  all  quarters  of  the 
House.  The  chief  supporter  of  Colonel 
O'Brien's  motion  was  Mr.  Dalton  McCarthjs 
while  against  him  were  ranged  the  Premier,  Sir 
John  Macdonald,  and  Mr.  Laurier,  the  leader  of 
the  Opposition.  On  the  one  side  an  appeal 
was  made  to  the  alleged  political  misdeeds  of 
the  Jesuits  throughout  the  whole  course  of  their 
historjr  and  to  ineir  expulsion  from  the  chief 
countries  of  the  civihzed  world.  On  the  other, 
it  was  maintained  that  the  Dominion  Parliament 
could  not,  without  extreme  danger,  disallow 
provincial  legislation  and  that  *the  subject-mat- 
ter of  this  act  was  one  of  provincial  concern, 
only  having  relation  to  a  fiscal  matter  entirely 


lay  behind  it.  The  fundamental  claim  of  the 
extreme  Protestant  party  was  that  recognition 
of  papal  authority  and  the  encoura^^ent  of 
the  Jesuits  were  direct  blows  at  British  free- 
dom; while  the  leaders  of  both  parties  united  to 
point  out  the  constitutional  dangers  which  would 
accompany  disallowance 

Outside  the  House  of  Commons  the  agita- 
tion caused  by  the  J'esuits'  Estates  Act  1*3  to 
the  formation  of  an  'Equal  Rights*  party  wfaicb 
was  recruited  from  the  ranks  of  the  more  pro' 
nounced  Protestaidis.  It  proved  hnpossible, 
howcTV,  to  break  down  existing  pohtical  linet 


by  giving  central  importance  to  an  anti-Catholic 
movement  Despite  many  puUic  meetings  and 
an  active  campaign  in  the  newspapers,  Uie  at- 
tack upon  the  Jesuits'  Estates  Act  has  left  no 
lasting  trace  upon  party  organization  in  Canada. 

Charles  W.  Colby, 
Formerly  Proftssor  of  Hutory,  McGUl  Uni- 

39.  AGRICULTURE.  At  least  half  of 
the  population  of  Canada  is  directly  or  indi- 
rectly dependent  upon  agriculture,  the  chief  in- 
dustry of  the  Dominion.  During  the  present 
century  agricultural  development  in  Canada  has 
been  extremely  rapid,  and  aIthou|:h  violent  dis- 
locations were  caused  by  the  European  War 
there  are  indications  that  after  the  conclusion 
of  peace  a  new  ^riod  of  rapid  agricultural  ex- 
pansion will  be^n. 

Political  Boundaries.—  Extending  west- 
ward from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  and  north- 
ward from  the  United  States  boundary  into  the 
Arctic  circle,  Canada,  in  size,  embraces  a  total 
area  computed  at  3,729,665  square  miles,  of 
which  125,755  sqiMre  miles  are  water._  Poliri- 
cally,  Canada  is  divided  into  nine  provinces,  in 
addition  to  which  there  are  the  Northwest  and 
Yukon  territories.  Each  province  has  control 
over  its  own  affairs.  Agricultural  conditions 
vary  with  climate  and  physical  characteristics, 
density  of  population,  accessibility  of  markets 
and  special  aptitudes  of  the  people.  In  1912 
took  place  the  latest  adjustment  of  the  pro- 
vinciu  boundaries  when  !y  act  of  the  Dominion 
Parliament  portions  of  the  Northwest  terri- 
tories were  added  to  the  provinces  of  Manitoba, 
Ontario  and  Quebec.^  The  effect  was  to  extend 
the  province  of  Manitoba  northward  to  the  60th 
parallel  of  north  latitude  and  the  southern 
shores  of  Hudson  Bay,  to  extend  the  northern 
limits  of  Ontario  to  Hudson  Bay  and  to  throw 
into  the  province  of  Quebec  the  whole  of  the 
huge  territory  of  Ungava  and  Labrador  with 
the  exception  of  that  part  of  the  coast  line'which 
belongs  to  Newfoundland.  Manitoba  thus  re- 
ceived about  113,984,000,  Ontario  93,696,000  and 
?ucbec  227,175,000  acres  of  additional  territory, 
he  agricultural  possibilities  of  these  new  areas 
are  at  present  unknown. 

Effects  of  CUmate.—  Extending  over  such 
a  large  area  and  presenting  topographical  and 
orographical  features  of  considerable  variety, 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  possesses  a  series  of 
different  climates  which  influence  and  modify 
the  local  agriculture  The  Atlantic  provinces 
^Prince  Edward  Island,  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick)^  have  comparatively  mild  winters 
with  a  moist,  cool  atmosphere.  Potatoes  and 
root  crops  do  well,  and  buckwheat  is  a  special 
crop.  In  Quebec  and  in  the  eastern  and  northern 
parts  of  Ontario  the  winters  are  colder  ai.d  the 
summers  are  wanner  than  they  are  at  the  coast 
on  either  seaboard.  The  ground  is  usoally 
covered  by  deep  snow  during  winter,  and  there 
are  occasionally  spells  of  severe  cold  in  winter 
and  of  intense  neat  in  summer,  the  tatter  usually 
tempered  however  by  cool  nights  of  great 
benefit  to  vegetation.  A  speriat  characteristio 
is  the  rapidity  with  which  the  spring  advance* 
and  merges  into  summer,  and  the  rapidity  o£ 
vegetation  when  once  the  winter  snows  have 
melted.  In  the  southern  parts  of  Ontario,  e»- 
pecially  that  part  of  it  which  is  known  as  the 
Niagara  peninstila,  the  climate  is  coaHderabtir 


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CANADA -AORICULTUXB  (SS) 


milder.  Prnit  cnhivatioD  is  therefore  a  great 
feature,  and  tender  fruits  such  as  peaches, 
pears  and  grapes  are  grown  to  perfection.  Com 
u  an  important  crop  grown  bot^  for  grain  and 
Breeti  fodder  or  silage.  The  Prairie  provinces 
(Manitoba,  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta)  have 
cold  winters,  but  ihc  air  is  dry  and  bracing. 
Usually,  especially  in  Manitoba  and  Saskatche- 
wan, an  abundant  snowfall  protects  the  soil 
and  ensures  ample  moisture  during  the  early 
stages  of  plant  growth.  In  Alberta  the  winter 
climate  is  variable,  but  milder  as  a  rule  than  in 
the  other  Prairie  provinces.  Cattle  ranching  is 
a  feature  in  certain  parts,  the  animals  being- 
able  during  winter  to  remain  out  of  doors  and 
find  their  own  food.  The  Chinook  winds,  which 
blow  down  from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  often 
cause  a  rapid  increase  of  terfipcrature  to  the 
extent  sometimes  of  60  degrees.  In  southern 
Alberta  are  large  semi-arid  areas  in  which  irri- 
gation and  mcmods  of  dry  farming  are  being 
successfully  practised.  Finally  in  British  Co- 
lumbia the  climate  varies  greatly  with  altitude, 
latitude  and  coast  proximity.  The  valleys  are 
warm  and  suitable  for  a  great  variety  of  crops 
and  for  mixed  fanning.  The  areas  near  the 
coast  have  mild  winters  and  a  long  spring,  the 
conditions  resembling  those  of  the  south  of 
England.  The  precipitation  varies  a  good  deal. 
It  IS  as  much  as  100  inches  per  annum  in  some 
parts;  in  others  it  is  so  scanty  that  agriculture 
ts  dependent  upon  artificial  Irrigation.  This  is 
being  resorted  to  with  marked  success  for 
fruits  and  vesetablea. 

Economic  Factorg.— Since  the  be^nning 
of  the  present  century  agriculture  in  Canada 
has  been  profundly  influenced  by  immigration 
and  railway  construction.  'TTie  total  number  of 
immigrant  arrivals  in  Canada  during  the  16 
years  ended  31  March  1916,  was  3,099,348,  of 
whom  1,168,292  came  from  the  United  Kingdom, 
1,095,375  from  the  United  States  and  835,681 
from  all  other  coimtries.  The  largest  number 
of  immigrants  in  a  single  year  was  402,432,  who 
arrived  in  1913.  Partly  dependent  upon  immi- 
gration and  partly  stimulating  it  there  has  been 
during  the  same  period  an  extraordinary  ^activ- 
ity in  railway  construction.  Two  additional 
transcontinental  lines,  the  National  Transcon- 
tinental, constructed  by  the  Dominion  govern- 
ment and  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railway,  and 
the  Canadian  Northern,  have  been  added  to  the 
previously  existing  line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  opened  in  188&  Altogether,  during  the 
first  16  years  of  the  present  century  19,773  miles 
have  been  added  to  the  railway  systems  of 
Canada,  the  total  mileage  of  which  on  30  June 
1916  stood  at  37,43a 

With  a  total  land  area  of  l,401,3I6i413  acres, 
only  109,948,988  acres,  or  less  than  8  per  cent, 
were  returned  as  occupied  farm  lands  at  the 
census  of  1911,  this  area  representing  an  in- 
crease since  1901  of  ^.S^dSO  acres.  Of  the 
occupied  area  in  1911,  48,733,823  acres  were  re- 
turned as  improved  and  61,215,165  acres  as  Un- 
improved land.  The  unimproved  occupied  land 
consists  of  17,477,526  acres  of  natural  forest, 
4,174,270  acres  of  marsh  land,  etc..  and  the 
remainder  of  39,563.3£9  acres  of  unbroken 
prairie  or  other  land  that  is  gradually  being 
brought  under  the  plough.  Of  the  improved 
area  of  48,733,^3  acres,  field  crops  occupy  35,- 
261,338  acres,  orchards  and  uurseriqs  403,596 


acres,  vHctaUes  206,011  acres,  vineyards  9336 
acres  and  small  fruits  17,495  acres.  The  re- 
maining 12335,547  acres  of  improved  land  con- 
sist of  pasture,  fallow  or  otherwise  uncropped 
land.  In  1911  the  total  number  of  occtqnen  of 
land  was  714,646.  an  increase  of  169,95^  or  31 
per  cent,  since  the  previous  census  of  1901. 
About  74  per  cent  of  the  holdings  in  Canada 
were  over  SO  acres  in  extent  as  compared  with 
68  per  cent  in  1901. 

Field  CrOpa^  During  the  decade  1900  to 
1910  the  area  under  field  crops  increased  from 
19,763,740  acres  to  30,556,1(»  acres,  a  ratio 
of  54.6  per  cent.  In  1911  field  crops  oc- 
cupied 35,261,336  acres,  the  increase  for 
the  11  years  representing  over  78  per  cent. 
During  the  past  five  years  the  total  area  under 
field  crops  has  continued  to  be  about  35,000,000 
acres;  but  in  1915,  under  4e  stimulus  of  war, 
the  acreage  arose  to  its  highest  point,  vii., 
39,140,460  acres.  The  recent  expansion  of  area 
has  been  chiefly  in  wheat,  oats  and  flax,  and  is 
due  to  the  opening  up  and  settlement  of  the 
Prairie  provinces  —  the  great  feature  of  Cana- 
dian progress  since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century.  The  area  under  wheat,  which  was  a 
little  over  4.00(1000  acres  in  1900,  increased  to 
over  10,0001000  acres  in  1914.  Similarly,  the 
acreage  under  oats  has  practically  doubled,  and 
flaxseed  which  only  occupied  23,000  acres  in 
1900  occupied  over  1,000,000  acres  in  1914. 
During  the  last  30  years  the  distribution  of  the 
principal  crops  in  Canada  has  undergone  con- 
siderable change.  In  the  19th  century  the  diief 
wheat-growing  province  of  Canada  was  Ontario, 
and  in  1890  the  wheat  acreage  of  this  province 
was  1  430,532.  But  with  the  completion  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  in  1886  the  fertile 
prairies  of  the  West  began  to  be  opened  up  for 
wheat  growing,  and  in  1890  the  wheat  area  in 
Manitoba  had  grown  to  896,622  acres  from 
51,293  acres  in  1880.  At  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury the  wheat  area  of  Manitoba  was  1,950,200 
acres,  as  against  1,487,633  acres  in  Ontario.  In 
the   first   decade   of    the   20th   century   wheat 

Sowing  in  Ontario  began  to  decline,  while  in 
t  West  it  pro^essively  increased  so  that  in 
1910  wheat  in  Ontario  occupied  only  870,354 
acres,  and  in  1914  only  834^  acres.  The  ter- 
ritories to  the  West  of  Manitoba  also  pro- 
gressed; and  since  1905,  when  the  provinces  of 
Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  were  formed,  the 
three  Prairie  provinces  have  become  the  great 
wheat-^rodudng  area  of  the  Dominion.  The 
following  statement  showing  the  area  under 
the  principal  grain  crops  in  the  Prairie  prov- 
inces, as  compared  with  the  rest  of  Canada  for 
the  year  1915,  will  make  this  point  clear: 


Crof 

p,™™. 

acH.         Tot«l««. 

Bvkr 

:   'MIZ 

<ntl"™    i}'Ji2™ 

In  the  Prairie  provioces,  therefore,  for  the 
year  1915,  wheat  occuined  92,  barley  6&  oata 
56  and  flaxseed  99  per  cent  of  the  total  area 
under  these  crops  in  the  Dondnion. 

In  most  parts  of  Canada  wheat  is  sown  in 
the  spring :  but  in  the  soatfaem  parts  of  On- 
tario and  in  Albertl,  wheat,  sown  in  the 
fall,     ripens     earlier     sod    gives     nsuxlly     a 


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CANADA  •  AGRICULTURE  <») 


»'i 


_     wliaat     Qiere     is     always 

a  proportion,— varying  from  about  S  to 
30  p«r  cent  according  to  the  mildness  or 
severity  of  the  season, —  of  the  area  that  is 
winteT'ldlted,  but  reploughed  and  resown  in  the 
spring  in  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan  and  Biiti^ 
Columbia  there  are  ateo  smalt  areas  upon  which 
fait  sown  wheat  is  Krown.  Other  crops  that 
have  a  more  or  less  local  importance  arc  bndc- 
wheat  which  is  fpvwn  in  the  Atlantic  provinces, 
in  Ontario  and  in  Quebec,  com,  grown  chiefly 
in  Ontario  and  Quebec,  and  potatoes,  which  are 
an  important  crop  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick,  where  th^  occupy  a  larger  area 
than  does  wheat. 

"Hie  following  table  gives  the  area  and 
production  of  all  the  principal  field  crops  of 
Canada  for  the  years  190(^  19)4  and  19lS^  with 
annual  averages  for  the  five  years  1910-14. 

Oors  191«,  un*   »U.  aens  UlO-14,  mens 

Fillirtiert 971.000       1.030,00)      t. MO, 000 

Bpriiis«b«M V.Jll.OOO     U,Ora.fOO      9,4M.O0O 

Anwlieot tO.194,000     IS.lW.iOO    10.454,000 

Ry« Hi, 000       i»,ooo       m.ooo 

Buler l,49«,0(n  1,718.000  1.900.000 

OM* 10,061,000  ll.SM.OOO  »,7«l,000 

Peu 106,000  19e,0Oa  267,000 

Beant 44.000  43.000  48.000 

BncftwhMt 314. MO  S44.000  37S.000 

Mixed  ffiJiH 463, goo  467,000  478,000 

FluM^. 1,«S4.000  46S.0OO  1,124,000 

ComforhiokiiiB...  216,000  ZSS^OW  290,000 

PotMoaa; 476.000  4I6.000  476.000 

Turnip*,    muiBDtdB, 

etc 17S,eOO  157,000  18V.O0O 

Bar  wid  doME. . . .  7,W7,OQ0  7,777,000  S,36S,CIOO 

UUUu 90,000  9S.0OO  SS.OOO 

PflddCTOini J17,QS0  U2.aoa  J02,000 

Siwubeett 12,000  18,000  W.OQO 


P>nir 


10,  K 


1,000  11 


U.OOO 


SptloairtKBt 140,443,  .    -.        , 

AUwbeat 161,180.000  393,543.000  196, 016, vvv 

Rvi 2.017,000  2,486,000  2,ISS.O0O 

flirley 36,101.000  54,017.000  41,436.000 

Ctati 313,078,000  464.954,000  543,611.000 

PeM 3,363,000  3,444,000  4,1*0.000 

Bevu 797,000  713.000  874,000 

Bnckwtteat 8,616.000  7.866,000  8,631.000 

Mncdgnina 16,381,000  17,518.000  IS.6S1.000 

PIUKMl. 7,175.000  6.114,000  13,033,000 

Con  for  InUkiiw. . .  U, 914, 000  14,348,000  16,231.000 

Potatoc* 85.671,000  60,333.000    75,190.000 

Timiip*,   lategdUM, 

me 69.003,000  60,175.000    «9,U1.0Q0 

Ton  TWu  Tana 

Rsr  ud  donr. . . .     10,159.000  10,612,000  11,706,000 

Alfalfa 218.000  261,000  117,000 

FodikrooRi 3,151,000  3,383.000  2,856,000 

Sugarbeeta 109,000  Ml  ,000  164. OOP 

It  should  be  observed  that  In  the  preceding 
table  the  years  1914  and  1915  represent  op- 
posite extremes  as  regards  production,  the 
year  1914  being  one  of  the  poorest  grain  sea- 
sons on  record,  while  in  1915  circumstances 
combined  to  produce  the  most  abundant  grain 
crops  in  the  history  of  Canada.  Yields  in 
particular  cases  are  frequently  hif{fa,  occasion- 
ally reaching  for  wheat  60,  for  t»itley  50  and 
for  oats  100  bushels  per  acre ;  but  the  average 
rate  in  production  tor  wheat  In  Canada  Is 
about  18«  bushels  per  acre;  in  1914  it  was 
only  I5K  bushels;  in  1915  the  average  was  26 
bushels.  The  average  yield  per  acre  of  oats 
reached  40^  bnsbels  in  191S:  over  a  series  of 


years  the  annual  average  is  at>oiit  3SM  bushels. 
Odwr  crop  averages  in  bushels  per  acre  are  as 
follows:  Rye  2U;  peas  15,5;  beans  18.2;  buck- 
wheat 23;  flax  10.5;  com  56;  potatoes  158; 
turnips,  mangolds,  etc.  366;  hay  and  clover 
average  about  1.42,  alfalfa  2^,  fodder  com 
9^  and  sugar  beets  9^  tons.  Among  the 
numerous  varieties  of  grain  grown  in  Canada 
those  most  wtddy  sown  comprise  for  winter 
wheat  Dawson's  Golden  Chaff  in  Ontario  and 
Turkey  Red  in  Alberta,  for  spring  wluat  the 
Marquis,  Red  Fife  and  White  Fife,  for  barley 
Meusury,  Masdschetm  and  O.  A.  C  21  and 
for  oats  American  Banner  and  Siberian. 

The  average  cost  of  grain  production  runs 
from  about  $12  to  ^14  per  acre,  the  profit  de- 
pending  upon  the  yield  and  price  which  vary 
with  toe  season  and  the  world's  crops.  Com 
costs  more  to  produce,  averaging  from  $19  to 
$22  per  acre,  but  the  valae  of  the  crop  and 
the  profit  are  correqiondingly  hi^er.  The 
surplus  of  grain  over  home  requrements  Is 
annually    exported,    and    the    Canadian    grain 


have  increased  with  the  increasing  production. 
In  1914,  after  the  abundant  yield  of  1913  they 
were  inwards  of  142,00^000  bushels,  and  in 
1916  after  the  record  harvest  of  1915  they 
reached  the  total  of  28^^,162  busheb.  There 
is  ntaaUy  a  small  surplus  of  barley,  oats  and 
other  grains  for  export,  and  practically  the 
whole  of  the  flaxseed  crop  goes  across  the 
southern  border.  Hay,  compressed  mechan- 
ically, is  also  exported  both  to  the  United 
Kingdom  and  to  the  United  States.  The  larp- 
est  export  in  recent  years  was  784,864  tons  m 
1912;  but  die  amiual  average  is  between  200,000 
and  250,000  tons.  Flour  milting  is  an  important 
Canadian  industry  and  in  1915  the  value  of 
flour  and  grist  mill  products  was  $114,483,924 
from  1.644  establishments. 

Sugar  beet  for  the  manufacture  of  beetroot 
sugar  has  been  grown  in  Canada  since  the 
beginning  of  the  ceMury.  At  present  two 
factories,  those  of  the  Dominion  Sugar  Con»- 
panj^  at  Wallaceburg  and  Kitchener  in  Ontario, 
are  in  operation  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  Canadian  beetroot.  For  the  season  of 
1915  the  production  of  sugar  beet  was  141,000 
tons  from  18,000  acres,  and  the  production  of 
refined  beetroot  sugar  was  39,515,802  pounds. 
Tobacco  is  grown  in  parts  of  Quebec  and 
southern  Ontario.  In  1910  the  production  was 
17,632,342  pounds  from  18,928  acres.  In  1915 
the  estimated  production  was  about  9,000,000 
pounds,  and  in  1916  about  5,943,000  pounds. 
The  production  of  hmiey  in  1910  was  £^089,764 
pounds,  the  number  of  mves  being  returned  as 
10(^372. 

Fmih  Live  Stock.— Canada  is  well  sidted 
to  the  raiting  of  all  descriptions  of  farm  live 
stock,  aldiough  sheep  in  the  central  and  colder 

ra  cannot  be  kept  out  of  doors  during  winter 
rile  lar^  flocks  that  are  customary  in 
countries  with  milder  dimates.  As  a  general 
rule,  Canadian  farm  animals  are  remarkably 
free  from  disease,  and  the  more  virulent  don- 
tagiouB  maladies  are  entirely  absent.  The 
accompanying  table  shows  the  total  number  of 
horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  in  the  cotMiS 
years  1901  and  1911,  and  as  estimated  annually 
at  the  end  of  June  by  die  Census  and  Statistics 
Oflice  for  die  years  1912  to  1916. 


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CANADA— AGRICULTURE  (38) 


,  .  .  :iiiQg  IS  prac- 
tised largely  in  southern  Alberta  and  in  south- 
west Saskatchewan  under  the  favorable  con- 
ditions of  comparatively  mild  winters  and  light 
snowfall  with  abundant  wild  hay  and  pasture. 
Tfaer«  is  a  good  detnand  for  heavy  horses, 
both  for  aericuitural  purposes  and  for  the 
drawing  of  Togs  from  the  lumber  cunps.  The 
favorite  draught  horse  is  the  Clydesdale,  a 
medium  size  bein^  usually  preferred  for  farm 
work.  Next  in  importance  comes  the  Per- 
cfaeron  of  whidi  by  far  the  larger  number 
are  in  Alberta.  The  French  Canadian  is  the 
drau^t  horse  of  the  French  farmers  in 
Quebec.  The  Enf^sh  Shire  horse  is  also  raised 
principally  in  Ontario,  and  there  are  small 
numbers  of  the  Suffolk  Punch  and  of  Bel^n 
breeds.  Among  the  light  breeds  the  Standard 
Bred  trotter,  used  largely  in  trotting  and  pac- 
ing races,  and  the  Hackney  predominate. 
Thoroughbreds  and  coach  horses  are  also 
raised.  Animals  for  cavalry  and  mounted  in- 
fantry  remounts  are  produced  in  all  the  prov- 
inces, and  have  been  especially  in  donand  for 
the  war.  In  1911  the  number  of  pure-bred 
horses  was  33,149,  an  increase  of  22^3,  or 
20S  per  cent  since  1901.  Of  the  totaJ,  19,911 
or  60  per  cent  were  Clydesdales.     During  the 


management  of  ^llcd  flockmastcrs.  Nearjr 
all  the  leading  British  breeds  are  to  be  found  in 
Canada,  the  most  numerous  being  the  Shrop- 
shire, Oxford  Down,  Leicester,  Cotswold  and 
Southdown  breeds.  At  the  census  of  1911 
ihcre  were  53,616  ^ure  bred  sheep  in  Canada. 
The  industry,  in  spite  of  earnest  efforts  to  en- 
courage it  on  the  part  of  the  government,  has 
steadily  declined.  In  1S81  the  total  number  of 
sbeMi  in  Canada  was  3,04S,67S;  in  1911  the 
number  was  2,175,302,  a  falling  off  of  873,376^ 
or  28  per  cent  Since  the  census  of  1911  the 
numbers  have  continued  to  decline,  and  the 
estimated  number  on  30  June  1916  was  2,022,941, 
a  further  decline;  since  the  census  of  1911, 
of  152,361.  The  average  price  of  wool  has  in- 
creased materially  during  the  war;  the  prices 
in  1916  for  washed  and  unwashed  wool  being 
respectively  50  and  37  cents  per  pound,  as  com- 
pared with  26  and  19  cents  in  1914.  Swine, 
unlike  sheep,  have  increased  steadily  in  num- 
bers during  the  last  30  or  40  years.  In  1881 
they  numbered  1,207.619,  and  in  1911  3,634,77a 
SwuK  raising,  especially  in  the  West,  is  a 
fluctuating  industry,  bemg  largely  dependent 
upon  dheap  feeding  grain.  When  for  mstance 
prices  rose  suddenly  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  pig  feeding  on  the  Prairie  provinces  be- 
came un remunerative,  and  large  numbers  were 
inunediately  thrown  on  the  market  at  nominal 
prices.  On  30  June  1916,  the  estimated  number 
of  swine  in  Canada  was  3,474,840.    The  pria- 


cipal    breeds 


the    Yorkshire,     Berk^re, 


LivBSToac 
Milch  com 


1, 577, 493  l.SM.MB  2,WI,3ST  I.t6e,0O8 

l.VX.mT  2,S9i,iiS  2,6M,t8«  I,7W.4» 

3,167.774  3,930, S28  3.817,373  3,911,687 

S,376.«S1  e.5Ze,083  6, 431, Ml  6, AH, 121     < 

2,310,139  2,174,300  2,082.381  1,128,531 

2,333.828  3.634.77S  3.477.310  3,448,326 


6.817  A. 066, 001  5.916. a64 
S.OtS  2,038.661  I.MS. 101 
4.261     3.111,900     1,814. 671 


21,833  went  to  Great  Britain,  most  of  them  as 
mdilary  remounts. 

Cattle,  princi^Uy  of  British  origin,  are  bred 
in  all  the  provinces,  and,  as  in  the  case  of 
horses,  there  are  targe  ranches  in  Saskatche- 
wan and  Alberta.  The  beef  breeds  include 
Shorthorns,  Herefords,  Aberdeen  Angus  and 
Galloways,  Shorthorns  comprising  the  great 
majority.  In  Ontario  cattle  raising  is  a  very 
important  industry,  the  animals  being  fattened 
on  grass  lands  during  summer  and  in  the  stable 
dunng  winter.  Of  late  years,  especially  in  the 
western  counties  of  Ontario,  fine  herds  of  pure- 
bred cattle  have  gradually  been  established,  and 
their  quality  has  been  maintained  by  large  im- 
portations from  the  mother  country.  As  a 
consequence  the  trade  in  pure  bred  stock  with 
the  United  States  has  been  considerably  de- 
veloped. Cattle  throughout  Canada  have  been 
reduced  in  numbers  by  slaughter  for  the  pur- 
pose of  meat  exports  to  Great  Britain  in  con- 
sequence of  the  war,  hut  herds  are  being 
gradually  replenished  1^  the  breeding  of  young 
Stock.  Amongst  dairy  cattle  are  the  Shorl- 
hom,  Ayrshire,  Jersey,   French  Canadian  and 


of  sheep  and  for  the  production  of . — 

wool  of  the  highest  quality-  but  for  various 
reasons  this  branch  of  the  live  stock  industry 
has  not  been  followed  so  generally  as  it  nugbt 
have  been.  In  individual  cases,  however,  sheep 
raising  has  proved  very  profitable  under  the 


Chester  ^yhite  and  Tamworth ;  but  the  York- 
shire largely  predwninate.  In  1911,  56,457  pure 
bred  swme  were  returned  as  on  Canadian 
farms.  Poultry  raising  as  an  adjunct  to  ordi- 
nary farming  has  made  great  strides.  In  1911 
the  numbers  of  all  descriptions  of  poultry  were 
31,793,261  of  the  value  of  $15,047,009,  as  com- 
pared with  17.922,658  in  1901  of  the  value  of 
$5,723,890.  The  production  of  eggs  in  1911 
was  123,071,034  dozen,  value  $23,501,173.  Tur- 
keys are  easily  reared  in  Canada,  and  are  often 
a  valuable  source  of  additional  fann  revenue. 

Dairying  Indnstry.— Dairy ing  is  practised 
in  all  the  provinces  of  Canada,  but  it  is  car- 
ried on  chiefly  in  Ontario  and  Quebec  The 
factory  system  for  the  manufacture  of  cheese 
and  creameries  for  tht  making  of  butter  have 
been  largely  instrumental  in  the  development 
of  the  industry.  Cheese  factories  date  from 
the  early  sixties,  the  first  cheese  factory  in 
Canada  having  been  established  on  the  farm 
of  G.  V.  de  Long  at  Norwich,  Oxford  County, 
Ontario,  in  the  spring  of  1864.  Much  has  been 
done  by  both  the  Dominion  and  provincial 
governments  to  improve  the  methods  of  cheese 
making  in  Canada,  as  well  as  to  repress  fraudu- 
lent practices  injurious  to  its  reputation.  Since 
1890  Canadian  trade  in  agricultural  products 
to  Great  Britain  has  greatly  developed  and 
there  has  Rradually  been  built  up  an  increasine 
export  trade  in  Catiadian  cheddar  dicese  which 
in  the  British  markets  now  enjoys  a  high  repu- 
tation   for  purity  and   excellence  of   quality. 


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CANADA —AOKICULTURB  (9> 


Batter  made  under  the  creamery  system  was 
formerly  exported  in  considerable  qtnntities  to 
Great  Britain;  but  during  the  past  decade, —  a 
period  coincident  with  a  marked  iticrease  of 
die  population  of  Canada  by  tmmigratian  —  the 
exportation  of  butter  has  been  greatlj;  reduced, 
wlulst  for  the  same  reason  the  quantities  roaou- 
faclured  and  exported  of  cheese  have  diiniii>- 
i^ed.  The  production  of  mitk  has  increased, 
but  its  use  has  been  diverted  from  the  makinK 
of  cheese  to  the  makinB  of  butter,  of  wliich 
comparatively  little  is  available  for  export  after 
satisfaction  of  home  reguirenients.  Since  5 
Aug.  1909,  when  the  Payne-Aldrich  tariff  to<A 
effect,  there  hag  been  a  consideraUe  exporta- 
tion of  fresh  cream  from  Canada  into  the 
United  States.  In  the  year  1916  the  pro- 
duction of  cheese  in  factories  amounted  to 
19%96aS97  pounds  of  the  value  of  $35,51^622 
as  compared  with  22033^,269  pounds  of  the 
value  of  $22,221,430  in  1900.  The  production 
of  creamery  cutter  in  1916  was  82,564,130 
pounds  of  the  value  of  $26,966,357,  as  com- 
pared with  36,066,739  pounds  of  the  value  of 
$7,240,972  in  1900,  the  number  of  factories  and 
(dreameries  being  3,446  as  against  3,576  in  1900. 
The  production  of  homemade  butter  in  1910 
was  137,110,200  pounds  as  compared  with 
105,343,076  pounds  in  1900.  and  m  1910  the 
production  of  home-made  cheese  was  1,371,092 
pounds.  For  1910  the  total  production  of 
cheese  was  201,275,297  pounds  and  of  butter 
201,808,365  pounds.  In  1910  condensed  miDc 
products  were  made  in  11  factories  amounting 
10  27,831  596  pounds  of  the  value  of  $1,814,871. 
During  tne  five  fiscal  years  ended  31  March  1916 
the  average  annual  exports  of  cheese  have  been 
153,941,732  pounds  as  compared  with  215,137,339 
pounds  for  the  first  five  years  of  the  century. 
Similarly,  for  the  same  periods  in  the  case  of 
buiter  the  exports  have  averaged  3,413,SlS 
pounds  as  against  36,930,551  pounds.  There  is 
on  the  other  hand  a  comparatively  small  im- 
portation of  varieties  of  cheese  not  manufac- 
tured in  Canada,  amounting  annually  to  about 
1,500,000  pounds.  Dairying  in  the  Prairie 
provinces  has  recently  made  considerable 
progress,  and  there  is  every  indication  that 
the  dairy  products  of  these  provinces  will  soon 
be  more  than  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  west- 
em  requirements  and  leave  a  substantial  sur- 
plus for  export. 

Fruit  Growing.— This  is  an  increasingly 
important  branch  of  the  agricultural  industry 
in  Canada.  Apples,  plums  and  small  fruits  are 
grown  successfully  all  over  Canada;  but  the 
production  of  fruits  on  a  large  scale  is  con- 
fined practically  to  three  well-defined  fruit 
Cwing  districts,  vii.,  the  Annapolis  Valley  in 
ra  Scotia,  the  eastern,  soathern  and  western 
parts  of  Ontario,  especially  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Niagara  peninsula,  and  in  the  val- 
leys of  British  Columbia.  In  Nova  Scotia 
apples  for  export  are  the  chief  fruit;  but  in 
toe  Nia^ra  peninsula  pears,  peaches,  grapes 
and  other  tender  fruits,  as  well  as  apples,  grow 
to  perfection.  In  British  Columbia  great 
progress  in  fnrit  growing  has  taken  place  dur- 
ing the  present  century,  and  in  certain  parts  of 
the  province,  where  the  rainfall  is  scanty, 
irrigation  has  been  resorted  to  with  marked 
sKcess  for  the  growth  of  all  kinds  of  fnrit. 
The  census  returns  of  1911  show  an  increase 
in  the  area  devoted  to  orchards  of  47,490  acres. 


the  area  having  grown  from  356l106  acres  in 
1901  to  403,596  acra  in  1911.  Grapes  are 
grown  for  wine  making  to  a  smalt  extent  in 
southern  Ontario,  and  the  total  acreage  under 
vineyards  was  9,836  in  1911.  The  total  number 
of  fruit  trees  in  bearing  in  1911  was  14,002,145 
and  of  non-bearing'  fnut  trees  the  number  was 
&315,236.  The  output  varies  considerably  with 
tiM  season  and  the  prevalence  of  insect  pests, 
but  in  1910  the  production  of  the  following 
fruits  was,  in  bushels,  as  follows :  Amdes 
10,618,666:  peaches  646,826;  pear^  504,171; 
plums  506,994;  cherries  238,974;  other  fruits 
47,789.  Apples  are  exported  principally  to  the 
United  Kingdom,  the  quantity  ranging  during 
the  past  five  years  from  523,658  barrels  in  19)1 
to  1,664,165  barrels  in  1912.  In  1916  the  ex- 
ports were  577,451  barrels.  One  barrel  holds 
on  the  average  about  three  bushels.  A  certain 
amount  of  cider  is  annually  made  in  the  apple 
growing  districts,  the  exports  being  upward 
of  150,000  gallons  and  occasionally  exceeding 
200^000  gallons.  Uaple  sugar  and  maple  syrup 
are  made  on  farms  where  the  maple  tree 
flourishes,  chiefly  in  Quebec  and  Ontario.  In 
1910  the  total  production  of  maple  sugar  was 
10,488,340  pounds  and  of  maple  syrup  1302,581 
gallons. 

Value  of  Agricultural  Production. —  In 
1915  the  estimated  value  of  the  field  crops  . 
of  Canada  was  $825,370,000,  but  this  was  a  year 
of  exceptional  abundance.  For  1916  the  total 
value  was  $886,494,900,  owing  to  the  high 
prices  caused  by  the  war.  The  average  annual 
value  of  the  total  agricultural  production  of 
Canada  may  be  placed  at  about  $782,000,000, 
including  field  crops  $650,000,001^  dairy  prod- 
ucts $70,000,000.  wool  $2,000,000,  poultry  and 
ems  $25,000,00.  and  fruits  and  vegetables 
$35,000,000.  The  total  value  of  horses,  cattle. 
sheep  and  swine  estimated  at  $903,686,000  for 
1916. 

Agricultural  Organizatloa.—  Associated 
effort  for  the  improvement  of  agriculture  is 
largely  directed  and  controlled  by  the  state. 
There  b  not  only  a  strong  and  many-sided  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  of  the  Dominion  gov- 
ernment, but  each  of  the  nine  provincial  gov- 
ernments has  also  a  department  of  agriculture 
serving  local  needs.  Smce  1911  an  important 
advance  has  been  made  by  the  Dominion  Par-' 
Uament  in  appropriating  large  sums  annually 
for  the  encouragement  of  agriculture  under  the 
Agricultural  Instruction  Act  of  1913.  The 
funds  thus  available  are  divided  amongst  the 
nine  i>rovinces  and  administered  in  close  co- 
operation with  the  provincial  departments  of 
agriculture.  The  amount  now  annually  appro- 
priated under  this  act  is  about  $1,000,000.  A 
great  deal  of  the  work  of  the  Dominion  depart- 
ment is  carried  on  through  the  experimental 
farms  and  stations  which  are  situated  in  dif- 
ferem  parts  of  Canada.  A  central  farm  at 
Ottawa  and  four  branch  farms  in  Nova  Scotia, 
Manitoba,  the  Northwest  territories  and  Brit- 
ish Columbia  were  originally  established  in  1886 
under  die  Experimental  Farm  Stations  Act. 
These  five  farms  continued  in  operation  for  20 
years  when  their  usefulness  became  so  apparent 
that  steps  began  to  be  taken  tor  their  extension; 
and  two  new  stations  were  established  in  Alberta 
in  1907.  Since  then  development  has  been 
rapid;  and  in  1917  Qte  experimental  farms  and 
stations  of  the  Dominion  govenuncnt  originally 


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CANADA— AGRICVLTUSE  (M) 


five  in  number  with  a  total  acreaKc  of  3,472, 
number  21  with  an  acreage  of  1 1,148,  not  cotmt- 
ing  seven  smaller  substations  at  points  in 
British  Columbia,  Alberta  and  the  Northwest 
territories.  The  more  strictly  scientific  work 
of  the  farms  is  organized  at  the  central  farm, 
Ottawa,  in  13  divisions,  comprising  field  hus- 
bandry, animal  husbandry,  horticulture,  cereals, 
chemistry,  forage  plants,  botany,  poiil- 
ti7,  tobacco,  economic  fibre,  illustration  sta- 
tions, apiculture,  extension  and  publicity. 
Amongst  the  results  of  greatest  general  influ- 
ence upon  Canadian  agriculture,  due  directly  to 
the  experimental  work  of  the  farms,  may  be 
mentioned  the  practice  of  early  sowing,  the 
adoption  of  summer  fallowing  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  improved  varieties  of  seeds  of  cereal 
and  other  plants,  especially  in  the  West 
Phenomenal  success  has  indeed  attended  one 
.  branch  of  the  work  of  the  experimental  farms 
by  the  introduction  of  the  Marquis  variety  of 
Mrd  wheat.  This  wheat,  which  possesses  all 
the  good  qualities  of  the  Red  Fife  with  the 
added  advantages  of  an  earlier  ripening  habit 
and  superior  yield,  leaped  into  fame  by  taking 
the  champion  prize  for  the  best  hard  wheat  at 
the  first  ALmerican  Land  Show,  held  in  New 
York  from  3-12  Nov.  1911.  Since  then  it  has 
taken  many  similar  prizes,  and  is  now  in  proc- 
ess of  rapid  distribution  throughout  the  west- 
ern grain-growing  area  in  replacement  of  the 
Red  Fife.  The  worit  of  the  Dominion  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  extends  over  many 
other  important  fields,  including  the  seed 
branch  for  the  attalysis  of  seeds  in  respect  of 
germination  and  purity;  the  daiiv  and  cold 
storage  branch;  the  fruit  branch;  the  health  of 
animals  branch  under  a  veterinary  director- 
general  ;  the  live  stock  branch  for  improvement 
of  farm  live  stock;  and  an  entomological 
branch.  All  these  branches  not  only  administer 
laws  afFecting  the  subjects  with  which  they 
deal,  but  also  carry  on  scientific  investigation 
at  field  and  other  laboratories.  Important 
work  in  the  improvement  of  farm  seeds  is  be- 
ing accomplished  by  the  Canadian  Seed 
Growers'  Association,  who  work  in  close  asso- 
ciation with  the  seed  branch  of  the  department 
The  maintenance  of  pedigree  registers  of  pure- 
bred live  stock  is  in  charge  of  a  National 
Record  Board  which  receives  special  grants, 
facilities  and  privileges  from  the  Dominion 
government.  Under  the  Live  Stock  Pedigree 
Act,  1900,  the  pedigree  records  of  live  stock 
were  both  unified  and  nationalized.  Each  of 
the  breed  societies  in  Canada,  while  remaining 
responsible  for  the  local  management  .of  its 
own  affairs,  is  represented  upon  the  National 
Record  Board  for  the  issue  of  pedig;ree  certifi- 
cates, which  before  issue  are  certified  by  an 
officer  of  the  live  stock  branch  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture;  so  that  every  pedigree 
certificate  has  behind  it  a  government  guarantee 
of  accuracy,  a  matter  of  considerable  advantage 
in  connection  with  international  trade.  Only 
the  Holstein-Freisian  Society  of  Canada  re- 
mains outside  this  sdieme.  Much  is  being  done 
to  test  experimentany  the  varieties  of  tobacco 
best  suited  to  the  Canadian  climate  and  the 
best  methods  of  cultivation,  curing,  marketing, 
etc  Canada  is  an  adhering  country  of  the  In- 
ternational Institute  of  Agnculture,  and  an  offi- 
cer of  the  Departtnent  of  Agiiculture  act*  as 


Canadian  commissioner  of  the  InUitute.  The 
publications  of  the  various  branches  of  the  de- 
partment, most  of  which  are  issued  gratis,  are 
voluminous  and  diverse;  so  much  so  that 
within  recent  years  a  special  branch  of  the  de- 
partment has  been  or^nized  for  their  more 
effective  distribution.  This  branch  also  issues 
monthly  the  Agricitlturat  GtuetU  of  Canada. 

Of  the  provincial  departments  of  agriculture, 
the  oldest  and  most  thoroughly  organized  are 
those  of  Ontario  and  Quel>K.  Farmers'  insti- 
tutes and  clubs,  women's  institutes,  agricultural 
and  live  stodt  associations  and  fairs  are 
amongst  the  agencies  employed;  but  probaUy 
the  a^cultural  colleges  and  experiment  sta-  ■ 
tions  in  each  provmce  have  the  greatest  influ- 
ence. Foremost  amongst  these  institutions  are 
the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  at  Guelph 
under  the  provincial  department  of  agriculture 
and  the  Macdonatd  Agricultural  College  at 
Sainte  Anne  de  Bellevue  in  the  province  of  Que- 
bec The  college  at  Guelph  is  rematicahle  for 
the  comprehensive  thoroughness  with  which  it 
covers  the  whole  wide  field  of  agriculture.  Its 
departments  comprise  field  and  animal  hus- 
bandry, dairying,  poultry,  aoiculture,  horticul- 
ture, pomology,  agricultural  chemistry,  bac- 
teriology, zoology,  entomology,  botany  and 
physics.  The  Ontario  Agricultural  and  Experi- 
mental Union,  which  is  organized  by  officers 
of  the  college  for  the  conduct  of  annual  co- 
operative  experiments  by  farmers  throus^out 
the  province,  has  been  in  existence  for  38  years, 
and  (he  average  number  of  annual  experiment- 
ers is  about  4,500.  The  Macdonald  College  at 
Sainte  Anne  de  Bellevue  is  a  newer  institution 
dating  from  1907;  but  is  gradually  covering 
much  the  same  ground  for  English-speaking 
students  of  the  province  of  Quebec.  Both  coF 
leges  provide  courses  for  the  graduation  of 
students  with  the  degree  of  B.S.A.  (Bachelor  of 
Science  in  Agriculture)  conferred  by  the  uni- 
versities to  which  th^  are  respectively  affili- 
ated, viz.,  Toronto  for  Guelph  and  McGill  for 
Macdonald.  In  the  other  provinces  agricul- 
tural colleges  and  experiment  stations  exist  at 
Truro  {Nova  Scotia).  Oka  and  Saint  Anne  de 
la  Pocatiere  (Quebec) ;  Winnipeg  (Mani- 
toba) ;  Saskatoon  (Saskatchewan) ;  Edmon- 
ton (Alberta)  and  Point  Grey,  Vancouver 
(British  Columbia).     Agricultural  fairs,  shows 

exhibitions  are  held  all  over  Canada,  usually 


exhibitions  is  held  annually  in  Au^si  and  Sep- 
tember at  Toronto  by  the  Industnal  Exhibition 
Association. 

Future  PTOspect«.~At  present  the  great 
war  in  which  me  British  empire  is  strenu- 
ously engaged  affects  Canadian  agriculture  b^ 
the  absence  at  the  front  of  many  of  its  citi- 
zens, which  renders  more  acute  the  scarcity  of 
farm  labor,  limits  production  and  increases  its 
cost  These  conditions  are  of  temporary  dura- 
tion, and  will  change  on  the  return  of  the  sol- 
diers and  resumption  of  the  immigration  that 
was  stoiKKd  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  It 
is  probable  that  the  immigrants  who  enter  Can- 
ada after  the  war  will  settle  upon  agricultural 
lands  instead  of  flocking  to  the  towns  for  tbe 
development  of  municiial  enterprises  by  means 
of  borrowed  capit^  as  was  largely  the  case 
before  the  war.     Conditions  in   Canada  will 


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CANADA— PORB3T  AND  LDMBBK  INDUSTRY  <40) 


48S 


make  it  «ss<titial  that  the  actual  development  of 
agriculturat  resources  shall  in  future  be  the 
fint  consideration.  To  what  extent  home- 
steads may  be  prepared  in  advance  for  settle- 
ment by  returned  soldiers  and  immigrants  is 
engaging  attention,  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
policy  of  ready-made  farms  on  lines  already 
adoMed  in  Alberta  by  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  may  be  more  extensiveh-  adopted. 
Future  agricnltnral  production  in  the  West  is 
likely  to  be  largely  influenced  by  the  facilities 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  and  already  the  Cana- 
dian government  have  constructed  grain  ele- 
vators at  interior  western  points  in  anticipa- 
tion of  new  grun  movements  in  this  direction. 
A  railway  from  Le  Pas  in  Manitoba  to  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Hudson  Bay  is  under 
constructicHi  by  the  Dominion  government  with 
the  object  of  providing  an  additional  outlet  for 
western  grain  throu^  the  Hudson  Strait.  A 
change  in  the  direction  of  a  more  general 
adaption  in  the  Prairie  provinces  of  the  prac- 
tice of  mixed  farmini;  is  already  in  progress 


shown  fanners  the  unwisdom  of  trusting  ..  _ 
single  crop.  But,  probably,  this  will  not  entail 
any  total  decrease  in  the  growing  of  wheat  which 
-will  continue  to  be  sown  on  newly-broken  areas. 
Larser  grain  production  is  possible  in  Canada 
by  an  increase  in  the  rates  of  yield  per  acre. 
Improved  agricultural  methods,  includii^  the 
more  general  adoption  of  mixed  farming,  the 
use  of  judicious  rotations  and  more  care  in  the 
selection  of  seed,  will  result  in  a  large  average 
yields  per  acre  in  the  grain-growing  provinces, 
as  has  already  been  the  case  in  the  older  and 
more  thiddy  settled  parts  of  Ontario.  Here 
tbere  is  evidence  to  show  that  during  the  past 
35  ^ears  the  average  yidds  per  acre  nave  been 
icreased  by  iVi  busliels  for  fall  wheat,  2>^ 


ress  in  the  Prairie  provinces  will  mean  a  large 
aggregate  addition  to  the  annual  output  New 
lands  in  nearly  all  the  provinces  are  available 
for  settlement,  and  have  been  made  easily  ac- 
cessible by  the  construction  of  railways.  It  is 
estimated  that  there  are  56^000,000  acres  of 
land  more  or  less  immediately  available  for 
agricultural  settlement  in  Canada-  Of  this 
area  about  31,000,000  acres  are  Crown  lands  at 
tlie  disposal  of  the  provincial  governments  in 
New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  Ontario  and  British 
Columbia  and  about  25,000,000  acres  are  free 
grant  surveyed  lands  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Dominion  government  in  the  Prairie  prov- 
inces and  the  Railway  Belt  of  British  Columbia. 
The  lands  available  in  northern  Ontario, 
throuf^  which  run  the  new  National  Trans- 
continental and  Canadian  Northern  railways, 
including  an  immense  area  of  excellent  agricul- 
tural soil,  the  great  clay  belt  alone  consisting 
of  24,500  square  miles,  or  15,680,000  acres,  spe- 
cialN'  suitable  for  the  growth  of  wheat. 

Bibliography. —  Ofiicial  Reports  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Canada,  Ottawa,  including  the  Re- 
Krt  on  the  Fifth  Census  of  Canada.  1911  (Vol. 
;  (Agriculture,  >  1914)  ;  Report  on  the  Postal 
Census  of  Manufactures  (1916)  ;  Annual  Re- 
ports of  the  Departments  of  Agriculture  (Ex- 
perimental Farms),  of  the  Interior,  of  Railways 
and  Canals,  of  Customs  and  of  Trade  and  Com- 
merce, the  Agricititur^  Gatette  of  Canada 
vol- 5  — 28 


i monthly)  »The  Canada  Year  Book,'  the 
foHtkh  BiUletiH  of  Agricultural  Stalitties, 
formerly  the  Ceitstu  and  Statistics  Monthly; 
GriffiUj  Watson,  'Canada,  the  Country  of  tue 
Twentieth  Century'  (Department  of  Trade  and 
Commerce,  Ottawa  1915);  Ruddid^  J.  A.,  <An 
Historical  and  Descriptive  Account  of  the 
Dairying  Industry  of  Canada'  (Department  of 
Agriculture,  Ottawa  1911) ;  Annual  Reports  of 
the  Ontario  Bureau  of  Industries,  the  Onta- 
rio Agricultural  College  and  Experimental 
Farm  and  the  Agricultural  and  Experimental 
Union,  Toronto. 

Erkest  H.  GoontEv,  F.S.S., 
Editor,  Census  and  Statistics  OSice,  Ottama. 
40.  FOREST  AND  LUMBER  IN- 
DUSTRY. A  great  forest  stretches  across 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  from  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  to  Alaska  and  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  may  be  roughly  divided  into  a  northern 
forest  and  a  southern  forest.  The  northern 
forest  may  be  subdivided  into  a  sparsely  wooded 
portion  lying  north  of  a  line  extending  from 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  westward  to  the  south- 
em  end  of  James  Bay,  and  thence  northwest- 
ward to  Lake  Athabasca  and  the  Yukon  River. 
South  of  this  line  lies  a  rather  densely  wooded 
portion  separated  from  the  southern  forest  by 
an  irTRgular  line  running  from  Anticosti  Island 
north  of  Lakes  Saint  John  and  Abitiln,  south 
of  Lake  Nipigon,  across  the  southern  end  of 
Lake  Winnipeg,  and  northwestward  to  the  head- 
waters of  the  Athabasca  and  Liard  rivers.    With 


southern  Alberta,  the  southern  forest  extends 
as  far  south  as  the  international  boimdary. 
Around  the  coasts  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick,  along '  the  Saint  lawrence  Rivcf 
and  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Ontario  it  is 
largely  cleared  off  for  farming;  while  in  Mani- 
toba, Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  there  is  a  fringe 
of  mixed  prairie  and  woodland  lying  just  %onth 
of  the  heavily  wooded  portion  of  the  northern, 
forest.  In  British  Columbia  is  what  is  usually 
described  as  the  Cordilleran  forest  Along  the 
Pacific  Coast  and  on  Vancouver  and  Queen 
Charlotte  islands  this  forest  has  heavy  stands 
of  timber;  in  the  southern  interior  part  there 
is  what  is  known  as  the  'drv  belt*  forest ;  be- 
tween the  southern  end  of  Kootenay  Lake  and 
Quesnel  Lake  lies  the  'wet  belt"  forest;  while 
all  the  rest  of  the  province  and  the  southern' 
part  of  the  Yukon  territory  is  occupied  by 
an  interior  mountain  forest  with  extensive  fire- 
swept  and  grassland  areas. 
■  Total  Forest  Area.— The- total  land  area 
of  the  Dominion  is  3,603,910  square  miles,  or 
2,306,5CC,400  acres,  but  it  is  not  known  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy  how  much  of  this  vast 
territory  is  covered  with  forest  growth.  The 
most  reliable  information  availahle  places  it 
somewhere  in  the  nei^borhood  of  700,000,000 
acres,  which  is  approximately  30  per  cent  of  the 
total  area.  The  exact  areas  of  the  forest  con- 
taining timber  of  commercial  sizes  cannot  be 
known  until  the  Federal  and  provindal  gov- 
ernments complete  the  surveys  now  in  progress. 
For  the  present  we  may  safely  assume  that 
Nova  Scotia  has  5,000,000  acres;  New  Bruns- 
wick 9,000,000;  Quebec  100,000,000;  Ontario  70,- 
000,000;  Manitoba  1,920,000;  Saskatchewan 
3,584,000;  Alberta  5,416,000,  and  British  Colum- 
bia 30,000,000  acres  —  making  a  total  of  about 


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C^gU|»AT-V0SIE8{r  AflO  LUNUBBR  IMOUSTAT  440) 


22£000,0tl0  acres  or  9%  pei  cent  of  the  total 
land  area^ 

Control  of  Potest  Landt.—  In  the  prov- 
inces of  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Quebec, 
Ontario  and  British  Columbia  tfae  licenses  to 
cut  timl>er  on  specified  tracts,  known  as  "Tim- 
ber Limits,*  are  issued  by  the  provincial  gov- 
emnients;  while  in  the  provinces  of  Manitoba, 
Saskatchewan  and  A)berta  and  in  the  ■railway 
belt*  in  Briti^sh  Columbia  (a  slrip.of  11.000;000 
acres  cjctending  20i  miles  on  each  side  of  the 
main  line  of  the  Canadian  PaciAc  Railway),  the 
Federal  government,  at  Ottawa,  controls  thti 
landt  and  issues  lioetiaes  and  permits  to  cut 
timber  on.  "timber  berths'  and  forest  reserves. 
These  licenses,  are  obtaioed  by  public  competi- 
tion and  the  sum  paid  for  the  right  to  cut 
tErnber  for  a  specified  time  is  known  as  the 
'bonus  price.'  In  addition  to  the  bonus  price 
there  is  also  paid  a  specified  sum  per  annum 
per  square  mile  (or  per  acre^  known  as  the 
■ground  rent,'  and  when  the  timber  is  cut  the 
•jltmipage  dues"  are  paid  at  the  rate  ol  so 
much  per  M  (log  scale),  or  per  cord.  These 
fees  are  the  source  of  considerable  revenue  to 
the  respective-  governments,  which  impose  cer- 
tain "regulations'  regarding,  the  methods  of 
cutting  and  removing  timLer,  protection  against . 
fii:e,  etc.  In  no  cas:  does  the  holder  of  a ' 
license  or  permit  acquire  a  right  to  the  land, 
which  reverts  to  the  Crown  as  soon  as  his 
license  expires  or  is  canceled  for  non-ful&l- , 
ment  of  the  existing  timber  regulations.' 

■  Forest  Reiervei.—  For  many  years  both 
tke  Dominion  and  provincial  governments  have 
fbiliiwed  the  policy  of  setting  aside  forest  re- 
serves and  national  parks  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  a  permanent  supply  of  timber.  o£ 
maintaimng  conditions  favorable  to  a.  cbntinU' 
ous  water  supply,  and  of  protecting  mammals, 
fish  and  biros  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
reserves  and  paries..  The  Dominion  forest  re- 
serve»  in  Manitoba  have  an  area  of  2,941,600 
acres;  in  Saskatchewan  6,748(954  acres-  in 
Alberta  21,643,814  acres,  and  ra  tfae  railway 
belt  in  British  Columbia  3.485,590  acres  — 
raatdng  a  total  of  34,819,958  acres.  In  British. 
Columbia  there  are  still  27,931,482  acres  under 
provincial  control  while  Ontano  has  14,430,720 
acres  in  forest  reserves,  and  Quebec  the  huge 
total  of  111,400,320  acres.  Neimer  New  Bruns- 
wick nor  Nova  Scotia  have,  as  yet,  established 
forest  reserves;  while  all  the  land  in  Prince 
Edward  Island  has  been  alienated  for  farming 
purposes. 

Federal  Foreat  Service.—  In  1899  the  for- 
estry branch- of  the  Department  of  the  Interior, 
was  established  and  at  once  inaugurated  a  ^1-  . 
iq;  of  increasing  the  number  and. extent  of  the- 
forest  reserves  upon  Dominion  lands.  In  1900 
arrengements  were  made  to  furnish  settlers  in 
Manitoba,  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  with 
young  trees  and  cuttings  for  the  planting  of 
wind-breaks  and  shelter  belts.  Hie  settler 
entered  into  an  agreement  with'  the  foresty 
branch  to  set  aside  a  certain  portion  of  his 
land  as  a  permanent  tree  ptantadon,  to  care- 
fully prepare  bis  ground  according  to  the  direc- 
tions of  the  tree  inspectors,  to  plant  the  trees 
upon,  their  arrival  and  to  cultivate  and  keep 
the  ground  clean  mitil  the  trees  are  large 
enough  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The  spedes 
planted  vary  according  to  the  cUmatic  and  soil 
conditions,  and  fhe  great  success  of  this  co- 


operative plan  is  proved  by  the'  fact  that  approx- 
imately 95  per  cent  of  the  20,000^000  trees  and 
cuttings  sent  out  to  settlers  are  srowing  and 
are  a  source  of  great  pleasure  and  comfort  to 
all  who  have  taken  care  of  them.  In  1906  Uie 
work  of  surveying  and  mapping  the  Dominion 
forest  reserves  was  begun,  and  has  been  carried 
on  ever  since.  In  1906  the  work  of  collecting 
forest  statistics  from  reliable  sources  was 
begun.  In  1911  the  work  of  examining  and 
reporting  upon  lands  thought  to  be  suitable 
for  forest  reserves  was  begun,  and  has  resulted 
in  the  creation  of  new  reserves  and  additions 
to  those  already  existing.  In  1914  forest  pro- 
duct laboratories  were  established  at  McGill 
University,  Montreal,  where  exhaustive  tests 
are  being  carried  on  to  determine  the  technical 
properties  of  Canadian  timber  and  the  solution 
of  problems  connected  with  the  pulp  and  paper 
industry.  So  rapidly  has  this  most  useful 
branch  of  the  public  service  grown  that  in  May 
1914  it  had  1S9  officers  on  its  payroll,  and  the 
expenditure  for  the  year  amounted  to  $571,798. 
Since  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  many 
of  these  highly  trained  men  have  enlisted  for 
over-seas  service  and  the  work  of  the  branch  is 
considerably  hampered. 

Other  Foreit  SerricM,—  In  1909  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec  began  the  extension  of  its  for- 
est service  by  employing  two  technically  trained 
foresters  as  advisers,  and  most  encouraging 
progress  has  been  made  all  along  the  line  of 
developing  a  progressive  forest  policy. 

In  1911  the  British  Columbia  department  of 
land  and  forests  established  a  forest  branch 
which  has  made  remarkable  progress  in  the 
scientific  administration  of  her  forest  lands  and 
in  making  known  to  the  world  the  extent  and 
variety  of  her  forest  resources.  Just  before  the 
outbreak  of  war  the  staff  consisted  of  170  mem- 
bers (including  female  clerks  and  stenogra- 
pbers),  but  the  enlistment  of  60  of  its  most  effi- 
cient members  badly  crippled  the  service. 

In  1912  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Com- 
pany established  a  department  of  natural  re- 
sources and  charged  the  forestry  branch  vrith 
the  responsibility  of  administering  timber  lands 
owned  by  the  company  and  the  investigation  of 
problems  arising  out  of  tfae  use  and  preserva- 
tion of  limber  for  railway  purposes. 

In  1909  the  Dominion  government  estab- 
lished a  commission  of  conservation,  which 
has  devoted  much  time  and  energy  to  the  pro* 
tection  of  timber  from  fire,  the  maldng  of 
forest  surveys  and  the  lessening  of  toapng 
waste. 

In  1912  the  Dominion  Railway  Board  intro- 
duced, regulations  for  the  protection  of  forest 
properties  traversed  by  the  steam  roads,  and 
the  .number  of  fires  has  been  greatly  reduced. 
In  every  province  of  the  Dominion  fire  has 
done  a  tremendous  amount  of  damage  to  stand- 
ing timber  and  impoverished  the  soil  for  the 
growth  of  future  wood  crops.  Now^  however, 
the  Federal  and  provincial  autbontiea  have 
realized  the  seriousness  of  the  situation  and 
effective  steps  are  being  taken  to  reduce  the 
number  of  forest  fires.  Measures  are  also 
being  taken  to  reduce  the  waste  incident  to 
logging  operations;  such  as  the  waste  in  tree 
tops^  the  flisposal  of  logging  slash,  etc 

Forestry  Education.— In  1900  the  Cana- 
dian Forestry  Association  was  oi^niied  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  the  public  to  realiie  the 


d=,  Google 


GAOIADA' FOREST  AND  LUIffiKR  INDUSTRY  <4A>  48» 

necessity  of  conserving  the  forest  resources  of  organuation  of  a  tborouMily  efficient  fee  pn>- 

[he  Dominion.     Its  member^p  is  now  4,350  tection  service,  and  iuiroouced  stringent  regula-. 

and  it  has  been  largely  instrumental  in  securing  tions  regarding  the  disposal  of  logging  ^sh, 

advaaced  legislation  in  the  matter  of  increasing  which  in  times  has  been  B  menace  to  both  liun- 

tbe  forest  reserve  area,  a  more  careful  admin-  bermen  and  settlers. 

istralion  of   timber  lands  and  protection  from  In  the  case  of  the  'Prairie  provinces"  there 

fire.  are    less    than    11,000.000   acres    of    timbcriand 

In  1907  the  faculty  of  forestry  was  estab-  with   a  total   stand   of   approximately  42,000.' 

Ijshed  in  the  University  of  Toronto  for  the  000,000  feet  of  timber  distributed  as  follows: 

purpose  of  giving  young  men  a  thorough  tech-  Manitoba  with  1,920,000  acres  and  6350,000,000 

nical    training    along    hnes    required    lor    the  board  feet:  Saskatchewan,  3,584,000  acres  and 

scientific  management  of  forest  properties,  and  14,000,000,000    board    feet;    Alberta,    5,416,000 

in  1908  a  similar  department  was  established  in  acres  and  21,000,000,000  board  feel. 
the   University   of    New    Brunswick    at   Fred-  In  the  Yukon  and  Northwest  territories  the 

ericton,  N.  B.    A  couple  of  years  later  a  depart-  timber   has    practically   no    commercial   value, 

ment    of    forestry    was    established    in   Laval  because  of  its  inaccessibility,  smallness  and  low 

University,   Quebec,  and  plans  are  now  under  stumpage  per  acre. 

way  for  the  establishment  of  a  course  in  forest  In  British  Columbia  the  forest  branch  esti- 

engineering  in  the  University  of  British  Colum-  males  the  total  stand  of  commercial  limber  at 

bia,  Vancouver,  B.  C.     Nearly  all  the  graduates  somewhere    between    350.000,000,000    and   400,- 

of  these  schools  are  employed  by  the  Dominion  00(1000,000  feet.    Approximately  one-third  of  it 

forestry  branch,  the  Britisn  Columbia  forestry,  is  Douglas  fir  and  one-fifth  western  cedar;  the 

branch,    the   Quebec   forest   service,   the  New  remainder  being  almost  entirely  made  up  of 

Brunswick  forest  service^  and  the  forest  serv-  western  hemlock,  larch,  yellow  pine,  white  pine 

ice  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company.  and  jack  pine.    The  estimate  of  timber  suitable 

Estimate    of    Standing    "nmber.—  During  f or jtulpwood  is  placed  at  250,000,000  cords.  . 
the  summer  of  1909  and  1910  a  reconnaissance  From   the   above   estimates   it   will   be   seen 

survey  was  made  of  the  forest  lands  of  Nova  that  the  total  amount  of  merchantable  saw  tim- 

Scoiia.     For    the    mainland    the    estimate    is  ber  is  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  seven 

placed  at  94,496  acres  of  virgin  and  semi-virgin  hundred    billion    feet  —  approximately    28    per 

coniferous  timber  with  a  stand  of  1,133,952,000  cent  of  the  merchantable  timber  in  the  United 

board  feet ;  1,318,964  acres  of  moderatelv  culled.  States  of  America. 

conifers     cariyinK    3,956,892,000    board     feet:  Annual   Cut  of  TimbeFir— Nearly  alt   the 

3,192,175  acres  of  severely  culled  and  burned  coniferous  timber  cut  in  the  eastern  and  cen- 

bmber  estimated  at  3,192,175,000  feet,  and  1,138^  trat  parts  of  Canada  is  floated  down  the  creeks. 

730   acres    of    green    barrens    and   bums    with  lakes   and  rivers  to  convenient  milling  points, 

341,619,000  board  feet.    This  makes  a  total  of  from  which  it  is  shipped  hy  rail  or  water  to 

5,744365  acres  witi  8,624638,000  bc«rd  feet  of  market.    In  flie  case  of  hardwoods  the  usual 

coniferous  tmiber.    In  addition  to  this  there  is  method  of  removal  is  by  sleigh-haul,  as  thery 

(he  island  of  Cape  Breton,  which  is  estimated  are  generally  used  for  fuel,  distillation,  cooper- 

lo  have  an  area  of  1,535,000  acres  tmder  forest  age  —  only    a   limited   amount   being   used   foe 

more  suitable  for  pulpwood  than  for  saw  tim-  furniture    and   interior   finishing.      In    British 

ber.      For   the   whole   province   the   coniferous  Columbia  the  absence  of  drivable  streams  ren- 

saw  timber  is  approwmateh-  10^100,000,000  feet,  ders  the  nse  of  Itwgiog  railways,  yardiilg  en~ 

ai^d  the  hardwoods  probably  amount  to  5,000,-  gjne,   and  aerial   dnd&rs   necessary    for  tbo 

000,000  feet  removal  of  Douglas  fir  and  oUier  large  timber. 

New  Brunswick  is  now  engaged  in  the  work  For  the  year  1915  the  prodnction  of  sawn 

□f  mapping  and  dassifyuig  lands  still  in  posses-  lumber  was  as  shown  below : 
sion  of  the  Crown,  and  in  the  course  of  two  or  j^^  offimiB        Cut,™ 

three  years  will  have  a  close  estimate  of  the  Pwonnai  nponing        bo«dt«t 

amount  of   timber  thereon.     The  present  esti-  QuebK i,j78    i,O7S,787,0TO 

mate  for  the  whole  province  (Crown  lands  and  Onturio 656    i.ou.Mi.ooO 

5i'S'^iS'''H' '?'™™,"'S' ".S^"  SSS,SSr;.-.::::;::::::       IS    aill:So 

22,000,000,000    feet    of     saw    timber  —  mostly  Kon  Scots sm      2h,4IS,ooo 

spruce,  pine,  tamarack  and  cedar.  SMlaiicliew«a 13         62,864.000 

Quebec    has    at   least   265,000,000  acres    of  JSSS       ' w        "ots'ooO 

nearly  pure  coniferous  forest,  52,000,000  acres  PiinaEdinriiitamd .*!!!!!!!!  43  j'.SAi'.ooo 

of  mixed  conifers  and  hardwoods,  and  5,000,000  _     ,  —;-    ;■.  ■    .  -  ,„ 

acres  of  hardwoods,  but  no  reliable  figureTare  ^''*"" ^-"^    3.S42.676.ooo 

available  for  the  amount  of  standing  timber. 

Most  of  it  is  more  suitable  for  pulpwood  than  The  value  of  this  cut  of  lumber  was  esti- 

for  saw  timber,  although  large  quantities  of  the  mated  at  $51,919,606,  which  gives  an  average 

latter  are  taken  out  every  spring —  especially  Pfice  of  $16.1]  per  M.    Although  25  different 

from  lands  tributary  to  tlie  rivers  flowing  into  kinds  of  wood  were  sawn ;   the  five  leading 

the  Saint  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  rivers.  species  being  spruce,  which   made   up  4D.7  per 

Ontario  probably  has  more  saw  timber  than  cent  of  the  total  cut;  white  pine  (tastem  and 

any   other    province   except    British    Columbia.  western)    22,1   per   pent;   Douglas   fir   11,8  per 

The  northern   forests   contains   something  like  cent;   hemlock   (western  and   tastem)    6.2  per 

180,000,000  acres  of  spruce,  jack  pine,  balsam  cent,  and  balsam  fir  6.1  per  cent    For  the  re- 

iir  and  tamarack  (much  of  it  of  littte  value),  maiaing  13.1  per  cent  of  the  total  cut  the  next 

and  the  southern  forests  about  100,000,000  acres  five  species  were  red  pine,  birch  (yellow  and 

carrying  approximately  200,000,000,000  feet  of  white),    cedar    (western  and  eastern),   maple 

saw  timber.    In  1917  the  Department  of  Lands  (sugar  and  red),  and  larch  (western  and  east.- 

and  Forests  made  extensive  prepara^ns  for  the  em) —  which  nuide  up  10  per  4;ent  'of  the  total 


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CANADA— FORBST  AND   LUHBSR  INDUSTRY  <«)) 


cut.  The  remaini:^  3.1  ^r  cent  was  made  up 
of  western  yellow  pine,  jack  pine  (eastern  and 
western),  teuswood,  elm,  a^  poplar,  beech, 
oak,  yellow  cypress,  hickory,  chestnut,  cherry, 
butternut  and  walnut. 

The  quantity  of  lath  manufactured  was: 


PmOVIKCB 

N^b«  ol 

Poccntaoe 

rfloW 

55,204 

"■•]' 

TMlli 

793,226 

tDO.O 

The  total  value  of  the  793,226,00  lath  sawn 
was  placed  at  $2,040,819,  which  gives  an  aver- 
age price  of  $2.57  per  M.  The  five  leading 
species  of  wood  used  were  spruce,  white  pine, 
Douglas  fir  and  hemlock. 


The  cut  of  shingles 


s  follows : 


QoebK,. 

NevBnu 


Prince  BdnM  latand. . 


These  figures  show  that  49.6  per  cent  of  the 

fulpwood  was  used  in  Quebec,  34.3  per  cent  in 
)ntario,  &2  percent  in  New  Brunswick  6.4  per 
cent  in  British  Columbia  and  1.5  per  cent  in 
Nova  Scotia:  while  the  total  consumption  of 
1,405,^6  cords  is  an  increase  of  14.8  per  cent 
over  that  for  1914.  Spruce  made  up  71  per 
cent  of  the  total,  balsam  fir  21  per  cent,  hem- 
lock 4  per  cent,  jack  pine  3  per  cent  and  poplar 
1  per  cent.  Of  mechanical  pulp  the  amount 
produced  was  743,770  tons,  of  sulphite  235,474 
tons,  of  sulphate  92,404  tons  and  of  soda  pulp 
3,150  tons.  This  makes  a  total  of  1,074,805 
tons,  which  is  an  increase  of  15  per  cent  over 
the  production  of  1914.  The  manufacture  of 
pulp  wood  ii  one  of  the  few  industries,  not 
engaged  in  the  production  of  munitions,  which 


have  not  suffered  from  war  conditions.  A]- 
thot^h  labor  conditions  have  been  disturbed 
and  the  cost  of  raw  materials  has  increased,  the 
American  demand  for  pulp  has  increased  and 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining  it  from  Scandinavian 
sources  has  increased  the  over-seas  demand. 

The  total  number  of  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone poles  sold  in  1915  is  reported  as  179,248; 
at  an  average  price  of  $2.52  each.  Exactly  67.4 
per  cent  of  them  were  of  eastern  cedar,  11.1 
per  cent  of  western  cedar,  9.3  per  cent  of  tam- 
arack, 5.6  per  cent  of  spruce,  and  2.3  per  cent 
of  jack  pine  —  the  remaining  4.3  per  cent  being 
of  fir,  hemlock,  chestnut  and  oak. 

The  toUl  number  of  cross-ties  sold  in  I91S 
is  given  at  7,592,530,  and  their  average  price  at 
44  cents  each.  Jack  pine  made  up  32.4  per  cent 
of  the  total,  eastern  cedar  25.8  per  cent,  hem- 
lock 11.1  per  cent,  tamarack  8.3  per  cent,  east- 
em  spruce  6.7  per  cent,  Douglas  fir  5.3  per 
cent  and  oak  4.3  per  cent  —  the  remaining  6.1 
per  cent  being  made  Up  of  yellow  birch,  chest- 
nut, maple,  elm  and  western  cedar.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  the  total  number  of  ties  sold  in 
1914  was  19,403,646,  or  more  than  two  and  A 
half  times  that  for  1915. 

The  following  figures  show  the  values  of  the 
exports  of  forest  products  for  the  year  ending 
31  March  1916: 


QaiWdSUtM tH.STJ.OOS  t9. 555,0 

GnatBiitain 14,125.517  t.OOS.B 

Other  oaaotiiM J, 504, 428  9M,0 

Totiji. . . ; 


IH.4 


The  total  production  of  3,089,470,000  shingles 
was  valued  at  $5,734,852,  which  gives  an  aver- 
age value  of  $1.86  per  M.  Cedar  made  up  90,5 
per  cent  of  the  total  cut;  with  spruce,  white 
pine  and  jack  pine  next  in  order 

Pulpwood,  Poles  end  Ties..— Since  1908 
the  consumption  of  wood  for  the  manufacture 
of  pulp  has  increased  almost  threefold,  and  is 
certain  to  increase  still  more.  The  annexed 
table  shows  the  consumption  and  average  price 
per  cord  for  the  year  1915: 


The  manufactured  articles  consisted  mainly 
of  pulpwood,  saw  logs,  ties,  posts,  poles,  piling 
firewood,   tanbark,    square   and   wanmr   timber, 

Slanks,  boards  and  scantUn^  and  the  manu- 
actured  articles  of  wood  pulp,  furniture,  bar- 
rels, etc. ;  the  value  of  oom  amounting  to 
$62,790340. 

Total  Value  of  Forest  Prodncts.—The 
following  table  is  based  partly  upon  actual  sta- 
tistics and  partly  upon  the  estimates  of  the 
Dominion  forestiy  branch,  and  shows  the  esti- 
mated value  of  difTerent  classes  of  forest  prod- 
ucts for  the  calendar  years  1913  to  1915, 
inclusive : 
KiKD  or  Posisr 

Pbochici  19  ij  1914  1915 

lAiDber.    latfa    mad 

Bhiotfta ri. 000, 000  (67,500.000  tM. 750,000 

Pulpmod 15.000.000    15.500,000     15,750.000 

PoIm l.SOO.OOO  TOO. 000  500. ODD 

Tin 9.000,000      9,000.1100      J.SOO.OOO 

barm.  ."'!°^. .  ."r  600,000  500.000  680.000 

Ponaandraili tO.000,000  9,500,000  9.000.000 

Fit«<niad 55,000,000  60.500,000  60,650.000 

Coopnoe t. 900.000  1,900.000  1,400.000 

TsnWk 20.000  22.000  170,000 

MJKxllanecnB  pn>d- 

ucu.. 11,000.000  10,000,000  9.500.000 

LosiemarUd 900,000  850,000  1,125,000 

Squiie    timber   ai- 

ported MO.OOO  400,000  400.000 

MuceUaneoufl      tt^ 

port) 400,000  500,000  175.000 

Tot^ tl  7  7. 1 20,000  I1T6.6T2.O00  1172,880.000 

This  table  gives  a  fairly  accurate  idea  of 
the  magnitude  and  stabiUty  of  the  forest  in- 
dustries of  Canada. 

A.  H.  D.  Ross, 
Consitllmg  Forest  Engineer,  Toronto. 


Cig 


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CANADA— THE  GRAIN  TRAOR  (41) 


41.  THB  GRAIN  TRADK.  The  Cana- 
dian grain  trade  has  been  aubj«ct  to  legisla- 
tive control  from  an-early  date;  bnt  the  first 
enacment  after  confcderatioo  applicable  to 
the  whole  of  Canads  was  in  1874  when  the 
Dominion  Parliament  jmsaed  the  General  In- 
spection Act  dealing  with  m  large  variety  of 
staple  commodities.  Under  this  act  the  dif* 
ferent  brands  of  flour  and  meal  were  legally 
defined,  and  spedat  provisions  were  included 
for  the  grading  of  grain.  After  the  establish' 
tnent  of  a  gram-growing  industry  in  the  piov 
ince  of  Manitoba,  an  act  of  1885,  in  further 
amendment  of  the  General  Inspection  Act  of 
1874,  considerably  extended  tue  grades  of 
grain  and  introduced  for  the  first  time  grades 
descriptive  of  the  hard  wheats  ,of  Manitoba 
and  tJie  Northwest  territories,  Subsequently 
the  legislation  affecting  the  warehousing  ana 
transportation  of  grain  became  merged  in  the 
Manitoba  Grain  Act  of  1900  and  amending 
acts.  The  Inspection  Act  covered  the  inspec- 
tion, grading  and  weighing  of  grain  up, to  1904, 
when  all  matters  alfecting  grain  were  with- 
drawn from  that  act  ana  embodied  in  the 
Grain  Inspection  Act,  1904,  which  on  the  re- 
vision of  the  statutes  in  1906  became  Part  II 
of   the  Inspection  and  Sale  Act. 

The  Canada  Grain  Act— Four  years  ago 
the  Dominion  legislation  affecting  the  Canadian 
grain  trade  was  codl&ed  by  the  Canada  Grain 
Act  of  1912,  which  also  included  numerous  ad- 
ditional provisions  of  important  character.  The 
act  provides  for  the  appointment  by  order  in 
council  of  a  board  of  three  commissioners, 
known  as  the  Board  of  Graii^  Commissioners 
for  Canada,  who  are  charged  with  the  manage- 
ment and  control  of  the  grain  trade  for  the 
whole  of  Canada  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  act.  The  offices  of  the  board  are  at 
Fort  William  where,  and  at  the  twin  city  of 
Port  Arthur,  are  situated  the  large  terminal 
elevators  from  which  grain  is  discharged  into 
the  lake  steamboats  plying  eastward.  For  the 
purposes  of  grain  shipment  Canada  is  divided 
into  two  inspection  divisions,  the  Eastern  and 
Western.  The  former  comprises  the  portion 
of  Ontario  lying  east  of  Port  Arthur  and  Que- 
bec and  the  Maritime  provinces,  while  the  lat- 
ter comprises  the  portion  of  Ontario  lying 
west  of  and  including  Port  Arthur,  the  North- 
west provinces  and  territories  and  British 
Coltunbia. 

Grain  Elevators.— These  constitute  an 
integral  part  of  the  grain  trade  as  controlled  by 
the  act,  and  the  development  of  grain  growing 
in  the  Northwest  made  their  introduction  into 
Canada  a  necessity.  The  first  Canadian  grain 
elevators  were  constructed  shortly  after  the 
year  1880.  Before  this  date  grain  grown  In 
Canada  was  shipped  through  flat  warehouses 
built  by  gi>iin  dealers  at  points  along  the  rail- 
way line.  The  grain  was  bought  by  the  deal- 
ers, stored  in  tlte  warehouse  and  shipped  in 
car  lots  for  sale  in  Winnipeg.  The  warehouse 
was  a  simple  wooden  storehouse,  built  parallel 
with  the  railway  trade  A  passageway  across 
divided  the  house  in  two  and  each  end  was  sub- 
divided into  bins.  The  machinery  usuaTly  con- 
sisted of  a  scale  in  the  passageway,  a  trolley 

for       "■ 

die 


tiquated,  and  the  flat  warehouses,  of  which 
there  are  now  only  about  24  in  Canada,  tend 
annually  to  disappear. 

Dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  grain  grow- 
ers with  the  management  of  the  elevators  led 
to  the  introduction  of  what  are  called  'loading 
I^atforms.'  The  platform  is  a  wooden  struc- 
ture on  a  railway  siding  to  which  a  farmer 
can  drive  his  team  and  from  which  he  can 
shovel  the  grain  into  the  car.  When  the  grain 
has  been  loaded,  he  can  either  sell  it  on  the 
spot  as  trade  grain,  or  consign  it  to  a  commi»> 
sion  firm  in  Winnipeg  to  be  sold  for  lus  ac- 
count B^  using  the  platform  a  farmer  can 
protect  himself  from  the  possibili^  of  mal- 
practice on  the  part  of  the  elevator,  and  can 
save  the  elevator  charges  amounting  to  about 
$17  per  car.  On  the  other  hand  he  has  to  se- 
cure the  car,  make  his  own  arrangements  for 
selling  the  grain  and  load  the  gram  into  the 
car  with  his  own  labor.  In  spite  of  these  dis- 
advantages as  compared  with  the  elevators,  the 
loading  platforms  are  popular,  and  applications 
for  new  and  larger  ones  are  constantly  being 
made.  There  are  at  present  about  1,600  ot 
these  platforms,  and  Dr.  Uagill,  when  chair- 
man of  the  Board  of  Grain  Commissioners, 
in  a  report  on  grain  inspection  in  Canada. 
estimated  that  the  proportion  of  grain  loaded 
over   platforms   was   about    one-third    of    the 

With  regard  to  the  elevators  themselves  it 
will  be  understood  that  the  name  refers  origi- 
nally to  the  mechanical  devices  employed  for 
hoisting  grain  in  order  to  store  it  in  bulk.  The 
mechanical  device  most  generally  employed  is 
on  the  endless  chain  and  bucket  principle.  This 
is  applied  for  lifting  the  grain  perpendicularly, 
whilst  belts  called  conveyors  are  also  used  to 
convey  it  horizontally  for  the  purpose  of 
shooting  it  into  different  bins.  But  the  term 
elevator,  whilst  originally  employed  to  desig- 
nate the  machinery  for  hoisting,  has  come  to 
signify  also  the  building  used  for  the  storage 
and  handling  of  grain.  It  is  in  this  sense  that 
the  term  is  employed  for  the  purpose  of  this 

There  are  now  in  Canada  six  different  kinds 
of  grain  elevators.     There  arc  first  what  are 


nd  warehouses  which  receive  grain  for 

Storage  before  inspection  and  which  are  erected 
at  a  railway  station  or  on  railway  lands.  As  a 
general  rule  the  country  elevators  are  owned 
and  operated  by  commercial  companies  or  1^ 
farmers'    co-operative    companies.     What    the 


farmer  takes  his  grain  to  a  country  devator  he 
can  either  sell  the  grain  to  the  operator,  in 
which  case  it  b  called  'street  grain,*  or  he  can 


hire  a  bin  in  the  elevator  to  keep  his  grain  dis- 
tinct from  all  other  grain,  in  which  case  it  it 
called  'special  binned  grain,"  or  he  can  store 
it  with  other  ^ain  of  the  same  grade.  If  he 
stores  the  gram  either  in  a  special  or  general 
bin,  he  arranges  with  the  railway  com^ny  for  . 
a  car,  and  the  elevator  loads  the  grain  into  the 
car  to  hb  order.  When  the  grain  is  loaded  he 
can  either  sell  it  on  the  spot  as  track  ^in  or 
send  it  forward  consigned  on  commission.  In 
1916  the  total  number  of  country  elevators  and 
warehouses  was  3.014  with  an  aggregate  storage 
capadty  of  94^22,000  bushels. 

Next  in  order  come  the  large  tenninal  ele- 


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CANADA— THE  GRAIN  TRADE  (41) 


vUors,  which  are  situated  at  Fort  William  and 

Port  Arthur,  the  twin  cities  at  the  head  of 
Lake  Superior,  to  which  the  country  elevators 
ttre    tributary,    and    from   which   the    grain    is 


States.  These  elevators  are  called  "terminal" 
not  because  Aey  arc  situated  at  the  railway 
termini,  but  because  the  inspection  of  western 
grain  ends  at  them.  Of  uiese  terminal  ele- 
vators at  Fort  William  and  Port  Arthur  there 
are    13    with    a    total    capadly    of    40^35,000 

Other  descriptions  of  elevators  include  22 
■public  elevators*  with  a  capacity  of  29^50,000 
bushels,  19  'hospital  elevators*  with  a.  capacity 
of  2,560,000  bushels  for  the  cleaning  or  other 
treatment  of  rejected  or  damaged  grains  and 
three  milling  elevators  with  a  capacity  of 
1,700,000  busflels  used  in  connection  with  the 
manufacture  of  grain  products  in  the  western 
inspection  division.  Under  powers  conferred  by 
the  Canada  Grain  Act,  and  partly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  meeting  a  contemplatea  western  ex- 
ginsion  of  trafle  through  tne  opening  of  the 
anama  Canal,  the  Dominion  government  has 
erected  and  is  operating  four  new  interior  ter- 
minal elevators.  These  are  situated  at  Port 
Arthur,  Saskatoon,  Moosejaw  and  Calrary,  and 
have  an  aggregate  capacity  of  9,S00,00O  bush- 
els. At  Vancouver,  also,  a  public  or  transfer 
elevator,  with  a  capacity  of  1,250,000  bushels, 
has  been  erected  by  the  government  to  facili- 
tate the  loading  of^  grain  in  ocean  steamships. 
Altogether  the  Dominion  government  has  li- 
censed 3,078  grain  elevators  and  warehouses 
with  an  aggregate  storage  capacity  of  180,988,- 
000  bushels.  In  1901  the  licensed  grain  eleva- 
tors in  Canada  numbered  523  with  a  total  stor- 
age capacity  of  18,329,352  bushels;  so  that  the 
difference  between  these  figures  and  those  just 
quoted  for  1916  shows  how  great  has  been  the 
development  of  the  trade  since  the  beginning  of 
the  20th  century. 

Inspection  tnd  Oradiog.— Under  the 
Canada  Grain  Act  all  Canadian  grain  shipped 
in  car  load  lotr  or  car^goes  from  elevators  is 
subject  to  gjovemment  inspection  and  grading. 
ana  the  gram  is  sold  both  at  home  ana  abroad 
on  the  inspection  certiEcate  entirely  by  grade 
and  not  by  sample.  As  each  car  arrives  at  an 
inspection  point  it  is  sampled  and  graded  by 
qualified  samplers  and  inspectors  appointed 
nnder  the  act  When  the  grain  arrives  at  the 
terminal  elevators  it  is  weighed,  cleaned  and 
binned  according  to  grade  under  the  direct  su- 
pervision of  the  inspectors,  and  a  warehouse 
receipt  is  issued  by  the  elevator  operator  to  the 
owner  of  the  grain.  When  the  grain  leaves  the 
terminal  elevator  in  car  or  cargo  Iota  it  is  again 
weighed  and  inspected,  and  it  must  be  graded 
out  as  graded  in;  that  is,  if  it  was  received 
into  the  terminal  elevator  as  'No.  1,"  grain 
of  equal  quality  must  be  shipped  out  Thus 
.  tlic  identity  of  the  grade  of  exported  grain  is 
carefully  preserved  through  every  stage  of 
movement.  There  are  a  number  of  ins^tion 
points ;  but  for  grain  going  west  the  princi]pal 
inspection  point  is  Calgary.     Duluth  is  the  in- 

rtion  point  for  bonded  grain  goin^  through 
United  States.  Winnipeg  is  the  inspection 
point  for  all  eastward  hound  grain  and  Fort 
William  and  PoH  Arthur  are  the  points  of  in- 


qwction  for  grain  Itavia^'  tbe  terminal  ofeva- 

Under  tbe  act  Canadian  grain  is  divided  into 
five  general  classes,  vit,  "Statutory  grade,' 
■Commercial  grade,*  'Rejected,*  'Condetnncd,* 
and  "No  grade.*  The  statutory  grade  means 
for  each  grain  the  hi^st  grades,  as  defined 
in  the  act.  There  are  four  of  these  grades  for 
western  spring  wheat,  vie.  No.  1  Hard  and 
Nos.  1,  2  and  3  Northern,  The  act  prescribes 
that  the  first  two  of  these  grades  shall  be 
'sound  and  well  deaned,  weighing  not  less  than 
60  pounds  to  the  bushel  and  composed  of  at 
least  75  per  cent  for  No.  1  Hard  and  60  per 
cent  No.  1  Northern  of  hard  Red  Fife  wheat.* 
No.  2  Northern  must  be  "sound  and  reasonably 
clean,  of  good  milling  qualities  and  fit  for 
wareuousing,  weighing  not  less  than  58  pounds 
to  the  bushel  ana  composed  of  at  least  45  per 
cent  of  hard  Red  Fife  wheat."  No.  3  North- 
em  comprises  grain  not  good  enough  for  No.  2 
that  is  graded  No.  3  at  the  discretion  of  the  in- 
spector.' A  variety  of  other  "statutory  grades* 
are  established  under  tbe  act  for  spring  wheat, 
goose  wheat,  winter  wheat,  Indian  corn,  oats, 
rye,  barley,  peas,  buckwheat  and  flax,  with 
distinctions  for  grain  grown  in  the  West,  In 
addition  to  these  statutory  grades,  other  grades 
are  established  each  year  under  the  autnorily 
of  the  act  by  the  Standards  Board  consisting 
of  experts  appointed  by  the  Grain  Commission- 
ers to  establish  'commercial  grades'  in  addi- 
tion to  the  statutory  grades.  "Hiese  extra  com- 
mercial grades  vary  with  the  season,  whilst  the 
statutory  grades  remain  invariable.  The  ef- 
fect of  these  arrangements  is  that  there  mav  be 


graded,  'rejected  grain'  means  all  grain  that  is  | 

unsound,  musty,  dirty,  smutty  or  sprouted  or 
that  contains  a  large  admixture  of  other  kinds 
of  grain,  seeds  or  wild  oats  or  that  from  any  I 

other  cause  is  unfit  to  be  classed  under  any 
of  the  recognized  grades.  'Condemned  graii^ 
means  alt  grain  that  is  in  a  heating  condition 
or  is  badly  binbumt,  whatever  grade  it  might 
otherwise  "be,  and  'No  grade*  means  all  good 
grain  that  has  an  excessive  moisture,  being 
tou^  damp  or  wet,  or  otherwise  unfit  for 
warehousing. 

All  grain  in  Canada  is  sold,  unless  otherwise 
contracted  for,  liiy  certain  legal  weights  per 
bushel.  These  were  originally  fixed  by  an  act 
of  the  Dominion  Parliament  passed  in  1879. 
At  the  present  time  the  legal  weights  per 
bushel  for  the  principal  grains  are  as  follows: 
Wheat  60  pounds,  i^e  36  pounds,  barley  48 
pounds,  oats  34  pounds,  Indian  com  56  pounds. 

Export!  of  Canadian  Grain.— Alt houf^ 
the  acreage  and  production  of  wheat  and  oats, 
the  two  principal  grain  cro^  of  Canada,  are 
similar  in  extent  and  quantity,  it  is  only  the 
wheat  that  figures  very  largely  in  the  export 
returns.  Oats  are  nsed  mainly  for  the  home 
feeding  of  live  stock,  and  the  surplus  for  ex- 
port is  not  considefaUe  except  after  very  abun- 
dant seasons.  The  following  table  shows  for 
each  of  the  five  years  ended  31  Uarcb  1916  the 
quantity  and  value  of  the  principal  grains  ex- 

girted  to  the  United  Kin^om,  to  the  United 
tato  and  to  other  remaining  countries; 


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CANADA -'HiNBltALS  (42) 


To 

To 

To 

Umnd 

United 

Total 

amdYkak 

Suta 

Kmiom 

mnt  ind 

B«*dj 

Bu,lul, 

BHihUa 

BtLshdi 

i,2es,34; 

71.061.771 

9.174,   OS 

81,602,618 

11.795.   36 

113,690.373 

191*:::; 

yieulio! 

ui.3M'.i*; 

13 .570     33 

WIS.... 

4,U3.31fi 

78.679,78) 

11.399.483 
19,498.    74 

941611^97 

187 ,079, 7*3 

RF*! 

IMl 

'       11.670 

«( 

— isisi 

iii:436 

Wis:-::: 

t4«i(H: 

B7,'l8 

30,085 

426, 437 

1*3, »83 

«4.4C» 

19  l'  . , 

911. 7S7 

119,943 

1.061.667 

19  3... . 

'S.SS6,09( 

126, 604 

6.4ISfi.975 

19  4 

1.5»4:ui 

13,031.369 

WIS..,. 

JMllOl 

'SlsSiis'i 

811  ;w8 

5,576,646 

-s:;:;: 

306, 5M 

4,913,317 

646.183 

S.9M,373 

203, 5«0 

7,014.64S 

S.SSO,   75 

19  3    ... 

l.Tie.SM 

7,»J,0M 

i;*S8;97( 

10,478.    54 

10  4,.. 

1S,0»,12i 

13.903,5* 

54,996.664 

,|lr 

i;364;4J9 

17;5B7;47( 

7] 83*1373 

m;816;  » 

901. SOI 

•M.49I 

1,50*.  JIB 

7.S«l,0O4| 

2t,',3Si 

ID.113.«03 

19  4:::: 

ID,164,53«i 

10.647,317 

19S   ... 

7006  149 

■o7s;jii 

7,6S9.S13 

1,930,391 

13.931 

1,944.543 

Valdis 

Wbj««d 

■1^ 

tt ,053.437 

(68.409,868 

19,159,311 

trs. 614,627 

1913:::: 

■  487.716 

87,410.634 

11.671,039 

6,977.369 

118.181.074 

13.041,853 

1381300,' 196 

4,456,472 

81,264,737 

11.183,265 

88,904,494 

10,101,339 

1T!.S20.4H 

13.040,717 

208,661,489 

Rj«i 

1911 

7,6U 

li'Sa 

60 

"ulJos 

641 393 

a 

7S:88g 

lulss 

27,476 

if::: 

361,654 

i»:oi7 

ST. 346 

SS6|017 

588.036 

607,933 

138,341 

1. 814.300 

440, 46( 

96,010 

914:::: 

190.449 

913    ... 

loslui 

i;5io:o8H 

215.843 

3.219,966 

3W;5J) 

3.77S.J41 

(w'*'  *  ■ 

9U 

90,910 

iS:!S. 

913.-,, 

739,357 

6,80i:4K 

s:64«:9ji 

931: 49! 

13,370.149 

ois:::: 

4.067 .54C 

i::S:as 

916 

'63i:74i 

5|398:9« 

P1»*«t: 

1.801,894 

l,OCM,SSa 

34,4601 

1.MI.M2 

ti,au,i8< 

4,53   ,360 

36,35^ 

16,448.899 
24.816,3^3 

10,48   ,556 

wis::" 

9:410:26; 

92   ,346 

iiIosh 

1.916.411 

4   ,311 

i;973;mi 

If  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  the  bulk 
of  the  exports  of  both  wheat  and  oats  goes  to 
the  United  Kingdom.  In  the  case  of  wheat 
the  percentage  proportions  for  the  last  fiscal 
ye»r  were  for  quantities  85  per  cent  to  the  Uni- 
ted IGngdotn,  5  per  cent  to  the  United  Stafts 
and  10  per  cent  to  remaining  countries.  Tn 
Ontario  and  Quebec,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  thv 
Atlantic  provinces,  there  is  a  large  produc- 
tion of  all  kinds  of  grain,  a  eonsidernble  pro- 
portion of  which  enters  into  commerce,  but  of 
which  very  little  is  available  for  export  from 
Canada. 


.  It  is  e^niated  that  of  wheat  Canada  n^ 
quires  annually  for  home  consumption  aboiit 
96,D(»,000  bushels,  of  which  18,000,000  busheh 
or  one^half  represents  food  for  the  populatioh 
of  eight  millions,  and  48,00(^000  bushels^  ait 
either  -used  for  seed  or  are  grain  of  inferior 
qualities  kept  on  the  farm  for  the  feeding  at 
hve  stock.    Follc'wihg  the  great  ii '     ' 


mother  country,  havc'  been  rapidly  e 
and  have,  reached  in  recent  years  a  total  equivsi- 
lent  to  about  144,000,001}  bnshels.  or  about  dS 
per  cent  of  the  tojal  British  imports  of  wheat 
and  flour.  After  the  season  of  1915,  wheh 
high  tide  was  reaicherl  W  the  most  ri)undaiit 
harvest  ever  reaped  in  Canada,  the  Canadian 
exports  of  wheat  (ischuling  flour)  for  the  crop 


year    ended.   31    Aug.    19r6    were    289,794,1^ 
bushels. 

EkMlST  H.  GoWrey,  F.S.S., 
Editor,  CtHtux  imd  StatisHcs  Office,  OUauia. 
42.  MIHBRALS.  From  a  country  so 
vast  an4  of  .such  varied  geological  structure  aS 
Canada  one  expects  a  wide  range  of  mineral 
deposits,  and  the  expectation  is  not  disappointed, 
for  already  most  of  the  minerals  known  to  ■exist 
elsewhere  have  been  found  in  the  Dominion, 
and  often  in  important  deposits,  though  only 
its  southern  fringe  has  been  explored.  How- 
ever, up  to  the  presenl.  Canada's  mineral  pro^ 
dnction  jnust  be  lookea  on  as  at  the  stage  of 

fromise  rather  than  performance,  except  In  B 
ew  substances  where  nature  has  given  her  the 
lead.  For  example,  the  world's  supply  of  as- 
bestos comes  from  the  province  of  Quebec,  and 
more  than  three-quarters  of  its  supply  of  nickel 
is  obtained  from  mines  in  Ontano,  while  rich 
placer  mines  have  produced  lai^ely  in  the  . 
Yukon,  and  -Cobalt  supplies  the  needs  of  thfe 
world  for  that  metal  and  has  attained  a  great 
place  in  silver  production.  Canada  is  ^ck- 
ward  in  the  production  of  iron  and  steel,  basic 
factors  in  the  development  of  a  countnr,  and 
Stands  relatively  low  as  a  iiroducer  of  coaL 
though  the  fact  that  the  only  deposits  of  good 
coal_  on  tide-water  in  America,  both  on  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific,  are  CanatUan,  is  a  fact  of 
much  imjKirtance  which  has  produced  great 
metallurgical  industries  in  Nova  Scotia, 

Until  recently  the  exploitation  of  Canadian 
mineral  resources  has  been  largely  due  to  for- 
eigners, especially  Americans ;  but  CanadiDD 
and  British  capital  are  now  turning  hi  this  di- 

In  1913,  the  year  of  greatest  output,  the 
total  value  of  the  mineral  products  of  Canada 
-was  $145,634,812,  about  $18.75  for  each  inhabit- 
ant, as  compared  -with  $24,50  per  capita  in  tbC 
United  States,  where  the  total  reached  E,44Sjr 
805,017  in  the  same  year.  The  area  of  Canada 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  United  States  and 
in  the  jwrts  best  explored  its  mineral  re- 
sources givtf  promise  of  equalling  in  value  those 
of  corresponding  States  of  the  Union  1  so  that 
an  immense  expansion  in  mining  is  to  be 
looked  for  in  the  next  generation. 

The  mineral  production  of  Canada  Is  vety 
unequally  distributed  among  the  provinces,  On- 
tario coming  first  with  nearly  n  per  cent  tji 
the  whole,  followed  by  British  Columbia  widt 
21  per  cent  and  Nova  Scotia  with  13  per  cent 
aiw  the  other  provinces  with  smaller  perc«rrl- 
ages.    It  ia  intetestii^  to  note  that  Ontario,  on^ 


iglc 


440 


CANADA  — HIHBRAI^  (42) 


of  the  oldest  and  presumably  beat  known  of 
the  provinces,  has  oad  important  mineral  dis- 
coveries in  recent  years  increasing  its  output 
threefold  in  the  last  decade.  Of  tne  Uaritune 
provinces  of  eastern  Canada  only  Nova  Scotia 
can  be  described  as  a  mining  region,  gold  and 
coal  having  been  produced  there  tor  nearly 
half  a  century.  Quebec  is  not  of  great  import- 
ance except  for  its  asbestos  mines.  Ontario 
produces  a  variety  of  minerals,  nickel,  silver 
and  gold  being  foremost,  while  British  Colum- 
bia provides  sold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc  and 
coal,  and  ihe  Yukon  gold. 

Following  the  usual  classification,  the  min- 
erals of  Canada  may  be  taken  up  under  three 
beads,  metals,  non-metallic  minerals  and  struc- 
tural materials. 


Ores  of  IS  metals  have  been  mined  in  Can- 


palladium,  platinum,  silver,  tungsten  and  zinc, 
and  minerab  containing  a  number  of  other 
metals  have  been  found,  though  they  have  not 
yet  been  mined.  Only  eight  of  these  metals 
— c  prominent  economically,  ^Id,  silver,  nickel. 


Gold. —  The  gold  areas  of  Canada  are  wide- 
spread but  the  production  has  been  very  fluctu- 
ating the  value  in  recent  years  varying  from 
*907,601  (in  1892)  to  $27,908,153  (in  19«l)  and 
standing  at  $15,983,007  in  1915.  In  1900  Canada 
was  third  in  rank  as  a  producer  of  gold,  being 
surpassed  by  the  United  States  and  Australia 
only;  but  has  dropped  to  the  fifth  place  unce 
then,  yielding  to  South  Africa  and  Russia. 
Three  provinces  and  one  territory  are  gold  pro- 
ducers at  present.  Nova  Scotia  has  carried  on 
quart!  mining,  on  *sadd1e  reefs*  like  those  of 
the  famous  Bendigo  re(pon  in  Australia,  for 
more  than  50  years,  but  has  seldom  exceeded 
$500,000  per  annum,  the  value  falling  to  $137,- 
178  in  1915.  Ontario  also  produces  gold 
from  quart!  mines^  but  until  recently  only  in 
small  amounts.  Since  the  opening;  up  of  the 
important  Porcupine  gold  region  in  1912  the 
output  has  rapidly  increased,  reaching  $8,386,956 
in  1915.  The  Porcupine  district  is  now  the  most 
productive  in  the  Dominion.  Before  the  sudden 
rise  of  the  Klondike,  British  Columbia  was  the 
greatest  gold  region  of  Canada,  its  history  be- 
mnning  with  the  times  of  wild  excitement  in 
ue  sixties,  when  thousands  of  miners  from 
CaJifomia  swarmed  into  tbe  rich  placers  of  the 
Eraser  and  Columbia  rivers  and  washed  out 
millions  of  dollars  worth,  reaching  the  climax 
of  $3,913,563  in  1861  The  easily  available 
placers  were  gradually  exhausted,  the  value 
falling  in  1893  to  $379,535,  a  little  less  than  the 
output  of  Nova  Scotia  in  the  same  year ;  but 
the  production  of  lode  gold,  especially  from  the 
smelting  ores  of  Rossland  on  the  southern  edge 
of  the  province,  once  more  placed  British  Co- 
lumbia  in  the  first  rank.  In  1908  the  yield 
was  $9,529,880,  of  which  $3,600,000  came  from 
placer  mines,  mostly  in  the  Cariboo  and  Atlin 
districts  in  the  north,  the  rest  from  smelting 
ores  and  a  few  quartz  mines  in  the  south;  but 
this  has  fallen  o^  to  $5,628,982. 

The  prairies  furnished  a  small  amount  of 
placer  ^otd  from  bars  on  the  Saskatchewan  and 
other  nvers  for  a  number  of  years,  but  it  was 


not  until  the  working  of  the  Klondike  placers 
in  1897  that  gold  mimng  assumed  importance  in 
the  north.  This  region,  in  lal.  64°,  500  miles 
below  the  headwaters  of  the  great  Yukon 
River,  was  unique  as  a  placer  mining  country, 
reminding  one  of  the  famous  placers  of  Cab- 
fomia  and  Australia,  but  surpassing  them  in 
difficulty  of  access  and  of  working  conditions, 
as  well  as  in  richness.  For  its  length  Eldorado 
Creel^  a  tributary  of  Bonanza  Creek,  was  the 
most  productive  ever  mined,  but  its  gravels  are 
nearly  worked  out,  and  the  yield  of  gold, 
though  still  great  for  so  small  a  region  as  tbe 
Klondike,  which  is  about  40  miles  sijuare,  has 
fallen  since  1900,  when  it  was  estimated  at 
$22,275,000,  to  $4,755,721  in  1915.  The  gold- 
bearing  gravels  were  perpetually  frozen  and 
usually  buried  under  several  feet  of  frozen 
muck,  so  that  the  ground  had  to  be  thawed 
before  it  could  be  worked  At  first  this  was 
done  by  building  fires,  but  later  steam  delivered 
from  steel  pipes  driven  into  the  ground  was 
employed,  and  it  was  found,  also,  tliat  when 
stripped  of  moss  the  warm  summer^s  sun  thaws 
layer  after  layer, 

off  in  the  ordinary  way.         ,     _     . 

have  now  been  worked,  but  dre<^es  and  hy- 
drauUc  plants  are  coveriiw  the  ground  again 
with  good  results.  In  I9irthese  methods  pro- 
duced the  amount  mentioned  above,  but  a 
gradoal   falUng   off   may   be  expected  in   the 

Silver. —  For  many  years  Ontario  was  the 
chief  province  for  silver,  the  mine  at  Silver 
Islet  near  Thunder  Bay  on  the  north  shore  of 
Lake  Superior  being  credited  with  a  total  out- 
put of  $3,250,000.  while  several  other  mines  to 
the  west  of  Thunder  Bay  were  also  worked. 
For  a  while  British  Columbia  took  the  lead  in 
the  production  of  silver,  beginning  in  1892,  and 
culminating  in  1897  with  an  output  of  over 
$3,000,000.  In  1897.  Ontario  produced  only  5.000 
ounces,  worth  about  $3,000,  but  from  that  date 
onward  there  was  a  yearly  increase  in  her  out- 
put, until  in  1911  it  was  30,540,754  ounces,  valued 
at  $16,279,443.  British  Columbia's  production 
was  only  1887,147  ounces  in  the  same  year. 
Cobelt  lus  been  dechning  in  its  silver  prcyduc- 
tion  since  1911,  the  amount  in  1915  bang  23.- 
568.147  ounces,  while  British  Columbia's  pro- 
duction rose  to  3.62^727  ounces. 

Nickel. —  This  metal  has  become  of  prac- 
tical value  only  since  1889  and  methods  of 
reducing  its  ores  are  still  somewhat  in  the 
experimental  stage.  The  world's  supply  comes 
almost  entirely  from  two  regions,  the  Sudbuiy 
district  in  northern  Ontario  and  the  Freacb 
penal  colony  of  New  Caledonia.  In  early  years 
New  Caledonia  was  somewhat  in  advance,  bnt 
in  1903  Sudbury  passed  it  in  production  and 
seems  likely  to  hold  its  position  in  the  future. 
The  mines  are  all  situated  round  the  edge  of  a 
basin-shaped  sheet  of  eruptive  rock  37  miles 
long  and  15  broad,  and  among  them  tbe  Creigb- 
ton  is  the  greatest  nickel  mine  in  the  world, 
supplying  more  than  half  of  tbe  total  output 
About  half  as  much  copper  as  nickel  is  pro- 
duced in  these  mines  and  also  small  amounts 
of  gold,  palladium  and  platinum,  the  last  metal 
occurring  in  the  rare  arsenide  sperryli^,  first 
found  in  the  district  In  1915  matte  smelted 
from  the  roasted  ore  contained  34.000  tons  of 
"  f  the  Cana- 
Uond  Com- 


CANADA— UINSRAL8  (42) 


s  of  some  importance,  also. 

._  . jkel  in  the  matte  was  pi 

at  $10,352,344,  while  the  refined  metal  was 
mated  to  be  worth  $20,423,348.  The  demand 
for  nickel  steel  for  war  purposes  has  greatly 
helped  the  industry. 

Copper. —  Copper  has  been  mined  in  New- 
foundland, Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Que- 
bec; Oatario  and  British  Columbia,  but  only 
the  last  two  provinces  are  importani  producers. 
The  copper  of  Quebec  is  a  by-product  of  the 
iron  pyntes  of  the  Eastern  Townships;  and 
most  of  the  copper  from  Ontario  is,  as  miowd 
above,  produced  as  an  accompaniment  of  the 
Sudbury  nickel  ores,  though  mines  of  copper 
alone  are  worked  on  a  small  scale  at  Massey  in 
western  Ontario,  not  far  from  the  once  well- 
known  Bruce  mines,  north  of  Lake  Huron, 
which  were  prosperous  half  a  century  ago  but 
are  no  longer  tn  operatiotL  British  Columbia 
sttpplies  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  copper 
mined  in  Canada,  chiefly  from  the  gof<l-copper 
ores  of    the   Rossland   region,   the   large  low 

Kde  deposits  of  the  boundary  districts  and  of 
Padnc  Coast  of  the  province,  while  a  small 
amount  comes  from  the  White  Horse  district 
of  Yukon  territory.  The  total  production  of 
copper  in  the  Dommion  in  1915  was  51,306  tons, 
valued  at  $17,726,307.  The  demand  for  copper 
for  war  purposes  has  greatly  increased  the 
production. 

Le&d. —  Almost  the  whole  of  the  lead  mined 
in  Canada  comes  from  the  silver-lead  ores  of 
southern  British  Columbia,  which  began  to  be 
opened  up  extensively  in  1893  and  furnished 
31,500  tons  in  1900.  Since  then  there  have  been 
great  fluctuations  in  the  amount  mined,  which 
was  22,184  tons  in  1915,  the  production  depend- 
ing largely  on  the  prosperity  of  the  silver  min- 
ing industry,  since  the  two  metals  occur  to- 
gether. 

Cobalt— The  whole  of  the  cobalt  produced 
in  Canada,  and  practically  all  that  is  used  in 
the  world,  comes  from  the  silver  mines  of 
Cobalt  in  northern  Ontario,  where  the  metal 
occurs  in  arsenides,  especially  smaltite.  Though 
the  metal  is  better  suited  for  plating  than  niclrel, 
very  little  is  employed  in  this  way.  Its  chief 
use  is  in  the  preparation  of  cobalt  blue  and  in 
giving  a  blue  color  to  glass  or  porcelain.  In 
1914  there  was  a  production  of  8/1,891  pounds 
of  cobalt,  mostly  disposed  of  as  the  oxide,  and 
the  value  is  estimated  at  about  $550,000, 

Zinc— Zinc  ores,  chiefly  blende,  have  been 
mined  in  Quebec,  Ontario  and  British  Colum- 
bia, and  have  been  shipped  to  the  United  States 
or  to  Belgium  for  treatment,  but  the  recent  high 
price  of  line,  due  to  the  European  War,  has 
encouraged  two  companies,  one  at  Welland, 
Ontario,  the  other  at  Trail,  B,  C,  to  produce 
the  metal  from  its  ores.  In  1915  15,553  tons  of 
ore  were  reported,  mainly  from  British  Colum- 
bia, and  the  value  is  given  as  $636,204. 

Iron, —  In  regard  to  the  most  important  of 
all  metals,  iron,  Canada  is  backward,  larcely 
from  the  fact  that  the  ore  deposits  and  the  fuel 
for  treating  them  are  generally  widely  sun- 
dered. Nova  Scotia,  Quebec  and  Ontario  have 
been  prodncers  of  iron  and  steel,  the  first  prov- 
ince having  the  great  advantage  of  supplies  of 
colring  coal  on  the  seaboard,  at  Sydney  in  Cape 
Breton  Island  and  other  points,  so  that  two 
large  iron  and  iteel  plants   are  in  operation 


Ml 

there.  Most  oE  the  ore  smelted  is,  however,  in 
a  sense  foreign,  coming  from  Bell  Island,  off  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland.  The  province  of  Que- 
bec has  for  generations  smelted  a  small  amount 
of  bog  iron  ore  in  charcoal  furnaces  near 
Three  Rivers,  the  product  being  of  high  grade 
and  used  for  spcaal  purposes,  but  since  1912 
these  furnaces  have  been  shut  down.  Char- 
coal iron  furnaces  were  operated  on  a  small 
scale  in  different  parts  of  Ontarick  also,  from 
50  to  100  years  ago,  but  when  railways  began 
to  bring  in  British  iron  the  industry  ceased. 
Within  the  last  few  years  large  ftumaces  using 
American  fuel  and  in  part  Ajmerican  ore  have 
sjirung  up  at  Hamilton,  Midland  and  the  Sault 
Sainte  Marie. 

Deposits  containing  millions  of  tons  of  fair 

Sade  ore  have  been  found  in  Hutton  township, 
ichipicoton  and  other  points  in  northern' 
Ontario  in  rocks  similar  to  those  of  the  great 
iron  regions  of  Michigan  and  Minnesota,  so 
that  iron  production  is  likely  to  increase  in  the 
future.  British  Columbia  also  possesses  large 
deposits  of  iron  ore  and  excellent  coldng  coal^ 
so  that  an  iron  industry  like  that  of  Nova 
Scotia  may  be  expected  to  grow  up  as  the 
province  becomes  more  populous.  The  amount 
of  pig  iron  smelted  in  Canada  in  1915  was  913,- 
719  tons,  of  which  Ontario  produced  more  than 
half,  but  of  this  amdunt  only  158,598  tons 
came  from  Canadian  ore,  the  rest  coming  from 
American  or  Newfoundland  ore.  The  amount 
of  steel  produced  was  1,020,335  tons. 

PUtimun  and  Palladiiun.— Among  the 
rarer  and  more  precious  metals  it  is  perhaps 
worth  while  to  mention  platinum,  which  has 
been  obtained  from  placers  in  the  Similkameen 
region,  B.  C,  and  which  occurs  also  in  the  form 
of  the  arsenide,  sperrylite,  in  the  Sudbury  nickel 
ores.  A  few  hundred  ounces  of  the  metal  have 
been  obtained  annually  as  residues  after  the 
separation  of  the  nickel  and  copper  in  the  Bes- 
semer matte  from  Sudbur}-.  The  way  in  which 
palladium  occurs  in  the  nickel  ore  is  unknown, 
but  it  is  obtained  in  larger  amounts  than  the 
platinum, 

NON-HETALUC   HIKEKALS. 

Twenty-two  non-metallic  minerals  are  re- 
ported in  the  statistics  for  1915,  and  several 
others  occur  in  lists  of  former  years,  but  atten- 
tion may  be  confined  to  a  few  of  the  more 
important  ones,  beginning  with  the  mineral 
fuels. 

CoaL— In  1915  the  coal  mined  tn  the  Do- 
minion amounted  to  13,209,371  tons,  valued  at 
$31,957,757.  Of  this  Nova  Scotia  supplied 
7,429,888  tons,  Alberu  3,320,431,  British  Colum- 
Ka  2.089,966,  New  Brunswick  236,940,  Saskat- 
chewan 122,422,  and  the  Yukon  territory  9,724, 
The  coal  supply  of   the  great  manufacturing 

C evince  of  Ontario  comes  entirely  from  the 
nited  States,  and  much  of  that  used  in  Quebec 
is  obtained  from  the  same  source ;  but  as  a  small 
offset  Nova  Scotia  exports  coal  to  the  New 
England  States,  and  British  Columbia  to  the 
Western  States,  the  total  amount  being  1,766,- 
543  tons.  The  coal  of  Nova  Scotia  is  bitu- 
minous and  of  Carboniferous  Age ;  most  of  the 
coal  mined  in  Alberta  and  British  Columbia  is 
bituminous,  also,  but  of  Cretaceous  Age.  A 
small  amount  of  coal  approaching  anthracite 
Is  mined  in  Bow  Pass,  where  seams  of  Creta- 
ceous coal  have  been  nipped  in  during  mouo- 


:,  Google 


CANADA— PISHSfilBS  <43) 


tain  building;  and  a  considerable  tonnage  of 
lignitic  coal  and  of  Ugnite  of  poorer  quality 
is  mined  at  numerous  points  on  the  prairies. 
In  general  the  older  the  de^sits  and  tne  more 
they  have  been  disturbed  in  the  rise  of  the 
foothills,  and  especially  of  the  mountains,  the 
better  is  the  quality  of  the  coal. 

Excellent  colce  is  made  from  the  coal  of 
Cape  Breton  Island,  Nova  Scoba,  and  of  the 
Crows  Nest  region  of  Alberta  and  British 
Columbia,  and  also  of  Nanaimo  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  the  amount  in  1915  being  8S4,555  tons. 

Though  Canada  is  surpassed  in  the  extent  of 
its  coal  deposits  b^  only  two  or  three  countries 
in  the  world,  their  distribution,  mainly  in  the 
foothills  and  mountains  of  the  West,  leaves  the 
populous  central  provinces  and  die  largest 
dues  mainly  without  a  native  coal  supply. 

Petroletim  and  Natural  Qas.~At  present 
Ontario  is  practically  the  only  producer  of 
petroleum,  which  comes  from  a  small  area  in 
Its  southwestern  peninsula.  Crude  oil  and  its 
products  to  the  extent  of  215,464  barrels  valued 
at  $300,572  are  reported  in  1915,  but  the  supply 
is  slowly  diminishing  and  before  long  will  be 
exhausted  unless  other  pools  are  struck.  Petro- 
leimi  is  known  from  Gaspe  in  Quebec  and  from 
southern  Alberta,  and  great  stretches  of  'tar 
sands*  along  the  Saskatchewan  and  Athabasca 
suggest  oil  deposits,  though  productive  wells 
have  not  been  sunk  in  these  regions.  See  Petdo- 
LEUU  iJfDusTBY,  The. 

Natural  gas  has  been  exploited  in  Essex  and 
Welland  counties  of  southwestern  Ontario,  In 
I91S  the  wells  of  Ontario  furnished  gas  to  the 
value  of  $2,202,523.  Natural  gas  is  obtained 
on  a  large  scale  in  Alberta,  especially  near 
Medicine  Hat  and  between  it  and  Calgary,  where 
the  production  is  valued  at  $1,037,919;  and  on 
a  much  smaller  scale  in  New  Brunswick. 

In  addition  to  the  mineral  fuels  just  men- 
tioned Canada  has  large  areas  of  bituminous 
shale  from  which  oil  may  be  distilled  and  of 
peat  boE  from  which  fuel  may  be  obtained  when 
the  need  arises. 

MlNOa  ECONOMIC  IIINSBALS. 

After  the  fuels  come  several  less  important 
minerals,  asbestos  being  the  chief  one,  with  an 
output  of  113J1S  tons  in  1915,  valued  at 
¥3,491,450.  The  whole  product,  which  means 
practically  the  world's  supply,  comes  from  a  few 
mines  in  serpentine  rocks  in  the  Eastern  Town- 
ships of  Quebec.  The  value  of  this  beautiful 
silky-fibred  mineral  depends  on  the  fact  that  it 
is  an  incombustible  material  which  can  be  spun 
or  woven  or  felted  together  into  non-conducting 
sheets.  Next  in  vsuue  is  pyrites,  of  which 
296,910  tons  were  mined  in  the  provinces  of 
Quebec  and  Ontario,  having  a' value  of  $1,028,- 
678.  Gypsum,  the  raw  material  of  plaster  of 
paris,  was  quarried  mainly  in  New  Brunswick 
and  Nova  Scotia,  to  the  amount  of  470,335 
tons,  valued  at  $849,928.  Salt  prepared  from 
wells  in  southwestern  Ontario  reached  119,900 
tons  in  weight  and  $600,226  in  value.  In  addt- 
tion  quartz,  chromite,  white  arsenic,  magnesite 
and  graphite  reached  values  of  over  $100,000. 
and  mica,  feldspar,  corundum,  talc  and  ochres 
were  produced  in  smaller  amounts.  The 
corundum  mined  in  Ontario  is  used  only  as  an 
abrasive;  the  gem  varieties,  ruby,  sapphire,  etc., 
have,  so  far,  not  been   found. 


SlSUCniXAL  MAIERIALS. 

Building  stone,  clay  for  brick  maldng  and 
marl  or  limestone  and  clay  for  the  manufacture 
of  cement  are,  of  course,  found  in  all  the 
provinces;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  clay 
products  and  most  of  the  cement  are  manu. 
factured  in  Ontario  and  Quebec  where  the 
demand  for  structural  matenals  is  greatest.  In 
1915  5,681,032  tons  of  Portland  cement  were 
made  with  a  value  of  $6;977,024;  and  clay 
products  were  valued  at  $3,918,20a  Statistics 
of  other  structural  materials  of  importance  are 
given  as  follows;  Lime,  $1,015,878:  ^nd  and 
gravel,  $2,098,683;  sand-lime  brick,  $182,651; 
granit^  $1,634,084;  limeston<v$2,504,731 ;  mar- 
ble and  sandstone,  $365,784.  The  total  value  of 
structural  materials  is  given  aa  $18,712,074. 

tiiMESAL  raoDucnoN. 

The  mineral  productions  of  all  kinds  sum 
op  to  a  value  oi  $138^513,750  in  1915,  repre- 
senting an  advance  of  7.49  per  cent  over  the 
previous  year,  but  a  falling  off  of  $7,121,062 
as  compared  with  that  of  19)3,  the  year  of 
greatest  prosperity.  The  falling  oS  in  1914  was 
due  to  the  geneni  collapse  of  the  worid's  in' 
dustries  because  of  the  war,  and  one  mny  con- 
fidently expect  the  usual  advance  in  ouq>ut 
when  peace  is  restored  and  conditions  became 
normal  again. 

The  following  table,  showing  the  prodoc- 
tion  at  five-year  inlenral^  illustrates  the 
rapidity  of  the  increase  since  statistics  have 
been  kept  by  the  Geological  Surv^ : 

US6  (Bnt  jtaa  id  nadMica) tlO.UI.lU 

i««e ii,su.*N 

IWJ M.QU.OK 

ISM M,«97,01l 

19W *S.23i,Sm 

i9oa as.ni.'ai 

1913 145,fi34,St] 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
mineral  industries  of  Canada  increased  the 
value  of  their  output  more  than  eleven-fold 
in  the  25  years  between  1888  and  1913,  often 
nearly  doubling  in  the  five-year  intervals,  an 
almost  imexampled  advance.  That  the  rate  of 
increase  will  be  as  rapid  in  years  to  come  can 
scarcely  be  expected,  but  so  little  of  the  area 
of  Canada  has  yet  been  carefully  explored  that 
many  important  discoveries  may  be  looked  for 
as  the  great  northern  regions  are  mapped  and 
opened  up. 

Sonrcea  of  InformatioiL— Statistical  in- 
formation aji  to  the  mineral  production  of  the 
country  as  a  whole  may  be  found  in  the  annual 
reports  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 
Department  of  Mines,  compiled  by  John  Mc- 
Leish,  and  in  the  annual  volumes  of  the  Jlfw- 
era!  Industry.  The  mining  departments  of  the 
provinces  of  Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  Ontajio 
and  British  Colimibia  also  publish  annual  re- 
ports  of  much  value  in  which  information  is 
given  as  to  their  special  mining  industries.  The 
statistical  materials  for  this  paper  have  been 
largely  drawn  from  these  sources. 

A.  P.  Coleman, 
Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Toronto. 

43.  FI8HBRIB8.  Among  the  great  indus- 
tries of  Canada  the  fisheries  stand  fifth  in  tbe 
order  of  value.  The  farming  industry  (mainly 
grain  growing)  is  estimated  to  ;yield  $500,000^- 
000  per  aanum ;  the  Itunber  industry  $100,- 
000,000;    Mock    laiaing    110(^000^000;    milling 

Dpt  zed  =y  Google 


CANADA— nSHBSIBS  (43> 


flOS,O0O,O0O,  vhOK  the  fishing  industries  &re 
estifflated  to  produce,  on  the  whole.  $39,000,000 
to  $4(X00O,00O  annually.  The  latest  report  of 
the  Marine  and  Fisheries  Department,  whkh 
give!  the  value  for  1916-17,  places  it  at  $39,- 
208,378,  but  when  account  is  taken  of  the 
■mount  of  fish  consumed  by  wandering  tribes 
of  Indians  and  Eskimo,  with  their  hordes  of 
fish-eating  doss,  as  well  as  the  amotmt  used 
as  food  l^  isolated  settlers,  miners,  prospectors, 
lumberers  and  sportsmen,  and,  above  all,  the 
employees  at  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  posts 
m  (be  remoter  parts  of  northern  Canada,  the 
total  amount  must  be  greatly  in  excess  of  ofit- 
dal  statistics. 

Com^etely  accurate  returns  are  hardly  pos- 
sible, admirable  as  the  Canadian  system  of 
Kthering  statistics  is,  so  admirable  that  the 
e  Prof.  Brown  Goode,  head  of  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission,  dedared  at  a  fisheries 
conference  in  1883  that  *.  .  .  other  countries 
ought  to  study  it  with  a  great  deal  of  care.* 

The  expansion  of  the  Canadian  fisheries 
since  1870  is  suffidently  sbown  by  the  figures 
given  below : 

ISTO t«,S;T.39l  1901 IZ9,7]7.I53 

1»« 11.117,000  IMW. U. 451, 094 

ISSO 11.499.979  1911 39.969.4U 

1890.    11, 714, 903  1913 33.189,461 

1993 10, 086, Ml  19IS... 91.2H.U1 

1B97 U, 183,546  1916 35,Me.70t 

1900 11,587,039  1917 39,108,378 

Number  of  Boatt,  Fiihcrmen,  etc—  Over 
1,300  vessels  (valued  at  $4,961,343)  and  40,105 
boats,  including  12,828  with  gasoline  engmei 
(valued  at  $4329.493),  arc  emjJoyed,  whUc 
Oie  fishing  gear  used,  induding  nets,  lines,  lob- 
ster-traps, etc.,  is  valued  at  over  $5,690,002. 
Certain  branches  of  the  fisheries  have  developed 
in  a  spedal  degree,  such  as  the  salmon  canning 
industry  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  lobster  pock- 
ing on  the  Atlantic  Coast.  The  fonner,  em- 
bracing atiout  80  canneries,  represents  an  in- 
vestment of  about  $3,000,000,  while  the  Atlantic 
lobster  canneries,  in  Quebec  and  the  three  Mari- 
time provinces,  numbering  700,  are  valued  at 
about  $660,000.  Smokehouses,  curing  and  re- 
frigerating establishments,  in  operation,  are 
rtficially  recorded  at  $4,025,371  in  value.  In 
other  words,  a  capital  of  over  $28,000^000  '- 


The  total  number  of  persons  engaged  either 
in  fishing  or  in  handling  fishery  products  in 
Canada  reaches  to  over  9HO0O,  of  whom  70,000 
take  part  in  Atlantic  fishery  enterprises.  On 
the  Padfic  Coast  10,000  fishermen  follow  salmon 
netting,  and  ^000  hands  find  enployment  as 
cannny  workers,  etc.  The  inland  (fresh-water) 
fisheries  engage  a  considerable  number  of  fisher- 
men, over  AWO  hdn^  em^rioyed  in  the  Ontario 
or  Great  Lake  fishenes,  while,  in  Manitoba  and 
the  Northwest  territories,  3,000  or  4,000  men 
take  part  in  the  fishing  operations. 

Seven  Fiafaery  Dlatrkti.—  Seven  territorial 
divisions  may  be  distinguiihcd  in  a  general  sur- 
vey of  the  fisheries  of  the  Dominion,  viz.: 

1.  The  Atlantic  divisiCMi,  from  Grand  Manan 
in  tlie  south  to  die  coast  of  Labrador,  induding 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  (8,000  square  miles)  and  the 
Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  (80,000  square  miles). 
and  cbaracterited  by  deep-sea  and  inshore  fish- 
eries for  cod,  mackerel,  haddock,  halibut,  her- 
ring, hake,  lobsters,  oysters,  seals  and  wUte 
■whaiei  (beluga).    Annual  value,  over$14,00(MX)0. 


2.  The  estuarine  and  inland  waters  of  Que- 
bec and  the  Maritime  provinces,  induding  nd»- 
enes  for  salmon  (by  stake'Uets,  drift-nets  and 
angling)  striped  bass,  smelt,  shad,  gaspereaa 
(alewife) ;  and  in  the  lakes,  ouananidie  or 
land-locked  sabnon,  lake  trout,  togue  or  lunge, 
etc.    Amiual  valoe,  nearly  $2,001^000. 

3.  Great  Lakes  division,  including  Lakes 
Ontario,  Erie,  Huron  and  Superior,  which 
(Canada  shares  with  the  United  States,  the  in- 
ternational boundary  passing  practically  through 
the  centre  of  these  vast  inland  seas,  all  of  which 
finally  empty  into  the  river  Saint  Lawrence. 
"This  complex  system  of  waters,  with  innumer- 
able subsidiary  lakes  and  rivers,  abounds  in 
lake  whitefish  (CoregtrfMi),  great  lake  trout 
(Cristivomer  nomayeuik},  lesser  whitefish  (er- 
roneously called  lake  herring);  sturgeon,  pike- 
perch  (dorei  or  pickerel),  black  bass,  brook 
trout,  mastdnong^  pike  and  numerous  carpoid 
suckers,  and  bearded  catfish.  Annual  value, 
nearly  $3,000,000. 

4.  Manitoba  and  northwestern  division,  in- 
cluding Reewatin,  etc.,  whose  wide  expanses 
of  fresh  water,  such  as  Lake  Winnipeg, 
Great  Bear  Lake  and  Great  Slave  Lake,  yield 
enormous  quantities  of  whitefish,  sturgeoo, 
pike-perch,  tullibee  <a  peculiar  lesser  whitensfa), 

(like,   gold-eye    (a  true    fresh-water  herring), 
arge  river  trout  and  catfish.    Value,  indusive  • 
of  an  extensive  'caviare*  or  sturgeon- roe  in- 
dustry, over  $1,000,000. 

5.  Pacific  Interior  division,  extending  from 
the  Okanagan,  Kootenay  and  Arrow  waters,  in 

the  Yukon  district^  in  the  north, 


miles  east  and  west,  intersected  everywhere  by 
rivers  and  lakes,  and  comprising  limited  fish- 
eries for  lake  trout,  whitefish,  land-locked 
salmon,  river  trout,  ^ayling  and  numerous 
carps  or  suckers,  not  identical,  for  the  most 
part,  with  eastern  spedes.  Annual  value  prob- 
ably not  exceeding  $500,000. 

6.  Padfic  Coast  division,  the  fisheries  of 
which  are  little  developed,  if  we  except  the 
estuarine  and  coastal  saltnop  fisheries.  The 
various  species  of  salmon,  include  the  blue- 
black  or  sockeye,  the  spring  salmon  or  quinnat 
the  coho,  dog-salmon,  humpback  and  a  true 
salmon,  namely  gairdner's  salmon  or  steel-head. 
Skill,  or  black  cod,  oulachan  (candle-fish), 
anchovy,  herring,  sardine,  smelt  and  a  great 
variety  of  other  fishes  abound  which  are  not 
utilijied  to  anv  great  extent.  Shark  dog-fish, 
rat-fish  and  whale  fisheries  exist ;  and  there  arc 
limited  oyster  fisheries.  The  halibut  fishery  is 
of  great  imporiance  and  yields  upward  of 
^,0«),000  annually.  With  the  shipping  fadli- 
ties  provided  by  the  extension  oi  the  Grand 
Trunk  Padfic  to  Prince  Rupert,  in  the  vidnity 
of  which  port  are  located  the  best  fidiing  bank\ 
this  fishery  will   develop  greatly  in  the  near 

7.  Hudson  Bay  and  Peri-Afctic  division, 
from  Ungava  Bay,  Labrador,  to  the  Mackenzie 
Riveh  or  rather  Herschell  Island,  Yukon  dis- 
trict. Whale,  walrus,  sea  trout,  Heam's  salmon 
(a  great  spotted  trout),  the  tnconnu  (resembling 
a  nver  whitefish),  pike,  suckers,  sturgeon  and, 
possibly,  salmon  and  cod  occur  in  these  vast 
northern  waters,  of  which  Hudson  Bay  alone 
exceeds  the  Mediierranean  in  extent  utd  has 


:,  Google 


CANADA— riSHBRIBS  <43) 


an  estimated  drainage  area  of  2,700,000  square 
miles.  The  richest  whaling  grounds  in  the 
world  are  in  these  remote  regions  of  the  Do- 
miniot^  whose  tidal  channels,  as  the  late  Sir 
John  Schultz  declared,  "are  destined  to  be  the 
last  home  of  the  leviathans  which  within  the 
memory  of  living  man  have  been  driven  from 
Newfoundland  latitudes  to  the  places  where 
their  survivors  have  now  sou^t  retreat.' 
Hair-seals  of  various  species  and  white  whales 
(Beluga)  abound  in  these  sub-arctic  waters, 
and  constitute  valuable  fisheries ;  one  station, 
according  to  Dr.  Robert  Bell,  securing  no  less 
than  2,800  of  these  small  whales  in  one  season. 
Marine  Fishing  Grounds:  Area,  Kiada  of 
Fish,  etc.— The  waters  grouped  in  this  seven- 
fold  manner  afford  a  field,  hardly  to  be  sur- 
passed, for  the  'development  of  extensive  fish- 
eries. The  grounds  where  fishing  can  be 
remuneratively  carried  on,  off  the  eastern  and 
western  sea-board,  embrace  a  total  area  of  no 
less  than  200,000  square  miles,  the  Atlantic  shore 
being  over  5,000  miles  in  length,  while  the 
Pacific  shore  (British  Columbia)  exceeds  7,000 
miles.  On  this  latter  coast,  Hecate  Straits 
(20,000  square  miles)  and  the  straits  between 
Vancouver  Island  and  the  mainland,  namely, 
the  straits  of  Georgia  and  Fuca  (15,000  square 
miles)  afford  the  most  remarkable  sheltered 
,  fishing  grounds  in  the  world,  being  for  the  most 
part  shielded  from  the  open  ocean,  and  extend- 
mg  inland  as  placid  fiords  and  deep,  salt-water 
inlets,  the  total  area  of  these  inshore  waters 
being  no  less  than  40,000  square  miles  in  ex- 
tent. The_Canadian_fishing  banks  on  the  Atlan- 
tic Coast  are  historic.  They  stretch  from 
Labrador,  Anticosli  and  Gasp£  in  the  north  to 
the  West  Isles  in  the  southern  Passamaquoddy 
waters,  including  famous  areas  like  the  Bay  of 
Chaleurs,  off  Quebec  province,  Northumberland 
Straits,  off  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  New 
Brunswick,  and  Chedabucto  Bay,  off  eastern 
Nova  Scotia.  Between  the  outer  edge  of  the 
inshore  areas  and  the  deep-sea  waters  of  the 
Atlantic  the  feeding  and  breeding  grounds  occur 
for  codj  haddodc,  mackerel  and  other  valued 
edible  fishes.  'There  is  probably  no  part  of 
the  world,"  said  Mr.  P.  L.  Simmonds,  the  well- 
known  fishery  authority,  "where  such  extensive 
fisheries  are  to  be  found,  as  in  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence.*  Among  the  series  of  banks 
mainly  resorted  to  by  Canadian  fishing  boats 
are  (passing  from  north  to  south)  Great  Bank, 
Green  Banl^  Bank  Saint  Peter,  Misaine,  Canso, 

guero,  Howe,  Roseway,  La  Have  and  Western 
inks,  apart  from  the  great  fishing  areas  in  the 
open  Atlantic,  such  as  the  Grand  Banks,  which 
are  not  really  in  Canadian  limits  and  are  indeed 
mainly  exploited  by  fishermen  from  more  dis- 
tant countries. 

Fresh-water  Fisheries.—  If,  owing  to  the 
superficial  extent,  and,  no  less,  the  coldness  and 
purity  of  the  marine  waters  of  Canada,  as  well 
as  the  abundance  of  natural  food,  upon  which 
cod,  mackerel,  halibut,  herring,  etc.,  subsist,  the 
sea  fisheries  rank  amongst  the  best  in  the  world, 
it  may  be  said  of  the  freshwater  fisheries  that 
they  are  hardly  inferior  in  these  characteristics. 
The  total  area  of  the  fresh  waters  of  the  Do- 
minion (lakes  and  rivers)  is  estimated  at  140,000 
square  miles.  From  a  fishers'  point  of  view 
the  lake  systems  of  Canada  may  be  arranged 
tinder  five  principal  head*,  namely: 

Fivt  Lake  Systemt.—- 1.  The  maritime  lakes. 


embracing  the   muneroiis  lakes   of   Labrador. 

aaebec  and  the  Atlantic  provinces.  Certain  of 
esc,  notably  Lake  Saint  John,  Quebec  (366 
square  miles),  and  the  Chamcook  Lakes,  N.  B., 
are  famous  for  land-locked  salmon,  so  priied 
for  their  tmique  game  qualities.  Black  bass, 
pickerel  or  dor^  lake  trout,  red  and  spedded 
trout  abound  in  these  waters,  while  Qear  Lake, 
Little  Seal,  Miatassini  and  most  of  the  northern 
lakes  swarm  with  whitefiah  and  sub-arctic  vari- 
eties of  trouL 

2.  The  central  lake  system,  including  the 
Great  Lakes  (76,562  square  miles  in  total  area) 
and  innumerable  subsidiary  lakes,  all  utilized 
tor  commercial  purposes  and  for  sport.  The 
areas  and  maximum  depths  of  the  more  im- 
portant of  these  lakes  are  as  follows:  Superior, 
31,200  square  miles,  160  fathoms  deep;  Huron, 
23300  square  miles,  145  fathoms  deep;  Erie, 
10,030  square  miles,  35  fathoms  deep;  Ontario, 
7,330  square  miles,  123  fathoms  deep:  Lake 
Nenigon,  1,450  square  miles;  Lakes  Samt  Clair 
and  Simcoe,  300  sqtuire  miles  each. 

3.  The  Manitoba  and  Keewatin  system^  the 
principal  waters  of  which  are  Lake  Winmp^ 
9,400  square  miles;  Lake  Winnipegosis,  2,030 
square  miles;  Lake  Manitoba,  1,900  square 
miles;  and  Lake  of  the  Woods,  1,500  square 
miles;  and  in  these  waters  enormous  fishing 
operations  are  carried  on  for  whitefish,  pickerel 
or   dori,   sturgeon,   pike,   etc. 

4.  The  Athabasca  and  Mackenzie  system, 
extending  frcm  Reindeer  Lake  to  Great  Bear 
Lake,  the  latter  lake  no  less  than  11,200  square 
miles  in  area,  while  Great  Slave  Lake  is  10,100 
square  miles,  and  others  are:  Athabasca  4,400 
square  miles;  Reindeer  Lake,  4,000  square 
miles;  Woolaston  and  Doobount  lakes,  each 
over  2,000  square  miles  in  extent-  These 
waters  have  been  little  fished,  excepting  by  In- 
dians. Hudson's  Bay  Company  employees  and 
the  like,  but  being  prolific  in  wluiefisX  sturgeOiw 
etc.,  the  development  of  great  commercial  fish- 
eries in  the  near  future  is  assured. 

5.  The  Pacific  Interior  system  from  Lakes 
Labarge  and  Atlin  to  Shuswap  Lake,  and  the 
Kootenay,  Arrow  and  Okanagan  lakes  near 
the  United  States  boundary.  None  of  the  lakes 
in  this  western  series  are  comparable  in  area 
to  the  vast  inland  seas  referred  to  above;  but 
such  waters  as  Babme  Lake  (250  or  300  square 
miles)  at  the  head  of  the  Skeena  River,  and 
Stuart  Lake  and  Quesnelle  lakes  (respectively 
100  and  750  square  miles  in  area)  at  the  head 
of  the  Fraser  River,  have  an  importance  wholly 
disproportionate  to  their  size,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  their  creeks  and  tributary  streams  arc  the 
great  spawning  resorts  of  various  species  of 
Paciiic  salmon.  Whitefish,  lake-trout,  Fadfic 
trout  of  various  spedes  and  grayUng  occur  in 
these  waters. 

Rivers  of  Canada.— Fisheries  are  also  con- 
ducted upon  the  rivers,  which  almost  without 
exception  are  abundantly  supplied  with  the  most 
esteemed  fishes.  Apart  from  a  great  stream  like 
the  river  Saint  Lawrence,  whose  drainage  area 
is  estimated  to  be  367,000  square  miles,  there  are 
rivers,  like  the  Mackentie  (2,400  miles  long); 
the  Great  Saskatchewan  (1,900  miles);  the 
Churchill  and  Black  rivers  (each  1,500  miles) ; 
the  Fraser  (750  miles  long  and  draining  100,000 
square  miles) ;  the  Red  River  (600  miles),  and 
outers  like  the  Peace,  Nelson,  Albany,  Great 
Whale,    SbKtxa     (300    mUes) ;    Ottawa    (600 


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CANADA  — nSHBRIBS  (43) 


miles);  Saint  John  (SOO  miles).  Resti^uche, 
Saguenay  and  Mirainidii;  aU  of  which  arc 
great  rivers,  presenting  for  the  most  part  unsur- 
pused  scenic  grandeur,  and  affording  notahle 
sport  and  extensive  commerdal  fishins.  It 
would  indeed  be  difficult  to  parallel  the  Fiuser 
River,  with  its  incredible  mnltitndes  of  sal- 
mon, while  the  Restigonche  and  other  famous 
angling  rivers  emptying  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  have  no  peers  in  the  annals  of  sport. 
*Canada,*  as  Professor  Elwyn  said,  'is  the 
paradise  of  the  angler* 

Uinor  Flafaeries,  OTtten,  Stnelts,  etc— 
The  shores  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  New 
Brunswick  and  parts  of  Nova  Scotia  furnish 
oysters  of  unequalled  flavor  and  comestible 
qualities.  Owing  to  over-fishing  and  inade- 
quate protection  the  yield  has  seriously  de- 
clined from  70,000  or  80,000  barrels  per  annum 
to  half  that  quantity,  valued  at  about  $16(MX)0 
yearly.  On  uie  other  hand,  such  an  industrv 
as  the  smelt  fishery,  mainly  carried  mi  throu^ 
the  ice  in  E>ecember  and  the  early  months  of 
the  year,  has  grown  from  $117,000  in  1881  to 
over  $80a000  in  value.  These  dainty  fish,  for- 
merly used  as  fertilizing  material  on  farm 
lands,  are  now  shipped,  four  or  five  thousand 
tons  per  season,  in  a  frozen  conctition,  mainly 
to  the  United  Sutes  markets.  The  estuaries 
of  the  Miramichi,  Restigouche  and  other  New 
Brunswidc  rivers  are  ae  centres  of  this  re- 
markable fishery. 

The  sturgeon  fishery  has  witnessed  a  great 
development  recently,  and  has  much  greater 
possibilities  before  it.  This  fish  became  com- 
mercially valuable  in  Canada,  first  on  the 
Saint  John  River,  N.  B.,  in  1880,  when  602,500 
pounds  were  shipped  to  New  York.  In  foor 
years  the  catch  fell  to  12^000  pound^  and  in 
1895  barely  27,000  pounds  were  secured;  tmt  in 
Lake  of  the  Woons,  and  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  above  all,  in  the  illimitable  waters  of  Mani* 
toba,  the  Northwest  and  British  Columbia,  the 
sturgeon  fishery  has  received  a  great  im- 
petus during  the  last  five  or  six  years,  in 
1902  the  yield  of  sturgeon  was  valued  at 
$173,315,  as  compared  with  $90,000  20  years  ago. 
Canada,  in  the  opinion  of  some  authorities,  is 
now  one  of  the  chief  producers  of  'caviare,' 
which  formerly  brought  10  cents  to  15  cents  per 
pound,  and  now  sells  in  ttw  cleaned,  parily  pre- 
pared condition  at  90  cents  to  $1  per  pound. 
Catfish  and  similar  species,  as  well  as  eels  and 
coarse  fish  generally,  formerlr  little  valued,  are 
now  in  demand,  bringing  to  tne  fisherman  from 
$750,000  to  $1,000,000  per  annum. 

Phdiinc  Boiiotr.^For  the  encouragement 
of  the  Atlantic  deep-sea  fisheries  a  bounty  sys- 
tem is  carried  out,  the  fund  for  which 
($4,490,882)  was  provided  by  the  Halifax 
Award,  1^7,  The  bounties  paid  annually  to 
vessel-owners,  vessel-fishermen  and  boat-fidber' 
men  amount  to  about  $160,000. 

Govermneot  Hatcheriet. — An  important 
adiunct  to  the  natural  reproduction  of  fish 
aiaed  br  dose  seasons,  size,  limits,  etc.,  is  the 
artificial  culture  of  fish.  Sixty-four  hatxdieries 
are  in  operation.  The  output  of  fry  in  1916 
amounted  to  1,624,924,254  and  included  Atlan- 
tic and  Pacific  salmon,  lake  trout,  brook  trout, 
whttefish,  pickerel,  or  dor*,  lobsters,  etc  Sev- 
eral of  the  provincial  governments  also  aid  in 
fi^-culture  to  a  limited  extent. 

Scientific   Stktioiu.— Three    scientific    bio- 


logical stations  are  maintained  by  6k-  govern- 
ment for  the  study  and  solution  of  fishery 
Sroblems.  One  is  situated  at  Saint  Andrews, 
f.  B.,  another  at  Georgian  Bay,  Lake  Huron, 
and  the  other  at  DeiMriurc  Bay,  B.  C  The 
stafF  at  all  three  institutions  consists  of  pro- 
fessors   and    specialists    from    Canadian    uni- 


Bait  Freesert  and  Guano  Works,  etc. — 
In  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  deep-sea  fishes 
men,  who  suffer  much  from  irregular  supplies 
of  iMit,  the  Canadian  government  assists  m  the 
building  and  maintenance  of  bail-freezers  at 
convement  and  suitable  ports.  The  incursions 
of  hordes  of  destructive  dogfish  and  the  injury 
to  the  fisheries  resulting  from  the  dumping  of 
fish  offal  in  the  sea  have  moved  the  govern- 
ment to  start  fish  waste  reduction  works  at 
various  localities  on  the  coast.  Under  govern- 
ment management  these  works  purchase  dog- 
fish, cod-heads,  etc.,  and  convert  them  into 
guano  and  ^fiah  oil. 


branding  of  pickled  fish,  such  aa  mackerel 
herring,  alewivea  and  salmon.  The  obiect  o£ 
the  act  is  to  bring  into  use  a  strong,  well-made 
barrel  of  a  standard  size  for  marketing  such 
fish  in ;  also  to  raise  the  standard  of  curing  and 
grading  the  fish,  so  that  the  cured  article  may 
secure  the  confidence  of  dealers  'and  consum- 
ers at  home  and  abroad  and  be  traded  in  with 
advantage  to  the  producer  and  dealer  alike.  A 
staff  of  competent  inspectors  carry  out  the 
provisions  of  the  act,  and  if  they  find  the  fish 
cured  and  graded  in  accordance  with  the  act. 
and  packed  m  barrels  that  are  of  the  standard 
size  and  make,  a  mark  in  the  form  of  a  crown 
is  branded  on  the  side  of  each  barrel  of  fish 
so  conforming  to  the  act.  The  brand  shows 
the  grade  and  kind  of  fish  contained  in  the  bar- 
rel It  is  expected  that  the  pickled  fish  trade 
will  be  greatly  extended  and  its  value  en- 
hanced by  means  of  this  system  of  inspection. 

Inspection  of  Fish  Canneries.^  A  sys- 
tematic inspection  of  all  lobster,  salmon  and 
other  fish  canneries  is  maintained  by  oflkers 
of  the  Fisheries  Department  for  the  purpose 
of  ensuring  that  the  various  kinds  of  nsh  and 
shell-fish  are  canned  under  proper  sanitary  con- 
ditions, and  to  prevent  the  canning  of  unsound 
fish. 

Fiaheriea  Protection  VeBsels..— A  fleet  of 
45  vessels  of  various  kinds  patrols  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coasts  and  the  inland  lakes  for  the 
protection  and  regulation  of  the  fisheries. 

Central  Adnunistration.—  For  the  adminis- 
tration of  fisheiy  affairs  a  special  government 
Department  of  Marine  and  Fisheries  was  cre- 
ated at  Confederation  (1867)  under  a  minister 
of  the  Crown.  A  deputy  minister  and  a  large 
staff  of  inside  and  outside  officials  carry  out 
the  administrative  duties  which  fall  to  the  Fed- 
eral authorities.  Statistics  of  the  quantities 
and  kinds  of  fish  landed  in  all  paris  of  Can- 
ada are  carefully  collected  by  officials  of  the 
department  and  published  first  in  the  form  of  a 
monthly  bulletin  and  afterward  in  the  form  of 
an  annual  detailed  report.  The  Dominion  ex- 
penditure on  fisheries,  including  fisheries  pro* 
tection,  amounts  to  nearly  $1,50(^000  annually. 

John  J.  Cowie, 
Department  of  Marine  and  Fisheries,  Ottawa. 

Dpi  zed  =,  Google 


CANADA.— HAHUFACTUnn  (44) 


44.  HANUPACtURBS.  The  1911  cen- 
sus of  Canada,  wluch  afFords  the  latest  com- 
prehensive view  of  Canadian  raanufacturing, 
f^ve  the  total  value  of  manufactured  products 
in  establishments  employing'  five  hands  and 
over  as  ¥1,165,975,639,  and  placed  a  valne  on 
the  raw  materials  consumed  in  the  manufactur- 
ine  process  at  about  half  that  amount.  A  pos- 
tal  census  of  maitnfactures  for  the  year  1915 
shows  an  annual  production  over  $^,000,000 
in  excess  of  the  total  above  quoted.  Compared 
with  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the  latter 
figures  reveal  a  growth  of  nearly  three  times 
in  the  value  of  products.*  They  also  effectively 
reveal  the  important  place  which  manufactnr- 
ing  has  come  to  occupy  within  the  Canadian 
economic  scheme.    Only  one  other  total,  that  of 

r 'culture,  vies  with  manufactures.  From 
billion  dollars'  worth  of  cereals  and  ani- 
mals produced  on  Canadian  farms  in  I91S  there 
are  of  course,  comparatively  few  deductions 
to  be  made  an  account  of  raw  materials  con- 
sumed, the  allowing  for  whidi  is  one  of  the 
vexing  problems  of  statistics  of  manufactures. 
It  would  apparently,  however,  be  safe  to  say 
that  the  manufacturing  industry  of  Canada  con- 
tributes a  new  value  approachmg  half  a  billion 
dollars  annual^-  to  the  production  of  the  coun- 
tty.  a  total  which  places  manufacturing  an  easy 
second  to  agriculture  in  the  Canadian  indus- 
trial organization. 

Anything;  like  a  detailed  description  of  man- 
ufacturing m  Canada  exceeds  the  intention  of 
the  present  article.  It  may,  however,  be  prac- 
ticable to  run  oyer  in  a  summary  way  the  lead- 
ing erou^  into  which  the  industry  may  be  di- 
viaetL  iTiese  divisions  are  necessarily  some- 
what arlntrary,  but  perhaps  the  best  initial  ap- 
proach is  from  thp  stantqioint  of  the  primary 
extractive  industries,  whose  products  it  is  the 
function  of  the  manufacturer  to  turn  into 
the  forms  required  for  final  use.t 

Food  Production.— First  then  with  regard 
to  manufactures  using  Canadian  farm  products 
as  raw  materials.    The  most  important  indus 


1  1915^  the  larger  mills  being  located  at  paints 
strategic  to  the  grain  fields  of  Ontario  and  the 
West.  Exports  of  flour  in  1915-16  amounted 
to  $35,767,044  and  of  oatmeal  to  $471,2SB. 
Bread  and  Wscu it-making  establishments  re- 
ported a  total  product  of  $40,772,216. 

The  butter  and  cheese  factories  of  Canada 
yielded  a  product  valued  at  about  half  that  of 
the  flour  mills  in  1915,  a  total  which  does  not 
include  farm- made  produce.  These  are 
chiefly  small  establismnents  owned  for  the 
most  part  by  associations  of  farmers.  The  ma- 
jority_  are  in  Ontario  and  Quebec,  though  (he 
Maritime  provinces  have  a  well-developed 
dairying  industry,  and  rapid  progress  is  being 
made  in  the  Wes^  where  the  provincial  govern- 
ments have  in  some  cases  operated  the  plants. 
Condensed  milk  factories  yielded  $3,725,668  in 
1915.  Exports  of  butter,  once  a  very  heavy 
item,  have  decreased  in  recent  years  with  the 
great   increase   in   home  consumption.     Oieese 

*  The  rise  in  piices  accounti  for  perbsps  one-third  of  thii 

i  TbB  ititiiticj  irfuiA  bUkm  tn  quuted  fmn  tlM  191S 
PoiUl  Cenius  of  MuiufKctum.  When  the  wu  hu  pro- 
duced Bomewlut  abnormiJ  coadhiont  mention  is  made  of 


exports,     however,    have     steadily    increaacd, 
reachm^  a  toUl  in  IQlS-lb  of  $26,6W,500. 

Against  the  live  stock  branch  of  fanning 
may  oe  placed  a  large  meat-packtngindpstiT, 
the  total  product  of  which  reached  186^789.731 
in  1915.  Meat  paddng  has  increased  very  rai^ 
idly  in  Canada  dttring  the  past  few  years,  and 


directly  associated  with  live  stock;  the  total 
Canadian  product  was  valued  at  $3,654,491  is 
1915,  most  of  i^  however,  from  imported  hides. 
The  boot  and  shoe  industry,  based  on  the 
leather  trade,  had  an  output  of  $34,064,696,  the 
city  of  Quebec  being  the  main  manufacturing 
pomt  The  harness  and  saddleiv  output  ac- 
counted for  $8,739,278  more,  and  gloves  and 
mitts  for  an  additional  $1399,0^ 

Fruit  and  vegetaUe  canneries,  located 
chiefly  in  santhem  and  southwestern  Ontario, 
reported  a  product  of  $3,794^22  m  1915.  Jams 
and  jellies  added  over  a  nuUion  to  this  total, 
evaporated  fruits  and  vtsegsr  and  pickles  an- 
other miliicm  and  a  quarter  each.  Starch  pro- 
duction exceeded  $2,lW0hOOO. 

The  Canadian  fisheries  (which  it  may  be  re- 
marked in  passing  are  potentially  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  world,  both  from  the  itandpoint 
of  area  of  filling  grotmds  and  the  abundance, 
variety  and  qoaUty  of  the  catchj,  are  also  the 
baaii  of  a  lar^  manufacturing  mdustry.  The 
salmon  cannenes  of  British  Columbia  and  the 
lobster  canneries  of  the  Maritime  provinces 
are  world  famous.  Altogether  the  value  of 
preserved  fish  products  in  1915  was  about 
$15,000,OOOl  There  is  a  large  dried  fish  in- 
□ustiy  (donestic)  in  Nova  Scotia,  whidt,  for 
two  genentioiis,  has  fotmd  its  diief  market  in 
the  West  Indies.  Factory  production  in  the 
same  district,  however,  is  growing,  and  is  be- 
ginning to  enter  into  competition  with  Glouces- 
ter, Uass.,  and  other  centres  of  the  cured 
fish  trade.  TIm  future  of  Canada's  status  in 
this  industry  seems  assured.  See  Canada  — 
FiSHBBiES  (article  43). 

The  above  includes  the  ttiore  important 
items  of  ^food  iiroduction,'  which  is  one  of 
the  stock  grouping  of  manufactures.  The 
duef  omissiotis  are  the  industries  whose  raw 
materials  are  imported  into  Canada,  o.g.,  sugar. 
Eight  sugar  refineries  are  in  operation  in  (Sn- 
ada,  yielding  in  1915  a  product  valued  at  $37,- 
752,235.  Manufactures  of  cocoa  and  chocolate, 
coffee  and  spice^  baking  powder,  etc,  yield  a 
product  of  $10^78,000. 

Wood  and  Pw»or.— The  lumbering  indus- 
try of  Canada  is  one  of  its  most  historic  and 
picturesque  industries,  and  the  unrivalled  for- 
est wealth  which  forms  its  background  vouches 
for  its  continuance.  It  is  also  one  of  the  nost 
widely  diffused  of  Canadian  industries.  Sontb- 
westem  Nova  Scotia  is  important  for  its  saw- 
millii^,  though  less  so  than  the  interior  of  New 
Brunswick  tapped  by  the  Saint  John  and  Miri< 
michi  rivers.  Nortiiem.  Quebec,  the  Ottawa 
Valley,  the  Georgian  Bay  aistrict  and  the  ter- 
ritory north  and  west  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Su- 
perior are  the  sources  of  an  extensive  lumber 
trade.  Northern  Saskatchewan  and  Manitoba 
have    also    important    tinber    areas,    Amifh 


d  6,  Google 


CANADA  ■'HAHUTACTURBS  (44) 


dwarfed  by  the  wealth  of  British  ColmnbU  in 
this  respecL  The  total  product  which  these 
various  sounres  yielded  in  sawn  lumber,  shin- 
gles and  laths,  reached  a  value  of  $68,815,472 
in  1915;  this,  however,  was  under  war  con- 
ditions, which  were  perha^  more  depressing 
in  the  lumber  trade  than  m  any  other  branch 
of  industry.  In  1911,  the  output  was  almost 
exactljr  half  a^in  as  large.  Side  by  side  with 
this  initial  working  up  of  the  raw  material  may 
be  placed  the  manufacture  of  sashes  and  doors, 
blinds,  boxes  and  similar  products,  the  output 
of  which  in  1915  was  over  $18,370,604.  Cooper- 
age added  $1,989,564.  A  higgler  grade  of  manu- 
facture is  represented  by  furniture,  the  value 
of  which  was  well  over  $9,765,339  in  1915 ;  car- 
riages and  wagons  with  a  somewhat  lugher 
value ;  musical  instruments  and  materials  with 
a  value  of  $4,500,000;  and  brooms  and  brushes 
with  a  value  of  $1,378,828.  Cars,  car  works  and 
car  repair  shops  reported  a  product  of  $39,- 
794,379. 

Wood  pulp  and  paper  making  may  be  treated 
in  close  connection  with  lumbering.  The  total 
output  of  both  in  1915  was  £40,348,000.  Paper 
bags  and  boxes  manufactured  in  1915  were  val- 
ued at  $5,350,667,  and  stationery  at  $3,S)6,54S. 

The  printing  and  publishing  trade  is  scarcely 
to  be  linked  with  the  paper  industry.  It  may, 
however,  be  noted  here  as  well  as  elsewhere 
that  the  output  of  Canadian  printing,  book- 
binding and  lithographing  establishments  in 
1915  was  valued  at  over  $33,000,000. 

Mineral  Prodncts. —  The  manufactures 
which  have  mining  for  basis  are  very  import- 
ant in  Canada.  It  is  usual  to  group  iron  and 
Steel  production  bv  itself.  There  are  over  20 
blast  furnaces  in  Canada  with  a  total  daily  ca- 
pacity of,  say,  4,5lXI  tons.  The  value  of  die 
pig  iron  product  in  1913,  a  tugh  year,  was 
$16,540,000.  Steel  ingols  and  castings  went 
over  a  million  in  the  same  year.  Total 
smelter  products  (in  which  the  above  are  in- 
cluded) were  valued  at  $102,000,000  in  1915. 
Some  of  the  most  extensive  and  distinctive 
Canadian  industries  are  engaged  in  iron  and 
steel  manufacture,  such  as  the  Dominion  Iron 
and  Steel  Company,  the  Nova  Scotia  Steel  and 
Coal  Company,  the  Algoma  Steel  Company,  the 
Steel  Company  of  Canada,  the  Canada  Car 
and  Foundry  Company,  etc.  Based  on  the  raw 
materials  which  these  supply  is  a  large  and 
varied  industry.  Foundry  products  totalled 
over  $36,736,000  in  value  in  1915 ;  electrical  ap- 
paratus and  supplies,  $18,106^241 ;  iron  and 
steel  bridges,  $9,611,000;  boilers  and  engines, 
$8,546,488;     brass    castings,    $7,787,302;    wire. 


$6,280,000;  altmuniuu,  $4>071,000;  plumbers' 
suppUes,  $2,268,800;  coke,  K-tl6,000.  Other 
great  industries  that  may  be  regarded  as  In  a 
way  subsidiary  to  this  branch  are  the  automo- 
bile industry,  the  production  of  which  with  its 
accessories  totalled  over  $28,000,000  in  1915; 
and  the  agricultural  implement  industry  with  a 
total  product  of  over  $13,370,000.  The  latter 
is  perhaps  the  leading  example  of  a  Canadian 
industry  having  a  market  in  practically  every 
quarter  of  the  globe. 

Cement  and  cement  products  were  valued  at 
$11,676,000  in  1915:  bride  and  tile  at  $2531,575; 
paints  and  varnishes  at  $8,373,746.  The  cut 
stone  industry  bad  a  product  of  $2,568,491. 
The  glass  product  was  valued  at  $4,718,000,  to 
which  mirrors  and  plate  glass  added  $1,095,000. 

Textilefl,  Rnbber,  Liquors  and  Tobacco. — 
There  remain  several  groups  of  manufactures 
whose  connection  with  the  primary' industries 
of  the  country  is  not  so  immediate.  Among 
these  is  the  textile  industry.  Canadian  cotton 
mills  had  a  product  of  $20^512,909  in  191S: 
woolens  a  product  of  $12,889,708 ;  while  silk  and 
silk  products  aggregated  $1^,044.  The 
clothing  industry  associated  with  these  raw 
materials  is  also  very  considerable.  Uen's  and 
women's  factory  clothing  was  approximale^ 
$41,000,000  in  value;  hosiery  and  knit  goods 
over  $16,0)6,800;  hats,  caps  and  furs  $7,559,000; 
and  carpels  $1,500,000.  Dyeing  ana  cleaning 
establishments  valued  tbeir  total  contribution 
at  $3986,670.  The  rubber  industry  approxi- 
mated $14,500,000  in  value  of  product.  Liquors 
and  toincco  is  a  second  important  group  of 
tUs  kind.  Distilled  and  malted  liquors  were 
produced  in  Canada  to  the  value  of  $30,756,000 
in  1915,  while  manufactures  of  tobacco  in  all 
forms  aggregated  $28,987,250.  Tobacco  grow- 
ing has  made  rapid  sindes  in  Quebec  and  south- 
western Ontario  recently,  and  British  Columbia 
is  beginning  to  introduce  the  industry. 

Summing  up  by  provinces,  approximately 
half  of  the  Canadian  manufacturing  industry 
is  in  Ontario,  and  well  over  half  of  the  re- 
mainder in  Quebec.  British  Columbia  stands 
third  with  about  one-fifth  the  output  of  Quebec, 
while  Nova  Scotia  and  Manitoba  follow  close 
behind.  Saskatchewan  has  a  very  slight  manu- 
facturing industry,  though  larger  than  Prince 
Edward  Island,  which  stands  lowest. 

The  accompanying  tables,  showing  the  num- 
ber of  establishments,  number  of  employees 
and  value  of  products  in  certain  of  the  more 
important  groups  of  manufactures  and  in  the 
several  provinces,  will  be  of  interest  for  pui^ 


:  detailed  reference. 


Manufactukbs  or  Canada,  1915,  by  Provincbs. 


Brituh  ColmnbU. 

N«wB: 

Vonl 

Prinn  Edward  Uand. 

OietMe 

GHlatcbnru 


1, 9M.  103, 271 


MO        9S,MJ.MS 


100  219,A56.2l(A»ia,13S.ata 
—      3.M0.S49    21,111.4" 


t.073,7S8    37,' 


n.6i4,«t 

«1.S94.IM 

31,831,014 


,M4      M7.M0.58S 


dD,  Google 


CANADA  — HANUPACTURBS  (44) 

Manufactvkbs  op  Canada,  1915,  by  Gioups  of  Industubs. 


Eftab- 

Capiu] 

limply...  » 

ailanca 

,sta. 

^^ 

». 

Sklariei 

N.. 

■Wa«e. 

P™I™4»«. 

i:«i 

3.187 

l.30t 
341 

772 
464 

I63.SSB,U1 
60,269,498 
i2;2M;BS7 

»,376,573 
174,621.994 
23,066,898 

|:S:|! 

7.2M 

IS 

1,269 
1.781 
1.081 

2.6M 
170 

2,301,447 
1,713.189 
3.418,307 

316, 9S4 

S3 : 671 
63,663 

10,307 

10.436 
17,011 

i7;8i6 

tO.306.114 
18.7SD,J69 
1.961.993 
3,413,846 

17,557.631 
3,083.000 
18.637,339 

1,467,074 

lolmisoi 

81,419.429 
S9,»7,670 

39.111,349 

43.101.497 
29.314.906 

14.930.308 
10,971,641 
43,931,080 
16,017,707 
40.347,113 

j 

3.  Inm  ind  MmI  producU 

4.  Timber  and  lumber  vid 

5.  Luther  and  iu  BnMua 

113.396,686 

k  Ctu^^^     and     mii 

34;  839:927 

'■  '=''^;;>^  '""  "™' 

to.  uS^^mttj^  prod. 

ucti  ather  than  >tee 

11.  Tobuco  and  iU  mann- 

M,943,Z78 

11  v<^i«7"'ii^'t'^™- 

usSss-..':^"!" 

134,168,131 

ToWl  of  troop.. , 

11.906 

1.994.103.171 

S2,683 

00.108,193 

461.1O0|l29.4i6,110 

"=■"'■"= 

1.407.137.140 

CouPABATiVR  Statement  of  thb  Rbtuims  of  the  Postal  Censuses  o 


aS»;;: 


Valufl  of  inoductt,  - 


The  preceding  brief  review  will  serve  to 
show  the  substantial  status  that  has  been 
achieved  by  manufacturing  in  Canada.  Two 
remaining  points  may  be  touched  upon. 
Apart  from  an  abundance  of  raw  material,  the 
first  requisite  in  manufacturing  is  coeap 
motive  power.  Canada  is  well  supplied  with 
bituminous  coal  The  fields  of  Nova  Scotia  are 
extensive,  and  are  cheaply  worked,  and  the  prod- 
uct is  accessible  to  Quebec  and  Montreal  by 
water  transportation.  Ontario,  however,  is 
largely  dependent  for  its  coal  on  Pennsylvania, 
ana  in  the  west  a  long  and  difHcuIt  haul  sepa- 
rates the  exceedingly  rich  deposits  of  Van- 
couver Island  and  the  Crow's  Nest  Pass  from 
die  prairie  centres.  In  the  other  great  power 
factor  however,  that  on  which  the  future  of 
manulacluring  will  more  and  more  depend, 
viz.,  the  'white  coal*  of  water  power  —  there 
is  probably  no  other  country  in  the  world  more 
fortunately  endowed  than  Canada.  Practically 
every  large  centre  from  coast  to  coast  has 
abundance  of  water  power  available  not  only 
for  present  needs,  Mit  for  all  requirementa 
within  anticipation.  Quebec  and  Montreal  tap 
the  resources  of  the  Snawinigan  and  the  Cedar 
Rapids  of  the  Saint  Lawrence;  central  and 
eastern  Ontario  the  Trent  Valley  and  the  Ot- 
tawa; southwestern  Ontario  has  the  three  great 
Elants  at  Niagara  Falls ;  Winnipeg  the  two 
irge  plants  o!  the  Winnipeg  River;  Calgary 
those  of  the  Bow  River;  while  Vancouver  has 
developed  the  Coquitlam  with  its  400  feet  of 
head.  Altogether  there  are  in  Canada  exclu- 
sive of  the  Northwest  terrritories,  the  Yukon 


t. 103, 171        11,147.3 


and  the  northern  snd  eastern  portions  of 
Quebec,  approximately  17,750,000  horse  power 
available,  this  amount  including  in  the  case  of 
Niagara  Falls  and  other  border  powers  only  the 
development  permitted  by  international  treaties, 
and  excluding  the  possibilities  of  storage  for 
the  enlargement  of  present  capacities.  Of  this, 
considerably  less  than  one-tenth  has  as  yet  been 
developed  —  two-thirds  of  the  development  hav- 
ing been  carried  out  only  within  the  past  10 
years.  The  "Hydro  Electric  Power  Commis- 
sion" of  the  Ontario  government  is  perhaps  the 
most  extensive  experiment  in  government  own- 
ership and  operation  of  an  important  utility  in 
Canada.  In  1915  not  less  than  73  municipali- 
ties and  %,744  consumers  were  obtaining  elec- 
tric power  through  this  body,  whose  invest- 
ments in  power  development  in  the  six  pre- 
ceding years  reached  a  total  of  aimroximatelr 
$25,000,000.' 

The  labor  factor  may  be  mentioned  briefly. 
A  heavy  immigration  has  in  recent  years  main- 
tained the  labor  supply,  and  though  government 
encouragement  is  extended  only  to  agricultural- 
ists and  domestic  servants,  the  influx  has  in- 
cluded considerable  numbers  of  skilled  artisans. 
The  census  of  occupations,  1911,  credited  491,- 
342  (98,561  female;  'workers*  to  manufac- 
tures, the  largest  total  outside  of  agriculture. 
These  were  further  divided  as  follows:  Me- 
chanical 303,471;  textiles  20,642;  food  45316: 
clothing  80,409;  other  factories  41,000.  From 
the  standpoint  of  organized  labor,  several  of 
the  most  powerful  unions  are  among  emplf^rees 
of    industrial    establishments.     In    the    metal 


.Google 


CANADA  — WATER  POWSRS    (4S) 


trades,  18G  unions  with  a  membership  of  11^13 
exist;  in  the  boot  and  shoe  and  clothing  trades, 
59  unions  with  a  membership  of  4,966;  and  in 
the  printing  and  allied  trad^  91  unions  with 
a  membership  of  6,614.  These  unions  are 
'intemationall"  i.e.,  are  part  and  parcel  of  the 
^milar  movement  in  the  United  States,  though 
with  a  Dominion  ^Congress,*  which  plays  much 
the  same  role  in  Canada  as  the  American  Fed- 
eration of  Labor  in  the  United  States.  There 
is  a  purely  Canadian  'Federation  of  Labor," 
but  its  following  is  small.  The  technical  educa- 
tion of  labor  has  made  a  substantial  be^nning 
in  Canada  and  the  country  is  alive  to  its  import- 
ance. Its  development  was  the  subject  of 
inquiry  by  a  ro^l  commission  of  seven  mem- 
bers, appointed  in  1910,  who  after  two  years' 
investigation  brought  in  a  comprehensive  scheme 
for  Dominion  ana  provincial  co-operation. 

Historical  Sketch.— The  Canadian  manu- 
facturing industry  may  be  said  to  have  been 
bom  of  the  protective  tariff  of  1878.  There 
were  manufactures,  of  course,  before  that  date. 
Iron  working  had  been  an  industry  in  Quebec 
from  the  days  of  Prontenac^  and  the  ship- 
bmldlng  yards  ot  New  Brunswick  were  famous 
half  a  century  ago  the  world  over.  Prior  to 
Confederation,  however,  the  greater  opportuni- 
ties and  more  im^rative  tasks  of  agriculture 
forced  manufacturing  into  the  background,  and 
such  industries  as  arose  were  small  and  catered 
to  local  markets.  Flour  mills  and  saw  mills 
were  the  most  numerous;  tannine  also  was  a 
flourishing  industry.  The  wooien  mills  of 
Ontario  in  these  early  days  were  of  considerable 
relative  importance.  In  1876,  however,  it  was 
still  possible  for  a  captain  of  industry  to  de- 
clare that  "there  isn't  a  manufacturer  of  us  all 
who  has  not  come  up  from  five  dollars.*  To 
this  phase  the  tariff  of  1878,  which  banished  the 
policy  of  "incidental  protection*  and  aimed  to 
found  a  well-rounded  manufacturing  industry, 
was  the  end.  A  notable  expansion  set  in  with 
1879  and  lasted  until  1882,  after  which  the 
general  stagnation  accompanying  the  fall  of 
prices  told  unfavorably.  The  'national  policy* 
(as  the  protective  scheme  of  1878  was  styled) 
may,  however,  be  said  to  have  doubled  the 
extent  of  the  industry  within  about  a  decade. 
It  was  not  until  after  the  end  of  the  century 
that  a  like  forward  movement  was  repeated. 
Throughout  the  nineties,  in  fact,  m^iufacturing 
no  more  than  held  its  own,  employing  fewer 
wage-earners  and  paying  out  less  for  labor, 
though  showing  a  gain  in  capitalization  and 
value  of  products.  With  the  opening  of  the 
20th  century,  however,  this  was  rapidly  over- 
come. Manufacturing  within  a  decade  nearly 
trebled  its  capitalization ;  increased  the  number 
of  its  employees  by  one-half;  considerably 
more  than  doubled  the  amounts  paid  out  in 
salaries  and  for  raw  materials,  and  increased 


spedalization  and  merger  made  itself  felt  after 
1907,  over  40  combinations  having  been  made 
in  the  three  years  1908,  1909  and  1910;  it  passed 
away,  however,  rather  quickly,  not  having 
proved  the  success  that  was  expected.  The 
general  expansion  continued  during  1911  and 
1912,  but  sank  back  with  1913  being  revived, 
though  in  a  new  direction,  by  tne  heavy  orders 
for  war  materials  that  came  from  Europe 
shortly  after  the  declaration  of  war  in  August 

VOL.S—   » 


1914.*  In  the  remarkable  story  of  expansion, 
therefore,  which  constitutes  the  history  of 
Canada  during  the  20th  century,  and  which  had 
its  basis  in  the  opening  up  of  the  Canadian 
west  to  agriculture  and  the  building  of  rail- 
ways on  an  unprecedented  scale  as  feeders  of 
the  new  territoiy,  manufacturing  contributes 
one  of  the  most  important  chapters.  With  the 
growth  of  western  agriculture  the  claim  of  the 
Canadian  manufacturer  to  special  favors  under 
the  tariff  has  been  challenged  with  more  in- 
sistence than  previously.  IndEpendently  of 
fiscal  policy,  however,  which  has  shown  no 
tendency  to  fundamental  change,  it  may  be 
predicted  with  assurance  that  manufacturing 
will  play  an  important  role  in  Canadian  de- 
velopment, and  that  in  many  lines  of  products 
Canada  bids  fair  to  become  one  of  the  world's 
growing  sources  of  supply. 

R.  H.  Coats, 
DominioH  StatiiticioH  and  Controller  of  Censiu, 
Ottawa. 

45.  WATER  POWERS.  Some  years  ago 
the  late  T.  C.  Keefer,  C.M.G.,  a  distinguished 
Canadian  engineer,  in  a  presidential  address 
before  the  Royal  Socie^,  described  the  water 
resources  of  Canada  in  the  following  words: 

"An  BmniMtfon  of  anr  ipod  nup  «(  ow  browl  Etomin- 

wulthr  awl  nmarkabW  untntemtpted  tuccanon  of  bkaa 
■nd  nvert.  tuggtetiyt  of  ampte  iwMbU,  tiieflnt  great  roqni- 

12  Uim^F'miln.brtHRi  Ubndoi  aod.Al   '         ' 

of  ,lalm,  iSSttt  (nd  riven;  ^ 

Iinf  Ming  facUitiw  fat  (be  itoraflB  of 

ji  many  {dacei  the  outlet  from  the  lain 

or  the  caijnectkm  betnmi  a  chain  of  takea  ii  a  nairoir  deft 
in  nxi  wliere  an  ineiqtenrive  dam  win  bold  bad  tha  mto 

■iqipUad  by  the  wiater'a  accomulatiofi  zA  mow." 

These  words  were  written  shortly  after  the 

first   successful   1 \. 

electricity  had  opened  ; 
power,  and  they  were  designed  to  emphasize  the 
fundamental  advantages  that  Canada  possessed 
under  the  new  regime.  Even  in  the  days  of 
the  first  Canadian  settlers,  however,  when  the 
harnessing  of  Niagara  would  have  seemed  the 
wildest  of  dreams,  the  earliest  manufactures 
were  prescribed  by  water  power,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  late  seventies  that  the  water-driven 
saw  mills  and  flour  mills  of  Ontario  ceased  to 
occupy  die  premier  place  in  the  Canadian  in- 
dustrial scheme. 

It  would  be  easy,  of  course,  to  exaggerate 
the  importance  of  water  power  and  of  Canada's 
wealth  in  that  particular.  Thus,  though  the 
Dominion  has  a  water  area  of  125,755  square 
miles,  as  compared  with  only  52,630  square 
miles  in  the  United  States,  many  factors  must 
be  considered  before  such  figures  are  taken  at 
their  face  significance.  The  development  of 
power  is  only  one  of  many  uses  to  which  the 
water  resources  of  the  country  may  be  put,  and 
these  uses  include  such  important  ones  as  navi- 
gation, irrigation  and  domestic  and  tnunidpsl 
supply.  Moreover,  water  area  is  not  the  same 
as  volume  of  water,  and  the  volume  of  water 
is  only  one  factor  in  water  power,  the  other 
being  hydraulic  head,  or  the  vertical  distance 
through  which  the  vralcr  falls. 

Nevertheless   the    resources   of   Canada    in 

•up  to  I  June  I91T,  the  Imperial  HanitiDni  Board akme 
■  ' --*"' "^-''  to  the  vahie  of  •SlOjmO.OW 


d=vGe^ogIc 


*w 


CANADA— WATER  POWERS  (45) 


this  respect  are  so  great  as  to  make  moderate 
statement  difficult  Within  the  nine  provinces 
of  the  Dominion,  excluding  the  Northwest  ter- 
ritories and  the  northern  and  eastern  portions 
of  Quebec,  it  is  estimated  that  17.746,000  horse 
power  are  available.  Of  this  amount, —  includ- 
ing in  the  case  of  Niagara  Falls  and  other 
international  streams  only  such  development 
as  is  permitted  by  treaty,  and  taking  no  account 
of  the  increases  that  would  be  rendered  pos- 
sible by  storage, —  fully  8,000,000  horse  power 
are   readily  available   to  present   markets. 

Not  more  than  one-fifth  of  this  latter  total 
and  less  than  10  per  cent  of  liie  whole  has  been 
developed  up  to  the  present  By  provinces,  the 
record  b  as  follows: 

Develoiied 
hone  ptnnt 

NonScoUk 31, ill 

N>ir  BmiMwick 13, 9W 

Prince  Edwd  Und SOD 

Onabec S20.000 

OoMrio 7>P,4M 

Himtoba M,  730 

BukBtcbamii *S 

AHMrtB n.SOS 

bit«h  Cotmnbi* 16S.iti 

Yukon IZ.OOC 

Tottl 1.712,193 

Of  the  abovi^  about  7S  per  cent  goes  to  the 
production  of  electrical  ener^,  ana  over  half 
the  remainder  to  pulp  and  paper  manufacture. 

It  is  impossible  within  brief  apace  to  de- 
scribe in  any  detail  ihe  progress  that  has  been 
made  in  bringing  this  great  asset  into  the  serv- 
ice of  the  community.  It  will  be  of  interest, 
however,  to  run  over  the  several  districts  into 
which  toe  country  may  be  divided  from  this 
standpoint  noting  in  each  the  main  develop- 
ments and  the  promises  that  the  future  holds 
out. 

'  The"  Maritime  Proviiicct.—  Coal,  timber 
and  fish  rather  than  secondary  production  arc 
the  industries  for  which  the  Atlantic  provinces 
are  known.  The  land  area  is  not  extensive  and 
it  is  so  cut  up  by  the  sea  that  with  one  or  two 
exceptions  no  large  river  systems  exist,  while 
the  smaller  streams  are  tidal  for  considerable 
distances  inland.  Offset^  however,  are  found 
in  the  heavy  rainfall  and  in  die  dispersion  of 
water  power  sites,  most  of  the  seaports,  where 
industrial  activity  ma^  be  expected  to  increase, 
having  water  powers  m  close  proximity.  Upon 
the  whole,  therefore,  the  power  equipment  ot 
these  provinces  is  considered  satisfactory  for 
present  and  future  needs,  though  the  latter 
include  the  heavy  demands  represented  Iiy  the 
smelting  of  iron  ores  on  a  large  scale  and  a 
considerable  steel  industry.  Existing  develop- 
ments are  mainly  of  two  types:  Saw,  pulp  and 
paper  mills,  based  on  the  timber  resources  of 
the  country)  and  municipal  lighting  plants.  A 
few  woolen  and  grist  mills  dnven  ^  water  are 
also  found.  New  Brunswick  to  date  has  de- 
veloped about  13,000  horse  power,  the  largest 
Slant  being  at  Aroostook  Falls,  where  3,800 
orse  power  is  manufactured,  for  sale  chtefiy 
in  the  State  of  Maine.  Nova  Scotia  has  over 
21,000  horse  power  developed,  more  than  half 
for  the  manufacture  of  pulp  and  paper;  gold 
minineemploys  1,150  horse  power  in  this  prov- 
ince. The  largest  water  power  in  the  Maritime 
provinces  and  one  of  the  largest  sites  in  Canada 
IS  at  Grand  Falls  on  the  Saint  John  River, 
where  it  is  now  proposed  to  instal  80,000  horse 


power.  The  Ne^nsguit  is  another  New  Bruns- 
wick'stream  which  offers  10,000  horse  power 
for  development  The  Mersey  River  in  south- 
western Nova  Scotia  has  a  potentiality  of 
30,000  horse  power,  of  which  only  4,250  Is  now 

Quebec  and  Butem  Ontmrio. —  Coming  to 
Quebec  fwhere  75  per  cent  of  all  the  power 
consumed  is  water  power)  and  eastern  Ontario, 
five  groups  of  water  powers  —  all  part  of  or 
subsidiary  to  the  Saint  Lawrence  River —  may 
be  distinguished.  The  first  has  the  city  of 
Quebec  for  centre.  It  comprises  the  Chaudiere 
River  to  the  south,  the  Montmorency  and  Saint 
Anne  in  the  near  vicinity  (whose  combined 
present  development  of  19,000  horse  power 
operates  the  tramways  and  many  of  the  fac- 
tories of  Quebec)  and  the  Lake  Saint  John 
region  to  the  north.  On  the  Sa^enay,  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Saint  John,  it  is  estimated  that 
a  continuous  supply  of  300,000  horse  power  can 
be  obtained  —  a  supply  that  could  be  doubled 
by  storage  — -  whereas  on  the  rivers  flowing 
into  the  take  several  additional  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  horse  power  are  available.  The 
second  ^oup  is  that  of  the  Saint  Maurice, 
which  joins  the  Saint  Lawrence  at  Three 
Rivers,  and  which  alone  offers  a  potentiality 
of  650,000  horse  power.  Two  very  large  plants 
are  already  installed ;  that  of  the  Shawenegan 
Water  and  Power  Company  at  Shawenegan 
Falls,  where  155,000  horse  power  is  produced 
for  local  manufactures  and  for  Montreal,  Three 
Rivers  and  other  nei^boring  cities ;  and  that 
of  the  Laurentide  Company  which  controls  the 
fall  at  Grande  M^re,  with  its  300,000  horse 
power.  12  miles  above  Shawenegan,  and  which 
manufactures  250  tons  of  paper  daily.  At  La 
Tuque,  103  miles  from  Three  Rivers,  is  a  third 
fall  of  70  feet  capable  of  generating  75,000 
horse  power,  of  which  only  3,500  is  developed. 
A  third  group  has  Montreal,  the  commercial 
capital  and  oulport  of  Canada,  for  central 
market  In  it  are  included  the  Cedar  Rapids 
of  the  Saint  Lawrence,  which  have  a  poten- 
tiality of  16Ct000  horse  power,  of  which  90,000 
is  developed  by  one  company  and  20,000  by  a 
second  Another  13,000  horse  power  is  avail- 
able for  Montreal  from  the  Soulanges  Canal, 
still  another  13,000  from  the  Lachine  Rapids, 
whilst  Chambly  on  the  Richelieu  River  con- 
tributes 20,000  horse  power  to  this  favorably 
situated  metropolis.  It  is  estimated  that  an 
additional  240,0(X)  horse  power  can  be  developed 
for  Montreal  ^s  the  demand  arises.  The  fourth 
group  is  that  of  the  Ottawa  Valley,  on  the 
Quebec  tributaries  of  which  several  hundred 
thousands  ot  horse  power  remain  to  be  devel- 
oped, the  Caiineau  alone  having  225,000  horse 
power,  none  of  it  utilized  Further  north  and 
west  on  the  Ontario  side  the  Coball  mines  are 
supplied  by  the  Northern  Li^l  and  Power  Com- 
pany, who,  in  a  single  year,  reduced  the  con- 
sumption of  coal  in  the  camp  from  63,000  tons 
to  17,000  tons.  On  the  Ottawa  River  itself 
600,000  horse  power  would  be  rendered  avaibble 
by  the  canalizing  of  the  river.  Development 
however,  is  at  present  confined  to  the  laive 
industries  of  Ottawa  and  Hull  operating  at  the 
Chaudiere  Falls  and  consuming  about  3^000 
horse  power.  The  rapids  of  the  upper  Saint 
Lawrence  may  be  considered  a  fifth  and  last 
group  in  this  area.  They  have  been  utilized 
only  to  a  small  extent  for  local  purposes. 


d=,  Google 


CAHiVDA-^WATBB  POV^BS   (4S> 


4B1 


Ceutnl  and  Sontbwestem  OnUiio.— The 
Trent  River  system  is  the  main  supply  of  cen- 
tral, and  Niagara  Falls  that  of  soutAwestem, 
Ontario.  No  event  In  the  history  ol  the  sub- 
ject has  so  appealed  to  the  imagination  as  the 
harnessing  of  Niagara  Falls  and  the  employ- 
ment of  its  gigantic  energy  to  turn  the  factory 
wheels  and  li^t  the  streets  and  houses  of  the 
scores  of  towns  and  cities  dotting  the  thickly 
populated  area  between  Lakes  Huroo,  Erie  and 
(hitario.      Under    franchises    granted    by    the 

E evince  of  Ontario  405,000  horse  power  is  to 
developed  at  Niagara  Falls,  100,000  by  the 
Canadian  Niagara  Power  Company,  125,000  by 
the  Electrical  Development  Company  and  180,- 
000  by  the  Ontario  Power  Company.  Between 
1905  and  1914,  369,000  of  this  was  placed  on  the 
market,  chieJly  in  the  districts  between  Toronto 
and  London.  Linked  with  Niagara  is  the  plant 
of  the  Dominjon  Power  and  Transmission  Coa 


land  Canal  and  carrying  it  over  the  Niagara 
escarpment,  a  development  which  renders  pos- 
sible the  operation  of  as  extensive  system  of 
ladial  and  street  railways  in  the  Niagara  Pen- 
insula and  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  rapid  indus- 
trial aevdopment  of  the  city  of  Hamilton. 
Another  international  power  is  that  at  Sault 
Sainte  Marie,  where  the  Algoma  Steel  Company 
and  allied  industries  have  developed  17,000  horse 
power.  Returning  to  the  Trent  system,  about 
75,000  horse  power  is  there  rendered  available 
tv  die  construction  o£  the  canal ;  of  this  45^000 
horse  power  is  already  in  use,  the  Electrical 
Power  Company  having  seven  plants  and  sup- 
plying a  wide  territory.  Tlie  deforestation  o£ 
southern  Ontario  and  consequent  alteration  of- 
the  re^men  of  the  rivers  has  greatly  reduced 
the  power  potentialities  of  the  province. 

New  Ontaiio. —  The  northern  and  western 
portions  of  Ontario  are  rich  in  water  powers. 
Of  developed  works,  Uiat  of  the  Canadian  Cop- 
per Company  at  Spanish  River  (10,000  horse 
power)  and  that  of  the  Kaministiquia  Power 
Company  at  Kakabcka  Falls  near  Fort  Arthur 
and  Fort  William  J.  15,500  horse  power)  are  the 
most  important  llie  Lake  Nipigon  re^on  and 
the  rivers  flowing  into  James  Bay  offer  per- 
haps 2,000,000  horse  power  for  future  develop- 
ment, onV  a  few  thousands  being  now  iif  use. 

TTie  Prairie  Provinces.— The  two  chief  de- 
velopments in  the  prairie  sections  of  Canada 
are  those  on  the  Wmnipeg  River,  which  supply 
Winnipeg  with  power,  and  those  on  the  Bow 
River,  acting  as  feeders  to  Calgary.  The  Win- 
nipeg municipal  plant  and  the  Wmnip^  Elec- 
tnc  Railway  Company's  plant  on  the  former 
aggregate  a  turbine  capacity  of  79700  horse 
power,  but  this  is  only  a  fraction  of  the  total 
capacity  of  the  river.  On  the  Bow  River,  the 
three  plants  now  installed  at  Eau  Clair,  Hor 


of  power  development  in  western  Canada.  Te 
North  and  South  Saskatchewan  have  several 
important  power  sites,  while  the  Nelson,  with 
one  of  the  principal  drainage  areas  of  the  con- 
tinent, has  Dcen  estimated  to  offer  no  less  than 
2,500,000  horse  power,  there  being  19  power 
sites  on  it,  each  of  which  would  produce  from 
75,000  to  235.000  horse  power.  Tlie  Churchill, 
the   Athabaslra    and    the    Peace    are    likewise 


rivers  of  great  potentialities.  For  the  moment. 
however,  thes^  like  the  Nelson,  lie  beyond 
reach  of  a  maricet. 

_  Britiih  Columbi*. —  The  "sea  of  moun- 
tains "  which  constitutes  the  interior,  and  the 
heavy  precifulation  of  a  mild  and  equable  cU- 
mate,  makes  British  Columbia  a  cguntry  of 
numerous  lakes,  large  and  rapid  rivers  and 
abundant  water  powers.  The  latter  early  at- 
tracted  attention..  The  first  development  was 
made  13  years  ago  at  Bonnington  Falls  on  the 
Rootenay,  where  23,000  horse  power  is  now 
available  for  die  important  mining  and  smelt- 
ing industries  of  Riissland  and  Trail.  About 
the  same  time  the  British  Columbia  Electric 
Railway  Company  developed  the  Goldstream 
plant  on  Vancouver  Island;  but  this  has  been 
completely  eclipsed  by  the  later  plants  of  the 
same  company  at  Lake  Buntzen  on  Burrard 
Inlet  (being  the  largest  in  the  province  with 
84,500  horse  power),  and  at  Jordan  River  on 
Vancouver  Island  (25^000  horse  power).  Other 
large  British  Columbia  plants  are  those  of  the 
Northwestern  Canada  Power  Company  at  Stave 
Lake  (26,000  horse  power)  and  of  the  Powell 
River  Company,  Limited,  at  Powell  River,  the 
latter  a  newsprint  establishment  generating 
24,000  horse  power.  Altogether  over  265,000 
horse  power  has  been  devdoped,  but  it  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  nearly  three  times  that 
amount  available  within  market  distance  of 
Vancouver  and  Victoria  alone. 

The  foregoing  rapid  sketch  will  serve  to 
show  the  importance  both  present  and  to  come 
of  the  water  power  resources  of  the  Dominion. 
Nratt  to  their  great  extent  —  Canada  in  this  re- 
spect standing  second  only  to  the  United 
States,  and  higher  than  any  other  country  in 
die  world  except  Noi^ay  on  a  per  capita 
bssis  —  their  proximity  to  leading  centres  of 
population  will  have  been  ^tparent  All  across 
the  continent  the  great  cities  of  Canada  have 
at  their  diMiosal  an  enormous  aupply  of  the 
power  which  is  so  essential  to  their  future  as 
mdustrial  centres.  Another  feature  which  it 
has  been  possible  to  mention  only  inddentaily 
is  the  rapidity  of  the  strides  with  which  Canada 
is  now  entering  upon  her  inheritance.  Of  the 
total  horse  power  at  present  in  use  not  less  than 
two-thirds  nave  been  developed  within  the  past 
10  years,  whilst  a  quarter  of  a  centuiy  ago  it 
may  be  said  that  the  present  development  had 
not  even  been  begun. 

As  an  evidence  of  the  awakening  of  public 
opinion  on  the  importance  of  water  power, 
reference  may  be  made  to  the  organization  of 
the  Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission  of 
Ontario,  whose  operations  represent  the  largest 
effort  in  Canada  in  the  way  of  public  adminis- 
tration of  a  national  utility.  The  Commission 
was  created  in  1906^  largely  upon  the  report  of 
a  previous  royal  commission  of  inquiry  into 
the  possibilities  of  Niagara  power.  PubUc 
sentiment  had  become  arousec  through  fear 
that  the  only  great  source  of  hydraulic  power 
for  southwestern  Ontario  might  he  exploited  in 
private  interests.  The  Hydro-Electric  Commis- 
sion began  by  conducting  an  extensive  series  of 
investigations  under  direct  governmental  aus- 
pices into  the  power  resources  of  the  province. 
The  next  step  was  the  vesting  of  the  Com- 
mission with  powers  of  administration,  under 
which  it  at  once  contracted  for  supplies  of 
power  at  Niagara  and  elsewhere,  and  consti- 


d=,  Google 


458  CANADA— COHHERCB,  TARIFFS  AND  TRANSPORTATION  <4«) 


ttited  itself  a  great  transmission  and  supplying 
agency.  Within  four  years  over  1,000  miles  of 
transmission  lines  and  over  1,500  miles  of  tele- 
■  ^one  lines  had  be«n  constructed.  In  1915,  the 
Commission  was  supplying  73  municipalities, 
aad  its  distribution  of  power  from  Niagara 
alone  amounted  to  63,500  horse  power,  the 
number  of  consumers  reaching  nearly  to  100,- 
000.  The  investment  by  the  Commission  and 
its  customers  to  date  approximates  $24,500^X0. 
The  outlook  is  that  within  a  few  years  these 
totals  will  be  largely  exceeded 

For  official  information  regarding  water 
powers  in  Canada,  application  may  be  made  to 
the  water  powers  branch  of  the  Department 
of  the  Interior  of  the  Dominion  government, 
which  exercises  jurisdiction  in  the  provinces  of 
Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta  and  in  the 
unoi^nized  territories  of  Canada.  For  the 
provinces,  the  following  ofGcers  are  in  control : 
Nova  Scotia:  the  secretary  of  the  Nova  Scotia 
Water  Power  Commission,  Halifax,  N,  S.; 
New  Brunswick;  The  surveyor-genera!  of  New 
Bmnswidc,  Fredericton,  N.  B.;  Quebec:  The 
chief  engineer,  hydraulic  service,  Department  of 
Lands  and  Forests,  Quebec,  Quebec;  Ontario: 
The  Deputy  Minister  of  Lands,  Forests  and 
Mines,  Toronto^  Ontario;  also,  the  secretaiy 
of  the  Hydn>-Electric  Power  Commission  of 
Ontario,  Toronto,  Ontario;  British  Columbia: 
The  comptroller  of  water  rights,  Victoria, 
B.  C 

R.  H.  Coats, 
DominioM  Slatistician  and  Controtler  of  Censiu. 
46.      COHMSRCE,      TARIFFS      AND 


'X 


.s  of  British  North  America,  now  form- 
'  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  were  all  alike 
iDJect  to  those  general  laws  which  embodied 
the  principles,  if  not  always  the  practice,  of  the 
British  colonial  system.  Owing,  however,  to 
variations  in  location,  natural  resources  and 
the  character  of  the  inhabitants,  the  commerce 
and  tariffs  of  the  various  provinces  were  more 
or  less  atkipted  to  their  special  conditions. 

Before  the  conquest  of  Canada  the  Mari- 
time provinces,  under  the  general  name  of 
Nova  Scotia,  were  valued  as  a  market  for 
British  goods  and  as  a  field  for  the  furnishing 
of  naval  supplies,  chiefly  sailors,  fish  and  timber. 
Nova  Scotia  s  trade  was  almost  entirely  devel- 
oped in  connection  wiUi  New  England  and  the 
West  Indies.  Trade  with  French  Canada  was 
illegal,  on  both  sides,  and  for  the  most  part 
unprofitable,  except  for  furs  in  exchange  for 
British  manufactures.  It  was  but  natural, 
therefore,  that  after  the  conquest  of  Canada 


vith  the  New  England  States  and  the  West 
Indies,  and  only  to  a  limited  extent  with  Canada. 
Owing  to  their  extensive  coast  line  and  nu- 
merous harbors.  New  Brunswick  being  also  well 
supplied  with  river  navigation,  the  question  of 
transportation  was  long  a  simple  one  for  the 
Maritime  provinces.  For  Canada,  the  Saint 
Lawrence  and  its  tributaries  had  always  fur- 
nished the  great  hi^way  of  the  country.  But 
above  Montreal  the  river  was  greatly  obstructed 
by  rapids  hence  the  trade  to  uie  West  was  first 
developed  along  the  easier  Ottawa  ronte,  which 
passed    by    way    of    I.ake    Nipissing    to    the 


Georgian  Bay.  There  it  followed  tiie  sheltered 
northern  channel  and  the  Saint  Mary  River, 
mth  a  portage  at  Sault  Sainte  Marie,  up  to 
Lake  Superior,  and  on,  by  numerous  lalres  and 
streams,  to  the  vast  Indian  country  beyond. 

The  coming  of  the  Loyalists,  the  first  settlers 
in  what  is  now  the  province  of  Ontario,  ren- 
dered necessary  a  regular  traffic  up  the  Saint 
Lawrence  and  along  the  lower  Idces.  From 
Montreal  to  Prescott  and  Kingston  this  traffic 
was  carried  on  by  means  of  various  forms  of 
lar^  flat-bottomed  boats,  known  as  bateaux, 
which  were  towed  up  the  rapids,  later  with  the 
aid  of  horses.  These  bateaux  brought  up  lim- 
ited supplies  of  European  imports,  chieflr  Brit- 
ish goods,  and  took  down  the  furs  and,  so  far 
as  thnr  space  would  allow,  the  potash  and  flour 
of  the  Western  settlements.  The  Revotuuonary 
War  had  led  to  the  building  of  the  first  British 
vessels  on  the  lakes.  After  the  peace,  several 
of  these  became  trading  vessels  and  odiers  were 
built,  the  onmber  steadily  increasing  with  the 
growth  of  the  Canadian  and  American  settle- 
ments on  dther  side  of  the  lakes.  The  pres- 
ence of  lake  vessels  diverted  the  greater  part 
of  the  Indian  trade  from  the  northern  to  the 
southern  route. 

At  first  most  of  the  surplus  produce  of  the 
Western  settlements  found  a  ready  local  market 
in  supplying  the  temporary  needs  of  new 
settlers,  ana  in  fumislun^  provisions  for  the 
Indian  posts  and  the  British  garrisons.  With 
increasing  crops,  however,  there  soon  arose  a 
necessity  for  export,  especially  of  such  articles 
as  wheat,  flour,  peas,  salt  meat  and  various 
minor  provisions.  About  the  beginning  of  the 
I9th  century  the  amount  of  provisions  produced 
in  western  Canada  was  nearly  etfuivalent  to 
the  amount  purchased  by  the  British  govern- 
ment for  consumption  at  the  garrisons  and 
posts.  In  1801  the  total  exports  of  Canada 
amounted  to  $4,800,000-  This  growing  trade 
required  a  more  extensive  ana  economical 
means  of  conveyance  than  that  afforded  by  the 
bateaux.  A  trade  in  staves  and  various  forms 
of  timber  having  developed  about  the  same 
time,  and  being  sent  to  market  in  the  shape  of 
rafts,  these  were  utiUred  to  convey  such  pro- 
visions as  might  suffer  a  little  exposure.  Large 
Suare  scows  were  also  built  for  the  jmrpose 
taking  provisions  to  market  in  bulk. 

As  regards  tariffs  and  trade  regulations  in 
the  earlier  Colonial  period,  nothing  was  left  to 
the  provincial  authorities;  all  was  regulated  by 
British  statutes  and  administered  by  Imperial 
officers.  In  the  matter  of  taxation,  after  the 
American  Revolution  the  British  Nordi  Amer- 
ican colonies  had  little  to  complain  of,  for  in- 
stead of  being  taxed  to  assist  Britain  the  British 
people  were  taxed  to  assist  the  colonies.  In 
return  for  her  freedom  to  determine  the  com- 
mercial policy  of  the  colonies  and  to  appcont 
their  officials,  Britain  had  to  meet  their  dendtSj 
besides  funushing  the  whole  of  the  naval  and 
military  services. 

The  first  important  change  in  Colonial  com- 
mercial relations  resulted  from  the  recognition 
of  the  independence  of  the  United  States  in 
1783.  Pitt  and  Shelbume  had  desired  to  con- 
tinue practically  the  same  commercial  relations 
with  the  late  colonies  after  the  separation  as 
had  existed  before  it,  considering  that  political 
independence  did  not  alter  the  value  of  a  profit- 
able mutual  trade.    Technic^y,  however,  saeb 


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CANADA— COHHXRCB,  TARIFFS  AND  TRAN8P0KTATION  (M)         4M 


a  policy  would  do  violence  to  the  whole  com- 
mercial and  colonial  system,  including;  the  Navi' 
gation  Acts, —  the  system  of  •ships,  colonies 
and  commerce,*  upon  which  the  whole  British 
empire  was  supposed  to  rest  —  and  this  could 
not  be  peirnitied. 

Canadians  were  for  a  long  time  too  com- 
pletely absorbed  in  questions  connected  with  the 
control  of  dieir  internal  affairs  to  he  much 
concerned  with  the  fiscal  policy  of  the  country. 
Indeed  they  rather  looked  upon  Britain's  con- 
trol of  the  fiscal  policy  as  a  means  of  obtaining 
increasing  assistance  from  the  mother  country. 
The  earlier  tariSs  were  simple  affairs,  ttte  i 


.„.  .    .    _  .  _    _.  ..      s  very  much. 

There  was  no  trouble  with  foreign  European 
goods,  because  they  were  forbidden  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  colonies  even  in  British  ships, 
except  when  they  had  passed  tbrotifth  British 
ports.  It  was  in  Britain,  therefore,  that  the 
tariff  dealt  with  them  and  qualified  them  for 
entrance  to  the  colonies.  In  the  matter  of 
spirits  and  such  thing[s  as  were  dealt  with  in 
colonial  tariffs,  a  vanety  of  preferential  duties 
favored  the  more  as  against  the  less  direct 
trade  with  Britain  and  the  colonies.  After  the 
granting  of  representative  legislatures  in  the 
colonies  (1791  in  Canada)  the^  were  permitted 
to  impose  customs  duties  on  imports,  for  rev- 
enue pumoses  onW,  The  right  of  disallowance 
excrased  by  the  Crown  prevented  any  unfavor- 
able treatment  of  British  goods. 

By  the  Act  of  1778  the  British  Parliament 
maintained  and  freely  exercised  the  right  to 
regulate,  by  tariff  or  omer  restrictions,  the  com- 
merce of  the  colonies,  but  explicitly  stated  that 
all  revenue  incidentally  obtained,  after  paying 
the  expenses  of  its  collection,  should  go  to  the 
treasury  of  the  colony  in  which  it  was  collected 
There  was  thus  a  double  jurisdiction  in  the  mat- 
ter of  tariffs,  the  Imperial  and  the  colonial. 
But,  so  far  as  the  colonial  and  Imperial  tariffs 
covered  the  same  ground,  only  the  colonial  tariff 
was  enforced.  The  Imperial  tariff  applied  only 
where  its  rate  of  duty  exceeded  that  of  the 
colonial.  The  colonial  tariff  looked  only  to 
revenue;  the  Imperial  tariff  to  the  regulation  of 
commerce  in  the  interests  of  Imperial  trade. 
The  first  legally  recognized  trade  between 
the  United  States  and  Canada  was  provided 
for  in  the  Quebec  Ordinances  of  1787-88.  which 

fcrmitted  the  free  export  of  all  goods  except 
urs  and  peltries,  and  the  import  ot  all  forms  of 
timber  and  naval  stores,  all  kinds  of  grain  and 
other  natural  products,  and  settlers'  effects. 
Rum,  spirits  and  manufactured  ^ods  were  en- 
tirely prohibited,  but  in  1790  pig  iron  was  added 
to  the  list  of  permissible  imports.  Pitt's  com- 
mercial treaty  with  the  United  States  in  1794 
greatly  promoted  trade  between  the  British 
American  provinces  and  that  country.  In  this 
he  partly  realized  his  earlier  idea  of  permitting 
a  free  mutual  trade  in  all  ordinary  gjoods  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  the  Bntish  col- 
onies. But,  in  deference  to  the  Navigation 
Acts,  so  far  aa  the  trade  was  conducted  by  sea, 
it  mu5t  be  in  British  ships.  A  direct  trade  to 
the  £ast  Indies  was  also  permitted  to  the  United 
States.  Later  this  led  to  several  important  re- 
laxations of  the  British  colonial  policy. 

"The  trade  relations  of  the  Maritime  prov- 


inces, as  we  have  seen,  were  well  established 
before  the  United  States  secured  its  independ- 
ence, but,  while  the  United  States  enjoyed. 
Seat  freedom  of  trade  with  all  countries,  the 
aritime  provinces  still  remained  under  the  - 
close  restrictions  of  the  Navigation  Acts  and 
the  colonial  s^fstem.  Thus  general  merchan- 
dise, even  British  and  East  Indian  goods,  was 
cheaper  in  the  United  States  than  in  the  British 
American  ports.    As  a  natural  result  there  was 


Scotia  and   !.  _.. , 

amon^  the  islands  of  Passamaquoddy  Bay. 
Amencan  vessels  supplied  the  colonists  with 
liquor,  tea,  tobacco,  molasses  and  other  East 
and  West  Indian  produce,  and  the  chief  lines  of 
European  and  American  goods.  They  received 
in  return  furs,  fish,  lumber,  grain,  etc,  which 
they  carried  to  their  own  jwrts  and  to  the 
West  Indies.  Thus  the  restrictions  designed  to 
give  Britain  a  monopoly  of  the  colonial  trade 
and  shipping  worked  to  the  opposite  purpose. 
Plainly  the  system  had  either  to  be  given  up  or 
enforced  b^  quite  drastic  measures.  On  the 
death  of  Fitt  the  latter  policy  was  adopted,  be- 
ginning with  the  Orders  in  Council,  which  in 
turn  induced  the  non-intercourse  policy  of  the 
United  States,  and  ultimately  the  War  of 
1812-lS. 

While  disastrous  to  the  West  Indies  and 
most  injurious  to  Great  BritaiiL  yet  the  troubles 
between  Britain  and  the  United.  States  were  im- 
mensely profitable,  for  the  time  being,  to  the 
British  Nordi   American   colonies.     To   ensure 


in  ports  of  the  Maritime  provinces  and  in  Can- 
ada, where  it  mi^ht  be  taken  by  sea  in  either 
American  or  British  vessels,  by  overland  trans- 
port or  by  inland  navigation.  This  stimulated 
the  trade  and  shipping  of  the  CanatUan  and 
Maritime  provinces  and  enriched  the  colonial 
produce  dealers.  The  ultimate  benefit,  however, 
of  these  and  later  abnormal  conditions  was  more 
than  doubtful.  After  the  Peace  of  1815,  Can- 
ada suffered  a  severe  reaction,  emphasized  by 
an  im fortunate  land  and  immigration  policy. 

The  enormous  preference  in  the  British 
market  on  British  North  American  timber, 
which  had  been  built  up  during  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  was  retained  and  developed  because  it  en- 
riched British  shipowners  and  timber  merchants. 
By  the  new  Corn  Law  of  1815  a  preference  was 
granted  to  Canadian  grain,  but  it  was  very  un- 
certain in  its  operation,  since  the  grun  was  not 
admitted  at  all  until  the  price  had  risen  to  quite 
a  high  level,  in  the  case  of  wheat  to  about  $3.10 
a  bushel. 

The  international  restrictions  necessary  to 
preserve  a  fair  equality  for  British  shipping, 
under  the  disadvantages  of  her  colonial  system, 
involved  further  trouble  with  the  United  States. 
Britain  admitted  a  reciprocal  shipping  trade  be- 
tween the  home  country^  and  the  UmtMl  States, 
and  between  her  colonial  possessions  and  the 
United  States  in  the  inland  waters  of  North 
America,  but  denied  corresponding  reciprocity 
by  sea  between  the  United  States  and  her  Amer* 
ican  colonial  possessions.  In  ]818  the  United 
States  retaliated,  and  direct  trade  with  the  West 
Indies  was  af^  suspended.  Halifax  in  Nova 
Scotia  and  Saint  John  in  New  Branswick  were 
then  made  free  ports  for  American  vessels 
bringing  certain  lines  of  goods  neceisatj  for 


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464  CANADA  — COHHBRCI,  TARIFFS  AND  TRANSPORTATION  (4fi) 


the  sni^y  of  the  West  Indies.  Jn  1823  Ameri- 
can vessels  were  admtited  to  the  colonial  trade 
Knerally,  for  all  direct  dealings  between  the 
lited  Stales  and  the  colbnies.  Once  more  the 
trade  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  languished,  and 
complaints  poured  in  upon  the  home  government. 
In  1S25  Mr.  Husldsson,  who  had  revived  the 
poKcy  of  Pitt,  sought  to  promote  freer  trade  in 
America.  But  he  found  it  impossible  as  yet  to 
^rant  perfect  reciprocity  in  shipping.  Differen- 
tial duties  were  imposed  in  favor  of  British 
shipping  in  the  trade  between  the  United  States 
and  the  West  Indies.  The  Americans  applied 
the  same  differentials  on  their  side,  and  there 
resulted  another  period  of  non  intercourse, 
from  1826  to  1831,  with  corresponding  activity 
and  prosperity  for  the  Saint  Lawrence  route 
and  the  British  North  American  ports.  By 
admitting  to  the  colonics  provisions  from  tiie 
northern  nations  of  Europe  in  their  own  ships, 
Huskisson  managed  to  prevent  the  Americans 
from  forcing  his  hand.  They  came  to  terms  in 
1831  and  normal  trade  was  once  more  resumed. 
But  by  this  time  the  Colonial  System  was  badly 
shattered,  and  almost  the  only  thing  left  of  the 


of  colomal  economic  emancipation. 

In  182S  Husldsson  weakened  the  com  lavn 
by  greatly  increasing  the  preference  on  Cana- 
dian wheat.  Regardless  of  the  local  price, 
Canadian  wheat  was  to  be  admitted  at  a  uni- 
form duly  of  five  shillings  per  quarter.  For 
a  time  the  exports  of  wheat  were  greatly  stimu- 
lated, but  the  benefit  was  not  permanent,  and 
the  cry   for  additional   preferences  was   soon 


The  prosperous  period  of  1826-31,  aug- 
mented by  large  expenditures  on  Canadian  pub- 
lic works  and  an  increased  emigration,  con- 
tinued for  a  couple  of  years  after  the  resumption 
of    normal    relations    with    the    United    States. 


In     1841    the    two    Canadian    pr 

united,  and  their  political  freedom  was  greatly 

enlarged  and  trade  revived. 

In  1843,  after  ur^nt  petitions,  which  more 
or  less  coincided  with  the  rising  demand  in 
Britain  for  free  food,  Canada  obtained  the 
ominously  liberal  concession  of  access  to  the 
British  market,  at  the  nominal  rate  of  one  shil- 
ling per  quarter,  for  all  the  flour  she  could 
grind  from  her  own,  or  imported  American 
wheat,  while  the  com  laws  still  stood  a^inst 
the  rest  of  the  world.  Bad  harvests  and  higher 
prices  in  Britain  tended  to  enrich  the  Canadian 
merchants  and  millers,  but  precipitated  the  re- 
peal of  the  corn  laws  in  184^  and  the  adoption 
of  a  tree  trade  policy  generally. 

Free  trade  carried  with  it  important  changes 
for  Canadian  commerce,  tariffs  and  transporta- 
tion. The  preference  on  Canadian  grain  had 
Kne,  and  the  preference  on  British  North 
nerican  timber  soon  followed.  In  184? 
Britain  renounced  the  rifrht  to  regulate  Canadian 
trade,  and  in  1849,  by  the  final  repeal  of  the 
Navigation  Acts,  she  gave  up  her  monopoly  of 
the  domestic  carrying  trade  of  the  empire.  The 
general  result  was  that  the  colonies  were  left  to 
face  the  woHd  on  much  the  same  terms  as  other 
countries.  Though  lacking  in  the  experience 
which  breeds  prudence,  those  interests  which 


Navigation  Acts  was  the  British  monopoly  of 
;  domestic  shipping  of  the  empire.  The  way 
s  being  gradually  prepared  for  the  final  stroke 


had  not  been  specially  pampered  entered  u^on 
their  new  career  with  much  zest  and  enterprise, 
tending  sometimes  to  rashness. 

Onal  Building.; —  At  this  sta^e  questions  of 
transportation  began  to  be  of  vital  importance 
to  Canada-  After  the  War  of  1812  attention 
had  been  directed  to  the  necessity  for  improv- 
ing the  Saint  Lawrence  route  between  Montreal 
and  the  lakes.  A  canal  to  surmount  the  Lachine 
Rapids  had  long  been  talked  of  and  even  abor- 
tively attempted.  Finally,  in  1821,  the  woric 
was  seriously  undertaken  by  the  government  of 
Lower  Canada,  and  completed  in  1825.  Thb 
was  the  year  of  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal, 
which,  coming  at  the  t>cginning  of  a  decade  of 
unusual  expansion  and  prosperity  for  the  lake 
regions,  proved  a  phenamenal  success,  com- 
merdalljr  and  finandally.  This  gave  an  im- 
mense impetus  to  canal  building  in  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  Canals,  instead  of  build- 
ing public  debts,  were  to  abolish  them  and  sup- 
port States  and  provinces  without  taxation. 
See  Canals, 

In  1824  the  Wetland  Canal  was  undertaken 
by  a  joint  stock  company  with  a  canilal  of  only 
$150,000,  mostly  subscribed  in  the  United  States. 
After  many  vicissitudes  and  appeals  for  both 
Imperial  and  provincial  assistance,  it  was 
opened  for  traffic  in  1832,  The  locks  were  of 
wood,  100  X  22  feet  with  7  feet  of  water. 
However",  neither  the  Lachine  nor  the  Welland 
Canal  could  be  of  much  more  than  local  im- 
portance until  the  remaining  Saint  Lawrence 
rapids  were  surmounted,  TTiis  task  the  Im- 
perial government  was  prevailed  upon  to  under- 
take. But,  in  doin^  so,  it  disregarded  all  com- 
mercial considerations  and  followed  a  short- 
swhted  but  very  round-about  military  idea. 
The  Rideau  Canal  was  the  result,  extending 
from  Kingston  to  Ottawa,  which  was  afterward 
connected  with  Montreal  by  improvements  of 
the  Ottawa  River  navigation.  The  locks  as 
constructed  were  134  x  33  feet  with  S  feet  of 
water.  It  was  opened  in  1832  and  cost  the 
Imperial  government  about  $4,000,000,  or  be- 
tween six  and  seven  times  the  ori^nal  estimate. 
Though  of  necessity  carrying  considerable  traf- 
fic, it  soon  proved  that  it  was  not  to  be  a 
commercial  success,  since  it  could  not  compete 
with  the  Erie  Canal  and  did  not  even  super- 
sede the  batepiux  on  the  Saint  Lawrence.  The 
Upper  Canadian  legislature  determined  to  com- 
plete the  Saint  Lawrence  system  and  the  Corn- 
wall Canal  was  begun  in  1834.  But  the  financial 
crisis  and  political  troubles  of  1837  suspended 
operations. 

The  union  of  the  provinces  in  1841  brought 
with  it  an  Imperial  guaranteed  loan  for 
$7,500,000,  with  which  to  complete  the  public 
works  already  planned  and  partly  undertaker. 
The  Welland  Canal  was  taken  over  by  the  gov- 
ernment and  reconstructed.  The  new  locks 
were  150  x  45  feet,  with  9  feet  of  water,  after- 
ward increased  to  10?^  feet.  These  were 
smaller  than  the  locks  of  the  Cornwall  Canal, 
which  were  200  x  45  with  9  feet  of  water.  The 
latter  was  opened  in  1843.  The  Beauhamois 
and  Williamsburg  canals  completed  the  Saint 
Lawrence  system.  They  were  built  on  the  same 
scale  as  the  Cornwall  Canal,  and  the  last  lock 
was  opened  in  1847.  The  completing  of  these 
canals  necessitated  the  enlargement  of  the 
Lachine  on  the  same  scale,  which  was  completed 
in  1848.    Thus,  in  1S49,  after  the  expenditure 


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CANADA— COMMSKCE,  TARIFFS  AND  TRANSPORTATION  («>         455 


of  upward  of  $20,000,000,  the  new  Canadian 
canal  system  was  prepared  to  accommodate  ves- 
sels drawing  nine  feet  of  water,  and  Canada  ex- 
pected to  realize  her  eagerly  awaited  control  of 
Ae  growing  traffic  of  the  great  basin  of  the 
Jakes. 

But  many  changes  in  commerce  and  trans- 
portation had  taken  place  between  the  opening 
of  the  Erie  Canal  and  the  opening  of  the 
Saint  Lawrence  system.  The  British  protec- 
tive and  colonial  system  had  been  aban- 
doned, and  grain  from  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  entered  Britain  as  freely  as  from  those  of 
Canada.  Moreover,  railways  were  transform- 
ing the  carrying  trade,  making  time  and  contin- 
uous service  essential  features  in  commerce. 
While  the  Canadians  were  preparing  their 
canals  to  capture  the'  American  carrying  trade 
of  the  West,  the  American  government  was  in- 
duced, in  1846,  to  establish  the  drawback  or 
bonding  system.  This  enabled  the  American 
railroads  and  other  transportation  companies  to  - 
make  a  successful  bid  for  a  large  share  of  the 
western  Canadian  carrying  trade  to  Atlantic 
ports.  Finally,  thou^  after  1849  western  prod- 
uce could  be  landed  at  Canadian  seaports  much 
more  cheaply  than  at  American  ports,  yet  this 
advantage  was  lost  through  nigher  ocean 
freights  and  higher  insurance  from  Canadian 
ports.    The  total  suspension  of  shipping  for  half 


with  the  railroads. 

Nothing  daunted  the  Canadians  with  their 
new  energy  and  self-reliance  grappled  with  the 
changed  conditions.  On  the  one  hand  the  gov- 
ernment undertook  the  improvement  of  the  navi~ 
gation  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  below  Montreal, 
especially  by  deepening  the  channel  of  the  river. 
The  depth  of  llj^  feet  at  the  time  was  in- 
creased to  18>^  by  I860,  and  has  since  been 
'       'yy,  fee  '  "'  '     " 


creased  to  27>i   1 


!  Montreal.    The 


doubtless  a  profitable  venture  for  Bri ,   — 

appearing  to  Canadians  as  an  additional  handi- 
cap for  the  Saint  Lawrence  route.  Canada  was 
constrained  to  subsidize  a  line  of  its  own, —  the 
Allan  —  for  weekly  service,  at  an  annual  cost  to 
the  country  of  $^5,000. 

TKe  American  boom  in  railroad  building, 
and  railroad  activity,  convinced  the  Canadians 
that  they  must  have  railroads  to  supplement 
their  canals.  TTiey  desired  independent  winter 
outlets  on  the  Atlantic,  and  connection  with 
American  markets  to  which  the  attention  of 
Canada  was  now  turning.  While  absorbed  in 
their  canals  the  Canadians  had  given  little  prac- 
tical attention  to  railroads.  Hence,  before  1840 
only  16  miles  of  railroad  had  been  built,  con- 
necting Montreal  with  Saint  John's  on  the 
Champlain  route  to  New  York.  Much  discus- 
sion took  place  and  many  charters  were  obt^ned 
during  the  forties,  but  little  of  a  serious  nature 
was  attempted.  In  1849  the  Canadian  govern- 
ment, chiefly  under  the  influence  of  Mr.  (after- 
ward Sir)  Francis  Hincks,  adopted  a  vigorous 
railroad  ^IJcy  by  undertaking  to  guarantee  6 
per  cent  mtcrest  on  a  sum  not  to  exceed  half 
the  cost  of  any  railroad  of  not  less  than  70 
miles  in  length.    Among  die  first  lines  to  be 


undertaken  was  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  Atlan- 
tic, connecting  Montreal  with  Portland  and 
opened  in  I8S3.  In  western  Canada  the  North- 
em  Railway,  from  Toronto  to  CoUingwood,  was 
the  first  to  be  built,  being  begun  in  1850  and 
opened  in  1853,  The  Great  Western  Railway, 
between  Niagara  and  Detroit,  was  the  next  to 
be  undertaken,  and  was  opened  in  1854,  Under 
the  fostering  direction  of  Mr.  Hincks,  the  Grand 
Trunk  R^lroad  was  chartered  in  1852,  as  the 
great  central  line  of  Canada.  In  1853  it  leased 
the  Saint  Lawrence  and  Atlantic,  and  when,  in 
1856,  the  main  line  was  opened  from  Toronto  to 
Montreal,  the  chief  commercial  districts  of  Can- 
ada were  connected  with  the  Atlantic  V  ^ 
Canadian  line. 

The  railroad  boom  lasted  from  1849  to  1857, 
involving  an  immense  outlay  of  capital,  chiefly 
British.  Both  the  central  government  and  the 
municipalities  were  deeply  pledged  in  support  of 
the  numerous  lines  undertaken.  The  crisis  of 
1857  brought  the  movement  to  a  close,  and  the 
pecuniary  embarrassments  of  most  of  the  lin« 
effectively  discouraged  further  railroad  enter- 
prises for  the  next  10  years.  In  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick  large  projects  were  also 
afoot  to  connect  Halifax  and  Saint  John  with 
the  New  England  States,  and  also  with  Canada. 
But,  beyond  small  sections  of  these  plans, 
chiefly  for  local  traffic,  little  was  accomplished 
before  Confederation.  The  general  situation  is 
reflected  in  the  following  figures.  In  1840  fliere 
were  in  the  British  North  American  provinces 
16  miles  of  railroad;  in  1850,  66  miles;  in  1860, 
2,065  miles,  and  in  1870,  2,617  miles. 

TariSs  and  Expansion  of  Trade.— Wtdi 
regard  to  tariffs,  the  central  feature  of  the 
period  between  1850  and  Confederation,  in  18lS7, 
was  the  Reciprodty  Treaty  with  the  United 
States,  signed  in  1854  and  abrogated  in  1866. 
It  established  reciprocal  free  trade  between 
the  British  North  American  provinces  and  the 
United  States,  in  all  natural  products.  This  se- 
cured free  entry  to  the  United  States  for  prac- 
tically everything  which  the  British  provmces 
had  to  sell.  (See  Canada  —  Reciprocity  with 
THE  United  States).  The  special  attraction 
for  the  United  States  was  the  freedom  of  ac- 
cess to  the  Canadian  fisheries  (q.v.)  ;  though 
the  Americans  also  enjoyed  large  local  markets 
for  agricultural  products  in  many  parts  of  the 
eastern  provinces.  According  to  Uie  statistics 
of  trade,  Canada  appeared  to  have  the  best  of 
the  bargain.  But  the  statistics  require  interpre- 
tation. Much  of  the  Canadian  export  to  the 
United  States  was  really  only  a  transit  trade; 
either  the  same  goods,  or  their  equivalent, 
being  shipped  from  Atlantic  ports.  Again,  be- 
tween 1854  and  1858  the  decline  in  the  amount 
of  manufactures  imported  from  the  United 
Stales  was  due  to  the  financial  crisis  of  18S7 
and  the  cessation  of  public  works  in  Canada. 
Then,  during  the  Ctvil  War  the  United  States 
was  extensivelv  purchasing  supplies,  and  had 
little  to  sell.  The  Canadians  themselves  have 
been  greatly  deceived  by  the  figures  of  the  reci- 
procity period,  and  imagined  that  a  like  result 
would   flow    from    the    renewal    of    reciprocal 

The  other  feature  of  importance  in  this  pe- 
riod was  the  increase  in  the  Canadian  tariff  on 
manufactured  goods,  in  1858  and  1859.  Owing 
to  the  large  public  debt  contracted  for  die  buila- 
ing  of  the  canals,  the  interest  on  which  was  not 


)glc 


459  CANADA— COMMERCE,  TAKIFFS  AND  TRANSPORTATION  (46) 


offset  by  tolls  as  expected,  and, 'more  imme- 
dialcly,  owing  to  the  great  obligations  incurred 
in  guaranteeing;  railroad  investments,  the  Cana- 
dian government  was  in  great  financial  straits 
after  1856  and  was  therefore  forced  to  seek  a 
larger  revenue.  Accordingly,  in  1858  the  tariiT 
on  imports  was  raised  the  general  rate  beine 
increased  from  about  12^  to  IS  per  cent,  ana 
in  1859  it  was  still  further  increased  to  20  per 
cent  The  British  merchants  and  manufacturers 
vigorously  protested  against  such  an  increase  of 
duties  on  the  goods  of  the  mother  coimtty,  and 
.the  manufacturers  of  the  United  States  con- 
sidered the  increase  of  duties  a  breach  of  faith, 
inasmuch  as  they  had  expected  their  advantage 
from  reciprocity  to  come  from  the  sale  of  man- 
ufactured goods.  The  Canadian  government 
replied  that  its  sole  object,  was  to  relieve  its 
financial  obligations,  not  to  check  imports. 

The  abrogation  of  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  in 
1866  produced  a  strong  effect  upon  the  Bntish 


of  1866  was  lowered  to  a  15  per  cent  standard, 
as  a  concession  to  the  freer  trade  leanings  of 
the  Maritime  provinces,  and  became  the  first 
tariff  of  the  Canadian  Dominion.  Canada  re- 
tained the  general  principles  of  a  tariff  for 
revenue  until,  in  common  with  other  countries, 
she  suffered  from  the  world-wide  depression 
of  1875-78.  An  effort  was  made  to  secure  the 
renewal  of  the  Reciprocity  Trea^.  This 
failed,  however,  and  a  change  of  government 
took  place  on  a  promise  of  relief  W  means  of 
a  protective  tariff.  This  new,  tanff  of  1879 
raised  the  general  standard  of  duties  from 
17^^  to  20  [»er  cent  Times  revived  throughout 
the  world  and  the  relief  promised  actually 
came.  The  tariff,  however,  did  not  prevent 
the  country  from  suffering  with  all  others  dur- 
ing the  next  period  of  depression,  from  1884 
to  1886,  though  the  tariff  had  been  raised  some- 
what in  the  interval.  Nor  did  the  country 
escape  during  the  next  depression,  from  1894-96, 
when  another  change  of  government  took  place 
after  a  general  election.  The  Liberal  party 
being  more  or  less  pledged  to  a  reduction  of 
duties,  found  this  more  diflicult  to  accomplish 
than  to  promise.  In  1897,  however,  the  tariff 
was  considerably  amended  in  the  interest  of 
the  consumer,  and  the  happy  expedient  was  de- 
vised of  offering  to  the  world  at  large  a  reduc- 
tion of  25  per  cent  on  the  general  tariff, 
wherever  Canada  was  treated  witn  equal  favor. 
As  Britain  was  practically  the  only  important 
country  fulfilling  these  umversal  conditions,  the 
policy  which  was  entered  upon  as  a  redemption 
of  the  party  pled^  ended  in  the  preferential 
treatment  of  British  goods  only.  This  limita- 
tion was  explicitly  recognized  in  1900,  when 
the  preference  on  British  imports  was  increased 
to  13^  per  cent.  Since,  for  various  reasons, 
Canadian  imports  from  Britain  were  declining, 
relatively  at  least,  this  concession  did  not  ad- 
versely affect  important  Canadian  industries  ex- 
cept in  the  department  of  textiles.  Accordingly 
in  1904  this  part  of  the  preferential  tariff 
was  amended  and  the  duties  were  raised.  At  the 
same  time  a  new  principle  of  maximum  and 
minimum  tariffs  was  outlined  for  the  future. 

For  a  decade  and  a  half  after  1897  a  steady 
tide  of  population  and  capital  set  in  toward 
Canada.  In  a  new  re^on  sudi  as  the  virgin 
plains  of  western  Canada,  the  new  and  exten- 


sive employment  of  labor  and  capital  resaltcd 
in  the  most  obvious  prosperity  and  radical 
changes  on  the  face  of  nature.  In  planting 
the  wilderness  with  the  homes  and  busy  trade 
centres  of  men,  a  lively  market  was  created 
for  all  manner  of  wares  for  construction  and 
consumption.  Even  the  wilderness  itself  soon 
came  to  have  a  highly  speculative  value,  whetber 
in  the  gross,  as  prospective  farms,  or  in  detail 
as  metropohtan  city  lots  estimated  at  so  much 
per  foot.  Thus  the  investment  of  one  dollar 
m  actual  capital  called  into  existence  several 
other  dollars  of  prospective  value,  and  the  real 
and     imaginary     were     exchanged     indiscrimi- 

Again,  the  building  of  modern  railroads 
into  unexploited  territorv  is  like  the  letting 
out  of  water  upon  the  thirsty  earth.  Even  in 
the  process  of  construction  they  irri^te  the 
country  with  millions  of  wealth,  producing  large 
harvests  of  profit  for  contractors  and  the  pur- 
veyors of  supplies.  They  afford  markets  for 
armies  of  workmen,  and  for  all  manner  of 
machinery,  implements  and  materials  of  con- 
struction and  equipment  When  completed 
these  agencies  of  transportation  open  the  wilder- 
ness to  the  home  seeker,  who,  merely  as  home 
builder,  furnishes  them  with  employment  for 
years,  and,  as  town  and  city  builders,  tor  dec- 
ades. Soon  the  speedy  returns  from  agricul- 
tural industry  furnish  the  railroads  with  traffic; 
alike  in  the  export  of  bountiful  harvests  and 
the  import  of  the  implements  with  which  they 
arc  to  be  increased,  and  the  myriad  of  miscel- 
laneous supplies  which  the  ingenuity  of  the 
modem  trader  brings  to  the  door  of  ttie  settler 
with  actual  or  prospective  crop  returns. 

All  these  features  were  strikingly  realized 
in  Canada  between  the  years  1897  and  1913 
and  may  be  illustrated  by  some  typical  con- 
crete facts.  The  immigration  from  the  ad- 
joining agricultural  and  industrial  regions  of 
the  United  States  was  very  marked  during  Ibis 

Criod.  The  annual  immigration  from  the 
nited  States  was  but  little  over  2.000  in  1897 
but  it  rose  to  139,000  in  1913.  During  the  same 
period,  the  annual  immigration  from  Britain  in- 
creased from  11,000  in  1897  to  150,000  in  1913. 
The  total  annual  immigration  from  all  countries 
increased  from  21,000  in  1897  to  402,000  in 
1913.  The  British  immigrants  as  a  rule  pre- 
ferred settlement  in  the  towns,  while  the  Amer- 
ican settlers  preferred  the  tarms,  thus  indi- 
cating the  life  to  which  the  respective- inuni- 
grants  bad  been  accustomed  before  coming  to 
Canada. 

The  natural  effect  of  the  modem  tendency 
toward  highly  specialized  production,  as  ap- 
plicable to  agriculture  as  to  other  induslnes, 
nas  enhanced  the  activities  of  urban  life  and 
reduced  proportionately  the  occupations  of  rural 
life.  Agricultural  madiinery  and  the  supplies 
for  the  farmers'  homes  are  now  chiefly  pro- 
duced in  the  cities.  The  rural  population  of 
Canada,  which  amounted  to  63  per  cent  in  1901, 
fell  to  SS  per  cent  in  1911.  This  decline  was 
marked  in  all  the  older  parts  of  the  country 
and  even  in  southern  and  central  Manitoba 
where  the  earliest  settlements  had  been  made 
in  the  West. 

The  trade  of  Canada  no  less  than  its  ponnli- 
tion  testified,  not  only  to  the  rapidity  ol  the 
development  of  the  country  between  1897  and 
1913,  but  to  the  fact  that  this  was  largely  due 


CANADA  — COHMSRCS,  TAfilPPS  AND  TKANSPOKTATION  (46)  4S7 


to  the  influx  of  itntnense  volumes  of  foreigii 
capita],  which  came  almost  entirely  in  the 
shape  of  g;oo<is  and  not  in  (he  form  of  money. 
Thus  the  total  trade  of  the  countiy,  which  bad 
stagnated  from  1875  to  1895,  having  increased 
barely  12  per  cent  in  those  20  years,  rose  from 
{224,000,000  in  1895  to  $550,000,000  in  1906.  la 
another  eight  years  it  had  increased  to  $1,129,- 
000,000,  in  1914.  It  then  fell  oft  some  $9,000,- 
000  durins  the  first  year  of  the  war,  but,  under 
the  stimulus  of  war  expenditure  and  munition 
sapplies,  ruse  to  $1,447,000,000  in  1916. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  capital  invest- 
ment already  referred  to,  the  imports  of  the 
country  rose  much  faster  during  theperiod 
of  expansion  than  did  the  exports.  Tnus  at 
the  beginning  of  the  period  of  expansion  in 
1897.  the  exports  of  the  country  exceeded  the 
imports  by  $18,000,000  on  a  total  trade  of  ?257,- 
000.OOO.  But  by  1906  the  imports  had  already 
exceeded  the  exports  to  the  extent  of  $37.- 
000,000,  and  in  1913  the  exports  had  reached 
an  excess  of  $298,000,000.  These  excesses  were 
completely  offset  by  borrowings  abroad,  much 
the  greater  part  being  obtained  in  the  London 
market.  With  the  rapid  falling  ofF  in  1913-14 
in  the  supply  of  borrowed  capital,  with  a  corrc- 

Sonding    reduction     in    capital     expenditure 
ere  was  a  severe  shriidcage  in  importation  and 
esponding  liberation  for  export  of  much 


were  made  in  the  tariffs  applicable  to  these 
(wo  countries.  Treaties  had  been  negotiated 
with  several  of  the  British  West  Indian  Is- 
lands on  the  basis  of  mutual  preference.  As 
already  indicated,  however,  for  the  past  cen- 
tury and  more,  many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  break  the  natural  trade  relations  originally 
established  between  the  West  Indies  and  the 
Atlantic  States  when  they  were  British  colonies. 
The  British  island  colonies  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  are  loath  to  invite  unfavorable  tarifE 
treatment  from  the  United  States  by  grant- 
ing special  favors  to  Canadian  trade.  Hence, 
white  some  of  the  smaller  islands  accept ea 
the  Canadian  offer,  the  larger  colonies  of  New- 
foundland, Bermuda,  Jamaica  and  Brifish 
Honduras  declined  to  respond  to  the  Canadian 
preference  extended  to  Uiem  for  three  years 
from  1912. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  regards  Canadian 
tariff  relations  with  Uie  United  States,  the 
situation  for  Canada  has  considerably  im- 
proved since  the  opening  of  the  century.  On 
the  one  hand,  Canadian  pviducts  have  been 
coming  ever  more  fully  into  world  markets; 
while,  on  the  other,  the  increasing  population 
and  industries  of  the  United  Slates  have  ren- 
dered the  Canadian  supplies  of  raw  materials 
and  food  products  a  matter  of  undoubtedly  ii 


-J   the    country   itself.        

Seatly    emphasized    during  the    first  year  of 
t  war,  when  British  capital  vras  practically 
entirely  cut  off  for  all  but  military  service. 

This  sharp  reversal  of  the  movement  of 
the  previous  decade  immediately  revealed  it- 
self in  the  trade  statistics  of  the  country.  The 
surplus  of  imports  of  S^OOO.OOO  in  1913  was 
reduced  to  $171,000,000  in  1914,  was  further 
reduced  to  $26,000,000  in  1915  and  in  1916  was 
converted  into  a  surplus  of  exports  of  $149,- 
000,000.  In  the  trade  returns  for  the  last  two 
years,  the  export  and  import  of  bullion  has 
been    eliminated    as   it    was    abnormally   influ- 


._i   Canadian  foreign  trade.     Thus  Britain 

is  the  chief  market  for  Canadian  exports,  while 
the  United  States  furnishes  the  chief  source  of 
supply  tor  Canadian  imports.  TTie  Canadian 
trade  with  all  other  countries  combined  makes 
bat  a  relatively  small  showing  in  comparison 
with  the  trade  carried  on  with  either  or  these 
two  countries.  In  the  decade  between  1904  and 
1914,  out  of  a  total  of  $2,892,000,000  of  exports 
Great  Britain  took  $1,447,000,000  and  the  United 
States  $1,157,000,000,  leavins:  only  $287,000,000 
as  taken  by  all  other  countries,  including  the 
other  sections  of  the  British  empire.  During 
the  same  period  Canada  imported  for  home 
consumption  a  total  of  $4,160,000,000,  of  which 
the  United  States  furnished  $2,601,000,000,  and 
Great  Britain  $952,000,000,  leaving  only  $605,- 
000/XX)  as  supplied  by  all  other  countries, 
whether  within  or  without  the  British  empire. 
Such  being  the  case,  the  tariff  relations  be- 
tween Canada  and  her  two  chief  customers. 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  are  of 
chief  interest  in  this  field.  Until  the  outbreak 
of  the  European  War,  however,,  few  changes 


coal,  cotton,  com,  etc^  and  for  many  important 
lines  of  manufacturea  goods  hag  been  steadily 
increasing.  These  changing  relations  naturally 
affected  uie  traditional  attitudes  of  the  respec- 
tive countries  toward  the  perennial  question  of 
reciprocity.  The  discussion  of  this  ijuestion 
was  renewed  in  1910.  and,  after  considerable 
negotiation,  centring  around  the  higher  and 
lower  schedules  of  the  Payne-Aldrich  tariff, 
there  emerged  the  reciprocity  agreement  of  1911, 
which  followed  fairly  closely  the  previous 
treaty  of  1854.  The  new  treaty  was  passed  by 
the  United  States  Congress  in  July  1911,  but 
was  successfully  blocked  by  the  opposition  in 
the  Canadian  House  oE  Commons  in  the  expir- 
ing days  of  the  irarliamentary  term  of  1911. 
The  general  election  which  necessarily  fol- 
lowed largely  tamed  on  this  issue,  and  revealed 
the  strength  of  the  growing  Canadian  senti- 
ment io  favor  of  maintaining  not  only  political 
but  commercial  independence.  The  existing 
government  was  defeated  in  the  election  ol 
September  1911.  In  consequence  the  treaty 
was  not  confirmed  and  the  tariff  relations  be- 
tween the  two  countries  remained  upon  the 
basis  of  the  ordinary  tarifi  legislation  of  each 
country. 

Sudi  modifications  as  have  been  made  in  the 

Sneral  Canadian  tariff  since  1911  have  been 
;e  to  special  local  interests.  The  changes 
introduced  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war  have 
been  determined  almost  entirely  on  revei 
grounds  and  will  be  dealt  with  under  the  s 
' PtJBLic  Finance. 


Ind dentally  ti 


has  secured  complete  fiscal  independence, 
bein^  no  longer  bound  t^  the  commercial 
treaties  negotiated  between  Great  Britain  and 
other  countries,  unless  she  explicitly  a^ees  to 
accept  the  terms  of  any  treaty.  Incidentally 
to  the  same  process  of  tariff  emancipation, 
Canada    found    herself    Involved    in    a    UriBE 


Google 


468  CANADA  — COMMERCE,  TARIFFS  AND  TRANSPORTATION  (46) 


quarrel  with  Germany.  This  lasted  for  some 
seven  years,  from  1903  to  1910,  ending  in  favor 
of  the  Canadian  contention.  During  this 
period  most  German  imports  reached  Canada 
as  Dutch,  Belgian  or  British  goods,  and  Cana- 
dian supplies  went  to  Germany  through  similar 
channels. 

Of  late  years  Canada  has  virtually  established 
an  independent  consular  service  under  the 
guise  of  a  system  of  trade  commissionerships. 
They  were  established  at  lirst  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain  and  other  portions  of  the  British  em- 
pire, but  now  extend  to  several  foreign  coun- 
tries with  which  it  is  desired  to  promote  direct 
trade  relations.  This  system  is  certain  to  be 
more  fully  developed  after  the  war. 

Railways. —  As  a  condition  of  Confedera- 
tion, in  the  East,  the  Intercolonial  Railway,  con- 
necting  the  Maritime  provinces  with  Canada, 
was  constructed  by  the  government  at  i 


of  a  transcontinental  line  to  British  Columbia, 
This  was  ultimatSly  realized  in  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  begtm  in  1881  and  completed  in 
1885  at  a  cost  to  the  country  of  $62,000,000  in 
cash  and  25,000,000  acres  of  land. 

The  rapid  development  of  Canadian  rail- 
ways since  1900  centres  upon  the  actual  and 
prospective  needs  of  the  immense  inland  areas 
west  of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  need  for  addi- 
tional facilities  for  main  line  transportation  has 
been  largely  incidental  lo  the  need  for  tx- 
tended  systems  of  branch  tines  for  the  settle- 
ment and  development  of  so  extended  an  area. 
A  solution  of  the  problem  has  been  largely 
effected,  but  unfortunately  without  any  very 
obvious  regard  to  either  economy  or  efficiency. 
The  combination  of  transcontinental  and  local 
service  has  been  attempted,  and,  so  far  as  con- 
struction is  concerned,  has  been  largely  realized 
by  three  independent  and  competitive  systems, 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  the  Grand  Trunk 
and  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railway  and  the 
Canadian  Northern  Railway.  In  various  por- 
tions of  the  western  provinces  other  more  or 
less  independent  but  chiefly  provincial  lines 
have  been  partially  constructed,  largely  on  the 
basis  of  liberal  financial  assistance  by  the  re- 
spective provinces  in  which  they  are  located. 
Most  of  the  larger  railroad  extensions  in  the 
East,  including  the  government  Transconti- 
nental Railway,  have  Seen  necessitated  by  the 
western  developments  of  the  three  larger  com- 

Knies.  Since  1870  the  mileage  of  the  railroads 
s  increased  as  follows:  1870,  2,617  miles; 
1880,  7,174  miles;  1890,  13,151  miles;  1900, 
17;,657  miles;    1910,  24,731    miles;   1915,  35,Sffi 

The  total  capitalization  of  the  Canadian 
railways  in  1914  was  $1,808,820,000,  nearly 
evenly  divided  between  stocks  and  bonds.  In 
addition  the  Dominion  government  has  sub- 
sidized the  railway  systems  to  the  extent  of 
$178,834/)00  in  cash.  It  also  granted  to  them 
31,864,000  acres  of  land  and  has  guaranteed 
their  bonds  to  the  extent  of  $127,965,000.  The 
Dominion  government  has  also  expended  $323,- 
596,000  in  building  or  purchasing  certain  rail- 
road lines  of  its  own,  chief  of  which  are  the 
Intercolonial  Railway  and  the  Transcontinental, 
both  built  entirely  by  the  government.  The 
provincial  governments  have  subsidized  the  rail- 
roads to  the  extent  of  $37,023,000  in  cash,  and 


23,876,000  acres  of  land,  and  have  guaranteed 
their  bonds  to  the  extent  of  $107,500,000.  To 
these  subsidies  must  be  added  the  cash  con- 
tributions of  the  municipalities,  amounting  to 
$17^14,000. 

The  outbreak  of  the  European  War  naturally 
disturbed  the  calculations  of  the  railroads  as  to 
their  normal  prospects,  affecting  them  both  as 
to  their  capital  financing  and  their  traffic  earn- 
ings. The  results,  however,  have  not  always 
been  adverse,  since  in  many  lines  their  earnings 


transportation  needs  incident  t.  ._.     ___ 

of  the  Canadian ,  railways,  and  especially  the 
Canadian  Paci6c  Railway,  found  the  year  1915- 
16  an  exceptionally  profitable  one.  The  net 
earnings  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  sys- 
tem for  that  year  amounted  to  over  $49,000,000, 
being  more  than  $15,000,000  in  excess  of  the 
net  earnings  of  the  previous  year.  At  the  same 
time  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  uid  the  Canadian 
Northern  railroads  experienced  difhculties  in 
connection  with  their  capital  financing,  which 
forced  them  to  come  to  the  government  for 
assistance  and  which  it  has  not  been  found  pos- 
sible to  resist.  At  present  a  commission  is 
investigating  the  whole  railroad  problem  of  the 
country  with  a  view  to  some  permanent  re- 
organization of  the  internal  transportation 
system  of  Canada. 

CuudB,—  Confederation  also  directed  atten- 
tion to  the  renewed  importance  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  route  and  the  economy  of  large  ves- 
sels for  the  carrying  trade.  It  was  determined 
to  enlarge  and  deepen  the  canal  system.  The 
new  movement  was  once  more  begun  at  Corn- 
wall, in  1876,  The  dimensions  of  ^e  new  locks 
were  270x45  feet  with  14  feet  of  water.  The 
other  canals  were  enlarged  or  quite  new  ones 
constructed  on  at  least  the  same  scale.  *  The 
Soulanges  Canal,  the  last  to  be  built,  has  locks 
of  280x45  feet  with  15  feet  of  water.  In  1895 
a  Canadian  canal  at  Sault  Sainte  Uarie  was 
opened  with  one  lock  of  900x60  feet  and  with 
18  feet  of  water.  There  is  now,  therefore,  a 
continuous  waterway  with  a  minimimi  depth  of 
14  feet  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  sea. 

Ae  usual  it  was  expected  that  when  the 
new  canal  system  on  a  14-faot  basis  was 
fully  completed,  the  grain  and  other  t''afHc 
from  the  West  would  be  largely  diverted  to  the 
Saint  Lawrence  route.  This  expectation,  how- 
ever, was  but  sli^tly  realized,  there  being  many 
factors  to  be  taken  into  account,  among  them 
the  construction  of  still  larger  vessels  upon  the 
upper  lakes  and  the  changed  conditions  of 
transatlantic  shim>ing,  tending  to  favor  the 
larger  American  ports.  The  forwarding  of 
gram  tended  to  shift  from  the  Saint  Lawrence 
route  below  Lake  Erie  to  the  New  York  and 
other  transatlantic  routes  throufjh  Buffalo, 
which,  at  present,  furnishes  the  chief  exit  for 
western  Canadian  as  well  as  American  grain. 
Still  another  attempt,  therefore,  is  being  made 
to  readjust  matters  by  a  further  enlargement 
of  the  Welland  Canal.  After  elaborate  sur- 
veys and  much  discussion,  with  incidentally  a 
considerable  agitation  from  Montreal  and 
northeastern  Ontario  for  the  construction  of  a. 
new  canal  route  via  the  Ottawa  River  and 
Gconnan  Bay,  it  was  decided  in  1912  to  under- 
take the  enlargement  of  the  Welland  CanaL 
This  involves  widening  and  deepening  the  nn- 


CANADA  — BANKING  SYSTEM  (47) 


400 


locked  section  of  the  canal  from  Lake  Erie 
to  Thorold,  and  the  construction  of  a.  new 
s;steni  of  seven  very  large  locks  from  that 
point  to  Lake  Ontario^  serving  the  purpose  of 
the  25  locks  on  the  existing  canal.  Ultimately, 
the  new  canal  will  furnish  a  water  way  of  30 
feef  in  dwrth  although  in  flie  meantime  of  25 
feet  tor  the  unlocked  section  of  it.  This  will 
amply  accommodate  all  present  vessels  from  the 
head  of  Lake  Superior,  the  Sanlt  Sainte  Marie 
having  a  miniminn  depth  of  only  18  feet  3 
inches.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  new  canal  is 
$50.00aOOO,  $2(^000,000  have  been  voted  and 
$10,000,000  expended,  but  further  operations 
are  likely  to  be  suspended  until  the  dose  of 
the  war. 

The  fun  benefit  of  the  new  Welland  Canal 
for  the  Saint  Lawrence  route  cannot  be  realized 
until  the  Saint  Lawrence  River  canals  from 
Prescotf  to  Montreal  are  also  enlarged,  the 
present  locks  on  this  section  ranging  from  14 
to  18  feet,  the  majority  with  the  lesser  depth. 

Meantime,  extensive  improvements  in  the 
harbor  accommodation  at  Saint  John,  N.  B., 
and  the  construction  of  new  terminal  facilities 
at  Halifax  are  expected  to  have  an  important 
inHnence  on  the  transatlantic  facilities  from 
Canada,  without  which  die  mere  improvement 
of  the  canals  would  not  be  sufficient  to  in- 
fluence the  present  and  possibly  future  trend  of 
Canada's  external  trade  through  American 
ports.  See  Canadian  Canals. 

Adak  Shostt, 
Commissioner  of  the  Dominion  CivU  Service. 

47.  BANKING  SYSTEM.  The  first  bank- 
ing estabUshment  in  Canada  was  a  private  bank 
fonnded  in  Montreal  in  1792,  under  the  name 
of  the  Canada  Banking  Company,  and  evidently 
intended  to  be  modeled  after  uie  English  pn- 
vate  banks.  It  opened  for  business  and  issued 
notes,  but  its  life  was  very  short.  In  1807-08 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  obtain 
from  the  legislature  of  Lower  Canada  a  chap- 
ter for  the  Bank  of  Canada,  which  would  have 
been  a  semi-government  bank,  resembling^  in 
many  respects  the  first  Bank  of  die  United 
States,  thon^  naturally  on  a  much  smaller 
scale.  In  1817  the  'Montreal  Bank*  began 
business  in  Montreal  as  a  private  partnership, 
this  being  the  origin  of  the  Bank  of  Montreu, 
which  was  for  many  years,  and  still  in  some 
respect  remain^  the  most  important  bank  on  . 
the  continent,  while  from  its  *Articles  of  Asso- 
dation*  there  has  been  developed,  with  steady 
continuity,  the  scientific  system  of  banking  taw 
which  exists  in  Canada  (o-day.  In  the  follow- 
ing vear  two  similar  associations  —  the  Quebec 
Bank  and  the  Bank  of  Canada  —  were  foirned, 
on  almost  identical  lines,  and  in  1822  all  three 
obtained  legislative  charters  of  incorporation, 
valid  for  10  years,  which  followed  the  articles 
of  asJodation  in  almost  every  important  par- 
ticular. They  differed  veiy  considerably,  how- 
ever, from  the  abortive  bill  of  1806.  Framed 
to  give  legal  recognition  to  associations  of 
merchants  already  actively  engaged  in  com- 
mercial banking,  they  were  throughout  de- 
igned to  meet  ordinary  commercial  require- 
ments, and  although  they  are  perhaps  more 
Temarkable  for  what  they  omitted  than  for 
what  they  included,  most  of  their  provisions 
were  sound  They  confined  the  bank's  business 
to  legitimate  lines,  they  prohibited  lending  upon 


the  ])1edgc  of  goods  or  upon  mort^g^  or  deal- 
ing in  real  estate,  and  they  providea  that  all 
notes  issued  were'to  be  redeemable  on  demand 
in  specie.  Power  to  otien  branches  was  not 
expressly  given,  but  as  it  was  not  denied,  its 
existence  wa^  assumed,  and  the  banks  did,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  open  branches  or  agencies  in 
both  Lower  and  Upper  Canada.  The  English 
private  banks  and  the  Scottish  chartered  banks 
were  the  joint  parents  of  these  Lower  Canadian 
charters,  and  of  the  Canadian  banking  system 
which  has  sprung  from"  them.  Various  changes 
and  additions  were  made  to  suit  Canadian  re- 
quirements, while  in  the  phraseolo^  used,  as 
well  as  in  some  of  the  internal  regulation^,  the 
influence  of  the  chartered  banks  in  the  United 
States  may  be  seen,  but  it  may  safely  be  said 
that  practically  everything  which  has  proved 
of  permanent  value  was  aerived  from  ^glish, 
Scotch  or  native  sources. 

In  Upper  Canada  the  earliest  banking  le^s- 
lation  was  on  political,  rather  than  commercial, 
tines,  and  the  nrst  charter,  that  of  the  Bank  of 
Upper  Canada,  granted  in  1821-22,  followed  the 
Lower  Canadian  bill  of  1806  rather  than  the 
articles  of  association  of  the  'Montreal 
Bank*  The  plan  as  first  adopted  was  not 
sound,  and  as  it  had  little  permanent  influence 
upon  later  l^slation  no  description  of  it  is 
necessary.  Ilie  Imperial  authorities,  by  pres- 
sure persistently  exerted,  succeeded  in  securing 
the  adoption  of  two  important  amendments 
which  are  Still  part  of  Canadian  banking  law. 
In  1832  banks  were  prohibited  from  holding,  or 
lending  on,  their  own  stock,  while  in  the  char- 
ter of  the  Gore  Bank,  granted  in  1S3S,  it  was 
provided  that  the  shareholders  should  be  in- 
dividually liable  for  the  debts  of-  the  bank  to 
an  amount  equal  to  their  respective  holdings  of 
subscribed  stodt    The 'prohibition  of  the  iend- 


charters,  was  never  adopted  in  Upper  Canada, 
although  strongly  urged  by  the  Colonial  Office. 

The  Union  of  the  two  Canadas  took  place 
In  18W,  and  at  its  first  session  in  1841  the 
legislature  of  the  province  of  Canada  adopted 
the  report  of  a  select  committee,  favoring  a 
uniform  system  of  bankiiig,  and  approving  a 
number  of  important  regulations  emanating 
from  the  Colonial  Office,  some  of  which  already 
existed  in  individual  charters.  All  notes  were 
to  be  payable  on  demand  in  specie,' they  were 
not  to  be  issued  to  an  amount  exceeding  the 
bank's  paid-up  capital,  and  suspension  of  specie 
payments  for  a  given  number  of  days  (not  in 
an]f  case  exceeding  60),  either  consecutively  or 
at  intervals  within  any  one  year,  was  to  forfeit 
the  charter.  The  bank  was  not  to  hold  its  own 
stock,  or  to  make  advances  against  it,  nor  was 
it  to  tend  money  on  security  of  lands  or  houses, 
or  ships,  or  on  pledge  of  merchandise.  These 
and  a  few  less  important  regulations  were 
incorporated  in  every  new  and  renewal  trank 
charter  thereafter  granted,  the  double  liability 
clause  was  made  applicable  to  every  bank,  and 
one  bank  was  prohiliited  from  holding  stock  in 
another,  except  such  as  might  be  taken  for  bona 
fide  debts,  contracted  in  the  usual  course  of 
business.  In  this  act  we  have  the  first  attempt 
to  deal  with  banking  in  a  systematic  way  and 
to  lay  down  general  rules  to  which  all  banks 
must  conform. 

Only  a  passing  mention  need  be  made  of 


Da 


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400 


CANADA  — BANKING  SYSTEM  (47) 


the  free  banldng  law  which,  avowedly  an  imi- 
tatioD  o(  the  free  banking  laws  of  the  Stale  of 
New  York,  was  passed  in  1850.  By  1854  its 
failure  was  evident,  the  free  banks  gradually 
died  out  or  obtained  charters,  and  the  act  was 
repealed  in  1866.  The  only  vestige  of  it  now 
to  be  found  is  the  provision,  revived  in  the 
Dominion  Act  of  iSSO,  that  notes  issued  by  a 
bank  should  be  the  first  charge  upon  its  assets. 

Up  to  1859  banks  had  been  prohibited  from 
lending  money  upon  the  pledge  of  goods,  but  in 
that  vear  an  act  was  passed  authorizing  a  bank 
to  take  bills  of  lading  warehouse  receipts,  etc., 
as  collateral  security  for  the  payment  of  any 
bill  or  note  discounted  by  it,  providing  the 
security  was  taken  at  the  time  the  bill  was 
negotiated. 

Little  need  be  said  as  to  the  banldng  history 
of  the  other  provinces.  The  charters  in  the 
Maritime  Provinces  were  very  similar  to  those 
of  Lower  Canada,  Manitoba  had  no  existence 
aa  a  province  before  it  joined  the  Confedera- 
tion, while  British  Columbia  had  passed  no 
banking  legislation,  its  only  bank  having  been 
incorporated  under  an  Imperial  charter,  which 
has  now  been  surrendered. 

At  Confederation,  in  1867,  all  right  to  legis- 
late regarding  banking  was  vested  in  the  Fed- 
eral government,  but  the  initial  task  of  fram- 
ing a  comprehensive  banking  law  which  should 
be  uniform  for  the  whole  Dominion  was  by 
no  means  an  easy  one.  Banldng  experiences 
during  the  previous  two  or  three  years  had 
not,  been  altogether  happy,  very  divergent 
views  were  held,  and  even  among  bankers  there 
was  a  wide  difference  of  ownion,  a  difference 
•  s6me   extent    followed  geographical 


Provinces    there   was   a    widespread 

desire  for  a  change,  A  system  which  m  its 
main  features  would  have  followed  pretty 
closely  the  banking  practice  of  the  United 
States  was  in  1869  proposed  to  Parliament  by 
Mr.  Rose,  then  Minister  of  Finance,  and  was 
Strongly  supported  by  representatives  of  the 
Bank  of  Montreal  and  the  Bank  of  British 
North  America,  But  determined  opposition 
developed,  and  the  proposals  were  withdrawn. 
A  new  Finance  Minister,  Sir  Francis  Hincks, 
having  taken  office,  an  act  was  passed  in_1870, 
continuing  many  existing  features  and  intro- 
ducing some  new  ones.  But  the  first  really 
important  Bank  Act  passed  after  Confedera- 
tion was  that  of  1871  (34  Vict.  Chap.  V), 
which  embodied  all  the  provisions  of  an^ 
charter  or  general  act  then  in  force  which  it 
seemed  desirable  to  perpetuate,  making  them 
applicable  immediately  to  all  new  banks,  and 
to  all  the  existing  banks  as  soon  as  their  re- 
spective charters  e:g>ircd.  A  few  small  banks 
in  the  Maritime  Provinces  continued  for  sev- 
eral years  under  their  old  charters,  the  last 
one  coming  under  the  operation  of  the  act  on 
1  March  1892.  While  each  bank  retained  the 
necessarily  individual  features  of  its  own 
charter  —  those  relating  to  its  name,  capital, 
chief  place  of  business,  etc —  and  while  it  still 
remained  necessary  for  every  new  bank  to 
obtain  a  special  act  of  incorporation  (which  it 
could  do  as  a  matter  of  course  during  any  ses- 
sion of  Parliament,  if  it  confonned  to  the 
prescribed  conditions),  the  new  act  made  all 
other  regulations  uniform,  with  some  unimport- 


ant exceptions  in  the  case  of  the  Bank  of 
British  North  America,  which  was  itKorpo- 
rated  under  an  Imperial  diarter,  and  La 
Bauque  du  Peuple,  which  has  since  passed  out 
of  existence.  Ejccept  for  the  express  right 
given  to  a  bank  to  tt^e  advances  on  the  stodc 
of  other  banks  (a  most  objectionable  enact- 
ment, repealed  in  1879),  no  new  features  of 
special  consequence  were  introduced.  It  pro- 
vided that  no  bank  should  issue  notes  of  less 
than  $4  each,  and  that  every  bank  should 
hold  as  nearly  as  practicable  one-4ialf,  and 
never  less  than  one-third,  of  its  cash  reserves 
in  Dominion  notes  (both  provisions  designed 
to  increase  the  issue  of  Dominion  notes)  :  but 
the  importance  of  the  act  rests  on  the  fact 
that  it  finnly  established  in  Canada  a  banking 
S}^tem  based  upon  Canadian  and  British  prin- 
ciples, R  system  which,  modified  and  improved 
from  time  to  time,  exists  in  Canada  to-day. 
Its  chief  features  are :  large  banks,  the  brandi 
system,  an  elastic  assets  currency,  no  fixed  re- 
serves and  the  double  liability  of  shareholders. 
In  1S79  the  Bank  Act  was  revised,  and.  in  1890 
it  was  revised  and  re-enacted,  wlule  an  amend- 
ing act  (63,  64  Vict  Chap.  26)  was  duty  passed 
in  1900,  but  only  two  new  provi^ons  require 
mendon.  Specif  powers  were  given  in  1900 
imder  which  any  bank  might  sell  the  whole  or 
any  portion  of  its  assets  to  any  other  bank, 
and  the  Canadian  Bankers'  Association  was 
formally  recognized  and  mven  certain  definite 
legal  powers  and  duties.  For  a  long  time  past 
it  had  been  an  established  rule  to  enact  the 
Bank  Act  for  10  years  only,  thus  ensuring  a 
periodical  discussion  of  the  whole  theorv  and 
practice  of  banking,  -wbUt  during  the  lO-ycar 
mtervals  the  banks  could  enjoy  comparative 
peace.  A  revision  of  the  act  was  accordingly 
due  in  1910,  but  at  that  time  the  pablic  mind 
was  much  disturbed  over  two  or  three  recent 
bank  failures,  and  it  was  therefore  deemed 
best  to  postpone  discussion  and  revision.  But 
the  act  of  1900  would  expire  on  1  July  1911,  so 
in  order  to  keep  the  bank  diarters  in  force  the 
Act  was  extended  from  year  to  year  until  1913, 
when  it  was  decided  to  deal  with  the  matter. 
Ajs  a  resuh  of  public  feeling,  and  of  a 
persistent  anti-bank  ^tation  which  had  been 
goin^  on  in  iome  of  the  newspapers,  the  whole 
banking  sjrstem  was  subjected  to  very  close 
and  searcmng  criticism.  Many  radical  chan^:cs 
were  proposed,  some  of  them  meeting  with 
strong  suTOort  both  in  Parliament  and  in  the 
country.  But  while  some  important  alterations 
were  embodied  in  the  new  act,  there  was  no 
real  departure  from  the  principles  of  the  es- 
tablished system,  which  may  be  said  to  have 
encountered  successfully  the  hostile  critidaii 
to  which  it  was  exposed.  The  new  act  (3-4 
George  V,  Chap.  9)  came  into  force  on  1  July 
1913  and  will  expire  on  1  July  1923.  Until  that 
date  it  is  the  charter  of  every  Canadiao  bank 
(except  a  couple  of  savinp  banks  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec),  and  under  it  every  bank  bu 
exactly  similar  rights,  privileges  and  limita- 
tions*; the  Bank  of  Montreal,  with  paid-up 
capital  and  reserve  fund  of  $3ZO0O;O00i  and  the 
Weybum  Security  Banl^  which  has  a  paid-up 
capital  and  reserve  fund  of  $535,320^  standing 
-on  precisely  the  same  legal  footing.    The  mini- 


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CANADA  — BANKING  SYSTEM  (4r) 


481 


mum  subscribed  capital  necessary  before  a  new 
bank  can  begin  business  is  $500,000,  of  which 
at  least  $250,000  must  be  actually  paid  up  in 
cash  and  deposited  with  the  Minister  of  Fi- 
nance. After  the  bank  is  in  operation  the 
shareholders  may,  by  passing  a  by-law 
general  meeting,  and  a.'"  •     •  -  ■  • 


any  part  of  it  without  b«ng  authorized  to  do 
so  by  the  Bank  Act  or  by  some  other  act,  nor 
may  he  use  foreign  words  equivalent  to 
■banker*  or  'private  banker"  There  are  now 
very  few  private  bankers  in  Canada,  and  their 
operations  are  on  quite  a  small  scale.  The  fol- 
ftenvard  obtaining  the      lowing  tables  give  the  principal  items  i 


LIABIUTIBE  (000  Omitted). 


Si£ 

n 

-of 

"-^ 

T 

" 

To  public 

31  Dec 

Cu<4<h 

^S 

Swpta. 

m. 

NotsiD 

oiculttkm 

D«|»it. 

ToU 
bbilitin 
Mpvblk 

1«70 

1*80 

ino 

1900 

III?:::::: 
1^- 

» 

11 
(Pit 

i 

i 

k 

1 

•S:!S 
S:S! 

99,676 

ill 

..J 

34,  SOI 

■11 

iii:*s7 

»i.«i 

i'i 

j:724 

i:| 

S,31B 

(la.sM 

871694 
lOS^OTO 

■      90:M7 

i:S:Sl 

Hi 

tTI,4M 

'■f'f 

1.499.1M 

1,706,94S 

i.oei.TM 

ASSBTS  (000  Ondttaj). 


31  Dae. 

Si-«iu 

d  Dominion  n 

,„ 

BwaritiM 

fc^ 

iDbwka 

Ookl 

Tom] 

•14.0ie 
16, 4U 

■sii 
ili 

100,  «I0 

*6«S 

ill 

239;  611 

ill 

16J:T77 
468,406 

ril;Sg 

iin:o56 

3AZ,043 
1,108,416 

i'mo'om 

Is 

0  five  other  mutt  fauiki  not  reportinc. 
3)  Bl(d>t  other  snal]  bulb  not  reporting. 
4  TvD  other  bmU  banln  K ' 


%  has  been  ndueed  tc 


reduced  below  $250,000.  Before  a  bank  may 
begin  business  it  must  obtain  from  the  Treas- 
ury Board  a  certificate  that  it  has  complied 
with  all  the  requirements  of  the  law,  this  cer- 
tificate to  be  obtained  within  oneyear  of  the 
date  of  the  act  of  incorporation.  The  Treasury 
Board  is  the  financial  committee  of  the  Privy 
Council  for  Canada,  composed  of  five  Cabinet 
ministers,  with  the  Minister  of  Finance  as 
chairman.  No  person  or  coiTioration  may  use 
the  word  «bank,»  or  the  worth  'savings  bank,* 
■banking  company,"  "bankinR  house,*  *banldng 
association*  or  "banking  institute,"  or  any  word 
or  words  of  import  equivalent  thereto  m  any 
foreign  language,  to  describe  his  business  or 


te  Tftte  being  la 

The  chief  place  of  business  of  most  of  the 
banks  is  at  either  Montreal  or  Toronto,  only 
three  having  their  head  offices  wciSt  of  Ontario. 
The  rif^t  to  establish  branches  is  specifically 
granted,  and  most  of  them  have  numerous 
branches,  several  being  represented  in  nearly 
every  Canadian  town  of  any  importance.  The 
Bank  of  Montreal,  for  instance,  has  about  174 
branches  in  Canada  and  10  elsewhere  the 
Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce  about  374  in 
Canada  and  7  elsewhere,  and  the  Royal  Bank 
of  Canada  about  366  in  Canada  and  65  else- 
where. Several  have  branches  or  agencies  in 
London  and  some  of  the  more  important  cities 
in  the  United  Slates,  those  represented  in  New 


d=,  Google 


CANADA  — BANKING  SYSTEM  (47) 


aga  exchange.  NewfoundTand  is  entirely  de- 
pendent for  its  banking  facilities  upon  the 
Canadian  banks,  which  have  some  28  branches 
there^  while  a  large  proportion  of  the  whole 
banking  business  of  the  West  Indies,  including 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  British  Guiana,  etc,  ts  done 
hy  two  Canadian  banks  ^  the  Royal  Bank  of 
Canada  and  the  Bank  of  Nova  Scotia, —  which 
have  between  them  about  70  branches  in  the 
West  Indies  and  adjoining  districts.  The  fore- 
gotng  tables  show  that  the  21  banks  in  existence 
at  the  end  of  1917  had  3,100  branches^  an 
average  of  148  branches  per  bank:  Each  bank 
is  adnrinistered  by  directors,  not  less  than  five 
in  number,  who  are  elected  annually  by  the 
shareholders,  each  share  carrying  one  vote. 
Directors  must  each  hold  paid  op  stock  of 
from  three  to  five  thousand  dollars,  according 
to  the  total  amount  of  the  capital  stock;  the 
majority  of  them  must  be  British  subjects 
domiciled  in  Canada.  A  general  meeting  of 
shareholders  must  be  held  annually  at  wluch 
directors  must  submit  a  dear  and  full  state- 
ment of  the  aflairs  of  the  bank.  Statements 
of  assets  and  liabilities  (in  a  prescribed  form) 
must  be  sent  monthly  to  the  Minister  of  fi- 
nance, by  whom  they  are  published  in  the 
Canada  Gasttte.  Two  or  three  other  returns 
arc  also  required  and  the  Minister  of  Finance 
has  power  to  call  for  special  information  from 
any  bank.  The  banks  have  long  made  a  prac- 
tice of  having  all  their  branches  and  d^jart- 
ments  inspected  at  least  once  a  year  by  their 
own  injectors,  but  until  1913  no  system  pre- 
vailed either  of  audit  by  the  shardolders  or 
of  examination  by  the  government.  In  that  year, 
in  deference  to  popular  sentiment,  provision 
was  made  for  an  audit  by  a  person  or  persons 
appointed  by  the  shareholders  of  each  bank 
in  general  meeting  such  persons  being  selected 
each  year  from  a  list  of  persons  (not  less  than 
40  in  number)  chosen  by  ballot  by  the  general 
managers  of  all  the  baidcs  at  a  meeting  called 
annuity  for  that  purpose,  and  approved  by  the 
Minister  of  Fmance.  Every  such  auditor  has 
a  ri^t  of  access  to  the  books  and  accounts, 
cash,  securities  and  dociunents  of  the  bank, 
and  is  entitled  to  require  from  the  directors 
and  officers  such  infonnation  and  explanations 
ag  may  be  necessary  for  the  performance  of 
his  duties.  The  auditor  must  certify  to  the 
correctness  of  the  statement  presented  to  the 
annual  general  meeting  of  shareholders,  and 
of  any  other  statement  which  the  shardiolders 
may  by  by-taw  require.  Provision  is  made 
for  special  audits  at  the  direction  of  the  Min- 
ister of  Finance.  The  practical  working  out 
of  this  audit  system  is  still  on  trial,  but  it  may 
be  anticipated  that  at  the  next  revision  of  the' 
Bank  Act  the  selection  of  the  panel  of  au^tors 
will  be  removed  from  the  general  managers, 
the  persons  a^ninst  whom  the  audit  is  more 
particularly  directed,  that  more  practical  <»>- 
portunity  for  independent  selection  will  be 
given  Co  the  shareholders,  and  that  a  restriction 
will  be  placed  on  the  number  p(  banks  for 
which  any   one   person    (or  members  of   the 


generally  its  chief  executive  officer,  but  in  Can- 
ada this  is  not  the  case.  British  precedent  is 
followed,  and  the  bank  is  managed  by  a  general 
manager,  who  accepts  the  fullest  responsibility 


for  the  conduct  of  its  business.  The  Board  of 
Directors  deliberate  on  all  important  transac- 
tions and  all  applications  for  lai^  credits  which 
have  been  approved  by  the  general  manager 
are  submitted  to  Ihem.  The  branch  managers 
are  responsible  for  the  general  business  of  their 
respective  branches^  and,  as  a  rule,  are  allowed 
to  use  their  own  discretion  in  making  adrances 
up  to  certain  amounts,  varying  according  to 
the  importance  of  the  particular  branch.  Any 
loans  applied  for  in  excess  of  the  limit  fixed 
must  be  referred  to  the  general  mana^snent  at 
the  head  oflice.  By  means  of  the  branch  sys- 
tem credit  is  distributed  throughout  the  whole 
country;  money  borrowed  from  depositors  in 
the_  rich  but  less  progressive  portions  of  On- 
tario may  be  lent  ont  again  in  the  newest  parts 
of  the  Northwest,  and  interest  tends  toward 
a  common  level.  The  average  rate  obtained  in 
western  Canada  is  only  about  1  per  cent  more 
than  in  Ontario.  The  banks  being  large,  and 
under  no  restrictions  as  to  the  amount  which 
they  may  lend  to  any  one  customer,  are  able 
to  supply  the  total  needs  of  any  person  with 
whom  they  are  willing  to  do  business.  They 
grant  yearly  credits,  and  practically  undertake 


the 


limit  hxed  at  any  time  during  the  c. 

of  the  credit.  As  a  corollary  to  this  they 
almost  invariably  require  that  each  customer 
shall  borrow  from  only  one  baidc 

No  special  percentage  of  cash  reserves  is 
required  to  be  kept  — in  fact,  the  banks  are 
not  required  by  law  to  keep  any  cash  or  other 
reserves  —  but  of  whatever  cash  reserves  are 
kept  in  Canada  at  least  40  per  cent  must  be 
in  Dominion  notes.  Percentages  of  cash  re- 
serves to  total  liabilities  to  the  public  held  by 
all  banks  on  31  December  in  certain  years  were 
as  follows: 

(000  Omitted). 




Pn- 

Doqiin- 

ToUl 

Toua 

31  Dec 

9ptc» 

imi 

Uabilido 
topuUic 

ti. 

1900... 

»11,T7J 

»1»,7SS 

«31.33B 

»392,I50 

8  4 

19  0.-. 

33.411 

76,007 

109.4  S 

31. M4 

i;?74;3ii 

33, 7W 

H.SW 

m'.itu 

i;3o«:7S7 

ii3:2« 

2io;jit 

1,314.646 

74.20 

ise.em 

230,90: 

1,4«,I84 

1.T06.94S 

1917.. 

101,712 

2M,0» 

HA.tll 

2.081,733 

16:6 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  banks' 
cash  reserves  are  only  their  first  line  of  de- 
fense. Their  real  reserves  are  in  the  shape  of 
call  loans  in  New  York  against  stocks  and 
bonds,  balances  in  the  hands  of  their  corre- 
spondents and  securities  lodged  with  their 
agents  in  London  and  elsewhere,  against  whic^ 
they  are  entitled  to  draw  at  any  moment.  New 
York  and  London  are  the  final  settlement 
points,  and  it  is  there  that  real  strength  is 
most  necessary  and  most  effective. 

On  31  Dec.  1917  there  were  25  clearing 
houses  in  Canada,  the  oldest  being  that  at 
Halifax,  which  was  established  on  1  July  1886, 
Montreal  followed  in  January  1889  and  Toronto 
in  July  1891.     The  others,  listed  in  order  of 


d=y  Google 


CANADA  — BANKING  SYSTBU  (47) 


l^neouver^  Victoria,  Quebec,  Ottawa,  London, 
Calgary,  Edmonton,  R^ina,  Brandon,  Leth- 
brioga.  Saskatoon,  Brantlord,  Uoose  Jaw,  New 
Westminster,  Medidne  Ha^  Peterboro,  Fort 
William,  Kitchener  and  Sherbrooke. 

The  total  clearings  in  certain  years  have 
been:  190a  $1,584,869,240;  1910,  $6,115,039^1; 
1911,  $74«.729,546:  1912,  $9,147,334,855;  1913, 
$9^0,096.680;  1914,  ffl,063.8 1 4,799 ;  1915.  $7,- 
276.4^,210;  1916,  $l6.5S7.187,917;  1917,  $12,552.- 
821,949. 

The  ri^t  to  issue  notes  intended  (or  cir- 
culation (odier  than  notes  issued  by  the  Do- 
minion goverrunenL  see  Currency,  Coinage 
AND  Legal  Tend^)  is  confined  to  the  diar- 
tered  banks.  The  bank  may  issue  and  re- 
bsue  notes  of  $5  and  multiples  thereof,  which 
must  circulate  at  par  in  any  and  every  part  of 
Canada  and  must  be  redeemed  on  demand  in 
specie  or  Doftiinion  notes.  In  order  to  ensure 
this  the  bank  must  establish  agencies  for  the 
redemption  and  payment  of  its  notes  at  To- 
ronto, Montreal,  Halifax,  Saint  ^ohn,  Winni- 
peg, Victoria,  Chartottetown,  Regina  and  Cal- 
ory, and  at  such  other  places  as  are,  from 
time  to  tim&  designated  by  the  Treasury 
Board.  In  addition,  the  bank  must  accept  its 
own  notes  in  payment  at  any  of  its  branches. 
The  notes  issued  by  a  bank  are  a  first  charire 
upon  all  its  assets,  and  they  are  alio  especially 
secured  by  the  Centra)  Gold  Reserve  and  by 
the  'Bank  Circulation  Redemption  Fund,*  to 
which  all  the  banks  have  contributed  5  per 
cent  on  thdr  average  circulation  and  which 
is  held  by  the  government  for  the  purpose  of 
redeeming  with  interest  at  5  ^r  cent  any 
notes  of  a  suspended  bank  which  die  bank 
or  its  liquidator  is  not  ready  to  redeem  within 
two  months  after  the  date  of  suspension.  The 
result  of  this  is  that  the  other  banks  readily 
accept  at  par  the  notes  of  s  suspended  bank, 
the  notes  remaining  in  their  hands  earning 
interest  at  5  per  cent  until  they  are  redeemed. 
As  the  banks  are  obliged  to  replenish  the 
Redemption  Fund  gradually  if  it  ever  becomes 


ing   interest   _.   ,   ,_.      .  .  ..     __._    ,  .. 

been  made  on  it.  Since  1S41  the  limit  of  the 
bank's  authorized  note  issue  had  been  the 
amount  of  its  unimpaired  paid-up  capital,  and 
for  many  years  the  banks  had  found  no  diffi- 
culty in  Keeping  well  below  this  limit.  So  laie 
as  31  Dec.  1890  the  total  paid-up  capital  of  all 
the  banks  was  $60,000,000,  while  their  note 
1   only  $35,000,000.     But   early  in   the 


failed  to  keep  pace  with  increase  in  business 
that  on  31  October  of  that  year  the  total 
note  issue  had  reached  its  legal  maximum,  un- 
less and  until  some  of  the  banks 
their         ■    ■     - 


five  months  each  year,  the  banks  ..  __ 
loath  to  increase,  for  this  purpose  alone,  cap- 
ital which  was  otherwise  sufficient,  so  in  1906 
each  bank  was  authorised  to  issue  'during  the 
season  for  moving  the  crops,*  that  is,  Irom 
1  October  to  31  January,  'excess  circulation* 
to  the  extent  of  15  per  cent  of  its  combined  un- 
impaired paid-up  capital  and  rest    In  1912  this 


period  was  extended  to  run  from  1  September  to 
the  end  of  February.  On  this  'cr<qi-moving* 
issue  the  bank  must  pay  to  the  government  inter- 
est at  a  rate  to  be  6Ked  by  the  government,  but 
not  exceeding  5  per  cent  per  annum.  In  1913 
provision  was  made  for  'cenlral  gold  reserves.' 
Trustees  are  appointed  bv  the  Canadian  Bank- 
ers' Association  and  by  the  Minister  of 
Finance^  who  receive  such  amounts  in  current 
gold  coin  and  Dominion  notes,  or  either,  as 
any  bank  may  desire  from  time  to  time  to 
deposit  Against  the  g'^ld  and  notes  thus  act- 
ually held  tor  it,  any  bank  may  at  any  time 
issue  notes  of  an  equal  amount,  in  addition 
to  the  amount  which  it  may  otherwise  issue. 
The  'excess  circulation*  provision  was  also 
continued.  Although  this  arrangetnent  makes 
it  easy  (or  the  banks  to  furnish  all  the  cur- 
rency needed,  it  may  be  doubted  whether,  from 
the  public  standpomt,  it  is  altosether  wise. 
The  'gold  reserve*  feature  is  illogical,  inas- 
much as  assets  which  already  form  part  of 
the  general  security  for  the  total  note  issue 
are  placed  in  the  hands  of  trustees,  and  there 
used  as  spedal  security  for  an  addiuonal  issue. 
All  that  IS  gained  is  the  physical  certainty  of 
their  actual  and  continueti  existence,  and  pos- 
sibly some  small  increase  in  total  cask  reserves. 
But  as  the  security  is  ample  in  any  event,  this 
is  of  little  consequence.  A  serious  objection  is 
that  the  banks  are  thereby  i^lieved  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  from  the  necessity  of  increasing 
their  capital  from  thne  to  time  as  their  business 
increases,  and  thus  the  'margin  of  safety,*  in 
the  form  of  capital  and  double  liability,  which 
is  the  general  creditors'  insurance  against  loss, 
tends  constantly  to  become  proportionately  less 
at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  it  otherwise  would. 
And  in  this  way,  too,  any  tendency  to  undue, 
concentration  in  banking  is  strengthened. 

Very  heavy  fines  are  imposed  in  the  case 
of  over-issue,  these  fines  varying  from  the 
amount  of  the  excess  drculabon,  if  the  ex' 
cess  is  not  over  $1,000,  up  to  $100,000,  if  the 
excess  is  over  $200,000. 

The  security  behind  the  total  bank  issue  ts 
shown   by   the   following  figures: 
Totai   note   bne   31    Dec.    1917    (at  tha 
•2t.0TB.M9  tMld  bT  iMln) H92.W3.M4 

SpeoEluld: 

By  buila  (mboBt  90  per  cent  lold) tSl.(Ml,S6J 

In  centnl  gold  rocrve  (gMi 19,Ma.O0D 

Dnminian  notei  hrid  by  buik> 213.099.000 

(Gold  held  uaiaft  qota  by  mynn^ 
mmt,  my  •TtU.OOO.OOW 

CiRidition  Radcmptkm  Ftmd S,7M.63t 

Domiiuoa  nnd  ikovuicb]  nuwuuiBiit  ■»- 
aaitiei 1S«.?0J,175 

tStl.lM.fM 
Other  M«t» l.T«1.8T9.1U 

TotiilMMM , (2.323. 163. TB3 

Double  lubility  of  ihacdioldan 106.101, 110 

Dnpiid  Modi 41T,«90 

Tot«l  ncoritr t2,*».3»»;383 

The  bank's  unissued  notes  cost  it  nothing, 
except  for  paper,  printing  and  transmission, 
and  It  is  thus  enabled  to  keep  at  each  of  its 
branches  a  sufficient  supply  of  currency  for 
ordinary  requirements,  without  any  loss  of 
interest  except  on  a  tnfling  amount  of  change- 
making  currency.  This  has  an  important 
bearing  upcMi  the  cost  of  establishing  and  con- 
ducting small  branches.     As  the  note  issue  is 


d=y  Google 


CANADA— BANKING  SYSTEM  (47) 


a  source  of  profit,  each  bank  pays  out  within 
its  limit  only  its  own  notes  and  sends  in  for 
redemption  the  notes  of  other  banks  which  it 
receives.  Daily  exchanges  are  made  at  evetv 
point  where  two  or  more  banks  are  representea, 
each  bank  sending  in  to  the  other  all  the  notes  ■ 
issued  by  the  other  bank  which  it  received  the 
previous  day.  TTie  resulting  balances  are  set- 
tled at  the  smaller  places  bs;  drafts  on  the  Oear- 
ing-House  centres.  In  this  way  an  automat- 
ically elastic  currency  is  obtained,  and  the  banks 
are  enabled,  up  to  the  extreme  limit  of  their 
issuing  power,  to  meet  the  annual  demand  for 
currency  to  "move  the  crops'^  a  demand  which 
in  an  agricultural  country  like  Canada  is  very 
urgent  —  while  at  the  same  time  the  daily  re- 
demption provides  that  the  extra  supply  of 
notes  will  he  forced  out  of  circulation  as  soon 
as  the  need  of  them  has  passed.  The  elasticity 
of  the  note  issue  is  shown  by  the  following 
table; 


TOTAL  NOTK  ISSUE  OF  THE  CHARTEBED  BANKS. 

(OOOomitWd) 

Low«t  point 

UiaheMpaist 

«sch8d 

rwcbed 

Per- 

ls' 

Anxnmt 

D^ 

Amount 

DBt> 

900 

t41.310 

JanouT 

«M.198 

Octoba 

28.  IS 

»o: '. '. 

T3JI1I 

93,991 

30. S 

Ml... 

TTllll 

I0S.B55 

912  . 

18.065 

113,473 

Kovembn 

Jlil 

»4.5T6 

119.497 

16.3 

93,  OM 

Ainil 

123,743 

October 

i9is:;: 

96  IM 

114,134 

Novcmbn' 

111.029 

JsnuuT 

148, 78J 

DooBmber 

34.0 

1917.. 

1J3.3S8 

Novnsbtr 

47.0 

In  the  course  of  each  bank's  daily  business, 
it  receives  notes  issued  by  other  banks,  which 
sre  not  sent  in  for  redemption  until  the  follow' 
ing  day,  at  the  eariiesi-~- sometimes  not  for 
two  or  three  days.  A  certain  proportion, 
therefore,  of  the  total  note  issue  is  always  in 
the  hands  of  the  banks  themselves,  and  of 
total  notes  in  circulation  on  31  Dec.  1917,  of 
1192.923,824,  the  amount  thus  held  was  $24,- 
078,909,  or  about  12.5  per  cent  of  the  toUl  out- 
standing, leaving  $168,844,917,  or  about  87.5  per 
cent  actually  in  the  hands  of  the  public. 

The  Canadian  Bankers'  Association  is  by 
statute  chared  with  the  duty  of  supervising 
and  controlling  all  details  connected  with  the 
issue  of  notes.  The  merits  of  the  Canadian 
bank  note  may  be  thus  summed  up :  First,  it 
is  safe ;  nothing  but  national  insolvency 
could  make  its  ultimate  redemption  doubtful. 
Second,  it  is  redeemable  on  demand  in  specie 
or  Dominion  notes;  if  suspension  of  payment 
occurs,  the  note  bears  interest  at  5  per  cent 
until  it  is  redeemed,  and  if  not  redeemed  by 
the  bank  within  two  months,  it  will  be  paid 
out  of  the  Redemption  Fund.  Third,  it  passes 
at  par  from  one  end  of  Canada  to  the  other. 
Fourth,  the  amount  in  circulation  always  tends 
to  be  the  exact  amount  demanded  by  the 
industrial  activity  of  the  country.  The  bank 
is  obliged  to  confine  its  business  within  the 
limits  which  are  almost  universally  assigned 
to  the  banker.  Speaking  generally,  it  may 
not  deal  in  merchandise,  or  be  engaged  in  any 


trade ;  it  may  not  lend  money  upon  the  security 
of  goods,  or  ships,  or  lands,  and  other  immov- 
able property,  nor  may  it  advance  against  its 
own  stock,  or  the  stock  of  any  other  hank, 
but  it  may  lend  against  or  take  as  security 
bonds  of  an  incorporated  company,  even 
though  the  bonds  are  secured  by  mortgage  on 
real  estate.  It  may,  however,  tmder  certain 
conditions,  lend  money  to  wholesale  manufac- 
turers, and  to  wholesale  purchasers,  shippers 
of  or  dealers  in  various  products,  on  the  secu- 
rity of  the  goods  they  manufacture  or  deal  in, 
and  it  may  lend  to  any  person  on  the  security 
of  a  bill  of  lading  or  of  a  warehouse  receipt. 
It  may  also  lena  money  on  the  security  of 
standing  timber,  and  ma^  make  advances  for 
shipbuilciing,  taking  secunty  on  the  ship.  As 
additional  collateral  to  a  debt  already  con- 
tracted it  may  take  security  of  almost  any  kind, 
except  goods  or  documents  represpnting  goods, 
and  it  has  a  first  lien  on  its  own  stock  for  any 
liability  due  to  it  by  a  stockholder.  It  cannot 
recover  by  process  of  law  any  interest  in  ex- 
cess of  7  per  cent,  but  no  penalties  for  usury 
now  exist. 

In  Addition  to  carrying  on  the  ordinary- 
business  of  a  commercial  bank,  the  Canadian 
banks  receive  money  on  deposit  at  interest,  the 
prevailing  rale  at  present  being  3  per  cent. 
Probably  about  60  per  cent  of  their  total  de- 
posits would  in  die  United  States  be  deposits 
in  savings  banks.  No  securities  are  specially 
set  aside  against  any  deposits.  Deposits  due 
to  the  Dominion  government  are  a  second 
charge  on  all  the  assets  of  the  bank  (the  notes 
being  the  first),  and  those  to  any  provincial 
government  are  a  third  charge.  One  bank 
may  sell  but  all  its  assets  to  another  banl^ 
proper  provision  being  made  for  the  assump- 
tion of  the  liabilities  of  the  selling  bank.  The 
purchase  price  may  be  in  stock  of  the  pur- 
chasing bank;  or  in  such  other  form  as  may 
be  arranged.  No  agreement  to  sell,  however, 
may  be  made  unless  and  until  the  Minister  of 
Finance,  in  writing,  gives  his  consent.  In  at 
least  one  recent  instance  the  Minister  has, 
on  grounds  of  public  policy,  withheld  his  con- 
sent. In  the  event  of  a  bank  suspending  pay- 
ment, it  is  taken  in  charge  by  a  curator  ap- 
pointed by  the  Canadian  Bankers'  Association, 
who  controls  and  supervises  it  until  it  either 
resumes  payment  or  goes  into  liquidation.  Sus- 
pension for  90  days,  consecutively  or  at  in- 
tervals within  12  consecutive  months,  consti- 
tutes the  bank  insolvent.  If  it  becomes  in- 
solvent the  shareholders  are  each  individually 
liable  for  an  amount  equal  to  the  amount  of 
their  respective  holdings  of  subscribed  stock 
in  addition  to  any  amount  not  paid  up  on  such 
stock  This  double  liability  did  not  exist  in 
the  case  of  the  Bank  of  British  North  Amer- 
ica (now  incorporated  in  the  Bank  of  Mon- 
treal), and  its  ordinary  note  isstie  was  therefore 
confined  to  75  per  cent  of  its  paid-up  capitaL 
Against  anj  portion  of  the  other  25  per  cent 
which  it  might  desire  to  issue,  it  had  to  make  a 
special  deposit  with  the  government. 

The  giving  of  a  fraudulent  preference  to  any 
creditor,  the  corrupt  acceptance  of  a  gift, 
commission  or  other  consideration  in  respect 
of  dealinc  with  the  bank's  affairs,  or  the  mak- 
ing of  false  returns,  etc.,  on  the  part  of  any 
director  or  officer  of  a  bank,  is  punishable  t^ 
heavy  fines  or  by  terms  of  imprisonment,  or 


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CANASA-^BAHKIHa  8YSTBH  (47) 


bolfa.  Since  Confe<lention  25  banks  working 
under  Federal  laws  have  gone  into  Uqutdation, 
theit  paid-up  capital  at  the  time  o£  suspei'sioo 
aggreraiing  some  $17,000,000.  and  their  toUl 
liabilities  about  $62,500,000.  At  least  14  of 
these  paid  noteholders  and  depositors  in  full, 
and  all  those  chartered  since  Confederation 
paid  their  noteholders  in  full.  Three,  which 
failed  before  notes  were  made  a  first  charge 
on  aEsets,  paid  neither  in  full,  but  varyiofc  per- 


cent  per  annum),  the  money  held  on  d^tosit 

actually  costs  the  country  abou.t  3.7S  per  cent 
This  fact  was  fully  recognized  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  some  years  ago  they  proposed  to 
reduce  the  rate  paid  to  2>^  per  cent,  but,  for 
political  reasons,  the  proposal  was  withdrawn. 
Havii^  regard  to  the  high  rates  at  which 
the  government  at  present  has  to  borrow  for 
war  purposes,  it  is  a  question  whether  the 
rate    should   not    be,  raised   to  —  say — 4   per 


for  a 


mths. 


Savings   banks   under   the      „ 

the  government  are  of  two  kinds:  Go\ 

savings  banks,  under  the  control  of  the  Ft- 
nance  Department,  and  post  office  savings 
banks,  which  are  part  of  the  post  ofhce  system. 
The  former  were  in  existence  in  the  Maritime 
Provinces  for  several  years  previous  to  1867 
and  were  taken  over  by  the  Federal  government 
when  the  provinces  entered  into  Confederation. 
In  British  Columbia  savings  banks  controlled 
Iw  trustees  existed  before  Confederation,  and 
these  banks  were  wound  up  and  ■government 
savings  banks*  established  in  their  stead.  A 
government  savings  bank  was  opened  in  Win- 
nipeg in  1871  and  another  in  Toronto  in  1872. 
In  1888  there  were  SO  offices  with  57,367  depos- 
itors, having  $20,682,025  to  their  credit,  an  aver- 
age of  $360  for  each  depositor.  It  has  now 
been  recognized  that  these  banks  are  no  longer 
necessary,  and  whenever  the  position  of  super- 
intendent of.  any  office  becomes  vacant,  the  de- 
posits in  that  office  are  transferred  to  the  post 
office  savings  bank. 

By  31  Dec.  1917  the  number  of  offices  open 
had  decreased  to  14,  all  of  them,  except  those 
at  Winnipeg  and  Victoria,  being  in  the  Mari- 
time Provinces.  The  total  amount  on  deposit 
was  $13,610,069.  In  1868  the  system  of  post 
office  savings  banks  which  had  proved  so 
successful  in  Great  Britain  was  introduced  into 
C^jiada,  81  offices  being  opened  on  1  April  in 
that  year.  On  31  Dec  1916,  there  were  1,269 
savUiKs  bank  oiSces  in  Canada  with  134,345 
depositors  and  total  balances  of  $40,478,123. 
In  order  to  give  some  support  to  the  theory 
that  both  kinds  of  public  savings  banks  are 
intended  primarily  as  safe  places  of  deposit 
for  persons  of  limited  means,  the  net  amount 
which  may  be  received  from  any  person  dur- 
itifS  one  year  is  $1,000,  while  the  total  amount 
which  any  depositor  may  have  at  his  credit 
is  $3,000.  The  rate  of  interest  paid  in  both 
classes  of  savings  banks  was  formerly  4  per 
■  cent  bm  on  1  Oct  1899  it  was  reduced  to  3*4 
per  cent  and  on  1  July  1897  to  3  per  cent. 
Until  recently  there  was,  however,  no  justificai- 
tion  for  even  3  per  cent  being  paid.  Canada 
in  normal  times  was  able  to  negotiate  term 
loans  (against  which  no  reserves  need  be  k^) 
at  a  net  interest  rate  of  about  2.86.  By  an 
act  passed  in  1903  the  Department  of  Finance 
is  obliged  to  hold  as  reserves  against  savings 
bank  deposits  an  amount  in  gold,  or  in  p)Td 
and  Canada  securities  guaranteed  by  the  gov^ 
eminent  of  the  United  Kingdom,  e(jual  to  not 
less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  deposits.  When 
to  the  rate  actually  paid  on  these  deposits  is 
added  cost  of  reserves  and  expense  of  manage- 
ment   iirom  one-fourth  to  one-halt  of  1  per 


Year 

Govrnimoct 

Pctoffia 

Total 

1>90     ■    

1900     ■    

•1,S22,S70 

liiili 

«1. 588, 849 

13.41 1.419 

>«.ih 

11  :  ^^'■^■' 

13!mo;18 

41,591.286 
39.995,406 

JB.404,»2 
41. 171 .660 

54:sii:84i 

■  Higtmt.  point  naeliBiL 

Apart  from  the  public  savings  banks,  the 
only  savings  banks  of  any  importance  arc  the 
Montreal  City  and  District  Savings  Bank,  of 
Montreal,  and  La  Caisse  d'Economie  de  Notr« 
Dame  de  Quebec.  The  former  has  a  paid-up 
capital    of   $1,000,000,    and   a   reserve    fund   of 

t  1,350,000;  its  deposits  are  about  $31,000,000,  it 
olds  securities  of  about  $19,000,000,  and  has 
loans  against  securities  of  over  $8,000,000,  The 
latter  has  a  paid-up  capital  of  $250,000,  and  a 
reserve  fund  of  about  $1,000,000;  its  deposits 
are  about  $10,000,000,  it  holds  securities  of 
about  $8,000,000  and  has  loans  of  about 
$3,000,000  against  securities.  These  banks  may 
invest  80  per  cent  of  their  deposits  in  certain 
approved  securities,  including  the  stock  ol 
chartered  banks,  and  may  mdte  advances 
against  such  securities.  These  are  the  only 
classes  of  investments  which  they  may  make. 
They  -are  specially  prohibited  from  lending  on 
real  estate,  promissory  notes  or  commercial 
paper.  Unliite  the  ordinary  chartered  banks, 
they  have  not  the  right  to  issue  notes  for  cir- 
culation. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  Jt 
became  necessary  to  take  steps  to  conserve  the 
financial  resources  of  the  country.  On  3  Aug. 
1914,  an  Order  in  Council  was  passed,  giving 
authority  as  follows:  (1)  To  the  Minister  of 
Finance,  to  issue  Dominion  notes  to  such  an 
amount  as  mi^ht  be  necessary  against  such 
securities  as  might  be  deposited  by  the  banks 
and  approved  by  the  Minister;  (2)  To  the 
banks,  to  make  payment  in  hank  notes,  instead 
of  in  gold  or  Dominion  notes;  (3)  To  the 
hanks,  to  issue  at  any  time  excess  circulation 
not  to  exceed  15  per  cent  of  their  respective 
combined   unimpaired   caiHtals   and   rests. 

This  Order  in  Council  (together  with  one 
dated  10  Ai«,  1914,  suspending  the  redemption 
in  specie  of  Dominion  notes   (sec  Canada^ — 


d=,  Google 


CANADA —PUBLIC  PINAMCB  <4t> 


CvBSCNcy,  Coinage  ^nd  Legal  Tgndes),  was 
confirmed  by  an  act  (5  George  V  Chap.  3) 
dated  22  Aug.  1914,  which  continued  it  in  force 
until  15  Sept.  1914,  and  mve  the  governor-jn- 
council  statutory  _powcr  *In  case  of  war,  in- 
vasion, riot  or  insurrection,  real  or  appre- 
hended, and  in  case  of  any  real  or  apprehended 
financial  crisis,*  to  make  effective  proclama- 
tion provisions  similar  to  those  contained  in 
the  Orders  in  Coundl  of  3d  and  10th  of 
August,  the  only  change  being  that  advances 


issued,  revoking  the  Orders  in  Council,  and 
putting  into  force  the  provisions  of  the  act. 
These  provisions  will  doubtless  be  retained  for 
some  tmie  after  the  end  of  the  war.  The 
effect  of  them  is  that  the  banks  can  at  any 
time  obtain  from  the  government  advances 
(unlimited  in  amount,  so  far  as  the  law  is 
concerned)  of  Dominion  notes  against  3p~ 
proved  securities  deposited  (diese  securities 
being  deemed  to  be  the  security  required  by 
the  Dominion  Note  Act  to  be  held  against 
Dominion  notes:  i.e.,  gold),  that  they  may 
make  all  payments  in  bank  notes  including  the 
payments  necessary  to  redeem  their  own  notes, 
which  they  are  thus  by  law  relieved  from 
redeeming,  and  they  may  during  the  whole 
year  issue  excess  circulation  to  the  extent  of 
IS  per  cent  of  their  combined  unimpaired 
capital  and  rest,  instead  of  only  during  the 
period  from  the  beginning  of  September  to  the 
end  of  Fcbnmtj',  The  practical  effect  of  these 
provisions  is  tnat  no  gold  and  only  change- 
making  quantities  of  Dominion  notes  are  paid 
out  over  the  counter,  so  that  the  obtaining  of 
gold  by  the  public  for  hoarding,  export  or 
any  other  purpose  is  absolutely  prevented.  In 
order,  however,  to  retain  the  daily  redemption 
of  notes  not  needed  by  the  public,  and  to  pre- 
vent large  quantities  of  notes  of  one  bank 
being  held  by  other  banks,  the  Gearing-House 
rules  provide  that  the  daily  settlements  at  the 
chief  redemption  points  snail  continue  to  be 
made  in  Dominion  notes.  The  whole  arrange- 
ment has  worked  remarkably  well ;  even  in  the 
disturbed  days  at  the  beginning  of  the  war, 
when  all  commercial  and  industrial  interests 
were  in  a  state  of  absolute  uncertainty,  and  no 
one  knew  how  things  would  go  from  day  to 
day,  there  was  not  the  sli^test  tendency 
toward  a  niu  on  the  banks,  which  continued  to 
pay  their  depositors  and  to  all  outward  ap- 
pearance to  transact  internal  business  as 
usual. 

F.  G.  Jkuuett, 
Colonial  Bank,  London;   Formerly  Secretary, 
The  Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce, 


originally  constituted  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
entered  into  Confederation,  they  had  depended 
almost  entirely  for  their  provincial  revenues 
Upon  customs  duties  upon  imports,  supple- 
mented  by  a  limited  set  of  exdse  taxes.  Direct 
taxation  upon  property  and  income  had  been 
practically  entirely  reserved  for  the  municipali- 
ties, both  rural  and  urban.  These  municipal 
revenues,  however,  had  been  regularly  supple- 
mented from  the  provinci^  treasuries  by  grants 


in  aid  of  specific  reqtdrements,  chief  of  which 
were  education  and  transportation,  or  schools 
and  highways  and  bridges.  The  larger  public 
works,  such  as  railways  and  canals,  harbors  and 
roads,  were  for  the  most  part  undertaken  by 
the  provinda)  eovemments,  or  by  corporations 


chartered  by  tbem  and  heavily  subsidixed  or 

aided .  in       '  '     '    '' 

mimidpal  a 


other    ways,     including     authorized 


Source  of  Revenue,—  Such  bang  the  finan- 
cial conditions  of  the  provinces  at  the  time  of 
Confederation,  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  t 
the  im  " 

into  the  hands 
of  the  new  Federal  government,  and  thus  be 
left  to  cast  about  for  other  and  hitherto  but 
little  developed  sources  of  revenue.  After 
much  discussion,  but  under  the  somewhat 
stimulating  pressure  of  necessity,  a  compromise 
was  arrived  at  The  new  Dominion  or  Federal 
government  was  granted  sole  control  of  the 
customs,  exdsc  and  all  other  so-called  indirect 
methods  of  taxation ;  while  the  provinces  and 
thdr  subordinate  municipal  institutions  w«re 
confined  to  direct  methods  of  taxation  without, 
however,  excluding  the  Dominion  government 
from  these  sources  also.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Dominion,  in  view  of  these  sacrifices  on  the 

Krt  of  the  provinces,  not  only  assumed  the 
ture  costs,  management  and  maintenance  of 
all  the  larger  and  expensive  public  works  and 
public  services,  but  also  assumed  the  previously 
accumulated  funded  debts  of  the  provinces. 
In  addition,  the  Dominion    was  '  required    to 

trant  to  the  respective  provinces,  on  a  speci- 
ed  basis,  certam  annual  subsidies  in  cash. 
These  for  some  time  furnished  the  most  im- 
portant element  in  their  respective  provincial 
reveniies.  The  amounts  of  these  provincial 
subsidies  have  been  the  occasion  of  much  agita- 
tion and  not  infrequent  revision  ever  since.  To 
the  provinces  were  also  assigned  the  various 
public  lands,  including  the  timber  and  mines  on 
or  within  tiiem.  At  the  same  time,  the  British 
North  America  Act  authorized  both  the  provin- 
cial and  Dominion  governments  to  borrow 
money  on  the  basis  of  thdr  respective  puUic 

The  very  strong  and  long  grounded  dislike 
of  the  Canadian  people  both  French  and  Eng- 
lish, to  direct  taxation  led  not  only,  as  we  hav« 
seen,  to  the  confinement  of  this  method  of  taxa- 
tion to  the  self-imposed  levies  on  the  property 
owners  of  the  munidpalities,  but  steadily  pre- 
vented, until  quite  recently  and  chiefly  under 
the  temporary  requirements  of  the  war,  the  levy 
of  direct  property  and  income  taxes  for  pro- ' 
vincial  or  Dominion  purposes.  Thus  in  most 
cases,  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  present  great 
war,  there  had  remained  a  sharp  distinction  be- 
tween the  sources  of  the  tvvenues  of  the 
Dmninion,  pro^ncial  and  municipal  gov- 
ernments. This  separation  has  been  of  the 
greatest  value  to  the  people  of  Canada  in  sim- 
plifying their  fiscal  problems,  and  in  kcejung  be- 
fore them  the  distinct  fields  of  responsilnlity  for 
the  levying  and  expending  of  the  various  con- 
tributions which  the  dtizens  are  called  uponto 
make  in  support  of  the  different  public  admin- 
istrations under  which  they  live. 

As  already  indicated,  the  revenues  of  the 
Dominion  are,  for  the  most  part,  derived  from 


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CANADA— PUBUC  PIHAHCB  («) 


4«T 


customs  duties  on  imports  and  excise  duties  on 
certain  lines  of  maaufactured  goods,  diiefiy 
liquors  and  tobaccos.  Owing  to  the  customarj' 
method  of  presentation  and  discussion  of  tiic 
innual  budgets  and  public  accounts  of  the 
Dominion,  the  very  limited  source  of  the  chief 
reveauex  of  the  countrr  is  apt  to  be  overloolEed. 
The  present  sitnation  arose  from  historic  con- 
ditians  and  the  necessity  for  remedyii^  certain 
obvious  abuses  under  Eormer  methods  of  deal- 
ing with  public  accounts.  Thus,  at  one  time, 
the  officials  connected  with  the  collection  of  the 
pnblic  revenue,  whether  levied  as  taxes  or  ob- 
tained in  connection  with  certain  public  services, 
were  permitted  to  retain,  chiefly  in  the  shape  of 
fees  and  expenses,  the  cost  of  collection,  re- 
turning to  the  government  only  the  balance  in 
its  favor.  When  combined  with  the  prevalent 
system  of  political  patronage,  tile  abuses  con- 
nected with  this  method  can  be  readily  tmder- 
stood.  In  order,  therefore,  to  bring  as  much 
as  possible  of  the  recdpts  and  payments  from 
the  .various  departments  to  die  attention  of 
Parbament  and  the  country,  the  ordinary  re- 
ceipts from  the  different  sources,  except  from 
loans  and  trust  funds  which  are  otherwise  ac- 
counted for,  were  combined  in  what  is  known 
as  the  consolidated  fund.  Out  of  this  is  paid 
both  the  ordinary  and  miscellaneous  charges 
and  expenses  of  the  government,  except  what 
is  appbed  in  the  way  of  capital  expenditure  or 
the  redemption  of  debt,  or  s^ial  subsidies  and 
grants.  At  the  same  time,  m  connection  with 
some  of  the  public  service,  as  for  instance  the 
postal  service,  a  verv  considerable  eletnent  of 
the  expense  connected  with  it  is  deducted  before 
the  remaining  funds  are  handed  over  to  be- 
come part  of  the  consolidated  revenue.  Thus 
the  total  gross  revenue  of  the  Post-Office  De- 
partment amounted  to  upwards  of  $16,750,000 
in  I914~I5,  but  charges  to  the  «xtent  of  almost 
(4.000,000  were  deducted  therefrom  before  the 
remaining  amount  of  nearly  $13,000,000  was 
handed  over  as  part  of  the  consolidated 
revenue. 

For  the  fiscal  year  ending  31  Mardi  I91S, 
the  consolidated  fund  amounted  to  $133,073,481 
and  the  expenditures  char^able  to  it  amounted 
to  $135,523,206,  representmg  a  deficit  of  nearly 
two  and  a  half  millions,  to  be  met  from  loans 
or  other  available  resources  not  constituting 
part  of  the  consolidated  fund.  When,  how- 
ever, we  come  to  analyie  the  sources  of  revenue 
making  up  the  $133,000,000  of  the  consolidated 
fund,  and  the  items  of  exoenditure  which  are 
charged  upon  it,  we  find  that  a  large  portion 
o£  the  fund  represents  simply  the  gross  income 
from  various  government  services,  such  as  the 
postal  and  government  railway  services;  while 
the  charges  upon  it  include  also  the  working 
expenses  of  these  same  enterprises,  so  far  at 
least  as  they  have  not  been  already  tJeducted 
before  being  brought  into  the  budget,  as  indi- 
cated above  in  the  case  of  the  Post-Office  De- 
partment. Thus,  for  instance,  the  consolidated 
fund  includes  receipts  from  the  postal  service 
of  slightly  over  813,000,000,  but  when  we  turn 
to  the  expenditures  from  the  fund,  we  find  that 
the  operating  expenses  of  the  postal  service 
amount  to  almost  $16,000,000.  This  takes  no 
account  of  the  considerable  ^portion  of  an  ex- 
penditure of  some  two  millions  on  mail  sub- 
udies  and  steamship  subventions.    Further  the 


central  or  administrative  staff  of  this  service 
at  Ottawa  costs  an  additional  $800,000,  being 
included  in  the  item  of  "civil  government."  If 
one  cares  to  go  further  and  turn  to  the  detailed 
expenditures  of  the  Public  Works  Department,  it 
will  be  found  that  of  the  expenditure  for  the 
year  of  $7,750,000,  a  large  section  is  represented 
by  either  new  post-office  buildings,  separately, 
or  combination  public  buildings,  the  chief  sec- 
tions of  which  are  commonly  devoted  to  the 
postal  service.  Thus  instead  of  the  Post-Office 
Department  furnishing  any  real  revenue  to  the 
government,  it  represents  a  very  extensive  ad- 
ditional charge  upon  the  real  revenues  of  the 
country.  The  same  is  true  of  the  large  revenue 
item  of  $12,000,000  from  the  government  rail- 
way^—  the  Intercolonial,  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land, Transcontinental  and  one  or  two  small 
lines.  We  find  on  referring  to  the  operatiiu 
expenses  of  these  lines  that  not  only  is  this 
revenue  entirely  absorbed  but  there  is  left  in 
its  place  some  $325,000  of  a  deficit  on  operat- 
ing expen'ses.  This  does  not  take  into  account 
the  share  of  the  Railway  JDepartment  in  the  ex- 
penditure under  civil  government  of  $188,000 
for  the  staff  of  the  Department  of  Railways  and 
Canals.  Neither  does  it  take  bto  account  the 
interest  on  the  enormous  capital  expenditure  on 
the  government  lines  and  wliich  constitutes  so 
large  a  part  of  the  interest  charge  on  the  pubUc 
debt,  amounting  to  over  $15,000,000. 

It  might  appear  that  the  sale  of  Dominion 
lands,  amountwg  to  over  $2,800,000  in  1914, 
would  furnish  a  very  considerable  surplus  of 
revenue.  But  we  find  that  the  annual  cost  of 
the  administration  of  the  Dominion  lands 
amounted,  to  $3,700,000  in  the  same  year. 
Another  important  item  in  the  annual  receipts 
included  in  the  consolidated  fund  is  that  of 
^900,000  of  interest  on  investments.  But  this. 
It  is  found,  represents  chiefly  the  interest  on 
the  advances  to  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific, 
amounting  to  over  one  and  a  half  millions,  on 
Uontreal  Harbor  debentures,  the  sinking  fund, 
advances  to  banks,  etc.  Altogether  ^e  inter- 
est on  investments  represents  but  a  small  offset 
on  the  interest  requiring  to  be  paid  by  ^e 
Dominion  on  the  public  debt,  which,  directly  or 
indirectly,  was  partly  incurred  for  these  pur- 
poses. 

Income  from  Taxation.— One  of  the  tables 
in  the  Annual  Report  on  Public  Accounts,  pre- 
pared Iw  the  Finance  Department,  sets  forth 
separately  the  income  from  taxation,  which  is 
the  real  mcome  of  the  country,  and  the  income 
derived  from  other  sources,  largely,  as  indi- 
cated, the  gross  receipts  from  certain  govern- 
ment services.  Up  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War,  there  were,  as  mentioned,  only 


real 


of 


1   tax. 


excise   duties.    The    Chinese    immigratioii 

thouf^   listed    separately,    is    really   a   cu 

tax  on  imports  widi  the  usual  protective  ob- 
ject in  view.  Since  1914,  to  these  two  sources 
of  direct  revenue  the  special  war  taxes,  to  be 
referred  to,  must  be  added. 

Distinguishing  taxes  proper  from  the  other 
sources  of  income,  we  find  that  of  the  total 
receipts  of  $133,073,481,  constituting  the  con- 
solidated fund  for  the  year  1914-15,  $97,715,440 
were  derived  from  taxes  proper,  while  $35,- 
358,041  were  derived  from  the  other  sources. 
Of  the  charges  which  are  almost  entirriy  paid 


d  by  Google 


CANADA— PUBUC  BINANCK  .<48) 


out  of  the  $!;7,000,000  of   taxation,  the  chief 
are  the  following: 

Intemt  ind  nuuuiceaient  of  ths  DMinwl  debt.  (16,188.000 

Cononu  And  eiciie  CDllectum 4,605.000 

Subaidiei  ta  the  province*. ,.-- - ,..,..,-,.-.,  11.451.000 

Sinking  funili 1,645,000 

Citil  gomnBUBOt 6,157.000 

Adnuiiiitrstion  of  junia 1,469.000 

Le^slBtion 2,376.000 

Ana,  igncultiira  and  lUitiitit* 3,618.000 

ImmKimtion 1.658.000 

Militia  Upart  fnjm  the  «u} 10.000,000 

Public  works  (not  chu«ed  Co  csnUl) 19,343.000 

tluil  subiidiei  and  nopiwhip  nibventioiia 1,162,000 

Ocnn  ud  rinr  •ervioa 1 .  133,000 

Liehihouae  and  coa«t«eivice 2.3SJ,O00 

Tmdeand  comnieree 2,943.000 

Indiani 2,400,000 


These  items  account  for  somewhat  over 
$89,500,000  of  the  regular  revenue,  lea  vine 
about  $8,00^000  to  meet  other  minor  items  of 
unremtmerative  expenditure  and  cover  the  de- 
ficits on  the  various  remunerative  government 
enterprises  whose  gross  revenue  furnishes  the 
other  $35,000,000  of  income.  This  $35,000,000 
of  revenue  partly  meets  what  we  have  called  the 
working  expenses  of  the  departments ;  the  chief 

PoUHSffice 115,961.000 

Public  uroriu,  colkctka  of  nmave 799.000 

Rutmya  a^  canala 13,876,000 

Dominion  Inndi 3,701,000 

Wdghtfl.  meaiUTS,  oai  and  electric  light  in' 
vectioo,  etc W.OOO 

These  items  alone  amount  to  $34,500,000, 
leaving  about  $750,000  for  all  the  other  smaller 
items  of  this  character.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
as  already  indicated,  most  of  the  deficits,  repre- 
senting the  surplus  of  costs  over  revenue  in 
these  branches  of  the  service,  have  to  be  met 
out  of  the  additional  $^000,000  remaining  from 
the  tax  revenue  as  inificated  above. 

Special  Fundi. —  The  Dominion  government 
has  the  use  of  several  trust  funds,  such  as  the 
post-office  and  saving  bank  deposits  on  which 
a  comparatively  low  mterest  is  paid.  It  enjoys 
also  the  issue  of  Dominion  notes  to  a  specified 
amount  in  excess  of  the  specie  reserve.  The 
other  funds,  beyond  the  consolidated  fund, 
which  are  available  for  expenditure  within  the 
year  are,  first,  any  surplus  of  revenue  from  the 
consolidated  fund;  second,  loans,  whether 
permanent  or  temporary,  raised  during  the  year. 
Under  normal  conditions  these  extra  funds  are 
applied  to  meet  any  deficit  in  the  consolidated 
fund,  for  the  redemption  of  debt^  capital  «x~ 
penditure  on  public  works,  or  subsidies  to  rail- 
roads, and  other  special  grants. 

As  to  what  works  may  be  chargeable  to 
capital  expenditure  or  to  annual  revenue  out  of 
the  consolidated  fund  is  largely  a  matter  of 
expediency.  In  the  history  of  the  Dominion 
since  Confederation,  theviews  and  the  practices 
of  finance  ministers  and  governments  have 
varied  very  considerably.  Thus,  items  which  at 
one  time  are  regarded  as  properly  charged  to 
consolidated  revenue  are,  at  another,  charged 
to  capital  account.  Apparently  the  most  in- 
fluential element  in  determining  the  variations 
in  practice  has  been  the  condition  of  the  public 
purse,  and  the  very  natural  disinclination  of 
ministers  of  finance  and  their  colleagues  to 
present  budgets  showing  deficits  on  the  ordinary 
annual   ex^nditure.     The  lack  of  any  definite 

frinciple  in  the  division  between  expenditure 
rom  ctmsolidated  revenue  and  expenditure  on 


capital  account  vtill  be  recognited  in  a  surv^ 
of  the  det^ls  of  the  items  charged  to  capital 
account  and  annual  revenue  in  the  Departments 
of  Public  Works  and  Railways  and  Canals, 

Change*  Reaultinc  from  the  War^Wc 
turn  now  to  take  a  brief  survey  of  the  financial 
changes  which  have  resulted  from  the  voluntary 
participation  of  Canada  in  the  present  great 
war.  Canada  has  undertaken  to  bear  the  enttre 
cost  of  placing  half  a  million  troops  in  ^e 
field,  fully  equipped,  transporting  them  to  and 
from  Europe,  maintaining  them  on  the  front 
with  provisions,  munitions,  ambulatKe  and  hos- 
lutal  equipmei)t  and  all  the  other  expenses  in- 
cidental to  war.  In  so  doing  the  country  has 
necessarily  to  face  new  and  hitherto  untried 
problems  of  finance.  The  government  has  fd- 
lowed  the  British  example  of  meeting  as  Urge 
a  share  as  possible  oi  the  expense  from  in- 
creased taxation,  and  the  remainder  from  loans. 
Both  old  and  new  forms  of  taxation  have  been 
employed  in  raising  additional  revenue.  In 
1914  additional  customs  duties  were  levied  on 
a  list  of  articles  mostly  of  foreign  production, 
and  more  or  less  in  the  line  of  what  arc  now 
considered  necessary  luxuries,  and  therefore 
likely  to  increase  revenue  rather  than  curtail 
consumption.  Excise  duties  on  liquor  ani 
tobacco  were  also  increased.  The  additional 
revenue  expected  from  these  sources  was  about 
$1,000,000  per  mouth. 

In  1915  the  customs  dues  were  still  further 
augumented  by  a  general  increase  of  5  per  cent 
on  the  British' preferential  rates  and  of  7^ 
per  cent  on  all  other  rates.  This  additioiul 
tax  was  applied,  with  a  few  specific  exceptions, 
to  ^oods  opth  free  and  dutiable  in  the  regular 
tariff.  As  a  result,  although  the  imports  al 
the  previously  dutiable  goods  fell  off  m  19tS- 
16  while  the  total  imports  increased  only  $iZ,- 
500,000,  yet  the  customs  revenue  increased 
$24,735,000  over  the  previous  year. 

The  government  issue  of  Dominion  notes. 
supported  by  a  25  per  cent  reserve  instead  of 
100  per  cent  reserve,  was  increased  from 
$3(1000,000  to  $50,000,0011  thereby  securii^:  an 
additional  free  loan  of  $15,000,000.  So  larg^ 
however,  was  the  volume  of  notes  fully  secured 
by  gold  that  this  change  reduced  the  reserve 
on  the  total  issue  merely  from  81  to  71.7  per 

New  features  of  Federal  taxation  were  first 
introduced  in  1915,  and  consisted  of  special 
taxes  of  1  per  cent  on  bank  notes,  1  per  cent  on 
the  interest  income  of  loan  and  trust  com- 
panies and  the  net  premium  of  insurance  com- 
panies, except  life  and  marine.  Telegraph  and 
cable  messages  were  taxed  one  cent  each,  and 
railway  and  steamship  tickets  at  graduated  rates. 
Other  features  were  a  two-cent  stamp  on  bank 
cheques,  bills  of  exchange,  money  and  postal 
orders,  travelers'  cheques,  and  notes  discounted 
at  banks.  There  was  also  a  levy  of  one  cent 
extra  on  letters  and  post  cards.  Additional 
excise  stamps  of  varying  amounts  were  levied 
on  proprietary  medicines,  perfumery  and  wines. 
During  the  first  year  the  revenue  from  these 
speciaF  taxes  amounted  to  somewhat  ovei 
$3,000,000, 

In  1914  the  special  appropriation  for  war 
purposes  was  $50,00(XOOOi  the  following  ye» 
$100,000,000.  and  for  1916-17  $2S0;OaMiSb.  In 
this  connection  two  quite  new  departures  in 


d=,  Google 


CANADA  — PUBLIC  FINANCE  (46) 


Federal  finance  were  made.  Dudng  the  summer 
of  191S,  the  first  Dwminion  loans  to  be  nego- 
tiated in  the  United  States  were  arranged.  The 
first  was  for  $25,000,000  and  the  secondf  or  $20.- 
000,000.  These  were  ioliowed  in  the  spring  of 
1916  by  another  loan-  of  $75,000,000,  floated  in 
Kew  York.  The  other  departure  was  the  rais- 
ing of  a  domestic  loan  for  $50,000,000,  in  the 
autumn  of  1915.  This  was  so  successful  that 
over  twice  that  amount  was  subscribed  and 
$100,000,000  accepted.  In  the  autumn  of  1916, 
the  experiment  was  repeated  for  another  $100,- 
000,000  with  perfect  success.  Exchange  coddt- 
tions,  owing  to  the  enormous  surplus  of  British 
imports  from  America  duHng  the  easier 
period  of  the  -war,  rendered  It  undesirable  to 
borrow  in  Britain  for  use  in  America.  A 
mutual  arrangement  was  therefore  effected  by 
which  the  Bntidi  treasury  advanced  funds  for 
Canadian  war  expenditure  in  Europe  and 
the  Canadian  government,  partly  from  its 
own  borrowings  and  P>rth'  by  credit 
arrangements  with  the  banks,  financed  British 
purchases  in  Canada,  thus  naturally  relieving 
the    transatlantic    exchan^    situation. 

As  the  Canai&n  war  expenditure  Increased, 
additional  taxes  were  imposed.  The  new  taxes 
of  1916  took  the  form  of  a  levy  on  exceptional 
profits,  most  of  which  were  naturally  due  to  the 
production  of  army  supplies.  The  tax  consisted 
of  one-fourth  of  all  profits  in  excess  of  7  per 
cent  from  incorporated  companies,  and  in  ex- 
cess of  10  per  cent  in  other  cases.  Naturally 
in  the  administration  of  such  a  tax  a  good  deal 
of  discretion  had  to  be  allowed  to  the  officials 
of  the    Department   of    Finance. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  questions  which 
arises  in  connection  with  the  new  departures 
cow  being  made,  both  as  to  methods  of  taxation 
and  sources  of  loans,  is  as  to  whether  and  how 
far  these  experimental  ventures  may  perma- 
nently affect  the  future  financial  practice  and 
policy  of  Canada. 

Provincial  Finance— We  may  now  take  a 
brief  survey  of  the  leading  features  of  Cana- 
dian provincial  finance.  As  already  indicated 
the  provincial  subsidies  of  the  Dominion  treas- 
ury constituted  the  original  basis  of  provincial 
revenue.  The  Dominion  havina  assumed,  ihi  to 
a  certain  specified  amount,  the  debts  of  the  tour 
original  provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  found  it  necessary 
to  make  corresponding  allowances  for  the  other 
provinces  as  they  entered  Confederatiiw,  or 
were  created  oul  of  the  vast  western  territories 
held  by  the  Dominion  government,  on  much  the 
same  basis'  as  those  territories  out  of  which 
have  been  created  (he  Western  States  of  the 
American  Union  were  held  bj/  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment at  Washington.  In  view  of  the  reasons 
for  granting  them,  these  were  known  as  "debt 
allowances,'  and  interest  is  paid  on  them  at 
qiccial  rates.  The  object  of  the  debt  allow- 
ance was,  of  course,  to  enable  the  new  prov- 
inces to  equip  themselves  with  such  provmcial 
public  works  and  buildings  a:s  would  place  them 
on  a  fairly  equitable  footing  with  the  older 
provinces  when  they  entered  Confederation. 
In  the  case  of  the  two  last  provinces  to  be 
created.  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan,  no  definite 
debt  allowances  were  fixed,  but  tfaey  were 
^nted  specific  annual  subsidies  in  lira  of  the 
interest  upoa  fixed  capitaJ  (nms.' . 


The  details  of  the  frequent  i^tations  for 
readjustment  of  the  original  filnancia)  arrange- 
ments with  the  province^  either  at  the  time  of 
Confederation  or  on  their  subsequent  entrance 
or  creation,  and  the  actual  changes  effected 
from  time  to  lime,  are  quite  beyond  the  scope 
of  this  article.  Surfice  it  to  say  that  the  grounds 
on  which  these  relations  at  present  stand, 
'though  still  subject  to  demands  for  revision,  are 
as  follows; 

1.  A  fixed  grant  according  to  population. 

2.  A  per  capita  grant  of  80  cents  per  head 
up  to  a  population  of  2.500,000,  and  at  the  rate 
of  60  cents  per  head  above  that  number. 

3.  Spedal  grants  for  buildings,  in  lieu  of 
public  lands. 

4.  Interest  upon  debt  allowances,  or  annual 
grants  in  heu  thereof. 

In  raising  the  remainder  of  their  revenues, 
the  provinces,  especially  of  recent  years,  have 
devised  many  new  taxes.  As  in  the  ease  of  the 
Dominion,    however,    their    budgets    combine 

?urely  revenue  taxes  and  incomes  from  various 
orms  of  provincial  service,  and  these  Inccmes 
are  either  wholly  or  partially  offset  by  the  cost 
of  rendering  these  services.  For  a  considerable 
time,  as  already  indicated,,  the  taxes  on  real 
estate  and  provincial  income  were  exclusively 
assigned  to  the  municipalities  tor  the  support 
of  their  local  requirements.  Up  to  1915  only 
two  provinces  had  departed  from  this  policy, 
British  Columbia  &nd  Prince  Edward  Island 
Both  lev^  a  tax  upon  real  estate  and  income, 
while  British  Columbia  alone  has  resorted  to 
that  old  standby  of  the  American  States,  the 
personal  property  tax. 

It  is  impossible  to  go  into  details  with  ref- 
erence to  die  very  varied  finandal  arrangements, 
and  classifications  of  revenue  and  expen<hture, 
of  tiie  different  provinces.  In  their  provincial 
accounts,  the  comtnnations  of  items  in  some 
provinces  and  the  separation  of  them  in  others 
render  it  very  difficult  to  make  any  detailed 
comparisons  of  their  budgets.  Certain  broad 
facts,  however,  stand  out  as  indicative  at  once 
of  those  features  common  to  the  majority  of 
the  nine  provinces  and  those  which  are  peculiar 
to  individual  provinces  owing  to  their  special 
historic  or  physical  conditions,  though  some- 
times due  also  to  special  lines  of  policv.  Tak- 
ing the  last  available  returns  for  all  the  prov- 
inces up  to  1914,  wc  find  that  beyond  the 
Dominion  subsidies,  the  most  common  sources 
of  provincial  revenue  are  succession  duties, 
taxes  on  corporations  and  various  special  fees. 
In  these  all  the  provinces  share.  In  some  cases 
the  returns  from  certain  fees  and  licenses  are 
set  forth  separately.  Thus  Ucenses  for  the  sale 
of  liquor,  for  motor  vehicles,  moving  pictures, 
hunting  and  fishing,  etc.,  are  listed  separately 
in  a  number  of  accounts.  Six  provinces  derive 
revenues  from  Crown  lands,  timber  and  mines, 
and  from  interest  on  investments.  Most  of 
them  derive  a  certain  revenue  from  hospitals 
and  public  charities  which  tends  to  offset  the 
cost  of  these  institutions.  Revenues  come  also 
from  certain  public  works,  and  from  activities 
in  aid  of  agriculture.  Certain  revenues,  as  re- 
gards their  relative  importance  at  least,  are 
peculiar  to  individual  provinces.  Among  these 
are  the  tax  on  fox  farms  in  Prince  Edward 
Island,  royalties  on  coal  mines  in  Nova  Scotia 
and  British  Columbia  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in 
Alberta,  also  on  other  mines  in  Ontario,  Qiift- 


Coogic 


470 


CANADA  — CURRSNCY,  COINAOB  AND  LKOAL  TENDER  (W) 


bee  and  British  Columbia.  The  income  from 
the  Timiskamiog  and  Northern  Railway,  and 
the  investments  of  the  Hydro- Electric  G>m- 
mtssioD,  are  characteristic  of  Ontario.  Revenues 
from  proviacial  telegraph  and  telephone  lines 
are  important  in  Manitoba,  and  from  Chinese 
restriction  in  British  Columbia.  On  tbe  side 
of  expediture  there  is  more  uniformity.  All 
of  the  Drovinces  have  Urge  outiays  for  interest 
and  sinking  funds,  the  administration  of  justice, 
for  legislation,  the  civil  service,  education, 
public  charities,  agriculture  and  public  works. 
Five  of  them  expend  considerable  sums  on 
colonization  and  immigration,  several  on  mines, 
lands  and  forests.  Ontario  spends  much  on  its 
Hydro- Electric  Commission ;  Manitoba  on  tele- 
grams and  telephones   and  British  Columbia 

In  six  of  the  provinces  the  Dominion  sub- 
sidy constitutes  tbe  largest  item  in  revenue.  In 
Nova  Scotia,  the  first  place  is  taken  by  mines ; 
in  Ontario,  lands,  forests  and  mines;  while  in 
British  Columbia  no  less  than  five  sources  of 
revenue  take  precedence  of  the  Dominion  sub- 
sidy, in  the  following  order,  timber  royalties 
and  licenses,  Chinese  restriction,  land  sales,  wild 
land  taxes  and  registration  fees.  Of  those  in 
which  the  subsidy  takes  the  first  place,  the 
land  tax  comes  second  in  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land,  territorial  revenue  in  New  Brunswick, 
succession  duties  in  Quebec  and  land  title  fees 
in  the  three  Prairie  provinces  of  Manitoba, 
Saskatchewan  and  Alberta.  In  Manitoba,  how- 
ever, the  gross  revenue  from  the  telegraph  and 
tcleiJkone  service,  and  in  Alberta  the  special  tax 
on  railway  bonds,  exceeded  these  items  in  1914, 
but  these  do  not  represent  normal  revenues 
available  for  general  purposes. 

In  tbe  line  of  expenditure  education  ranks 
first  in  five  provinces,  second  in  two,  third  in 
one  and  fourth  in  another.  Where  education 
is  not  first,  public  works  in  one  form  or  another 
take  precedence.  In  Manitoba,  however,  the 
gross  outlay  on  the  telegraph  and  telephone 
service  exceeded  all  other  items.  In  British 
Columbia  public  works,  divided  into  two 
branches  of  (a)  railroads,  bridges  and  wharves, 
and  (b)  other  public  works,  occupy  the  first 
and  second  places,  with  tbe  civil  service  third 
and  education  fourth.  The  following  table  gives 
the  total  revenue  and  expenditure  and  the 
amounts  per  capita  for  the  dilferent  provinces 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  at  various  periods 
in  1914: 


Total  =»- 

urtpCT 

penditnre 

hnd 

Pnna     Bd«ud 

WlUld 

•525,  sss      uei 

•M5.19& 

S4  7S 

Nova  Scotia 

1.MS.4S8        3  7S 

2.098,893 

4  tS 

l.SOS.IM        *2S 

1,493.774 

Oucbea 

449 

Ma'S^bi: :::::: 

slsuliea     10  2B 

s:638!6SB 

to  SI 

5.g««,3io      B  n 

5.396.380 

7  47 

AlberU 

4,W9.795 

British  ColmnbU 

I0;479!259       21  46 

15,766,911 

3^  M 

The  budgets  of  the  provinces  have  not  been 


.._r  broke  out,  largely  as  an  expression  of  their 
enthusiastic  support  of  the  action  taken  b^ 
Great  Britainj  each  of  the  provinces  made  typi- 
cal contributions  of  supplies  for  the  British 
army.  Ontario  and  Manitoba  contributed  flour ; 
Quebec^  cheese;  New  Brunswich,  potatoes;  Al- 


berta and  Prince  Edward  Islam),  oats;  Sas- 
katchewan, horses  and  British  Columbia  canned 
salmon.  These  contributions  amounted  to 
nearly  $2,250,000,  Another  lai^e  factor  has 
been  the  provincial  contributions  toward  the 
patriotic  fund,  to  provide  supplementary  assist- 
ance for  the  wives,  children  and  other  depend- 
ents of  the  Canadian  soldiers.  To  meet  these 
and  any  other  miscellaneous  ontlays  connected 
with  the  war  has  already  entailed  the  levying 
of  additional  taxation  in  most  of  tbe  provinces. 
Adam  Shoktt, 
Coinmistioner  of  tht  Dominioti  Cianl  Sennet. 
49.  CURRENCY,  COINAGE  AND  LK- 
GAL  TENDER.  Interesting  as  it  would  be 
to  trace  the  history  of  the  current?  and  coin- 
age of  the.  various  British  provinces  from  the 
time  when  grain  and  furs  were  the  actual  cur- 
rency, down  through  the  card  money  of  de 
Meulle&  the  ordonnancet  of  Bigot  and  the 
Army  Bills  of  1812  to  the  present  satisfactory 
system,  such  a  task  is  quite  impos^ble  within 
the  limits  set  for  this  article.  'Broadly  speak- 
ing,* says  Chalmers,  'the  currency  history  of 
Canada  consists  in  the  transition  from  the 
French  icu  to  the  silver  Spanish  dollar,  and 
from  the  Spanish  dollar  to  the  gold  dollar  of 
the  United  States.  But  this  transition  has 
reference  exclusively  to  the  standard  coin;  the 
characteristic  feature  of  Canadian  currency, 
both  in  the  l7th  centuty  and  at  the  present  day, 
is  paper.*  During  the  French  rigime  a  special 
colonial  coinage  was  struck  in  France,  but  until 
the  period  when  the  chartered  banks  began  to 
provide  a  stable  medium  of  exchange,  we  find 
a  large  proportion  of  the  currency  consisting  of 
the  ^olo  and  silver  coins  of  vanous  countries, 
passing  current  and  made  le^l  tender  at  rates 
which  were  changed  from  time  to  time  in  the 
hope  of  keeping  coin  within  the  country.  Brit- 
ish, French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  German,  Mex- 
ican and  American  coins  were  all  legal  tender, 
while  for  the  first  SO  or  60  years  after  the 
British  conq^uest  the  actual  currency  of  old 
Canada  consisted  chiefly  of  Spanish  silver  and 
some  British  gold,  together  with  paper,  more  or 
less  doubtful  in  value,  issued  by  merchants, 
private  bankers  and  others. 

By  ordinance  of  1777,  followed  up  ^  acts 
of  the  legislatures  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada 
in  1796,  the  Halifax  currency,  with  the  Spanish 
dollar  valued  at  five  shillings,  or  four  to  the 
pound  currency,  was  made  the  standard  of  the 
country  and  new  rates  were  established  at 
which  different  coins  should  pass  current  The 
British  guinea,  which  appears  to  have  been  the 
gold  coin  most  in  use,  was  worth  l\  3s  4d  cur- 
rency. The  Halifax  currency,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, was  to  sterling  money  in  the  proportion 
of  10  to  9,  £10  currency  being  the  equivalent  of 
tS  sterling.     In  Lower  Canada,  however. 


Spanish  dollar,  while  in  Upper  Canada  the 
York  (or  New  York)  currency  was  more  or 
less  in  use,  its  basis  being  the  Mexican  reai, 
known  in  North  America  as  the  York  shilling, 
eight  of  which  went  to  the  dollar.  Its  use, 
however,  was  prohibited  after  1  July  1822. 
With  many  attempts  at  change,  and  with  varia- 
tions in  the  ratings  of  difierent  coins  from  time 
to  time,  the  Halifax  currency,  which,  it  must  be 
remembered  was  a  money  of  account  only,  re- 
mained as  the  '       '  ..... 


e  l^al  currency  system  nntU  1853^ 


.Google 


CANADA— CURRENCY,  COINAGE  AND  LEGAL  TENDER  (49) 


«7I 


when,  after  previoui  consultation  whh  New 
■  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  a  decimal  system 
having  as  its  unit  a  dollar  equal  in  value  to 
the  American  dollar  was  introduced  and  placed 
on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Halifax  currency. 
and  the  British  sovereign  was  made  full  legal 
tender  at  $4.8667.  On  1  Jan.  1858.  the  decimal 
system  was  finally  adopted  as  that  in  which  all 
public  accounts  shoula  be  kept,  and  since  that 
date  Canadian  currency  has  been  on  a  gold 
monometallic  basis,  wi^  a  unit  of  value  equal 
to  the  gold  dollar  of  the  United  States. 

On  1  July  1867,  the  Domioion  of  Canada 
came  into  being,  uniti:^  in  one  Confederation 
the  province^  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  .Brunswick;  currency,  coinage  and 
legal  tender  were  thereafter  under  the  sole  con- 
trol of  the  Dominion  Parliament 

The  first  Federal  Act  dealing  with  the  stand- 
ard of  value  and  the  metalhc  currency  was 
passed  in  1868.  It  declared  that  it  was  desirable 
that  the  currency  of  Canada  should  be  assimi- 
lated to  the  basis  agreed  on  at  the  monetary 
conference  held  in  Paria  earlier  in  the  year,  and 
also  that  it  should  be  of  the  same  value  as  the 


It  will  be  observed  that  although  the  Cana- 
dian currency  has  a  unit  of  value  equivalent  to 
that  of  the  United  States,  the  standard  of  value 
is  the  British  sovereign. 

Power  was  taken  to  tnake  any  foreign  gold 
coins  legal  trndet  in  Canada,  and  the  Amencaa 
gold  eagle  of  the  weight  and  standard  of  fine- 
ness then  existing,  together  with  its  multiples 
and  halves,  was  made  legal  tender,  each  coin  at 
its  faM  value. 

In  1910  the  Act  now  in  force  (9-10  Edward 
VII,  Chap.  14)  was  enacted  Its.  reads  in  pari 
as  follows: 


tlut  of  oa«    ' 
ot  tlw  Crawn 


.  «rt«  by  wmgti. 

Hts  ilull  tM  of  fiba  ijlTn  aaS  MOMitr-fiva  of  al 
lid.  nlv«r  aod  btonM  eoini,  Mnidi  by  the  w  " 

Crawn  for  curailBtioii  in  CuuuU,  of  tba  rn-r— 

uminiuiuIiDiu  mentiooed  in  tlM  achadule  to  fliu  act,  tad  'ot 
tbe  ttuidud  wiocht  and  flnsiiaB  thania  wt  out,  ahill  ba 
*  —  --' for  the  rapcctin  m 


video,  however,  for  the  COntmued  use  of  the  old       lirmty-flve  centi.  ten  cmU.  fin  onU  utd  on  ccnt.^ 


CnSiu 


ffn^t       Millcsnl 


TiRotr  <loUu.. 

TmdoUu 

Pin  dolUr 

Two  and  OM-lu>] 
Stinr 

Piftnant.'.'.'!:; 
Tmoty-Sva  cent 

Taneent 

Five  cent 

Cent 


r  NiK-teBtba  fine  gold.  ] 


iThiity4*y(D43Ttiethi  1 
fine  ijlver  thre*- 1 
Itrrtiethi  allor  or  i 
•IS  ■  "I 

J  Mlied  BwUl,  oopper,  \ 


•  Thia  remedy  ia  or 
t  tliia  rtmedy  b  <x 
t  Tbii  remedy  it  ot 


1  ginoij  Ot  OM  dnUar'a  north.  t*a  piecM 
(  irnmp  of  one  doOar'i  worth,  twent]F  pi 
1  group  of  eighty  pieca  waghed  aguoal 


'pound  currency'  when  this  was  desired.  This 
Act  was  repealed  by  the  Act  of  1871.  which 
established  Uie  metallic  currency  on  its  present 
basts  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Dominion 
except  Prince  Edward  Island  (entered  Con- 
federation, 1873)  and  Britiah  Columbia  (entered 
Confederation,  1871^  eictension  to  these  ]>roY- 
inces  being  effected  in  1881.  In  1886  a  consoli- 
dating act  was  passed,  providing  that: 


d  1^ 

HHshaUthe 


of  1  ceat.  "' 

■The  currency  o(  Canada  ahatl  be  aiich,  t 
aan-ereim  of  Om  wvight  and  RnoWH  sow  pn.. 
laws  «  the  United  Kiofdon.  (hall  bg  equal 

pa«  cnmnt  for  four  doflan  eighty-n. 

of  a  cent  of  the  currency  of  Canada, 

of  proportkmate  weight  and  the  fineneaa,  for  one-half 

''Any  gold  coini  which  Her  Majeaty  cauoei  to  bt  rtruck 
for  circuhtion  in  Canada,  of  the  itandird  of  flnaneai  nr». 
acribeid  by  law  for  tbr  gold  coini  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
■uid  tieartiig  tbe  laiiie  propartina  in  weight  (o  that  of  tha 
Britiah  •overeisn,  which  five  dollara  bear  to  four  doUaia 
«i(litr-ui  centa  and  twn-tbirdi  of  a  cent,  ihall  pa«  current 
mod  be  a  leaal  tandar  in  Canada  for  five  doHani  and  any 
■      ^^ which   Her   M^aMy 


It  also  erovides  that  the  British  sovereign 
and  multiples  and  divisions  thereof,  and  me 
fiv^  ten  and  twenty  dollar  gold  coins  of  t)ie 
Uuted  States  shall  pass  current  and  be  legal 
tender,  and  gives  the  governor  in  council  au- 
thority to  £(c  by  proclamation,  the  rates  at 
which  atty  foreign  gold  coins  shall  pass  current 
and  be  a  legal  tenoer. 

The  actiial  currency  of  the  country  consist; 
almost  entirely  of  pafwr  (see  Onada  — Bank- 
lira  Systeu)  and  this  has  been  found  entirely 
satisfactory.  Until  recent  years  there  had  been 
no  Canadian  gold  coinage,  while  the  silver  and 
bronce  coinage  needed  had  been  obtained  from 
England,  through  the  Royal  Mint,  an  arrange- 
ment which  had  always  worked  very  well,  In- 
fluetKcd,  however,  by  the  large  production  of 
gold  in  the  Yukon  territory  the  government 
took  authority,  during  the  session  of  19(H, 
with  the  concurrence  of  die  Imperial  govern- 
ment, to  estaUisfa  at  Ottawa  a  branch  of  the 
Royal  Mint,  which  came  into  ojteration  in  1908. 

Since  that  date  all  Canadian  coinage  has 
been  minted  in  Ottawa.  In  1912  the  Ottawa 
Mint  began  the  cdnage  of  (Canadian  five  dollar 
and  ten  dolla];  gold  pieces,  and  up  to  31  Dec, 


.Goc^glc 


478 


CANADA  — CURRBHCY,  COINAGB  AND  LBOAL  TENDER  (49) 


191S' $4^,420   had  been   coined   and   issued.  ,      TT*  «toi»»  oi  IW™  di.n  ihraym  hoki  u  imBiw 

Pra«i«liv  none  of  this  is  in  the  hands  of  the  ^''iSilSSnSSJS.li.^WUuJS^.^^t^ol?^ 

public,   which   does   not   want  and  will    not   use  aa  amnuit  equ«l  to  not  teM  than  twenty-five  per  centmn 

gold,  except  very  occasionally  for  some  special  of  (he  •mount  ol«ichi»t«iB  gold" 

Joi.^  md  almo«  the  whole  of  Cmd.'s  gold  i,^'»,"SSl'Ai5".3a°SS,.°'.b?)ES,'S3 

currency    is    held    by    the    government    or    the  hold  u  unount  in  gold  equal  to  nch  exceaa". 

banks,   forming  a  small  part  of   the  country's  ,    '"n^  Gomtm  a  Qaiw<A  vas^oMA>hih}irmiiiA^ 

r,ld  rj«r,„,"Th™  ™c„e,  „.  d,™„  upon  S!.'^iS5Srifl^iS«?'^a.£S'^ 

or  added  to  in  the  settlement  of  international  tot  Ctlgu?,  for  the  Mdemption  at  DominKni  uotee.  or  mir 

balances,    and    for    this    purpose    British    and  '"^  airaimiieBta  with  ■  chanmed  bank  at  uta  d  tiie  aud 

American    gold    is    better    adapted    than    is  Pl«« '« tS- "donpii™  th™)£". 

G»^^°-.   .  ■                ...                  -  Under  the  authority  of  this  Act  the  following 

The  subsidiary  or  token  coins  in  use  are  five,  notes  were  outstanding  on  31  March  1917: 

ten,  twenty-five  and  fifty  cent  pieces,  all  silver  provindni  notei                                            »27  7«  a 

and    one    cent,    bronze.      The    total    amount    of       FiaetionBh '      I.OU.Ml.M 

silver  coined  and  put  into  circulation  in  Canada     ILWandM M.oas.su.so 

(iocJuding  $95,000  old  coinage  of  New  Bnms-     tto'^diibo ^•^i'??om 

wick)  up  to  31  Dec.  1915  is  $19,848,323  and  of  lioo^diMiDo;::::;::;;:;:::;:::;::;    *,sm:soo:w 

bronre  $1,212,933.     Silver  of  the  face  value  of  — 

$I,25?,730  has  been  withdrawn  for  recoina^  »300.li.ooo.«5.ooo«oru«ofi*nfaoni).).    TMinSlJoSiio 

and  It  13  estimated  that  the  amount  now  in  

circulation  is  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the     .     Toiai |i8j.i*«,w6.J9 

total  coined.  '     "      " 

The  history  of  the  paper  obligations  of  the  ^  very  large  proportion  of  the  large  notes  in 

Doniinion    government    really    begins    before  dn:ulation  is  held  by  the  chartered  banks  for 

Confederation,  when  m  1866  the  legislature  of  ^^jrve   purposes,    and    also    as    a    medium   in 

the  province  of  Canada  sanctioned  an  issue  of  ^hi^,  ,„  ^^^  ftcir  daily  settlements  with  each 

fJ™"™    T.^     ?  j"   !?"°".i!-    "°     exceeding  ^f^^^^     ^   ^^^^   [^^^  ^f  „ote  has   therefore 

f8,000.00a    At  Confederation  this  issu^amount-  t^en  issued,  negotiable  only  between  banks,  and 

!"8    i°..^J-"'™t    "B'ther    with    $605859.12  of  „„  value  except  lo  a  bank     This  materially 

iMued  by  Nova  ScoHa.  was  assumed  by  the  ]„sens  the  risk  of  loss  by  robbery  when  large 

Dominion,,  and  the   'Dominion   Notes',  system  gnjounfs  are  being  carried   from   one  bank  to 

was  thus  inaugurated.     In  1868  provisioa  was  another,  or  at  any  other  time     Of  the  notes  in 

S*«<^'o^''"T?=^  'P™f  *^*  "°*'"""%u''  circulation    as     above     $148,258,500    were    the 

to  85,000,000  and  25  per  cent  of  any  Mcces^  the  ^^^^^^  ^^i^^  for  the  banks,  while  of  the  total 

l?alance   up    to   the  limit   of  $^OOOflOO   to  be  issue  of  $183,248,986  the  banks  held  $160,291,577, 

f^fS^n  ^  ?™""^M  "■■  Do"?"»o"  "^iS?^",^-  loving  only^95?.409  in  the  hi^ds  of  th^ 

In  1870  the  issue  limit  was  raised  to  $9,000,000,  public              ^^ 

llT^fAXJ",,,^!  "l?^  °,L^^^t\'''\^  ^,  rr  To  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  Act. 

cent  of  debentures  with  authority  to  incrgseto  j^e   Minister  of   Finance  should  have  held  on 

m'^^f^^^.n'l^'^^L!.^-  '1'*fR7^^."f'*^  31   M^"^  1917,  as  security  for  the  note  issue. 

^.^^>,»t  ^nV^  «^^f  ?.nt  if  Ihlc^  r^!^^  go'^  «'  sccurities  deposited  bv  the  banks  under 

y    ^  ^  l«  J^J    "^m"     1R7?^.  ™         T3  S  Geo.  V,  Sec.  4.  Subsec.  2    (see  Canam- 

tS,^  w  ,^'^ictl'li'M"  «4i^'f^t„Tt?9''  Banking  Svste«)  as  follows: 

that  tor  any  issue  tietween  5y,uuO,uOo  and  Ili-  ,,          ....     .,n™w.™>n  ■,,           .      m.-,  .^  «» 

OOOOOOspedetotheextentof  SOpercentmust  £SS.K&r«ll^.2Vs%*S'^*frdX';      fililSiS 

be  held,  any  excess  above  $12,000,000  being  en-  

tirely  covered  by  specie.    In  1880  the  issue  was  L«»>  miuir«nHiti »MS.7*a.iW6 

raised  to  $20,000,000  to  be  covered  to  the  ex-  ^^^^^™ 

lent  of  at  least  15  per  cent  by  gold,  an  addi-  Of  tfiis  total  $113,110,154  was  in  gptd, 

tional   to  per  cent  1^  gold  or  Dominion   seal-  Inmiediately  following  the  oumreak  of  the 

rities   guaranteed  by  the   Imperial   government  European     War,      redemption     in     specie     of 

and   the   remaining  75   per   cent   1^   ordinary  Dominion  notes  was  suspended,  the  necessaiy 

Dominion  securities.     The  issue  might  exceed  btstmctions  being  given   by   the    Minister  of 

$20,000,000  to   any   extent  provided   the   whole  Finance   on   4   Aug.    1914.     These   instructions 

of  any  excess  was  covered  by  gold.     In  1903  were  approved  by  an  order  in  council  dated 

an  issue  of  $30,000,000  was  aufhoriied.  secured  10  August  and  given  full  legal  confirmation  by 

as  to  not  less  than  15  per  cent  by  gold,  and  an   Act    (5   Geo.   V,   Chap.   3)    passed   on  Z 

another   10  per  cent   by  gold   or   guaranteed  August.    Under  the  authority  of  this  Act,  the 

debentures.      Any    notes,  issued    in    excess    of  redemption  in  specie  of  Dominion  notes  b  stiil 

$30,000,000  were  to  be  secured  by  fiold.            _  (31  Dec.  1917)  suspended,  and  the  -suspension 

Immediately  after  the  outbreak  of  war  in  will  doubtless  continue  until  the  end  of  the 

1914  the  Act  (5  Geoige  V,  Chap.  4)  now  in  war. 

force  was  passed,  its  main  provisions  being  as  In  recent  years  the  following  amounts  of 

followB;  Dominion  notes  (including  a  petty  amount  of 

"DoniinionnobBaraaybeiiMedaiiaontrtaadinaat  «ir  old  provincial  notes)  were  outstanding: 

tiDa  to  any  anonnt,  and  auch  ncitea  shKll  be  a  1<»1  tondei 

Demr  pact  o(  Canada  ncept  at  the  oEBcca  at  which  tbar       *9O0    30    Tune tU.134,JM 

■re  ndeemable".  1910    31    Uardi 8T.I».M1 

"DomiDioa  mtta  ihaH  ba  or  auch  danotunatiooalvahin       1411  *        '    90,0U.JW 

■a  the  Oovemor  in  Coucd]  dBtermian.  and  ahall  be  in  cuch       1911  '        lU.3U,Ut 

fOTm.  and  aiiacd  by  such  Dcnons.  tiro  in  number,  oa  the       1413  *        lll.Hl.lOf 

Minister  diiwtm'.  19U  '        llT,U4.t» 

"DDminion  notti  ihaU  b«  radaeoutdE  in  go.    oapna-       I9II  ■        IJI.WS.UP 

antatkni    at    branch  offlcea  ectabliibad.  or  u  baoka  with       1916  *        179,9t9.ZU 

which  airangeiDenii  are  made  (or  the  redemption  thereof       I9lf  '        tUilM.ttt 

■i  heretoatter  provided",  ,  


d=,  Google 


CANADA  — THS  ORAl^KK  UOVEMBHT  (50) 


Legal  tender  in  Canada  is : 

(1)  Full  legal  tender,  (a)  Any  Canadian 
gold  coins  struck  nnder  the  authority  of  the 
Currency  Act  of  19ia  (b)  The  Bntish  sov- 
ereign, and  any  divisions  or  multiples  thereof, 
at  $4.66^  to  the  L  (c)  Gold  coins  of  the 
United  States  of  fiv«,  ten  and  twenty  dollars 
each,  at  their  face  value,  (d)  Notes  of  the 
Dominion  government,  redeemable  in  specie 
on  presentatiDn  (redenipticHi  su^>ended  since 
4  Aug.  1914). 

(2)  Limited  legal  tender,     (a)  Silver  coin- 

Tof  Canada  up  to  $ll>.     (b>  Bronie  coinage 
Canada,  up  to  25  cents. 

(3)  Potential  legal  tender.  Any  foireign 
gold  coin,  at  rates  to  be  fixed  by  proclamation. 

F.   C  JEMMETT, 

Colonial  Bank,  London;    Formerly  Secretary 
■  The  CoHodiaH  Bank  of  Commerce. 

50.  THE  GRANGER  UOVEUENT.  The 
Granger  movement  in  Canada  closely  resembles 
in  its  economic  and  social  features  the  move- 
ment of  the  same  name  in  the  United  States 
from  which  it  derived  its  initial  in^ration. 
The  Grange  was  first  established  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec  in  1872  by  Eben  Thompson,  a 
deputy  iTom  the  United  States.  Two  years 
later  representatives  from  several  Canadian 
Granges  met  at  London,  Ontario,  and  organized 
the  Dominion  Grange  of  the  Patrons  of  Hus- 
bandry. In  the  declaration  of  principles  then 
adopted  the  motto,  *Uni^,  Liberty  and 
Charity,*  was  heartily  endorsed.  The  objects 
of  the  organization  were  declared  to  be  to  de- 
velop a  higher  and  better  manhood  and  woman- 
hood among  the  agricultural  classy  to  enhfloce 
the  comforts  and  attractions  of  their  homes;  to 
encourage  farmers  to  buy  less  aJid  produce 
more ;  to  diversify  their  crops ;  to  condense  the 
weight  of  exports,  selling  more  on  hoof  and  in 
fleece,  and  less  in  the  bushel.  The  Society  ex- 
pressed itself  as  opposed  to  the  credit  system, 
and  the  mortgage  system.  It  declared  itself  to 
be  independent  of  political  organizations  and 
disassociated  from  political  parties.  At  the 
same  time  it  was  'reserved  for  every  patron  as 
his  right  as  a  freeman  to  affiliate  with  anv  party 
that  will  best  carry  out  his  principles,'  The 
declaration  of  principles  laid  stress  upon  the 
importance  of  the  abilities  and  sphere  of 
women,  who  were  admitted  both  to  membership 
and  to  office  in  tht  order.  The  growth  of  the 
Grange  during  the  next  few  years  was  very 
rapid-  With  the  Dominion  ^ange  as  its 
centre,  it  was  organized  in  provincial  granges, 
division  granges  and  subordinate  granges.  In 
1876  the  secretary  reported  a  total  membership 
of  17,500  patrons,  with  33  division  and  530 
subordinate  granges.  Of  the  latter  4  were  in 
Nova  Scotia,  7  in  New  Brunswick,  16  in  Quebec 
and  S03  in  Ontario.  There  were  also  six  subor- 
dinate granges  in  Quebec,  organized  under  the 
National  Grange  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
following  year  the  Grange  was  incorporated  by 
the  Dominion  Parliament,  and  in  1879  its  mem- 
bership reached  31,000.  The  Grange  not  only 
sought  to  exert  an  educative  influence  on  the 
farming  population  by  the  distribution  of  litera- 
ture, etc,  but  also  set  on  foot,  directly  or  in- 
directly, various  economic  enterprises  of  a  co- 
operative nature  intended  to  enable  the  farmers 
to  buy  and  sell  more  cheaply  bv  acting  in  union. 
Of   tnese  the  most  impoTtant  wm  the  Grange 


the  society,  and  which  sold 
fanners'  supplies,  seeds  and  nunor  machinery 
to  the  patrons  at  greatly  reduced  prices.  The 
local  distribution  was  effected  by  the  members 
of  the  subor£natc  granges.  The  company  is- 
sued for  some  years  a  paper  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  the  patrons  under  the  title  of  the 
Grange  Bulletin.  In  this  were  printed  ex- 
tensive price  lists  of  farmers'  supplies  offered 
for  sale.  A  similar  undertaking  was  established 
in  the  form  of  the  People's  Salt  Company  of 
Kincardine.  The  economic  enterprises  of  the 
Grange  have  not,  however,  met  with  marked 
success.  The  demands  made  npon  the 
initiative  of  the  co-operative  purchasers  have 
proved  too  exacting.  After  some  10  years  of 
successful  existence  the  enthusiasm  whidi  the 
institution  of  the  Grange  t^d  at  first  aroused 
began  to  cool,  and  many  of  the  subordinate 
granges  (bed  of  inanition.  In  ibe  ^ear  1876, 
271  new  granges  had  been  r«>orted  in  Ontario 
alone;  in  1891  only  two  subordinate  granges 
were  organized  in  Canada,  and  in  1898  no  new 
organizations  were  reported.  Meantime  the 
constant  lapse  of  those  m  existence,  through  the 
apathy  of  their  previous  supporters,  greatly 
reduced  the  numbers  of  the  active  patrons.  The 
total  nnmber  of  granges  instituted  had  reached 
about  1,000,  but  at  the  29th  annual  meet- 
ing (2  and  3  Feb.  1904)  the  secretary's 
.statement  shows  that  only  13  division  granges 
and  30  subordinate  granges  (with  a  member- 
ship of  411)  had  reported  during  the  last  ^ar. 
The  receipts  of  the  treasury  of  the  Dominion 
grange,  which  amounted  to  $6,900  in  1876,  fell 
to  $134  in  1906.  In  that  year  the  Grange  was 
amalgamated  with  the  Farmers'  Association,  a 
socety  reformed  from  the  Patrons  of  Industry, 
but  since  1909  no  statistics  of  membership  and 
no  annual  reports  of  this  body  have  been  issued. 
During  the  whole  history  of  the  order  there 
were  organized  at  one  time  or  another  57 
division  granges,  976  subordinate,  2  provincial 
(Ontario  and  Maritime  provinces),  and  one 
Dominion,  making  a  grand  total  of  1,036 
s^>arate  Grange  organizations  in  the  Dominion. 
Many  persons  had  been  led  to  join  in  the  move- 
ment, from  the  sanguine  hopes  of  profit  to  be 
derived  from  the  co-operative  side  of  the  enter- 
prise, and  fell  away  when  these  were  not 
realized.  On  the  whole,  the  Grange  movement 
must  be  regarded  as  a  failure  in  the  direction 
of  its  economic  enterprises,  but  its  influence  for 
the  soda]  and  educational  advancement  of  the 
farming  class  has  undoubtedly  been  great 
During  the  flourishing  period  of  the  movement 
literary  exercises  alternated  with  the  conduct  of 
business  matters  at  the  local  meetings.  It  hat 
cspeciall:^  been  instrumental  in  promoting  va- 
rious legislative  measures  in  the  interests  of  the 


38),  the  Dominion  statute  known  as  theButter 
Act,  etc  On  the  tariff  question  the  opinion  of 
the  patrons  has  been  divided ;  it  has  been 
difficult  for  the  Grange  to  adopt  any  decided 
position  in  the  matter  without  identifying 
itself  with  party  politics.  The  Grange  was, 
however,  instrumental  in  securing  the  re- 
peal of  the  duty  on  binder  twine.  The 
patrons  have  constantly  sou^t  to  foster  the 


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4T4 


CAHADA— THB  LABOR  MOVBHZMT  <51) 


cheese  industry  and  the  cattle  trade  with  Great 
Britain:  have  succeeded  in  having  agriculture 
taught  in  the  public  schools ;  and  have  strongly 
supported  the  agricultural  college  at  Guelph. 
The  Grange  has  also  agitated  in  favor  of  the 
inflation  of  the  Dominion  paper  currency,  the 
reduction  of  railroad  rates  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  3  railroad  commission.  Consult 
Michell,  H.,  'The  Grange  in  Canada>  (Bulletm, 
Department  of  Histoiy,  Queen's  University, 
Kingston  1914). 

Stephen  Lbacock, 

MeGilt  Vnivertily. 

51.  THE  LABOR  HOVBHENT  IN 
CANADA.  In  Canada,  as  elsewhere,  the  labor 
movement  has  been  shaped  by  poUtical  and 
economic  environnient.  The  presence  of  the 
French  in  Quebec  has  been  an  miportant  factor. 
The  existence  of  free  land  and  the  large  part 
played  by  transportation  and  construction  trades 
in  a  country  of  greai  distances  and  under  rapid 
development  are  others. 

The  histoiy  of  organized  labor  in  Canada  is 
in  the  main  that  of  a  series  of  outposts  of  the 
lar^r  movements  of  Great  Britain  and  t^e 
United  States.  The  legislative  aims  of  Cana- 
dian labor  have  been  derived  largely  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  but  the  working  mechanism 
of  trade  unionism  has  come  almost  entirely,  and 
especially  in  recent  years,  from  the  United 
States.  Few  data  on  the  subject  prior  to  Con- 
federation M867)  exist.  The  newness  of  the 
country  ana  the  laclc  of  industrial  population 
were  against  organization.  There  were  'labor 
circles,'  so-called,  in  the  province  of  Quebec  as 
early  as  182S.  In  1S2?  a  printers'  organiza- 
tion in  the  city  of  Quebec  took  cognizance  of 
wages  and  cared  for  its  sick.  A  similar  union 
among  the  printers  of  York  was  recorded  when 
that  municipality  became  the  ci^  of  Toronto 
in  1834.  The  larger  seaports,  being  the  locaU- 
ties  in  closest  touch  with  Great  Britain,  were 
the  6rst  to  develop  trade  unionism.  Prior  to 
1850,  however,  the  movement  was  negligible; 
The  railway  and  land  'boom*  of  18S(KS4 
brought  important  changes,  especially  in 
Ontario,  and  there  were  strikes  of  printers, 
shoemakers  and  molders  at  Toronto  in  the 
latter  year.  The  Typographical  Union  of  the 
United  States  crossed  into  Canada  in  the  sixties. 
But  it  was  not  until  1872,  and  the  winning  of  a 
celebrated  conspiracy  trial  arising  out  of  a 
strike  of  printers  at  Toronto,  and  the  passing 
by  the  Dominion  government  of  'An  Act  re- 
specting Trade  Unions,'  which  repealed  the 
harsh  measures  previously  in  effect  against  as- 
sociations of  employees  (an  echo  of  me  repeal 
of  the  Combination  Laws  of  England),  that  the 
labor  movement  had  its  real  birth  in  Canada. 
In  that  year,  which  was  the  apex  of  a  period  of 
great  industrial  and  commercial  prosperity,  the 
first  general  assembly  of  Canadian  labor  met 
at  Toronto.  It  was  attended  by  the  representa- 
tives of  31  unions,  though  there  were  70  unions 
in  existence  by  that  time  in  Ontario  alone.  The 
organization  with  some  initial  successes  to  its 
credit  in  securing  legislation  in  the  province  of 
Ontario  waned  with  the  depression  which  fol- 
lowed the  panic  of  1873,  and  disappeared  en- 
tirely three  years  later.  In  1883,  under  more 
direct  encouragement  and  support  from  the 
unions  of  the  United  States,  the  attempt  to 


found  a  central  labor  body  in  Canada  was  re- 
peated, this  time  with  p£rmaileDt  success,  and 
after  1886  "The  Trades  and  Labor  Congress 
of  Canada'  secured  a  firm  place  among  Cana< 
dian  institutions,  holding  annual  meetings  and 
consistently  increasing  in  strengdi  and  inflDence 
ever  since.  Since  1900  alone  the  increase  in  the 
membership  of  the  Congress  and  its  adfaeriog 
bodies  has  been  tenfold. 

The  constitution  and  general  position  within 
the  Canadian  labor  movement  of  the  Trades 
and  Labor  Congress  as  it  exists  to-day 
is  of  considerable  significance  and  interest. 
From  the  outset,  as  already  remarked,  the  typ- 
cal  local  trade  imioD  in  Canada  has  been  a 
branch  of  a  large  'craEl"  organization  havii^ 
its  headquarters  in  the  United  States.  Even 
where_ the  parent  body  is  British,  the  immedtalc 
affiliation  has  usually  been  from  a  continental 
head  office  situated  in  the  United  Stales. 
Canadian  trade  unionism,  accori^ngly,  has 
reflected  rather  accurately  the  conflicts  and  gen- 
eral fortunes  of  the  unions  of  the  neighboring 
republic.  The  Congress  is  in  efliect  an  organi- 
zation on  the  federal  principle  of  the  Canadian 
members  of  the  general  international  labor 
movement,  for  the  purpose  primarily  of  direct- 
ing public  opinion  and  mfluendng  leraslatioD  in 
the  Parliament  of  Canada  and  the  legislatures 
of  the  several  provinces,  a  function  which 
obviously  a  foreign  organization  could  not  ade- 
quately perform.  The  Congress  accordin^y 
has  always  been  closely  allied  with  the  federated 
bodies  of  the  United  States,  deriving  its 
revenues  not  only  from  its  own  members  but 
by  grant  from  the  federal  head  bodies  whose 
work  it  carries  out  in  Canadian  territory. 

This  status  of  the  Congress  has  in  large  part 
determined  its  histoiy.  In  the  great  conflict 
which  was  waged  in  the  closing  decades  of  the 
19th  century  between  the  Knirfils  of  L.abor  and 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor  for  suprem- 
ac;^  in  the  federal  field  of  American  trade 
unionism,  the  Congress  at  first  held  the  balance 
even.  Later  on,  however,  with  the  increasing 
strength  of  the  Federation,  the  influence  of  th* 
Knigfts  of  Labor  in  the  Congress  declined. 
Eventuallv  an  ojien  rupture  occurred,  and  in 
1904  the  'Canadian  Feoeration  of  Labor*  was 
organized  of  unions  cast  out  of  the  Confess 
on  the  ground  of  adherence  to  the  principles 
of  the  defeated  movement..  The  new  organ- 
ization adopted  as  its  leading  policy  the  foster- 
ing of  a  purely  Canadian  as  opposed  to  an 
international  trade  union  movement  Outside 
of  the  province  of  Quebec^  however,  where  the 
Knights  of  Labor  had  attained  an  exceptionally 
strong  position,  no  numerous  following  was 
obtained  The  Federation  has  at  the  present 
time  a  membership  of  about  50  unions.  There 
have  always  been,  of  course,  a  limited  number 
of  purely  local  organizations  of  labor  in 
Canada,  and  even  of  central  craft  associations, 
outside  the  international  movement.  The  boot 
and  shoe  workers  and  textile  workers  of  the 
province  of  Quebec  had  at  one  time  consider- 
able organizations.  The  Canadian  Brotherhood 
of  Railway  Employees  has  more  recently  be- 
come prominent,  and  there  are  at  [K^seni  at 
least  10  other  Canadian  associations  of  a  cen- 
tral character.  Of  these  the  best  Imown,  both 
because  of  its  history  and  its  present  import- 
ance, is  the  Provincial  Workmen's  Association 
of  Nova  Scotia,  a  body  founded  in  1879,  origin 


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CAlUlD&>^TBX' LABOR  MOVSIOHT  ($1) 


m 


mlly  of  coal  miners.  After  a  career  of  30 
years  ra>lctc  with  successes,  the  AGSi>ciatioa 
had  establi^ed  its  influence  throughout  Nova 
Scotia,  when  a  strike  of  the  Eknninion  Coal 
Company's  etA^loyees  threat  el)  ed  to  involve 
the  great  majority  of  its  members  sad  accord- 
ingly to  place  an  undue  strain  on  its  resources. 
The  iodaciit  is  somewhat  typical  of  organiza- 
tions having  a  limited  field  of  operations.  It 
caused  a  section  of  the  membership  in  the 
Drescnt  case  to  look  for  help  to  the  United  Miiw 
Woricers  of  America,  the  international  body 
established  throughout  the  continent,  which  at 
once  threw  organisers  into  the  field  After  a 
bitter  struggle  of  several  years'  duration,  a 
compromise  was  effected  in  1917,  by  which  th« 
two  series  of  local  organixations  have  become 
merged,  but  have  continued  on  a  Canadian 
basis.  As  to  the  present  position  of  ti^e 
unionism  in- Canada,  the  following  is  a  brief 

Local  Unions.— Beginning  with  the  unit  of 
trade  union  OrganixatMn,  oanely,  the  local 
union, —  usually  the  craft  union  —  there  were 
in  1916  some  1,842  bodies  of  this  character  in 
Canada.  Of  these,  1,626  were  branches  of  in- 
ternational or^nizations,  189  were  branches  of 
purely  Canadian,  organizations,  whilst  27  were 
entirely  independent  and  local.  The  total  trade 
union  membership  was  estimated  at  160,407  in 
1916,  of  which  129,123  was  international.  This 
does  not  represent  the  highest  point  reached  by 
the  Canadian  labor  moverrtept ;  in  1913,  there 
were  2,017  local  unions  and  the  total  member- 
ship was  over  175,001}.  By  provinces,  Ontario 
stands  first  with  753  unions,  and  Quebec  second 
with  306.  British  Columbia  follows  with  203 
and  Alberta  with  147.  Uanitoha  has.  130, 
Saskatchewan  1 16,  Nova  Scotia  100,  New 
Brunswick  80  and  Prince  Edward  Island  8. 
Trade  unionism  naturally  predominates  in  the 
larger  industrial  centres,  and  18  Canadian 
cities  contain  B2S  of  the  1342  local  branches, 
and  over  40  per  cent  of  the  entire  membership. 
Montreal  with  127  unions,  Toronto  with  HI, 
Winiupeg  with  75,  Vancouver  with  56*  Hamil- 
ton with  SO,  Ottawa  with  46,  Edmonton  with 
42  and  London  with  40  are  the  leading  centres 
of  the  labor  movement.  The  most  highly 
unioniied  group  of  workpeople  is  the  railroad 
employees,  who  constitute  30.5  per  cent  of  all 
Canadian  trade  unionists.  The  clothing  and 
boot  and  shoe  trades  account  for  10.6  per  cent 
of  the  locals  and  the  metal  trades  for  9J  per 
cent  Building  trades  and  mining  and  quarry- 
ing tie  for  next  place  with  9.4  per  cent  each. 
The  printing  trades  have  4,5  per  cent  These 
proportions  vary  from  year  to  year  with  gen- 
eral economic  conditions.  In  1914  the  building 
trades  made  up  18^  ner  cent  of  the  total  trade 
union  men)  bciship,  wnilst  the  railway  employees 
were  at  that  time  only  24.9  per  cent. 

With  r^^id  to  the-  central  international 
craft  organirations,  it  may  be  noted  that  of  a 
total  of  143  operating  on  the  North  American 
continent,  91  are  represented  in  Canada.  The 
American  Federation  of  Labor  constitutes  the 
federal  head  of  112  of  these;  within  Canada  84 
are  in  affiliation  with  the  Trades  and  Lalrar 
Congress.  Naturally  the  Canadian  representa- 
tion in  the  international  movement  is  but  a 
small  proportion  of  the  whole.  It  was  esti- 
mated in  1916  that  the  American  Federation  of 
Lpabor  embraced  a  total  of  24,360  local  branches. 


with  a  membership  of  2,529,198.  The  Traifes 
and  Labor  Congress  of  Canada  could  speak  at 
the  same  time  for  1,138  local  branches  having 
a  membership  of  66^573,  Of  the  91  organiza- 
tions above  mentioned,  41  have  10  or  more 
branches  in  Canada.  Those  havmg  25  or  more 
toanches  are  as  follows: 


lo»1 
Name  op  Oncaicuatioh  uniti 

Barb«n'  iDtcTTWtitmHl  Uninii  of  America, 

JmnKymBi «0 

BncUarisn.     Mft»ni    luiii     PlBiterm' 

iDtcTTUtianal  Union  of  America 56 

CarpenUn    and    Jninen    of    Anwriia. 

tMited  BrotherbDod  of 101 

BtaoCrical        Worlox*,        IntHnauonal 

Brotherhood  of 29 

Locomotive  Enpineert,  Brotherhood  of . .  90 

LoonDOtivfi    Ptnaten  and    Eosinenien, 

Brotherhood  d 92 

LoDgs^omcen,    Intemational    Asoociii- 

Hachinialf.  iatenutioaki  AiecKution  <i  M 

Uunteiuncs4f-Way  Employee*,  later- 

oatknul  Brotherhood  at 157 

Mine  Worken  of  Acoericii.  United 25 

"  "      '     Union    of     North    America, 

Amencan  Ptoderation  of ... .  40 

^,—„  .Decoraton  and  P«i»rbajiacn 

al  Americs,  Brotherhood  of 28 

i^umban  and  Stesnt  Pittas  li  America. 

United  Awodation  of 40 

RAilwav  ConductoTB.  Order  of 61 

RaiJvniy  Cajtnen  of  America.  Brother- 
hood of 73 

Aaihvad  Trainmen.  Brotherhood  ol . . . .  86 

Stonecutters'     Anociation     <if     North 

America,  Journeymen M 

Typofraphial  Union,  Intsrsuisaal, 

Total. 


44  4.64T 


Trades  and  Labor  Councils,— These  are 
the  municipal  parliaments  of  labor,  of  some- 
what loose  organization,  supported  by  a  small 
per  capita  assessment.  They  are  most  import- 
ant bodies  under  the  Canadian  system.  All 
matters  of  general  as  opposed  to  craft  interests 
are  particularly  their  concern.  In  1916  they 
numbered  4C^  of  which  42  were  chartered  by 
the  Trades  and  Labor  Congress  and  3  by  the 
Canadian  Federation  of  Labor.  Nineteen  of 
the  trades  cotincih  are  in  Ontario.  Perhaps 
the  most  historic  labor  body  in  Canada  is  the 
Toronto  Trades  and  Labor  Council.  It  was 
the  body  chiefly  inslrumental  in  calling  together 
the  first  congress  of  labor  in  Canada,  and  it 
represents  to-day  over  10,000  members  of  the 
rank  and  file. 

Federal    Councils. —  Canada    has    also    its 


Thus  there  are  nine  allied  printing  trades  coun- 
cils, six  building  trades  councils,  six  federal 
councils  of  railway  employees  and  four  federa- 
tions of  theatricaJ.  employees.  A  considerable 
number  of  the  craft  unions  have  also  what  is 
termed  'district  councils,'  which  usually  com- 
prise all  the  branches  of  the  same  craft  organi- 
zation within  the  given  area.  Thus  the  Provin- 
cial Conference  Board  of  Ontario  of  the  Brick- 
layers, Masons  and  Plasterers'  International 
Union  is  made  up  of  30  local  unions  scattered 
throughout  the  province,  Similarljr  the  United 
Mine  Workers  of  Alberta  and  British  Columbia 
have  a  district  association.  There  are  alto- 
^her  38  district  councils  of  labor  unions  in 
Canada.    It  should. be  noted  that  in  Canada  as 


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CANADA  HBHP  — CANADIAN  CANALS 


in  the  United  States  the  large  iateraational  tail- 
way  orninizations  have  been  chary  of  entering 
into  definite  aililiation  wilh  the  general  labor 
movement.  They  are  not  represented  for 
example  in  the  Trades  and  Labor  Congress. 
They  maintain  instead  a  series  of  ■protective* 
and  ■legislative*  committees.  Certain  of  the 
railway  organiutions  have  special  officers  under 
salary  to  watch  their  interests  during  the  ses- 
sions of  the  Dominion  Parliament. 

Beneficiarv  Work.— The  bene£ciary  work 
of  the  Canadian  upions  is  inextricably  inter- 
woven with  that  of  the  continental  movement 
It  may  be  remarked  that  the  total  expenditures 
on  benefits  of  the  international  or^nizations 
represented  in  Canada  was  $12,502,128  in  1916, 
of  which  the  Canadian  memberswp  doubtless 
received  its  [iroportional  share.  In  addition,  the 
Canadian  unions  paid  out  independently  and  on 
a  ptirely  local  basis  the  following  sums: 

Dwth  t>eD«flU tS6,«M 

Unemployed  benefit* 3,13t 

Strike  benefit* 15, S« 

Sick  benefit* IM.SSl 

Otbet  beneSM 17.279 

Labor  '  Legislation. — The  main  body  of 
labor  legislation  in  Canada  b  of  provincial 
origin  —  the  provinces  being  vested,  under  the 
British  North  America  Act,  with  the  protection 
of  civil  rights.  In  the  rise  and  development  of 
the  factory  system  in  the  older  provinces,  and 
of  the  mining  and  construction  trades  there 
and  elsewhere,  will  be  found  the  conditions 
which  have  created  most  of  the  Canadian  labor 
laws.  Factories  and  Shops  Acts  exist  in  all 
the  provinces;  and-  Mines  Acts  in  those  which 
have  an  active  mining  industry.  Acts  defining 
the  relations  of  master  and  servant  and  protect- 
ing  the   wages   of   the  latter  found   their  way 


has  been  that  of  Great  Britain.  In  workmen's 
compensation  legislation,  for  example,  marked 
diversity  has  resulted  from  the  different  pace 
with  which  the  provinces  have  followed 
British  precedent.  The  Dominion  Parliament, 
however,  as  responsible  for  the  peace,  order  and 
good  government  of  the  country,  the  regulation 
of  trade  and  immigratioD  and  the  scope  of  the 
criminal  law,  has  also  been  largely  interested  in 
labor  problems.  A  Dominion  D«>artmeni  of 
Labor  has  existed  since  1900,  and  has  been  the 
chief  Canadian  agency  for  the  settlement  of 
disputes  between  capital  and  labor.  The  evolu- 
tion of  the  Dominion  policy  in  intervention  in 
labor  disputes,  culminating  in  the  Industrial 
Disputes  Invesiigatioa  Act  of  1907  —  a  measure 
which  forbids  a  strike  or  lockout  in  the  more 
important  industries  prior  to  investigation  by  a 
board  of  inquiiy  —  constitutes  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  chaiiter  in  the  subject  of  Cana- 
dian labor  legislation.  Labor  departments 
in  more  or  less  developed  form  exist  in  most 
of  the  provinces. 

R.  H,  Coats. 
Dominion  Staliilictan  and   Controller   of   the 
CeiuKS. 

CANADA  HEMP,  INDIAN  HEMP,  or 
AMY-ROOT,  a  perennial  herb  Apocynitm 
ctmnabinum  of  the  dogbane  family  (A^ocynO' 
ceo-),  a  native  of  North  America  (British  Co- 
lumbia, Florida  and  Lower  California)  gener- 


.  „  and  the  leaves  obkn^  laoceotaie- 
oblong  and  ovate-oblong,  acute  or  obtuse  and 
fflucronate  at  the  apex  but  narrow  and  rouoded 
at  the  base.  Above  they  are  glabroas  and 
■omettmes  pabetcent  beneath  and  lange  from 
two  to  six  _  feet  in  length  and  six  inches  to 
three  feet  in  width.  The  cymes  are  doise; 
the  pedicels  short  and  bracteolate  at  the  base; 
and  the  flowers  are  from  two  and  one-half  to 
three  inches  broad.  The  catyx-segmoits  are 
nearly  a>  long  as  the  tube  of  the  greenish- 
white  corolla.  Consult  Britton,  *  Illustrated 
Flora  of  the  Nordiem  United  States  and  Can- 
ada' (New  York  1897) ;  Gray,  'Maatal  of 
Botany*   (New  York  1889),  etc. 

CANADIAN        BOUNDARIES.  See 

BOUNDAUES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

CANADIAN  CANALS.  Tile  outstanding 
feature  of  water  transportation  in  Canada  is 
the  Saint  Lawrence  mtem  of  rivers  and  lakes 
stretching  from  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  to  the 
head  of  Lake  Superior — a  distance  of  2,340 
miles.  The  shoals  of  the  Saint  I^wrence  River 
in  Lake  Saint  Peter  between  Quebec  and 
Montreal  have  been  dredged  to  give  a  waterway 
with  a  minimura  of  30  feet  in  depth.  Above 
Montreal  the  difficulties  to  navigation  begin, 
and  here  begin  a,  scries  of  canals  which  over^ 
come  rapids  and  other  obstacles.  This  work 
of  canalizing  the  Saint  Lawrence  was  not  ef- 
fectively begun  till  about  60  years  after  the 
British  occupation.  The  canal  system  then 
embarked  upon  has  been  subsequently  improved 
and  enlarged,  and  in  1S7S  it  was  decided  to 
increase  their  depths  to  a  minimum  of  14  feet. 
There  is  a  difference  in  level  between  Lake 
Superior  and  tidewater  of  600  feet,  the  total 
let^th  of  the  canalization  at  different  points 
being  73  miles.  The  following  gives  a  summary 
of  traffic  during  the  past  five  years:  1911,  38,- 
030,}53  tons,  of  which  20.5  per  cent  was  freight 
of  Canadian  origin,  and  the  balance  American ; 
1912,  47,587,245  tons  (19.7  Canadian);  1913. 
52,053,913  tons  (21,3  Canadian)  ;  1914,  37,023,237 
tons  (25J  Canadian);  1915,  15,198,803  tons 
(44.7  Canadian).  It  will  be  observed  that  1915 
shows  the  extraordinary  decrease  of  21,824,434 
tons,  or  58.9  per  cent,  over  the  figures  of  1914. 
Of  that  decrease  91  per  cent  occurred  at  Satilt 
Sainte  Marie  (see  p.  477,  Sault  S^nte  Marie 
Canal).  The  canals  of  Canada,  like  those  of 
the  United  States,  are  free  of  toll  or  restric- 
tions of  an^  kind,  and  there  is  thus  absolute 
reciprocity  in  the  use  made  of  them  by  the 
vessels  of  each  nation.  The  following  is  a 
brief    summary    of    the    principal  canals    of 

Safait  Lawrence  Canala — The  Samt  Law- 
rence canals,  Lachine,  Soulanges,  Cornwall  and 
Williamsburg,  had  a  total  traffic  of  3,409,467 
tons  in  1915,  a  decrease  of  98^026  tons  over  the 
figures  of  1914. 

Lachine  Canal,— This  canal  was  bwit 
across  a  portion  of  the  island  of  Montreal  in 
order  to  avoid  the  Lachine  Rapids.  It  was 
opened  in  1824,  and  has  been  subsequently 
enlarged  three  times.  The  present  canal  has 
five  locks  275  feet'totig,  of  which  two  have  a 
depth  of  18  feet  of  vrater  on  the  alls. 


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CANADIAN  CANALS 


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SonlJuigw  Canal.^— Between  Lake  Saint 
Loms  and  Lake  Saint  Francis  three  rapids  are 
passed —  the  Cascades,  the  Cedars  and  the 
Coteau.  In  order  to  avoid  these  rapids  the 
Beatdiamais  Canal  was  built  on  the  south  shore 
of  the  river  and  compkted  in  1845.  It  was  11^ 
miles  m  length,  with  nine  locks.  The  Soulanges 
Canal,  completed  in  1899,  and  built  on  the  north 
shor&  has  now  superseded  the  Beauhamois 
Canal.  Its  le:^^  is  14  miles,  and  it  has  a  depth 
of  15  leet  of  water  availahle  on  the  gills, 

Comw«U  Csnal.!— The  Cornwall  Canal  was 
huilt  to  overcome  the  Long_  Sault  Rapids  at  the 
head  of  Lake  Saint  Francis.  It  extends  from 
Cornwall  to  Dickinson's  Landing,  and  was 
opened  for  navigation  in  1843, 

.  WilUanubory  Canala.— These  begin  with 
the  Farran's  Point  Canal,  five  miles  above  the 
Cornwall  Canal,  and  are  continued  by  the 
canals  at  Rapide  Plat  and  the  Galops.  They 
were  completed  and  opened  for  navigation  in 
1846-47,  and  have  been  recently  deepened  and 
eolarsed. 

CEunbljr  CauL—The  Chambly  Canal  at 
one  time  formed  an  important  link  in  the  chain 
of  communication  between  the  Saint  Lawrence 
and  the  Hudson  River  via  Lake  Chainplain.  A 
lock  at  Saint  Ours,  14  miles  above  Sorel,  was 
finished  in  1839.  The  Chamblv  Canal  was 
opened  in  1843,  but  was  improved  in  1850,  giv- 
ing a  navigable  depth  of  about  seven  feet  of 
—  'Br.     The  canal  is  12  miles  long,  the  connec- 


owing  to  the  building  of  railways  and  the  iu' 
creased  draught  of  vessels,  is  now  of  little 
commercial  importance,  and  is  chiefly  used  by 
barges  carrying  lumber  from  the  Ottawa  River 
to  New  York  In  1915  478,707  tons  passed 
through,  an  increase  of  41,802  tons  over  the 


system  was  designed  to  provide  safe  water 
CQnunuuication  between  Kingston  and  the  lower 
Saint  Lawrence  by  way  of  Ottawa  (then  called 
Bytown)  and  the  Ottawa  River.  In  its  concep- 
tion the  requirements  of  commerce  were  sec- 
ondary to  militant  considerations.  Water 
communications  with  Upper  Canada  had  been 
seriously  interrupted  durme  the  War  of  1812, 
and  the  system  was  intended  to  form,  so  to 
speak,  a  back-door  between  the  two  great  rivers. 
At  Sainte  Anne,  where  the  Ottawa  joins  the 
Saint  Lawrence,  private  interests  had  con- 
structed a  lock  in  1816.  Twenty-seven  miles 
farther  up  the  Ottawa,  the  Carillon  Canal  was 
built  to  avoid  the  Carillon  Rapids;  the  Chute 
k  Btondeau  Canal  four  miles  above  that,  and 
the  Grenville  Canal  a  mile  and  a  half  above  the 
Chute  i  Blondeau  Canal  The  Ottawa  River 
canals  handled  272,370  tons  of  freight  in  1915,  a 
decrease  of  62,762  tons  in  comparison  with  the 
preceding  year. 

The  Rideau  Canal,  formed  by  canaliiins  the 
Rideau  and  Cataraqui  rivers,  and  by  maidng 
use  of  the  Rideau  lakes,  was  constructed  as  a 
inilitary  work,  and  was  opened  for  navigation 
in  1832.  The  locks  were  134  feet  long  by  33 
feet  wide,  with  five  feet  depth  of  water  on  the 
sills.  In  1915  120,781  tons  of  freight  passed 
through,  a  decrease  of  30;958  tons  from  1914, 

Trent  Navigation  System..— A  plan  has 
been  projected  to  construct  a  navigable  water- 
way over  200  miles  in  length,  connecting  the 


rivers  and  lakes  between  the  Bay  of  Quinte  and 
the  southeastern  shore  of  Georgian  Bay.  In 
1907  it  was  decided  to  proceed  with  the  im- 
provement of  the  Trent  River  from  the  Bay 
of  Quinte  to  Lake  Simcoe,  with  an  eight  and 
one-half-foot  navigation  to  Rice  Lake,  and  a 
six-foot  navigation  from  that  point  to  Lake 
Simcoe.  Contracts  were  let  to  a  value  of  over 
S5,000,00a  Two  great  hydraulic  lift  locks  have 
been  constructed  in  connection  with  these 
works,  the  one  at  Peterborough  being  the 
largest  in  the  world,  and  is  able  to  lift  vessels 
of  a  capaci^  of  800  tons  vertically  a  distance 
of  65  feet.  In  1915  49,904  tons  passed  through 
the  Trent  canals,  a  decrease  of  17,811  tons  on 
the  figures  of  1914. 

WelUnd  Csnal—  This  is  the  most  extensive 
of '  the  public  works  of  this  character  under- 
taken by  the  Canadian  government  and  is  de- 
signed to  overcome  the  27  miles  tnat  separate 
Lake  Erie  from  Lake  Ontario.  The  difference 
in  level  between  the  two  takes  is  326}^  feet 
The  first  canal  was  opened  27  Nov.  1829, 
and  extended  from  Port  Dalhousie  on  Lake 
Ontario  to  the  Weltand  River,  which  was  util- 
ized as  far  as  its  outlet  to  the  Niagara  River. 
Vessels  then  ascended  the  Niagara  to  Lake 
Erie.  .  In  1833  a  diversion  was  made  by  extend- 
ing the  canal  to  Port  Colbome  on  Lake  Erie. 
In  1842  imj)rovements  and  enlatgements  were 
made,  and  in  1875  a  new  cutting  was  begun 
from  Allanburg  to  Port  Dalhousie.  In  1912 
further  enlargements  were  undertaken,  at  an 
estimated  cost  of  £5(^000,000.  The  present 
channel  will  be  used  from  Port  Colbome  to 
Thorold,  and  from  there  a  new  cutting  will  be 
made  to  Lake  Ontario,  entering  the  take  about 
three  miles  east  of  Port  Dalhousie.  This  canal 
will  be  25  nules  in  length,  and  in  place  of  25 
locks  will  have  seven  locks,  all  of  which  are 
to  be  between  Thorold  and  Lake  Ontario. 
Each  lift  lock  will  be  800  feet  by  80  feet  in  the 
clear  with  30  feet  of  water  above  the  silts,  and 
will  have  a  lift  of  46^  feet.  Provision  is  to 
be  made  to  admit  of  a  future  30-foot  naviga- 
tion. It  is  t>elieved  the  opening  of  the  new 
canal  will  favorably  affect  wheat  freights  and 
will  result  in  the  diversion  of  much  traffic  from 
the  Buffalo-New  York  route  to  the  Saint  Law- 
rence. In  1915  3,061,012  tons  passed  through 
the  Wetland  Canal,  a  decrease  of  982.tB6  tons 
on  the  figures  for  1914. 

Sault  Sainte  Marie  Canal.— Built  to  over- 
come the  falls  and  rapids  of  Saint  Mary  River 
connecting  Lake  Suiierior  with  Lake  Huron,  it 
was  opened  for  navigation  in  1895.  This  was 
not  the  first  canal  to  be  constructed,  the  North- 
west Company  having  built  a  small  canal  at 
the  end  of  the  t8tb  century.  The  Sault  Sainte 
Marie  Canal  has  a  lock  900  feet  long  with  a 
width  of  60  feet  and  depth  of  water  on  the 
sills  of  18  feet  3  inches  at  the  lowest  known 
water  level.  In  1897,  4,947,065  tons  of  frei^t 
passed  through  the  Car.adian  Canal,  and  by 
1913  the  tonnage  had  increased  to  42,699,324 
tons.  These  figures  had  declined  in  1914  to 
27,599,184  tons;  and  the  following  year,  191S, 
an  extraordinary  reduction  took  place;  the 
freight  passing  through  being  only  7,750,957 
tons  — a  decrease  for  the  12  months  of  19,848,- 
227  tons.  Of  the  decline  of  traffic  at  this  gate- 
way, 1,049^1  tons  (or  5.1  per  cent)  attached 
to  Canadian  traffic,  and  18,798.986  (or  94.9  per 
cent)  to  American  traffic.    The  decrease  was 


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CANADIAN  COPYRIGHT— CANADIAN  NORTHERN  RAILWAY 


largely  in  ibe  nature  of  a  diverEion  to  the 
American  Canal  at  Sault  Sainte  Marie.  Th« 
cause  of  this  diversion  was  the  availability  of 
a  new  lock  on  the  American  side,  having  a 
much  lai^er  capacity  than  the  lock  on  the  Ca- 
nadian side.  The  practicability  of  carrying  a 
heavier  load  through  the  new  American  lock 
drew  away  nearly  alt  the  iron  ore  trade  and  a 
good  deal  of  wheat  from  the  Canadian  canal 

Saint  Peter"!  Canal— The  Saint  Peter's 
Cuial  connects  Saint  Peter's  Bay  on  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  with  Bras  d'Or  Lain,  a  salt-water 
estuary  in  Cape  Breton  Island.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  I8£6,  was  enlarged  between  1875  and 
1879,  and  has  a  lock  200  feet  long,  4S  feet  wide, 
with  19  feet  de^lh  of  water.  A  new  entrance 
from  the  Atlantic  is  being  made,  with  enlarge- 
ment of  the  lock. 

D.  S.  Douglas. 

CANADIAN  COPYRIGHT.  See  Copy- 
sight,  Canadian. 

CANADIAN  EMBROIDERY,  a  kind  of 
embroidery  formed  from  small  pieces  of  snake 
skin,  fur,  etc,  intermingled  with  flexible  pieces 
of  split  porcupine  quills  dyed  in  vaii^^us  colors. 

CANADIAN  GOVERNMENT  RAII- 
WAYS.  The  following  lines  were  owned  and 
operated  by  the  Dominion  govermoent  as  the 
government  railways  in  1917 :  The  Intercolo- 
nial Railway  (1,562  miles),  with  which  is  asso- 
ciated the  Prince  Edward  Island  Railway  (275 
miles),  the  International  Railway  of  New 
Brunswick  (112  miles),  and  the  Saint  John  and 
Quebec  Railway  (105  miles)  ;  and  the  Natioual 
Transcontinental  Railway,  from  Moncton,  U. 
B.,  to  Winuii>eg  (2,009  miles),  ^ving  a 
total  of  4,063  miles.  In  1917  a  measure  passed 
the  Dominion  Parliament  providing  for  govern- 


now  (1918)  in  course  of  construction  from  Tbt 
Pas,  on  the  Saskatchewan  River,  to  Port  Nel- 
son, on  Hudson  Bay,  a  distance  of  410  railes,  is 
to  be  operated  as  a  government  line.  After  the 
Canadian  Northern  Railway  passes  into  govern- 
ment hands,  there  will  remam  only  three  Unes 
of  any  importance  under  private  ownership — 
the  Grand  Trunk,  Canadian  Pacific,  and  (^rand 
Trunk  Pacific  railways.  See  separate  articles 
on  before-mentioned  railways  —  Canaoian  ' 
NorrHERN;  Canadian  Pacific;  Gband  Tkunk; 
Qc\ND  TauHK  Pacific  ;  Intocoloniai,  ;  and 
National  Tkanscontinental. 

CANADIAN  NORTHERN  RAILWAY. 
The  Canadian  Northern  Railway  system  may 
be  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  construction 
in  1896  by  Mackenzie  and  Mann,  contractor^ 
of  a  line  of  railway  between  Gladstone  and 
Dauphin,  in  Manitoba,  under  the  charter  of 
the  Lake  Manitoba  Railway  and  Canal  Com- 
pany. During  the  next  few  years  construction 
was  carried  on  under  a  variety  of  compamr 
names,  but  by  virtue  of  an  order  in  council, 
passed  13  Jan,  1899,  the  Canadian  Northern 
Railway  Company  was  brought  into  existence. 
Inthat  year  there  were  252,6  miles  in  operation. 
In  1901  the  lines  of  the  Northern  Pacific  and 
Manitoba  Railway  Company  in  the  province  of 
Manitoba  were  leased  for  a  very  long  term  of 
years,  and  on  1  Jan.  1902,  the  last  spike  was 
driven  upon  a  line  connecting  Winniijeg  and 
Port  Arthur,  on  Lake  Superior,  Eiving  the 
Canadian  Northern  its  own  independent  outlet 


from  the  wheat  fields  of  the  prairies  to  the 
cargo  carriers  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Since  then 
the  lines  have  been  extended  over  the  Prairie 


._   the  principal   centres  of  Ontario  and 

(Juebec,  while  in  Nova  Scotia,  Canadian  North- 
ern lines  serve  the  Atlantic  shore  from  Halifax 
to  Yarmouth,  and  cut  across  the  province  to  the 
Bay  of  Fundy  side.  To-day  the  system  com- 
prises more  tnan  9,000  miles  of  line.  It  con- 
nects Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports  and  serves 
centres  containing  60  per  cent  of  the  population 
and  producing  70  per  cent  of  the  manufactured 
products  of  Hie  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Que- 
bec; 97  per  cent  of  the  urban  population  of 
Manitoba;  97  per  cent  of  that  in  Saskatchewan, 
and  90  per  cent  in  Alberta ;  in  Briti^  Columbia 
it  opens  up  the  North  Thompson  Valley  to  set- 
tiement,  and  serves  anew  the  old  places  such  as 
Kamloops,  Ashcroft,  Yale,  Hope,  New  West- 
minster, Vancouver  and  Victoria  —  in  all  78 
per  cent  of  the  urban  population  of  the  prov- 
ince. It  has  contributea  measurably  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  Dominion  through  opening 
up  vast  areas  to  settlement,  by  encouragitig 
immigrants  to  make  the  new  country  their 
home  and  by  opening  up  timber  and  mineral- 
bearing  lands  to  development  The  possibilities 
for  economical  operation  in  the  future  are 
exemplilied  by  the  fact  that  this  transcon- 
tinental line  possesses  the  easiest  gradient  of 
any  of  the  ^eat  systems  on  the  continent  of 
North  Amenca. 

Collecting  elevators  for  grain  having  26  per 
cent  of  the  total  capacity  of  western  Canada 
are  served  by  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway; 
licensed  terminal  elevators  having  47  per  cent 
of  the  total  capacity  in  Canada  are  on  the  Ca- 
nadian Northern  Railway  lines.  Flour  mills 
having  51  per  cent  of  the  total  daily  capacity 
of  Canada  are  on  die  Tines  of  the  Canadian 
Northern  Railway.  In  British  Columbia  the 
Canadian  Northern  Railway  proportion  is  90 
per  cent ;  in  Alberta  44  per  cent ;  m  Saskatche- 
wan 74  per  cent;  in  Manitoba  81  per  cent;  in 
Ontario  34  per  cent;  in  Quebec  90  per  cent:  in 
Nova  Scotia  15  per  cent  Lumber  mills  proauc- 
ing  30  per  cent  of  the  total  output  in  Canada 
are  served  by  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway, 
while  32  per  cent  of  the  total  is  marketed  by 
water.  In  British  Columbia  the  Canadian 
Northern  proportion  is  34  per  cent;  in  Alberta, 
Saskatchewan  and  Manitoba  70  per  cent;  in 
Ontario  33  per  cent;  in  Quebec  28  per  cent;  in 
Nova    Scotia  28   per  cent     Pulp    and  paper 


Railway  lines.  In  Ontario  the  Canadian  North- 
em  proportion  is  60  per  cent  in  Quebec  64  per 
cent  and  in  Nova  Scotia  50  per  cent.  The 
company  owns  3,245,987  acres  of  land,  843,127 
of  which  are  prairie  land. 

Its  grain  elevator  at  Port  Arthur  is  the 
largest  consolidated  grain  elevator  plant  in  the 
world  —  capacity  10,000,000  bushels.  Its  coal 
docks  at  Port  Arthur,  Ontario,  have  a  storage 
capacity  of  660.000  tons,  an  unloading  capacity 
of  700  tons  per  hour  and  an  annual  capacjty 
of  over  l.OOOOOO  tons.  The  shipping  capacity 
of  the  Canaoian  Northern  Railway  ore  doclcs 
at  Key  Harbor,  on  Georgian  Bay,  is  8,000  tons 
of  ore  daily. 

The  lines  of  the  system  are  located  as  fol- 


Google 


CAMABUM  PACIFIC  RAU^AT—CAHASXAN  RIVER 


«r» 


lows:  Nova  Scotia,  3(59.90  miles;  Quebec, 
636.77  milei;  Ontario,  2,219.10  mites;  Manitoba, 
1,969.10  miles:  Saskatdbewan,  2,178.10  miles; 
Alberta,  1,181.21  miles;  British  Odumbia,  516^ 
nriles;  State  oi  Uionffsota,  215.42  miles;  a  total 
of  9,296  miles. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ended  30  Jiug  191d 
the  Canaaian  Northern  Railway  system  carried 
9,384,056  ^ssengers,  and  13,353,381  tons  of 
freight.  The  grgss  earnings  for  that  period 
were  $3S.4?6,27S.06,  the  expenses  $26,102,744.52, 
and  the  net  earnings  $9,373,530.54.  There  has 
been  expended  upon  the  construction  of  the  sys- 
tem $433,918,288.18.  and  upon  equipment  $60,- 
844,201.16,  a  total  of  $494,762,489.34.  The  head 
office  is  located  at  Toronto.    In  1917  a 


Canadian  Northern  systems. 

CANADIAN  PACIFIC  RAILWAY,  The. 
A  Canadian  railway  runaing  across  the  con- 
tinent from  Saint  John,  N.  B_  on  the  Atlantic, 
to  Vancouver,  B.  C.,  on  the  Pacific,  with  lines 
owned  or  leased,  rvnninx  from  Montreal  to 
Quebec^ttawa,  Torontc^  London  and  Windsor, 
on  the  Detroit  River,  and  branch  lines  through- 
out the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec;  with 
other  branch  lines  to  various  ^tnts  in  New 
Brunswick^  with  a  network  of  lines  throu^iout 
the  Canadian.  West  and  British  Columbia,  in- 
cluding the  Souris  branch,  the  Manitoba  South 
Western,  the  Manitoba  &  North  Western,  the 
Great  North  West  Central,  the  Crow's  Nest 
Pass  and  Columbia  &  Kootenay  lines,  the 
Calgary  &  Edmonton,  the  Columbia  &  Western 
ana  many  others;  making  a  total  mileage  of 
12,917  covered  by  the  traffic  returns  of  30  June 
1915.  Other  lines  worked  by  the  railway  at 
that  date  aggre^ted  383  miles,  and  there  were 
under  construction  60  inile&  while  the  mileage 
of  the  Minneapolis,  Saint  Paul  &  Sault  Sainte 
Marie  Railway  and  the  Duluth,  South  Shore  & 
Atlantic  Railway  (lines  controlled  by  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific)  was  4,103  and  626  miles,  re- 
spectively; a  grand  total  of  16,090  miles  of 
road  built,  acquired,  leased  or  controlled  since 
the  company  was  chartered  early  in  1881.  Con- 
struction of  the  main  line  was  commenced  in 
June  1881  and  completed  on  7  Nov.  188S. 

By  the  terms  of  the  government  contract 
■with  a  company  whose  directorate  included 
George  Sterfien  (now  Lord  Mount  Stephen), 
Donald  A.  Smith  (afterward  Lord  Strathcona 
and  Mount  Royal),  Richard  B.  Angus,  and 
others,  it  was  agreed  to  build  a  railway  from 
Callander,  in  northern  Ontario;  to  the  Pacific, 
for  a  consideration  of  $25,000,000  in  money  and 
25,000.000  acrea  of  selected  land,  together  with 
various  privileges  as  to  ri^t  of  way,  etc. 

The  original  share  capital  of  the  contpanr 
was  $5,000,W»,  increased  in  1882  to  $25,000,000, 
and  then  to  flOO,ODO,000,  of  which  $35,000,000 
was  canceled  in  1885.  Various  financial  changes 
and  diflieultiea  occurred  during  constmctton, 
and  it  became  necessary  to  secure  government 
loans  of  $30,000,000  in  1334,  and  $5,000,000  in 
1885 ;  these  loans  were  repaid  in  fnll  and  the 
efforts  of  the  promoters  and  management  of 
the     railway    were    eventually    crowned    with 

By  owning  and  opcretinff  all  of  the  ad- 
juncts of  die  railway  service  —  telegraphs,  ex* 
press,  sleeping  cars,  dining  cars,  grain  elevBtors, 
as  well  as  hotels  at  the  leading  points,  steam- 


ship lines  on  the  lakes  and  on  the  PsKific  and 
Atlantic  oceans,  the  Canadian  Pacific  adopted 
special  methods  of  management  which  have 
worked  out  to  the  natorial  advantage  of  the 
company. 

Accord' 

the   cost  t- .„.._^ -,_^ 

$503,584,724  and  of  its  various  steamship  lines 
Pt,208,S95.  It  then  held  in  Manitoba,  Western 
provinces  and  in  British  Columbia  8,214,186 
acres  of  land.  Its  capital  stock  was  $200,000,000. 
receiving  dividends  at  the  rate  of  10  per  cent 
per  annum;  its  4  per  cent  preference  stock, 
$80,681,921 ;  its  4  per  cent  consolidated  deben- 
tuTi  stock,  $176^284,382;  its  bonded  debt,  $6,399,- 
180;  6  per  cent  note  certificates,  $52,000,000. 

The  company  issued  $25,000,000  S  per  cent 
land  grsm  boiras  in  1881,  which  have  been  paid 
off.  In  1888  a  further  issue  of  $15,000,000  3^ 
per  cent  land  bonds  was  made,  and  of  these 
$3,500,000  had  been  provided  for  at  30  June 
1904  by  payment  of  that  amount  to  the  govem- 
ment  out  of  the  proceeds  of  land  sales  in  terms 
of  the  mortgage,  leaving  $1 1,500,000  outstanding. 
These  were  afterward  paid  off. 

The  foUovring  table  illustrates  the  diversified 
nature  of  its  traffic  during  the  three  year^  each 
ending  June  30 : 


PailcHT  Cabbicd 


YtM  ended  June  30th 


S.Tm,934 

3.M7.921.idT 

10  7S 


Z2.53d.2H 
t.OlU,]  02.013 


I2M0,1H 
l.U  7 .331.931 


2,1S0.73S.UO 


21.490.59e 
T.940.1SlrU2 
to  76 


The  gross  earnings  of  the  System  for  the 
year  entUng  30  June  1915  were  $96jB65,209,  and 
the  working  expenses  $65,290,582;  with  net 
earnings  of  $33,5/4/i27. 

Lord  Mount  Stephen,  the  first  president  of 
the  company,  resigned  from  that  office  in  1888 
and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  William  C  Van 
Home,  who  retired  in  1899,  when  Lord  Shaugh- 
nessy,  K.CV.O.,  the  present  president  and 
chairman  of  the  company,  became  his  successor. 
■The  general  offices  of  the  company  are  at 
Montreal,  Canada. 

CANADIAN  RIVSR,  a  river  that  rises  in 
the  northeast  part  of  New  Mexico,  and  runs 
eeneratly  eastward  through  Texas  and  Okla- 
homa to  the  Arkansas.  Its  length  is  about  900 
miles,  but  it  is  rather  shallow  and  not  import- 
ant for  navigation.    Its  largest  tributary  is  the 


:,  Google 


CANACIAH  SBRUe— CAHAI^JAfi 


Rio  Nutria,  or  North  Pork  ni  the  Catiadian, 
which  runs  parallel  to  the  main  stream  for 
about  600  miles. 

CANADIAN  SERIES,  the  lower  of  the 
three  series  into  which  the  rodcs  of  the  Ordo- 
,  vician  system  are  divided  by  American  geol- 
ogists. It  comprises  the  Chaiy  and  Cakiferous 
stages,  principally  limestones.     See  ObdoviciaiI, 

CAfiAICRB,  kan-vl'-gra,  a  spedes  of  dock 
iRumer     hymenosepalus)     indigenous  ' 


Texas.  It  is  a  perennial  herb  with  tuberous 
roots  from  which  a  reddish  or  green  stem  rises 
to  a  height  of  about  two  feet  and  bears  rather 
large  leaves  resembling  those  of  other  docks. 
The  tubers,  which  resemble  those  of  the  dahlia, 
have  long  been  used  locally  as  a  source  of  tan- 
nin, and  attempts  have  been  made  to  grow  them 
upon  *  commercial  scale  for  this  purpose. 

CANAJOHARIE,  kJn'a-io-ha're,  N.  Y.,  an 
Indian  word,  meaning,  *The  pot  that  washes 
itself.*  A  village  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Mohawk  River  in  Montgomery  County,  55  mfles 
west  of  Albany,  in  the  most  picturesque  part  of 
the  Mohawk  Valley.  Canajoharie  was  first 
settled  about  1740  1^  the  Dutch  and  Germans. 
It  was  the  home  of  Biant,  chief  of  the  Six 
Nations,  and  place  of  departure  from  the  Mo- 
hawk to  the  southern  interior.  The  Erie  Canal, 
the  New  York  Central  and  West  Shore  rail- 
roads pass  through  the  village.  The  village  has 
two  banks,  a  library,  six  churches  and  a.  school 
of  high  standing;  two  weekly  local  news- 
papers and  one  hay-trade  puHication ;  flour 
mil  Is,  limestone  quarries,  paper  and  cloth 
bag  manufactory  and  meal  and  fruit  packing- 
houses. It  is  equipped  with  electric  light  and 
power,  sewers  and  an  abundant  water  supply- 
It  is  governed  by  a  board  of  trustees  and  a 
council  of  five  members,  elected  annually.  Pop. 
(1916)   2,SO0. 

CANAL  OOVXR.  Ohio,  dty  of  Tuscarawas 
County,  70  miles  south  of  Qeveland,  situated 
on  the  Tuscarawas  River  and  the  Ohio  CanaL 
and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  Baltimore  ana 
Ohio  railroads.  There  are  deposits  of  coal, 
iron  and  building  stone  in  the  vicinity.  The 
dty  owns  and  operates  its  waterworks  and 
electric  lighting  plant.  The  chief  industries  are 
in  iron  and  steel,  and  the  manufacture  of  rac- 
ing-sulkies, baby-carriages,  roofing,  etc.  Pop. 
<19I0)  6,621, 

CANAL  DU  MIDI,  or  CANAL  DU 
LANOUEDOC,  a  canal  in  the  south  of 
France,  connecting  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,    See  Canals  — Hi9TO«ical. 

CANAL  RING.    See  Tilden,  Samuel  J. 

CANAL  ZONE  BOUNDARY.  See 
^utTDARies  or  THE  United  States. 

CANALB,  ka-na'ie,  Nicolo,  Venetian  ad- 
miral, who  flourished  in  the  second  halt  of  ISth 
century.  In  1469  he  was  commander  of  the 
Venetian  fleet  at  Negropont  (the  ancient 
Chalds),  and  succeeded  in  scidng  the  Turkish 
town  of  Enos.  The  crudties  perpetrated  upon 
the  inoffensive  inhabitants  createa  great  itidig- 
nation  at  Constantinople,  and  Mohammed  it 
with  a  view  of  resenting  the  outrages,  be^eged 
Negropont  with  a  force  of  12(X0(K)  men,  and 


after  a  violent  contest  expelled  the,  Venetians. 
Canale,  to  whom  thi^  defeat  was  attributed,  was 
sentenced  to  death  by  the  Coundl  of  Ten,  but 
at  the  instance  of  Pope  Paul  11  «)d  of  other 
influential  persons,  his  punishment  was  com- 
muted to  exile  for  life. 

CANALBJAS,  ki-na-lalias,  Don  Jos£, 
Spanish  sUtesman:  b,  1854;  d.  12  Nov.  1912. 
llie  son  of  humble  parents,  he  was  originally 
trained  for  the  law,  but  took  to  politics  at  an 
early  age.  Workii^  his  way  up  the  political 
ladder  he  held  several  portfofios,  induding 
those  of  Finance  and  Justice,  and  was  for  a  time 
President  of  the  Chamber.  In  February  WIO 
he  was  called  by  Kin^  Alfonso  to  succeed 
Seiior  Morct,  the  Premier,  whose  administra- 
tion had  lasted  only  four  months.  Morct  had 
bitterly  attacked  the  Maura  ministry  on  the 
campaign  in  Morocco  and  their  strong  action 
in  suppressing  the  Barcelona  riots.  Maura 
was  compelled  to  resign  and  Moret,  a  Liberal, 
assumed  office,  but  was  soon  forced  to  resign 
owing  to  dissensions  in  his  party.  Canalejas 
was  called  to  the  hdm  and  formed  his  Cabinet 
in  one  day,  distributing  the  portfolios  among 
the  Democrats,  of  wfich  party  he  was  the 
leader.  On  IS  June  I9I0  he  disclosed  his  policy 
in  the  King's  speech,  which,  whilst  containing 
expressions  of  filial  consideration  for  the 
Pope,  clearly  indicated  that  the  government  in- 
tended to  take  action  against  'unauthoriied* 
religious  orders  and  congregations,  Canalejas 
speedily  found  himself  in  conflict  with  the  Vati- 
can when  he  canceled  the  prohibition,  which 
was  then  in  force,  of  the  use  of  'any  emblem, 
attribute,  or  lettering'  on  the  exterior  walls 
of  Protestant  places  of  worship.  A  number  of 
prominent  Carlists  seized  the  occasion  to  send 
a  testimony  of  their  regard  to  Don  Jaim£  of 
Bourbon,  son  of  the  late  pretender,  Don  Car- 
los. Don  Jaim£,  however,  wisely  repudiated 
any  intention  of  disturbing  die  peace  of  Spain. 
The  financial  policy  of  Canalejas  also  ran 
counter  to  vested  interests.  Among  his  pro- 
posals was  a  tax  on  sums  bequeathed  for 
masses  for  the  souls  of  the  dead.  A  grave  po- 
litical crisis  shook  his  administrarion  early  in 
1911,  when  the  question  of  the  execution  of 
Ferrer  was  revived.  The  responsilHlity  for 
that  sentence,  however,  did  riot  rest  i^on 
Canalejas.  for  he  was  not  in  ofiice  when  Fer- 
rer was  shot.  In  a  speech  he  stated  that  he 
would  have  been  in  favor  of  a  reprieve  ^ — as  a 
matter  of  policy— which  offended  the  military 
authorities.  The  War  Minister  sided  with  the 
army,  but  the  King  and  the  Cortes  supported  the 
Premier.  Barcelona  was  said  to  be  the  home 
of  10,000  anarchisU,  In  September  1911  these 
malcontents  broke  out  in  fierce  riots,  which 
spread  with  alarming  rapidity.  Canalejas  was 
equal  to  the  occasion.  He  proclaimed  martial 
law  throughout  the  country,  seized  the  ring- 
leaders and  broke  up  the  menace  in  a.  few 
days.  A  democrat  in  sentiment,  bis  sense  of 
justice  was  strong,  if  severe.  He  resided 
twice  because  the  King  hal  reprieved  criminals 
condemned  to  death  for  atrocious  murders. 
The  Idne  wished  to  bestow  a  title  upon  him, 
but  the  nonor  was  refused  by  Canalejas,  who 
said  be  preferred  to  remain  associated  with  the 
proletariat  from  whom  he  was  sprung.  While 
looking  in  the  window  of  a  bookstore  he  was 
shot  and  killed  by  an  anarchist 


d=,  Google 


CAHALSTTO  -^  CAMAlS 


4Bi 


CAHALBTTOr  or  CAHALE,  name  ap- 
plied to  two  Veaetian  painters:  (1)  Antonk^ 
b.  18  Oct  1697;  d.  20  Aug.  176B,  first  ioi- 
lowed  his  father's  profession  as  scene- 
painter.  but  having  studied  in  Rome,  where  he 
employed  his  lime  depictioc  ancient  niins  in 
studied  light  and  shade  effects.  He  was  the 
first  to  employ  the  camera  obscura  practically. 
He  returned  home  and  devoted  his  woric  to 
views  of  the  palaces  and  scenes  of  Venice, 
which  be  pointed  with  fine  perspective  a.  clear 
and  firm  touch  and  an  excellent  mastery  of 
color.  He  has  been  given  both  favoraUe  and 
unfavorable  criticism,  the  latter  for  the  me- 
chanical natnre  of  his  art    The  National  Gai- 


the  'Regatta  on  the  Grand  Canal.'  (2)  BtX' 
HAKDO  BeuxftTO  (q.v.)  nephew  of  the  former, 
also  a  landscape  punter,  who  imitated  his  nnde 
and  master.  He  lived  in  Dresden  where  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Painters. 

CANALS.  Canals  are  waterways,  wholly 
ur  partially  artificial,  used  for  conveytcg  water 
or  for  providing  navigation.  Those  used  for 
irrigation,  drainage  and  water-power  develop- 
ment are  of  the  first  class  and,  being  closely 
related  to  the  subjects  of  their  purpose,  are 
not  considered  here. 

Navigation  canals  have  been  designated 
according  to  the  size  or  kind  of  boats  that  can 
navigate  them,  as  boat,  barge  or  ship  canals; 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  channel,  whether 
purely  artificial  or  in  natural  streams,  they 
have  been  known  as  artificial  canals  or  canalized 
rivers;  and  according  to  geographical  location 
they  have  been  called  isthmian  canals^  penin- 
sular canals,  canals  around  falls  or  rapids,  arti- 
ficial seaport  canals  or  canals  connecting  water- 
way  systems.  Also  there  are  sea-level  canals- 
built  at  sea  level  —  and  tidal  canals,  which  are 
sea-level  canals  subject  to  tidal  flow. 

The  term  ship  canal  is  commonly  applied 
to  those  canals  intended  for  ocean-going  ves- 
sels, but  the  other  terms —  boat  and  barge  — 
are  not  so  generally  used  i>robably  because  they 
fail  to  convey  any  definite  idea  as  to  size. 
However,  the  term  thousand-ton  barge  canat, 
whidi  was  used  to  designate  one  particular 
canal,  gives  a  fairly  close  idea  of  the  boats  that 
can  be  accommodated.  As  no  standard  of  size 
bas  ever  been  or  b  likely  to  be  established,  the 
siie  of  g  canal  is  truly  defined  only  by  stating 
the  maximum  dimensions  of  the  boats  that  can 
be  accommodated.  These  are  usually  given  in 
terms  of  draft,  beam  and  length,  but  sometimes 
the  form  of  bow  and  stem  must  also  be 
considered. 

Until  a  few  years  ago  the  great  majority  of 
canals  were  of  small  size,  and  before  the  advent 
of  the  lock,  unless  a  canal  could  be  built  at  one 
level,  the  boats  used  were  limited  to  a  site 
which  could  be  transferred  from  one  level  to 
another  by  some  mechanical  device.  After 
lodes  came  Into  use,  France,  in  the  17th  century, 
undertook  considerable  canal  construction. 
England  followed  next,  but  did  little  until  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  century.  Early  in  the 
lj>th  century  the  be^nning  of  canal  construc- 
tion was  witnessed  m  America.  This  was  all 
pnor  to  the  coming  of  railroads  and  at  a  time 
when  canals  furnished  the  only  cheap  means  of 
transportation.    The  sixes  of  the  canals  up  to 


this  time  seem,  in  the  lirfit  of  present  dimen- 
sions, but  very  small.  During  the  latter  part 
of  the  19th  coitun  several  of  the  European 
countries  began  enlarging  and  improving  their 
more  important  canals,  making  some  radical 
changes  in  siie  and  in  manner  of  construction 
and  operation.  These  changes  were  worked 
out  by  careful  study,  made  in  accordance  with 
modem  scientific  methods  rather  than  by  the 
nile-of -thumb  procedure  of  former  years. 
American  waterway  improvement  along  mod- 
em lines  did  not  become  very  active  until  the 
beginninp  of  the  present  —  20th  —  century,  but 
now  vanous  Federal  projects,  also  the  Panama 
Canal  and  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  have 
caused  a  reawakening  of  canal  construction  in 
America. 

The  artificial  channel,  which  among  cngi~ 
neers  is  now  known  as  a  land-line,  was  the 
prevailing  type  of  construction  for  many  years, 
even  where  Uie  route  was  parallel  and  in  close 
proximity  to  a  natural  stream,  as  was  often  the 
case.  To  control  a  river  sufficiently  for  naviga- 
tion by  small  boats  was  often  considered  im- 
practicable and  the  cost,  prohibitive.  The  liabil~ 
tty  of  damage  to  canal  structures  by  floods  and 
the  damage  to  adjacent  territory  resulting  from 
backwater  caused  by  canal  structures  at  flood 
time  argued  against  the  use  of  the  natural 
channels.  Later,  when  larger  canals  were  built 
and  methods  for  the  control  of  rivers  were 
improved,  it  became  more  economical  to  utilise 
the  natural  channels,  where  available. 

Isthmian  and  peninsular  canals,  so  called 
from  the  neck  of  land  crossed,  provide  shorter 
and  safer  routes  between  certain  ports.  Canals 
around  falls  or  rapids  connect  navigable  por- 
tions of  a  river  above  and  below  the  fall. 
There  are  several  of  these  on  the  Saint  Law- 
rence River.  Artificial  seaport  canals  extend 
from  the  coast  inland  and  are  designed  to 
penhtt  sea-goin^  vessels  to  reach  inland  ports- 
Canals  connecting  waterway  system^  enable 
boats  to  pass  from  one  system  to  another, 
thereby  increasing  the  utility  of  both  systems, 
and  Diien  also  they  possess  other  features  of 
much  importance. 

Of    canal    structures,    the    most    important 

Erobably  is  the  lock,  a  acrice  to  raise  or  lower 
DBls  from  one  level  to  another.  A  lock, 
placed  at  the  meeting  of  two  canal  leveb,  is 
simply  a  chamber  or  basin  which  bas  a  gate 
or  set  of  gates  at  each  end  and  side  mils 
extending  from  a  little  above  the  water-surface 
of  the  hidier  level  to  the  bottom  of  the  lower 
level,  when  a  boat  enters  a  lock  the  closed 
ptes  at  the  other  end  maintain  the  difference 
m  elevation  between  the  two  levels.  After  the 
gates  are  closed  behind  the  boat,  water  is  ad- 
mitted to  or  drawn  from  the  lode  chamber,  so 
as  to  raise  the  boat  to  the  upper  level  or  lower 
it  to  the  lower  level.  Then  the  gates  ahead  of 
the  boat  ate  opened  and  it  passes  to  the  new 
level,  the  point  of  difference  in  elevation  be~ 
tween  the  two  levels  having  been  transferred 
to  the  gales  throagh  which  the  boat  entered 
the  lock. 

Various  kinds  of  lock-gates  have  been  em- 
ployed, the  most  common  Being  the  mitre-gate. 
This  consists  of  two  leaves  swinging  on  ver- 
tical axes  from  the  side  walls  and  meeting  at 
an  angle  in  the  centre  with  the  apex  toward  the 
n^er  teirel.  Wood  was  the  material  formeriy 
used  for  mitre-gate  construction,  bat  now  steel 


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is  generally  used.  Itnprovemenl  in  gate  desi^ 
has  made  possible  locks  of  more  than  40  feet 
lift,  whereas  10  or  12  feet  was  the  usual  maxi- 
mum. The  tumble-gate,  sometimes  used  at  the 
upper  end  o(  the  chamber,  is  mounted  on  a 
hotizontal  axis  at  the  bottom  and  is  r^sed  or 
lowered  mechanically.  Lift-gates,  which  can  be 
raised  high  enough  to  dear  the  boats,  and 
rolling-gates,  which  roll  back  into  a  recess 
formed  outside  the  lock  at  right  angles  to  the 
side  wall,  have  also  been  used 

On  the  smaller  locks,  when  mitre-gates  were 
used,  the  water  in  the  lock  chamber  was  con- 
trolled  by  means  of  wickets  or  valves  in  the 
gates,  but  where  the  other  lands  of  gates  are 
used  and  in  all  large  locks,  culverts  are  em- 
ployed. These  are  built  in  the  side  walls  or 
under  the  floor  of  the  lock  chamber,  and  in  the 
larger  locks  usually  extend  just  beyond  the 
gates  at  both  ends  of  the  lock,  connecting  with 
the  pools  above  and  below  the  lock.  They  hav^ 
several  openings  to  the  lock  chamber,  in  order 
that  the  lock  may  be  filled  or  emptied  in  a 
reasonable  time  with  the  least  disturbance  to 
the  craft  in  the  lock.    The  flow  in  these  culverts 


t  of  rollers, 


Ete,  which  operates  c 
ing   used    largely   on    .    .    .    _., 

Barge  Canal.     There  are  a  few  __ 

locks  in  which  the  culvert  has  been  formed 
near  eadi  end  into  a  siphon  that  has  its  neck 
above  the  highest  water  in  the  upper  pool. 
A  closed  tank  built  in  the  tnasoniy,  which  is 
filled  from  the  upper  pool  and  has  an  outlet 
to  the  lower  pool  and  air  pipe  connection  wi^ 
the  neck,  primes  the  siphon,  the  water  flowing 
from  the  tank  tending  to  create  a  vacuum, 
which  is  filled  by  air  from  the  neck. 

The  quantity  of  water  required  for  (wie 
complete  lockage  is  equal  to  the  volume  of  the 
lock  chamber  between  the  elevations  of  the 'two 
pools.  Howererj  when  the  loclc^es  altemate 
up  and  down,  this  Quantity  of  water  will  serve 
to  lock  3  boat  eacn  way.  Where  conditions 
permit,  a  saving  of  water  is  sometimes  effected 
by  the  construction  of  a  side  pool.  When  the 
lock  is  to  be  emptied,  some  of  the  water  is 
drawn  into  the  side  pool  and  retained  above  the 
level  of  the  lower  pool,  thereby  being  available 
for  filling  the  lower  portion  of  the  lock  cham- 
ber  at  the  next  lockage.  Evidently  the  quantity 
of  water  thus  saved  must  be  somewhat  less 
than    half    the    quantity    required    for    one 

There  are  a  few  examples  of  another  type 
of  lock — a  structure  consisting  of  a  tank  into 
which  the  boats  pass  and  which  is  raised  or 
lowered  by  power.  Gates  are  provided  at  each 
end  of  the  tank  and  also  in  the  canal  adjacent 
to  the  tank.  Sometimes  two  tanks  are  operated 
side  by  side  on  a  kind  of  balance.  Since  the 
weight  of  a  tank  and  its  contents  is  nearly 
constant,  very  little  power  is  required  and  that 
mostly  to  overcome  friction.  With  this  type 
no  water  is  consumed  for  lockage  and  but  a 
small  amount  for  oower.  On  account  of  cer- 
tain structural  dimculties,  however,  rety  few 
locks  of  this  variety  have  been  built. 

Inclined  planes  have  been  used  occasionally 
in  small  canals  in  place  of  locks,  the  boats 
being  hauled  out  of  the  water  and  up  or  down 
the  incline  in  a  saddle.  Obviously  these  are 
not  suited  lo  large  boats  on  account  of  the 


difficulty  of  ufely  supporting  the  boat  and  also 
because  of  the  great  amount  of  power  required. 
Of  the  other  structures  used  in  canals  the 
movable  dams  deserve  special  mention,  because 
of  the  part  they  play  in  the.  utilization  of  nat- 
ural streams  for  ca^  purposes.  These  struc- 
tures are  designed  to  fulfil  all  the  functions 
of  a  fixed  dam,  when  it  is  desired  to  maintain 
the  pools  for  navigation,  and  at  other  times, 
when  a  fixed  dam  would  cause  excessive  floods, 
to    be    capable   of    being    removed    from    the 


channel  area  either  by  being  lowered  1 
river  bed  or  by  being  raised  above  the 
level.      Many    kinds    nave    been    devised    and 


used,  the  bear  trap,  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties,  the  Chanoine  wicket,  the  Boule  gate, 
the  Taintor  gate,  the  rolling  drum  and  the 
Poir^e  needle  dam  being  best  known.  Boule 
gates  are  often  used  in  connection  with  a  sort 
of  bridge  superstructure,  forming  what  is  com- 
monly called  a  bridge  dam.  Many  types  of 
automatic  crests  and  also  of  controlled  flash' 
boards  have  been  devised  for  special  cases,  to 
serve  partially  the  same  purpose  as  the  movable 
dam,  but  their  use  is  less  general. 

In  the  operation  of  the  larger  canal  struc- 
tures mechanical  power  has  almost  entirely 
superseded  hand-operation.  The  great  advances 
made  in  the  development  of  electrical  equip- 
ment render  electric  power  particularly  suitable 
for  canal  service.  Also  by  its  use  the  best 
means  of  lighting  for  night  operation  can  be 
obtained.  Where  water  power  is  available  at 
a  lock,  a  hydro-electric  plant  may  be  installed. 
In  some  eases,  where  power  may  be  needed  at 
times  when  water  power  is  not  available,  as  at 
movable  dams,  the  electric  generators  are 
driven  by  gasohne  engines.  Electric  power  has 
the  advantage  of  ease  in  distribution  to  ^points 
where  it  is  needed  and  also  flexibility  m  the 
amount  employed.  In  addition,  the  modern 
equipment  for  lock  operation  is  dama^d  very 
little  by  flood  water.  The  equipment  is  often 
quite  extensive,  as  on  the  Panama  locks  at 
Gatun,  where  all  the  operations  are  indicated 
on  a  board  or  diagram,  which  automatically 
shows  the  position  of  all  the  moving  parts  of 
die  locks  at  all  times. 

Any  nroiect  for  canal  construction  must 
necessari^  be  considered  from  three  stand- 
points—  the  commercial,  the  engineering  and 
the  financia!.  From  these  standpoints  there 
must  be  considered  not  only  the  subjects  that 
have  already  been  discussed,  such  matters  as 
terminals,  power-supply  and  types  of  locks, 
dams  and  a  host  of  leaser  structures,  but  also 
the  more  general  problems  that  arise  in  canal- 
building,  and  whiui  remain  for  discussion. 

These  problems  are  so  many  and  so  inter- 
dependent that  they  do  not  readily  lend  them- 
selves to  brief  classification.  However,  under 
three  main  heads — (I)  dimensions,  {2)  route 
and  (3)  water-supply  —  the  most  important 
can  be  considered. 

1.  Several  elements  enter  into  a  determina- 
tion of  the  dimensions  for  a  canal.  In  general 
a  large  boat  can  carry  fretf^t  dieaper  than  a 
smalt  boat,  but  unless  the  traffic  is  stiificient 
and  of  the  proper  kind  to  keep  the  large  boat 
working  to  capacity,  a  canal  of  large  ^le  is 
not  economical.  A  canal  often  terminates  at  a 
large  take  or  river  or  at  the  ocean.  The  ques- 
tion then  arises  as  to  whether  it  is  advisable  to 
make   the   waterway   to   fit    the    boats   which 


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available,  then  a  lai^r  channel  may  be  de- 
sirable, since  it  can  be  made  without  excessive 
cost  and  will  permit  greater  speeds.  The 
necessity  of  bridges  has  a  bearing  on  the  sub- 
ject. If  Aey  must  be  fixed  bridges,  the  mini- 
mani  clearance  tends  to  limit  the  boat  dimen- 
sions and  through  them  the  channel  dimensions. 
Until  recent  times  the  question  of  speed  has 
not  had  much  bearing  on  canal  dimensions.  On 
die  old  and  small  canals  the  permissible  speed 
did  not  exceed  three  and  a  half  or  four  miles 
an  hour,  this  limit  being  necessary  because  of 
injury  to  the  banks  by  wave  action.  Since 
larger  channels  and  canalized  rivers'  have  come 
into  use,  higher  speeds  are  obtainable.  Just 
how  high  speeds  will  eventually  be  attained  is 
hard  to  say.  The  economical  speed  probably 
has  not'yet  been  worked  out;  at  least  it  is  not 
generally  recognixed.  Doubtless  higher  speeds 
are  attempted  than  are  warranted  economically. 
In  a  restricted  channel,  such  as  most  canals 
sarily  have,  the  power  required  for 


resulting  speed  attained.  The  necessity  for  _ 
considerable  amount  of  water  under  the  keel 
has  not  been  appreciated  by  canal  boatmen  of 
the  old  order.  They  have  usually  crowded  the 
cliannel  dimensions  beyond  a  reasonable  limit 
by  the  boats  they  have  used,  not  realizing  that 
tney  were  defeating  their  own  ends  by  in- 
creased cost  for  tradion.  On  some  or  the 
recently  improved  canals  the  allowable  speeds 
change  with  the  locaHty.  For  example,  on  the 
New  York  Barge  Canal  th^  range  from  4  to  10 
miles.  From  this  discussion  it  appears  that, 
if  a  given  speed  must  be  attained  on  a  canal, 
then  the  channel  dimensions  must  be  planned 
accordinffly. 

Closely  allied  to  the  question  of  speed  is 
thai  of  power.  In  the  primitive'  canals  man 
furnished  the  motor  power,  pushing  the  boats 
by  poles,  rowing  them  or  drawing  them  by 
ropes  from  the  banks.  Then  came  the  use  of 
animals  on  a  towpath.  This  was  the  common 
method  until  the  modern  era  of  improvement 
Sometimes  locomotives  have  replaced  the  ani- 
nais.  Steam  propulsion  has  been  in  use  to  a 
limited  extent  on  various  canals  for  many 
years.  Experiments  in  electric  propulsion  have 
been  numerous,  but  no  very  successful  system 
has  vet  been  developed.'  A  cable  or  a  chain  along 
tiie  bottom  -of  the  canal  has  been  used  in  some 
places,  espedally  in  Europe.  These  are  either 
griiq>ed  or  wound  over  a  drum  on  the  boat. 
According  to  modem  methods  canal  boats  arc 
self-propelled  or  move  in  fleets  of  one  power 
boat  and  one  or  more'  consorts.  The  newer 
i^nals  are  not  provided  with  towpaths. 

2.  The  early  canals  followed  the  natural 
contours  of  the  ground  much  closer  than  do 
modem  canals.  Because  of  difficulties  con- 
nected with  stream  canaliration,  preference  was 
usually  given  to  the  building  of  independent 
channels,  which  often  were  close  to  but  slightly 
above  the  streams.  As  previously  slated,  mod- 
em practice  favors  river  canaliration,  After 
certam  general  features  of  location  have  been 
determined  by  commercial  and  broad  topo- 
Sn^phical   considerations,   the   detailed   location 


use  of  a  canal  is  distinctively  a  technical  problem, 
""  in  which  questions  of  engineerinK  expediency 
and  relative  costs  play  the  chief  part.  The 
desiderata  sought  in  canal  location  are  short- 
ness of  route,  minimum  of  curvature,  least  num- 
ber of  locks,  all  possible  elimination  of  inter- 
mediate summit  levels,  minimum  of  excavation 
and  embankment,  avoidance  of  a  channel  above 
surrounding  country,  greatest  ease  of  excava- 
tion consistent  with  stability,  suitable  founda- 
tions for  structures,  accessibility  to  water- 
suppljr,  least  interference  with  adjoining  private, 
municipal  and  industrial  interests,  utilization  of 
natural  water  courses,  etc,  This  subject  of 
location,  like  that  of  dimensions,  is  complicated. 
Only  bjr  careful  surveys  and  comparative  plans 
and  estimates  can  the  questions  be  solved 

3.  The  supplying  of  water  is  one  of  the  most 
important  problems  connected  with  canals.  In 
the  old  canals,  which  were  generally  smalt  and 
ran  be^de  natural  streams,  the  water  require- 
ments could  be  readily  met  by  damming  the 
stream  and  leading  a  snort  feeder  to  the  canal. 
Under  more  difficult  conditions,  lakes  or  arti- 
ficial reservoirs  and  sometimes  long  feeders ' 
have  to  be  resorted  to.  It  is  almost  essential 
that  the  supply  be  such  that  it  can  reach  the 
canal  by  gravity  flow,  since  in  a  canal  of  any 
masnitude  the  question  of  pumping  is  seldom 
to  be  considered. 

Water  has  to  be  supplied  to  canals  for  three 
main  purposes,  namely,  to  fill  the  canal  prism 
and  to  replenish  loss  in  the  levels  between 
locks;  to  furnish  water  sufficient  for  lockages 
and  for  unavoidable  leakage  at  locks ;  and  to 
furnish  power  for  operating  the  machinery  at 
locks  and  other  structures,  and  for  electric 
lifting  along  certain  portions  of  the  canal, 
particiilarlv  at  the  locks. 

An  independent  water-supply  for  filling  the 
canal  prism  is  required  only  in  land-lines  and 


drawn  out  of  the  levels  for 
repairs  or  other  purposes.  In  river-lines-  the 
natural  flow  of  the  stream  will,  of  course,  fill 
the  canal  prism.  The  losses  in  land-lines  inr- 
dude  seepage  through  embankments,  waste 
over  spillways,  evaporation  from  water-sur- 
faces and  transpiration  through  aquatic  plants. 
For  river-lines  there  is  less  waste  through 
see^,ge  and  none  over  5[Hllwa;rs. 

The  amount  of  water  reauired  for  a  lock 
varies  not  only  with  the  height  of  the  lift,  but 
also  with  the  volume  of  traffic  The  same 
quantity  of  water  is  used  in  lockage,  whether 
die  boats  are  large  or  small  and  whether  the 
lockage  is  up  or  down.  Therefore  the  effi- 
ciency, or  econon^,  of  the  lifting  operation  is 
increased  with  the  larger  boats.  For  a  given 
amount  of  traffic  the  water-supply  varies  ac- 
cording as  the  boats  are  large  or  small  and 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  pass 
the  lock  —  whether  singly  or  in  groups  and 
whether  lockages  in  the  same  direction  are 
made  in  sequence  or  alternate  with  lockages 
in  the  opposite  direction:  A  canal  is  essentially 
an  inland  transportation  line  in  which  the 
grades  are  overcome  by  water-power.  That  the 
power  is  applied  directly  from  water  to  boat 
does  not  alter  the  case.  All  things  considered, 
the  canal  lock  is  a  fairly  efficient  water-driv«» 
machine.  In  addition,  the  lock  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  simplicity,  quick  operation  and 
avoidance  of  strain  on  the  boat. 


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The  critical  pcunts  of  supplying  water  to 
canals  are  usually  the  summit  levels.  Althou|(h 
lower  levels  may  require  more  water,  it  is 
generally  more  readily  obtainable  for  such 
iwrtions,  especially  under  the  modem  method 
of  stream  utilization.  Proceeding  downward  iu 
either  direction  from  a  summit,  the  water- 
supply  required  at  any  lock  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  losses  from  the  source  of  supply  down 
to  the  lock,  plus  the  water  required  at  the 
lock,  minus  the  natural  inflow,  if  any,  between 
the  source  of  supply  and  the  lock.  From  this 
it  appears  that  the  water~si4>ply  required  may 
vary  greatly  from  point  to  point.  In  providing 
water  for  a  summit  level  of  a  canal  it  is  neces- 
saiy,  therefore,  to  obtain  a  supply  adequate  for 
the  points  of  greatest  demantTon  both  sides  of 
the  stunmit 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  problem  of 
estimating  the  water-supply  reqmred  by  a 
canal,  like  the  problems  already  discussed,  is 
also  complicated,  Many  items  can  be  detei^ 
mined  only  approximately.  It  is  necessary  to 
allow  a  liberal  excess,  or  reserve  supply,  as  a 
factor  of  safety. 

HiatoricaL— The  earliest  artificial  water 
channels  were  for  irrigation  and  drainage ;  not 
to  reclaim  swamp  laiM,  other  soil  being  too 
plentiful,  but  to  r^ulate  the  overflow  of  rivers. 
These  date  from  an  immemorial  past,  certainly 
3500  TLC  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt,  more  prob- 
ably 7000  «t  least.  Very  early  also  the  larger 
ones  must  have  been  used  for  boat  navigation, 
to  transport  agricultural  and  building  materials; 
these  combined  drains  and  canals  still  exist  in 
England,  called  "navigations,*  and  the  workers 
on  them  'navigators,*  and  have  given  1o  the 
language  the  word  *nawy'  for  construction 
laborers.  At  what  period  the  first  ones  were 
dug  primarily  for  navigation,  and  incidentally 
for  irrigation,  cannot  be  told.  There  is  a 
tradition  that  the  Suez  Canal  was  duKunder  the 
old  kingdom  of  Egypt  before  2000  b.c.  ;  it 
was  certainly  opened  or  reopened  for  small 
boats  by  Nechq.  about  600  B.C.  About  this  time 
also  Nebuchaorezzar  of  Babylon  opened  the 
Royal  Canal  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
but  Mesopotamia  had  been  well  canalized  be- 
fore. These  two  countries,  indeed,  invited 
canals,  with  their  flat  surface  and  long  levels,- 
and  easy  diming  in  sand  or  clay.  It  is  prolnble 
that  China  also  had  canals  before  the  Christian 
era,  but  evidence  is  wanting.  The  first  canals 
were  of  course  on  one  level;  but  with  the  light 
boats  and  great  engineering  skill  of  the  ancients 
the  step  was  not  long  to  damming  the  water  at 
different  levels  and  hauling  the  b^t  over.  The 
first  system,  not  yet  disused,  was  to  pull  the 
boat  up  an  inclined  plane  and  let  it  down  by 
gravity;  and  this  remained  the  only  available 
method  till  modem  times.  Under  Alexander 
and  his  successors  in  Egypt  and  the^  Seleudd 
empire  canals  were  much  used :  an  important 
one  was  from  Alexandria  to  the  Nile,  whose 
mouths  were  shut  off  by  sandbars.  Marius  had 
one  constructed  102  b.C  from  the  lower  Rhone 
to  the  Mediterranean.  Under  Oaudius  there 
was  one  from  the  Tiber  to  the  sea;  and  in 
Great  Britain  there  are  two  which  date  from  the 
Roman  time,  the  Poss  Dyke  and  the  Caer  Dyke, 
in  Lincolnshire,  of  40  and  11  miles  respectively. 
In  the  4th  century  Lombardy  was  canalixed, —  a 
very  favorable  spot  from  its  great  plain  and 
many  rivers;  and  near  the  end  of  the  5th  cen- 


tury Odoacer  carried  one  from  the  Adriatic  to 
Mentone  above  Ravenna,  The  downfall  of 
Roman  civilization  slopped  their  developmeot 
for  a  while;  but  under  Charlemagne  a  ftesh 
extension  began,  that  monarch  building  canals 
to  connect  the  Danube  both  with  the  Rhine  and 
the  Black  Sea.  In  the  Netherland  b<^:s  the 
system  is  that  of  nature  itself,  and  began  very 
early;  here  the  canal  is  not  so  much  an  artifi- 
cial channel  as  a  remnant  of  the  original  sea, 
around  which  the  land  is  built  In  Britain  as 
early  as  1121  Henry  I  deepened  and  made 
navigable  the  old  Foss  Dyke.  The  Grand  Canal 
of  China,  about  1,000  miles  lon^  a  large  part 
of  it  made  up  of  canalized  rivers,  was  completed 
in  1289.  That  country  has  many  other  great 
systems  connecting  its  internal  waterways. 

But  obviously  the  boats  transferable  by  such 
machinery  most  be  small  and  Uehtly  loaded; 
and  the  modem  canal  system^  wiui  lon^  heavy 


developed  out  of  putting  dams  close  together 
with  gates  in  them;  but  neither  inventor  nor 
even  country  of  first  use  is  certain.  It  has  been 
claimed  for  two  brothers,  engineers  at  Vitcrbo 
in  Italy,  in  1481 ;  also  for  Leonardo  da  Vixid, 
the  uwversal  genius;  and  again  for  Holland  a 
century  earlier.  The  one  certain  fact  is,  that  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  15ib  century  they  were 
in  use  in  both  countries,  and  spread  rapidly 
through  Europe.  The  first  country  to  tinder- 
take  on  a  large  and  systematic  scale  the  con- 
nection of  its  leading  systems  by  canals  was 
France,  in  the  l7th  century.  The  Briere  Canal, 
connecting  the  Seine  and  Loire,  was  begun  in 
1605  under  Henry  IV,  and  completed  1642 
under  Louis  XIII,  The  Orleans  Canal,  uniting 
the  same  basins  by  the  Loing^  was  completed 
1675,  under  Louis  XIV.  The  greatest  o£  all, 
the  Languedoc  Canal,  to  connect  the  'B*y  of 
Biscay  with  the  Mediterranean,  was  finished 
1681.  It  is  148  miles  long,  6}^  feet  deep,  with  a 
summit  level  of  600  feet;  has  about  119  locks 
and  50  aqueducts,  and  floats  barges  of  100  tons. 
France  in  18>^  passed  a  law  making  all  its 
canals  uniform  at  6yi  feet  deep,  with  locks 
126^  feet  long  by  17  wide.  England  was  much 
later  in  taking  up  the  system  on  a  large  scale, 
but  when  it  did  so,  carried  out  a  remarkable 
one,  with  _  great  feats  of  engineeriuK-  The 
fathers  of  It  were  Francis,  Duke  of  Briogewater 
and  his  famous  engineer,  James  Brindlw ;  and 
the  beginning  was  the  charter  for  the  Bridge- 
water  Qmal  in  1759.  The  names  of  Watt,  Tel- 
ford, Nimmo,  Rennie  and  other  noted  enRineers 
are  associated  with  it  The  last  inland  canal 
in  Great  Britain  was  built  in  1834.  Amomc 
the  leading  ones  are  the  Grand  lunctioiL  \2S 
miles;  Leeds  &  Liverpool,  128;  Trent  &  Mer- 
sey, 93;  Kennet  &  Avon,  57.  The  great  Irish 
canals  are  the  Grand  Canal,  from  Dublin  to  Bal- 
linasloe,  164  miles,  uniting  the  Irish  Sea  to  the 
Shannon ;  and  the  Royal  Canal  nearir  parallel 
to  it  for  the  same  traffic,  from  Dublin  to 
Torinansburg,  west  of  Longford.  The  great 
canals  of  Scotland  arc  the  C^edonian  and  the 
Forth  &  Clyde,  described  under  Ship  Canals. 
Early  in  the  ISth  century  Peter  the  Great  con- 
structed a  great  system  of  canals  and  canalized 
rivers,  1,434  miles  long;  to  connect  Saint  Peters- 
burg with  the  Caspian.  The  Danish  Canal,  100 
miles  long,  from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Baltic, 
was  finished  in  I7B5.     The  Gotba  Canal,  280 


d=y  Google 


miles  long,  connecting  Stockholm  with  Gothen- 
burg across  Sweden,  was  planned  1716,  hut 
opened  the  first  part  1810,  the  whole  1832,  In 
1836-46  Louis  of  Bavaria  revived  Charle- 
magne's old  plan,  connecting  the  Main  (and  i 

the  Rhine)  with  the  r-  '^-    '-  -    '  " 

miles  long,  650  feet  al 
feet  above  the  Danube. 

United  States  Boat  Caiiali.— "Hie  first  canal 
in  this  country  was  built  in  1793,  around  the 
falls  of  the  Connecticut  River  at  South  Hadley 
Falls,  Mass, ;  the  engineer  was  Benjamin  Pres- 


and  hauled  up  by  cables  operated  by  water 
power;  locks  were  introduced  later.  In  1796 
a  canal  was  completed  around  Turner's  Falls 
farther  north  in  the  same  river,  at  Montague. 
■The  Proprietors  of  the  Locks  and  Canals  on 
Merrimack  River*  were  incorporated  \792,  and 
opened  their  canal  around  the  falls  at  Lowell  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Concord,  one  and  a  half  miles 
long  and  with  four  locks,  in  1797;  it  was  for 
the  Itunbering  business,  rafts,  masts,  etc.  But 
the  first  general  canal  for  passengers  and  mer- 
chandise opened  in  the  United  States  was  the 
Middlesex,  a  rival  to  the  last,  incorporated 
1793,  and  completed  1804  at  a  cost  of  fTOO.OOO; 
it  ran  to  Charlestown,  31  miles,  was  24  feet  wide 
and  4  feet  deep,  and  fed  bjf  the  Concord.    A 

Ecket  boat,  the  Governor  Sullivan,  plied  regu- 
'ly  between  Boston  and  Lowell,  taking  nearly 
a  day.  The  first  boat  voyage  to  Concord,  N.  H., 
was  made  in  1814,  and  a  steamer  began  passages 
in  1819.  The  canal  was  disused  1851.  But  much 
broader  projects  had  been  set  on  foot  about 
the  time  of  these  local  ventures;  and  several 
of  the  greatest  afterward  carried  out,  as  well  as 
some  whidi  have  been  chimeras  rather  from 
political  developments  than  from  any  inherent 
impracticability,  were  broached  even  before  the 
Revolution.  Washington  was  deeply  interested 
in  canal  schemes  sJI  through  his  life,  and 
favored  canals  to  connect  all  the  great  Ameri- 
can water  systems.  The  Potomac  and  Ohio,  the 
James  and  Ohio,  and  the  Mohawk  Valley  and 
Great  Lakes  connections,  were  all  examined  by 
him.  The  last  named  he  looked  over  during  the 
Revolution.  In  1792  the  Western  Inland  Lock 
Navigation  Company  was  formed,  and  by  1797 
had  nnished  six  miles  of  canals  around  the 
rapids  at  Little  Falls,  making  a  navigable  way 
for  15-ton  baizes  to  Lake  Ontario,  Pennsyl- 
vania built  several  small  canals  in  the  two 
decades  from  1790  to  1810,  but  they  had  little 
success.  In  1784  Maryland  and  Virginia  jointly 
granted  a  charter  for  a  canal  from  Geoi^etown 
on  the  Potomac  to  the  Alleghanies,  underwhich 
Up  to  1822,  when  it  was  abandoned,  some  three- 
quarters  of  a  million  dollars  were  spent  in 
excavations,  dams  and  locks. 

Chesapuke  and  Ohio. — The  fortunes  of  this 
system  have  shown  how  difficult  it  is  to  fore- 
cast  business  developments.  As  designed  1^ 
Washington,  it  was  to  connect  the  Chesapeake 
and  ocean  navigation,  by  way  of  the  Potomac, 
with  that  of  the  Ohio,  by  portages  and  high- 
roads from  its  terminus,  Cumberland,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Alleghanies^  as  a  fact,  its  use  has  been 
mainly  from  the  accidental  fact  that  Cumberland 
is  near  the  Pennsylvania  coal  fields.  The  for- 
tunes of  the  first  company  have  been  described. 


In  1823  commissioners  appointed  ny  Maryland 
and  Vir^nia  reported  in  favor  of  a  new  route 
in  place  of  attempting  to  complete  the  old  one; 
in  1824  the  national  system  of  internal  improve- 
ments was  inau^rated  by  act  of  30  April,  and 
a  board  of  engineers  in  Octaber  IS26  reported 
on  a  canal  from  Georgetown  to  Pittsburg.  As 
the  cost  was  over  $22,0(X),000,  it  was  considered 
prohibitory  then ;  and  in  1829  the  •eastern 
division*  to  Cumberland  was  authorized,  by 
national,  State,  municipal  and  private  stock 
subscriptions.  But  the  work  had  been  inaugu- 
rated on  4  July  1828  by  President  J.  Q.  Adams, 
who  struck  the  first  spade:  and  it  was  fully 
opened  in  1650.  It  is  184  miles  long  and  6  feet 
deep,  60  feet  wide  from  Georgetowji  to  Har- 
per s  Ferry,  and  70  on  an  average  frbiH  thence 
to  Cumberland,  It  is  fed  from  uie  Potomac  try 
seven  dams.  The  aqueduct  at  Georgetown  over 
the  Potomac  was  a  very  considerable  engineer- 
ing feat  for  its  time;  it  rests  on  12  masonry 
piers  constructed  by  coffer-dams  on  rock  28  to 
40  feet  below  the  surface.  At  Paw  Paw  Bend, 
27  miles  east  of  Cumberland,  the  canal  saves 
six  miles  by  a  cut-off  and  tunnel  tbrou^  the 
mountain,  3,118  feet  long.  The  summit  level  is 
613>j  feet  above  tidewater;  the  rise  is  accom- 
plished by  74  locks  from  6  to  10  feet  lift  The 
whole  woric  had  cost  over  ^,500,000  when 
opened,  and  its  total  capitalized  outlay  had 
been  over  $15,000,000  when  the  bondholders 
foreclosed  in  189a 

Erie  CanaL— The  best  known  of  the  New 
York  State  canals  is  the  Erie  Canal,  which 
joins  the  Hudson  River  and  Lake  Erie.  The 
original  Erie  Canal  was  the  great  pioneer  work 
of  engineering  in  America,  standing  as  the 
model  for  canal- building  for  a  half  century. 
The  work  of  opening  navigation  to  the  interior 
'which  was  undertaken  by  the  Western  Inland 
Lock  Navigation  Company  in  1792  did  not  ac- 
complish all  that  was  needed  and  eariy  in  the 
19th  century  agitation  began  for  something 
more  adequate.  In  1808  the  legislature  ordered 
a  survey  of  the  route  between  the  Hudson  and 
the  Lakes  for  the  purpose  of  securing  informa- 
tion to  set  before  President  Jefferson,  who  a 
short  time  before  had  recommended  that  Con- 
gress appropriate  surplus  moneys  for  building 
canah  and  highways.  In  1810  the  legislature 
appointed  a  commission,  Gouverneur  Morris 
and  De  Witt  Clinton  being  two  of  the  mem- 
bers. In  1811  Robert  Fulton  and  Robert  R. 
Livingston  were  added.  This  commission  made 
reports  from  year  to  year  and  in  1816  was 
ordered  to  m^e  comj^ete  surveys  and  esti- 
mates. On  15  April  1817  construction  of  the 
Erie  and  Champlain  canals  was  authoriied  and 
on  4  July  1817  the  first  ground  was  broken  at 
Rome.  On  2ft  Oct.  1825  die  canal  was  formally 
opened  from  Albany  to  Buffalo,.,363  miles.  Its 
success  was  so  marked  that  it  gave"  rise  to  a 
veritable  mania  for  canal-building  throughout 
the  country.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it 
was  the  greatest  single  factor  in  brinjpng  to 
the  State  and  the  city  of  New  York  their  re- 
markable development  and  prosperity  during 
the  first  half  of  the  19th  century,  giving  the 
latter  the  initial  impetus  which  has  made  it  the 
chief  metropolis  of  the  Western  world.  The 
channel  was  28  feet  wide  at  bottom,  40  feet  of 
water-surface  and  4  feet  deep.  It  had  84  locks, 
90  feet  long  between  gates  and  15  feel  wide, 
with  a  total  lift  of  689  feet    It  cost  $7,143,79a 


iglc 


489  CAN 

The  £rst  enlargement,  begun  in  1836,  was  not 
finished  till  1862.  It  shortened  the  canal  to 
350>^  miles;  gave  a  channel  of  70  feet  wide 
at  water-line,  52^  or  56  feet  at  bottom,  accord' 
ing  to  side  slopes,  and  7  feet  deep;  made  72 
locks,  each  110  feet  long  between  gates  and  18 
feet  wide,  having  a  total  lift  of  654.8  feet;  and 
cost  $31,834,041.  At  the  close  of  1882,  when 
all  tolls  were  abolished,  gross  revenues  to  the 
amount  of  $121,461,871  had  been  collected  on 
Ae  Erie  Caqal ;  the  cost  of  construction,  im- 
provements and  maintetiance  had  been  $78,- 
862,154,  leaving  a  balance  of  $42^99,717  to  its 
credit.  The  preceding  decade  was  a  period  of 
adverse  public  sentiment  toward  the  State 
canals  and  several  of  the  lateral  branches  were 
abandoned.  In  18&4  there  began  a  series  of 
lock'lengtheningE  which  continued  for  about 
10  years  and  marked  the  beginning  of  renewed 
interest  in  canals  which  has  endured  until  the 
present  time,  finding  expression  in  two  enlarge- 
menta.  The  first  of  these,  1896  to  1898,  which 
was  the  second  enlargement  of  the  canal,  at- 
tempted a  deeiiuilliiii  ret  nine  feet,  but  because 
of  cxhaugtioa  of  funds  it  was  never  completed. 
The  third  enlargement,  authorized  in  1903,  is 
an  improvement  in  more  things  than  size ;  it  ii 
a    rebuilding    along    modem    lines.       It 


to  accommodate  boa _    

that  capacity.  The  Eric  Canal  has  had  a  re- 
markable history.  It  occupies  a  strategic  posi- 
tion ;  it  connects  the  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic 
along  the  only  feasible  canal  route  in  the  United 
Slates.  It  has  played  an  important  part  in 
industrial  development  and  regulation  of  com- 
merce between  the  great  interior  and  the  coast, 
and  it  promises  to  continue  exercising  a  mi^ty 
influence.    See  Baice  Canal. 

Hennepin  CanaL — This  is  one  of  the  few 
boat  canals  which  have  been  dug  in  the  United 
States  since  1650.  It  was  begun  June  1892  and 
completed  in  1908,  at  a  cost  of  $75,000,000.  It 
affords  a  short  route  from  the  upper  Mississippi 
to  Lake  Michigan,  extending  from  the  Illinoia 
River  at  Great  Bend,  about  two  miles  from 
Hennepin,  III.,  to  Rock  Island,  111.  Jts  entire 
length  is  77  miles,  but  of  this  distance  27  miles 
are  along  the  slack  waters  of  the  Roick  River. 
The  canal  proper  and  its  summit  level  feeders 
are  7  feet  in  depth  and  80  feet  wide.  There  are 
37  locks,  each  35  by  70  feet  in  siie  and  with 
lifts  ranging  from  3  to  10  feet  in  height 

ZlUnoU  &  Hichigan  CanaL— This  route 
connects  the  Mississippi  system  with  the  Great 
Lakes,  and,  by  the  Welland  Canal,  with  the 
Saint  Lawrence.  Its  inevitability  was  plain  by 
reason  of  the  extensive  use  of  the  Chicago 
portage  (from  the  Chicago  River  to  the  head- 
waters of  the  Kankakee,  an  affluent  of  the 
Illinois)  by  the  Indians  and  trappers,  it  being 
only  half  a  mile  for  boats,  the  shortest  import- 
ant portage  on  the  continent.  Chicago  was  one 
of  the  best  trodden  sites  in  Amenca  before 
white  men  came  here.  As  early  as  1822  Con- 
gress granted  a  right  of  way  for  such  a  canal, 
and  in  1S27  and  1854  made  further  grants.  For 
some  reason  it  hung  fire  for  many  yeari, 
though  a  host  of  surveys  and  estimates  were 
made  by  the  Stale  and  ihe  nation.  Work  was 
prosecuted  on  it  1836-41,  then  suspended  till 
1845,  and  the  canal  was  finally  opened  in  April 
1848.    It  had  then  cost  $6^170,226.    The  western 


La  Salle,  at  the  head  of  steamer 
navigation  on  the  Illinois  River;  its  eastern 
is  on  the  south  branch  of -the  Chicago,  about 
five  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  city.  The  en- 
tire length  is  96  miles,  and  the  rise  from  La 
"  'le  to  Lake  Michigan  is  145  feet,  surmounted 
17  lock^llO  b^  18;  the  capacity  of  boats  b 
'  ' — t.    The  original  'v' '-  — -' - 


%'l 


Kankakee   forms  the  Illinois;   but  t_ 

pense  it  was  decided  to  use  the  Chicago  River 
instead.  Thence  it  runs  to  Summit  on  the  Des 
Plainea  8  miles:  then  42  miles  to  the  junc- 
tion with  the  Kankakee:  thence  through  the 
Ilhnois  Valley  to  La  Sall&  It  has  five  navi- 
gable feeders,  the  Calumet,  Des  Plaines,  Du 
Page,  Kankakee  and  Fox ;  and  five  large  stor- 
age basins.  The  summit  level  at  Bridgeport 
required  pumping  for  supply ;  and  two  steam 
engines,  delivering  15,000  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  minute,  were  used  till  1870.  These  were 
also  used  for  many  years  to  help  draw  oS  the 
sewage  of  Chicago,  which  empties  for  miles 
into  the  river.  By  supplytng  the  canal  from  the 
river,  the  lake  water  was  drawn  in  to  fill  the 
vacancy,  and  so  kept  the  river  comparatively 
sweet  But  the  system  was  expensive,  and  the 
canal  was  deepened  for  some  years,  ending 
1870,  to  carry  the  sewa^  bv  its  own  flow  to 
the  Des  Plaines,  reversing  tne  current  of  the 
river,  It  proved  insufficient,  and  tn  1892  the 
Chkago  Drainage  Canal  (qv.)  was  bo^un, 
which  was  finished  in  1900.    It  is  40  miles  long 


290  feet  wide  at  top.  A  scheme  has  been 
mooted  for  years  to  convert  this  into  a  huge 
ship  canal  to  enable  ocean-going  steamers  to 
ascend  from  New  Orleans  to  Chicago,  and  so 
throt^  the  Great  Lakes  and  to  the  Saint  Law- 
rence; but' it  depends  on  the  co-operation  of 
the  natioiul  government.  Consult  Putnam, 
J.  W.,  <The  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal' 
(Chicago  1916). 

Jamea  River  &  Kattawha  Cwul. —  This  is 
a  hne  partly  existent  and  partly  on  paper,  but 


Governor  Spotswood  in  1716,  when  he  explored 
the  Blue  Ridge;  but  the  first  active  part  was 
taken,  as  in  all  these  early  ventures,  by  Wash- 
ington, who  saw  from  his  backwoods  days  the 
necessity  of  joining  the  eastern  seaboard  to 
■'  -AUeghanian  terrilory  by  lines  of  corn- 


legislature  on  5  Jan.  1!^  to  pass  an  act  fot 
iniproving  the  navigation  of  the  James.  Under 
this  the  James  River  Company  was  orgaoiied, 
25  Jan.  1785,  with  Washuigton  as  president. 
No  work  was  done,  and  in  1835  another  com- 
pany of  the  same  name  took  up  its  task,  be- 
ginning the  construction  of  the  section  from 
Richmond  to  Lynchburg  in  1336,  and  complet- 
ing it  near  the  end  of  1841.  The  second  divi- 
sion, from  Lynchburg  to  Buchanan  on  the 
upper  James,  was  begun  before  this  was 
Opened,  and  completed  in  1851.  In  1853  an 
extension  of  47  imles  to  Covington  on  Jackson 
River  was  begun,  but  the  war  interrupted  it, 
and  it  has  never  been  resumed.  In  1874  the 
cost  of  completing  it  to  the  Kanawha,  includ- 
ing an  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  that 
river,  was  estimated  a'  "" ^ 


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v  Google 


CANANDAIOUA  —  CANABD 


«ST 


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Tlw  OUo  Fall*  CanaL— This  is  a  short 
canal,  but  from  its  location  a  very  important 
one;  it  makes  continuous  navigation  in  one  of 
the  chief  waurways  o£  th«  continent  Tbe 
first  canal  was  built  1825-30,  and  called  the 
Louisville  &  Portland,  It  was  1  7-10  miles 
ioiiK  64  feet  wide,  had  8^  feet  lift,  and  three 
locks,  one  at  the  bead  and  two  at  the  foot 
An  enlargement  was  begun  in  1861,  but  inter- 
rupted by  the  war;  in  1868  the  national  govern- 
ment included  it  in  its  river  and  harbor  appro- 
prialion,  and  it  was  opened  February  1873^ 
Iiaving  cost  about  $4,000,000.  It  nins  west  from 
in  front  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  to  Portland;  is  a 
hide  over  11,000  feet  long  and  Bbyi  feet  wide, 
with  a  minimuni  depth  of  6  feet  assured  by  a 
dam  at  the  falla.  The  water  in  the  river  varies 
from  6  to  nearly  43  feet,  and  earthen  parapets 
on  the  aides  of  the  canal  rise  to  44  feet,  based 
on  stone  walls,  themselves  built  on  the  limestone 
rock  through  which  the  canal  b  cut.  The  upper 
lock  has  been  raised,  the  lower  two  left  as  they 
were,  but  a  branch  with  two  locks  has  been 
added.  At  the  head  are  flood-gates  46  feet  II 
in.  high.    The  upper  entrance  is  400  feet  wide. 

Among  others  existent  or  of  past  importance 
are  the  canal  between  the  Ches^eake  and  Dela- 
ware bays,  across  the  Delaware  isthmus,  built 
1824-29,  13^  miles  long,  and  supplied  by  pumps 
for  10  miles  of  iL  An  enlargement  has  l>een 
projected.  This  system  has  recently  been  ac- 
ired  by  the  Federal  govertunenL  (See  Ship 
.  INA1.S).  The  Morris  Canal.  101  miles 
lon^  built  in  1830,  connects  the  Hudson  at 
Jersty  Qt^  with  the  Delaware  at  PhilUpsburb^ 
N.  J.;  it  IS  owned  by  the  Lehigh  Valley  Rail- 
road. The  Delaware  &  Raritan,  43  miles  long, 
built  1831-34,  connects  those  rivers,  and  there- 
fore New  York  and  Philadelphia.  The  Dela- 
ware &  Hudson,  completed  IW,  was  once  tbe 
great  coal  freight  route  between  New  York  and 
Oie  Pennsylvania  mines;  its  company  trans- 
formed itself  into  the  railroad  Company  of  the 
same  name,  and  has  aban4oned  the  canal.  The 
Schuylkill  Coal  &  Navigation  Company's  canal 
is  108  miles  long.  The  Ohio  &  Erie  Canal  from 
Portsmouth,  Ohio,  to  Cleveland,  and  the 
Wabash  from  Toledo,  Ohio,  to  Evansville,  Ind,, 
were  once  of  importance  in  building  up  these 

The  initiative  taken  by  New  York  in  the 
construction  of  the  great  barge  canal  seems 
to  have  had  the  ettect  of  causing  a  new 
era  of  canal  building.  Several  projects  have 
been  begun  and  several  of  these  have  almost 
been  completed,  among  these  latter  being  the 
Lake  Washington  Canal,  which  connects  Lake 
Washington,  near  Seattle,  Wash,,  with  Puget 
Sound  by  means  of  a  canal  nearly  two  miles  in 
length,  a  17-foot  lock  being  requited  to  lift 
the  vessels  from  the  waters  of  the  Sound  to 
the  lake.  The  Datles-Celilo  Canal  is  another 
enterprise  practically  completed,  which  opens 
up  the  Columbia  River  to  light  draught  ves- 
sels  as  far  up  stream  as  Priest  Rapids,  on  the 
main  river  above  Pasco,  and  to  Lewiston,  on 
Snake  River^  in  Idaho.  It  is  8J^  miles  in 
length  and  climbs  to  a  height  of  82  feet  above 
tow  water,  the  cost  of  building  having  been 
$5,000,000.  During  I91S  the  Illinois  legislature 
appropriated  $5,000,000  for  a  65-mile  canal,  S 
feet  in  depth,  from  joliet  to  Utica,  the  canal  to 
start  from  the  end  of  the  Chicago  Sanitary 
District  Canal.     The  Pennsylvania  legislature. 


too,  has  authorized  an  issue  of  bonds  for  the 
construction  of  a  canal  from  Pittsburgh  to  ' 
Lake  Erie.  According  to  the  plans  already 
roughly  drafted  this  canal  will  put  Pittsburgh 
into  water  communication  with  27  States, 

Bibliography.— Hepbun;,  'Artificial  Water- 
ways and  Commercial  Development*  (1909) ; 
Uoulton,  'Waterways  vs.  Railways'  (1912) ; 
Bellasis,  'River  and  Canal  Engineering* 
(1913)  ;   'The  International  Yearbook'    (1916). 

Revised  by  Noble  E.  WnrrFORD, 
Senior  Assistant  Engineer,  Department  of  State 
Engineers,  New  York. 
CANANDAIOUA,  N.  Y.,  d^  and  the 
county-seat  of  Ontario  County,  29  iniles  south- 
east of  Rochester,  at  the  northern  end  of  Can- 
andaigua  Lake,  and  on  the  New  York  C  and 
H.  R-  and  Northern  C.  railroads.  It  is  situ- 
ated, on  high  ground,  with  a  commanding  view 
of  tne  lake  amid  attractive  scenery,  Canandai- 
gua  is  a  pc^ular  holiday  resort.  The  fishing 
and  boating  accommodations  are  excellent.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  those  of  ale,  pressed 
brick  and  anti-rust  tin  and  enameled  ware. 
The  power-house  and  dio(>s  of  the  Rochester 
and  Eastern  Interurban  Electric  Railway  are 
located  here.  The  public  institutions  include 
the  Thompson  Memorial  Hospital,  the  On- 
tario Orphan  Asyhim  (private),  a  private  sana- 
torium, an  association  library,  two  banks  and 
churches  of  six  denominations.  It  is  also  the 
seat  of  Canandaigua  Academy,  a  public  high 
school,  and  of  the  Granger  Place  School  for 
Girts,  a  private  secondary  school.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered  by  a  mayor  and  a  board 
of  aldermen.     Municipal   waterworks. 


1913.  The  name  was  originally  Canandarqua, 
an  Indian  word  thought  by  some  to  signify 
■the  chosen  spot,*  by  others  'the  site  of  a  for- 
mer senlement,*    Pop.  7,217, 

CANANDAIGUA  LAKE,  N.  Y.,  a  body 
of  water  lying  chiefly  within  the  limits  of  On- 
tario County.  It  is  668  feet  above  the  sea  and 
437  feet  above  Lake  Ontario,  and  has  an  ex- 
treme length  of  15  miles  and  an  average  width 
of  one  mile.  Its  outlet  is  the  Oyde,  a  tribu- 
tary of  Seneca  River. 

CANANI,  ka-na'ne,  Giovanni  Battista, 
Italian' anatomist:  b.  1515;  d.  1579.  He  discov- 
ered certain  of  the  hand  muscles,  and  was  the 
firat  to  observe  tbe  use  of  the  valves  in  the 

CANAR,  ka-fiar*,  Ecuador,  a  small  province 
situated  among'  the  Andes,  between  the  prov- 
inces of  Chimborazo  and  Amay;  capital,  Azo- 
gues.  It  has  the  Eastern  Cordillera  of  the 
Andes  on  the  eastern  border,  and  is  watered 
t^  'he  tributaries  of  Paute  River.  Numerous 
Inca  remains  are  found  there.     Pop.  64,000. 

CANARD,  ka-nard'  or  ka-nar*,  a  false  re- 
port; a  silly  rumor.  Tnc  origin  of  this  use  of 
the  term  is  not  known.  It  is  the  French  word 
meaning  *duek,'  and  is  thought  by  some  to  be 
derived  from  the  old  phrast  Vendeur  de  canard 
H  moitil,  one  who  half-sells  a  duck  or  cheats 
in  such  a  transaction;  hence  a  liar,  a  guller,  etc. 
According  to  an  account  of  wide  currency  in 
different  versions,  tbe  usage  arose  from  a  story 


[ig 


Google 


CANARISS  — CANARY  ISLANDS 


of  cannibalism  among  a  flock  of  ducks  diat  ate 
one  of  their  numbcT  each  day  until  the^  were 
reduced  to  a  single  survivor,  who,  it  was 
argued,  had  eaten  alt  his  companions.  The 
story  became  common  in  Paris,  and  afterward, 
when  any  marvelous  recital  was  heard,  the 
listener  would  shrug  his  shoulders  and  exclaimj 
Cett  Mft  canardi  ('That's  a  canard,  or  duckl*). 

CANARIES.    See  Canarv  Islands. 

CANARIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order 
Burseracett.  There  are  about  90  spedes,  in- 
habiting tropical  Asia  and  Africa.  The  gum  of 
C.  commune,  known  as  Elemi,  has  the  same 
properties  as  balsam  of  copaiva.  The  nuts  are 
eaten  in  the  Moluccas  and  Java,  but  are  apt 
to  bring  on  diarrhcea.  An  oil  is  expressed  from 
them,  used  at  table  when  fresh  and  burned  in 
lamps  when  stale. 

CANARY,  a  small  domesticated  finch  (Car- 
Atelit  canaria),  closely  allied  to  the  goldfinch 

a.v.),  aud  found  throughout  the  Canary 
ands,  Cape  Verde  and  Madeira.  Domestica- 
tion, besides  having  moxUfied  the  siie  and  colors 
of  this  bird,  has  developed  its  power  of  song. 
It  was  introduced  into  Europe  as  a  cage-bird 
early  in  the  16th  century,  ana  is  now  familiar 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Canaries  in  their  wild 
state  are  about  five  inches  long,  and.  like  other 
finches,  live  mainly  upon  seeds,  seldom  eating 
insects.  They  build  nests  of  moss  and  feathers 
in  bushes  and  trees,  often  near  dwellings;  and 
their  pale-blue  eggs  number  four  or  five.  Cana- 
ries are  bought,  bred  and  sold  in  large  niunberi 
in  England,  Scotland,  Belgium  and  in  the  Hartz 
Mountains,  where  their  breedi^  forms  an  im- 
portant household  industry,  l^e  varieties  are 
named,  to  a  great  extent,  from  the  localities 
in  which  they  are  bred.  Among  birds  valued 
for  their  beauty  rather  than  for  thqir  power  of 
song  are:  the  British  crested  Norwich  canary, 
the  Manchester  canarj^,  which  is  noted  for  its 
abnormal  size,  it  sometimes  reaching  a  length  of 
eight  inches.  The  Scotch  Fancy  la  a  slender 
bird  with  long  neck,  its  body,  trunk  and  tail, 
when  in  certain  positions,  curving  into  all * 


ground  color  is  dull,  spotted  with  gold  or  silver 
markings.  The  Belgian  or  humpback  canaries 
are  also  bred  for  their  bcauW  of  plumage,  and 
are  remarkable  by  reason  of  the  peculiar  apuear- 
ance  they  present  by  their  broad  shoulders, 
short  neck  a.id  small  head.  Canaries  bred  for 
tiheir  power  of  song,  and  selling  for  from  $1  to 
$75,  are  those  of  the  Hartz  Mountains,  which 
vary  in  color  from  a  clear  yellow  to  a  bright 
green.  The  most  valuable  of  all  varieties  is 
the  South  Andreasberg  bird,  bred  solely  for 
their  power  of  song.  Single  birds  are  fre- 
quently utilized  for  the  instruction  of  young 
birds,  and  are  known  as  "campaninis.*  Other 
vaiidies  are  the  cinnamon  canaries  and  the 
cayennes,  the  brilliant  red  and  scarlet  of  the 
latter  being  due  to  judicious  feeding  with  red 
pepper.  Canaries  are  also  crossed  by  fanciers, 
with  other  finches;  the  resulting  hybrids  are 
called  "mules,'  and  are  usually  from  the  mating 
of  hen  canaries  with  other  cock  birds,  great 
difficulty  bein^  experienced  in  keeping  female 
goldfinches,  linnets,  etc.,  on  the  eggs  in  cap- 
tivity. 

Canaries  are  easily  cared  for,  the  only  essen- 
tials being  cleanliness,  food    and  water.     The 


principal  danger  to  the  bird  is  a  coM  draughk 
The  best  food  consists  of  canary-grass  seed, 
hemp-seed  and  a  certain  amount  of  greens. 
Adas  are  to  be  avuded,  but  sugar  is  beneficial 
in  small  quantities.  Lime  is  essential  to  its  wel- 
fare and  is  most  easily  obtained  in  cuttle-fish 
bone.  If  their  nails  grow  so  long  as  to  be  trou- 
blesome to  the  bird,  they  should  be  occasionally 
cut  with  a  very  sharp  scissors,  thus  running  no 
chance  of  injuring  the  foot  Attention  must 
also  be  given  to  the  perches.  These  should  be 
no  thicker  than  a  thin  lead  pencil,  so  that  the 
birds'  toes  may  meet  around  them.  Consult 
Wallace,  <The  Canary  Book'  (London  1893); 
Belts,  'The  Pleasurable  Art  of  Breeding  Pet 
Canaries'  (London  1897);  Blakston,  Swavstand 
and  Miener,  'The  Book  of  Onaries  and  Cage 
Birds'  (London)  ;  Holden,  'Canaries  and  Cage- 
Birds'  (New  York  1883) ;  Robson,  "Cananes, 
Hybrids  and  British  Birds  in  Cage  and  Aviarv' 
(London  1912).  Consult  also  the  weekly, 
Cage-Birds  (London). 

CANARY-CREEPKR,  or  CANARY- 
BIRD  FLOWBR,  an  annual  climbing  plant 
(Tropetolum  peregrinum),  of  the  nasturtium 
family,  a  native  of  Colombia,  cultivated  for  its 
showy  yellow  flowers. 

CANARY-GRASS.    See  Canary-Seed. 

CANARY  ISLANDS,  or  CANARIES, 
a  cluster  of  Islands  in  the  Atlantic,  politically 
forming  a  province  and  military  district  of 
Spain,  but  geographically  considered  as  belong- 
ing to  Africa,  the  most  easterly  bein({  about  150 
mfles  from  Cape  Nun.  They  are  13  m  number, 
7  of  Which  are  of  considerable  size,  namely, 
Palma,  Hierro,  (Jomera,  Teneriffe,  Grand 
Canary  (Gran  Canaria),  Fuerteventura  and 
Lanzarote.  The  other  six  are  little  more  than 
mere  rocks.  "The  population  numbers  about 
526,400,  the  area  being  about  3,216  square  miles. 
Lanzarote  and  Fuerteventura  lie  in  the  north- 
east of  the  group.  Hierro  is  the  farthest  south- 
west Through  Hierro  the  first  meridian  used 
to  be  drawn.  All  are  rugged  and  mountainous, 
frequently  presenting  deep  ravines  and  precis- 
ions cliffs  to  the  sea,  though  having  also  fertile 
valleys  and  verdant  slopes.  The  principal  peaks 
are  those  of  Teneriffe,  12,182  feet,  and  La 
Cruz,  in  Palma,  7,730  feet  Fuerteventura  and 
Lanzarote,  which  are  nearest  the  African  coast, 
are  less  elevated  than  the  others,  and  have  more 
strongly  marked  African  characteristics.  Evi' 
dence  of  volcanic  action  is  almost  everywhere 
present,  and  volcanic  disturbances  have  taken 
place  on  some  of  the  islands  in  quite  modem 
times.  The  flora  of  the  central  and  western 
islands  generally  resembles  that  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  the  trees  and  shrubs  including 
the  oak,  cliestnut,  pine,  cedar,  laurel,  heather, 
etc.;  but  there  arc  (particularly  on  the  eastern 
islands)  plants  that  belong  to  the  African  region, 
such  as  the  dragon-tree  and  euphorbias.  Among 
the  fauna  may  dc  mentioned  the  canary,  the  red 
partridge,  and  several  kinds  of  lizards;  there 
are  no  snakes.  Goats  and  camels  are  the  diief 
domestic  animals.  The  islands  are  deficient  in 
moisture  and  severe  droughts  sometimes  occur; 
tornadoes  also  are  not  infrequent.  The  climate 
is  hot  on  the  low  grounds,  temperate  higher  up. 
and  generally  healthy.  The  soil  where  suited 
for  cultivation  readily  produces  all  kinds  of 
grain,  fruits  and  vegetables  in  abundance,  three 
and  even  four  crops  being  raised  yearly;  some 


CANAKY-8RBD 


a,  valuable  possession  of  Spain  and  they  serve 
as  a  winter  resort  for  invalids  from  colder 
regions.  This  has  led  to  the  erection  of  hotels 
specially  intended  for  visitors,  to  the  makinK  or 
impTovements  of  roads  and  to  the  providitiK  of 
attractions  of  various  kinds,  including  golf* 
courses,  lawn-tennis  'grounds,  etc.  There  are 
Mveral  places  of  worship  for  English-spealdng 
visitors,  The  exports  at  present  consist  chiefly 
of  bananas,  tomatoes,  onions  and  potatoes, 
^pped  in^great  quantities  to  London  and  Liver- 
pool, cochineal,  sugar,  wine,  etc.  The  imports 
chiefly  consist  of  textiles  and  other  manufac- 
tured goods,  cereals,  coals,  etc.  Peaches, 
oranses,  lemons,  figs  and  other  fruits  are  culti- 
vated! Teneriffe  and  Grand  Canary  are  the 
two  chief  islands.  Santa  Cruz,  the  capital  of 
the  islands,  is  a  port  on  the  northeast  coast  of 
the  former,  and  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
same  island  is  Orotava,  a  favorite  resort  of  for- 
eign visitors.  Las  Pahnas,  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  Grand  Canary,  is  a  more  important 
place,  with  its  new  harbor,  Puerto  de  la  Luz. 
between  three  and  four  miles  distant,  protected 
by  a  breakwater.  The  city  is  rapidlv  extending, 
its  streets  have  been  improved  and  lighted  by 
electricity.  In  1917  it  had  about  43,000  inhabit- 
ants. Numerotis  steamers  engaged  in  the  trade 
between  Europe  and  Africa  call  here,  and  also 
at  Santa  Cruz.  Wireless  telegraphic  stations, 
one  of  860  miles  range,  carry  out  the  service 
with  Spain  and  another  of  250  miles  range  the 
service  with  ship  and  shore  traffic 

Hiatorical  OutUnea.— The  half-fabulous 
'Fortunate  Isles,*  as  the  Canary  Islands  were 
called  in  the  classical  ages,  were  tindoubtedly 
known  to  the  Semitic  merchant-adventtirers 
from  the  south-southeast  Mediterranean  coasts 
(including  the  Carthaginians)  long  before  the 
Roman  conquests  extended  to  Spain.  But  it  is 
possible  that,  as  Mr.  Royale  Tyler  suggests,  the 
Carthaginians  may  have  kept  the  secret  of  their 
whereabouts  for  fear  that  others  might  share 
with  them  such  advantages  as  the  astute  traders 
of  those  days  were  anxious  to  keep  to  them- 
selves. Contact  with  the  outside  world  appears 
to  have  been  interrupted  for  centuries,  finally, 
the  Arabs  'discovered*  the  Canaries  in  the  I3ai 
century ;  the  Portuguese  and  Majorcans  visited 
them  in  the  14lh;  and  in  the  early  years  of  the 
15th  a  Norman  adventurer,  Jean  de  Bethen- 
court,  established  himself  at  Fuerteventura  and 
founded  his  capital  in  a  village  that  still  exists 
under  die  name  of  Betancuria  (more  correctly, 
Betbencuria),  on  the  western  side  of  that 
island.  The  King  of  Castile  was  his  protector, 
and  toward  the  end  of  the  15th  century 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  took  jpossession  of  the 
islands.  At  that  time  the  Canaries  were  in- 
habited by  people  of  different  races,  some  of 
whom  were  Semites,  as  we  have  said;  but  the 
bulk  of  the  population  was  formed  by  a  people 
called  the  Guanches  who  had  been  in  possession 
of  the  islands  for  ages.  The  blood  of  the 
Guanches  still  flows  in  the  veins  of  many  of  the 
inhabitants;  and  even  to-day,  in  Gomera  and 
Tcneriffe_  especially,  the  old  race  appears  to 
have  maintanied  itself  almost  without  admix- 
ture. 


—  CANBERRA  48» 

of  Grammaciv,  cultftrafed  for  its  seed,  whidi 
is  used  principally  as  food  for  birds.  In  its 
early  growth'  it  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
oats  or  wheat.  With  good  cultivation  it  attains 
a  height  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  terminates 
in  ef^-shaped  heads  or  cars,  each  containing 
upward  of  100  seeds.  The  straw  is  of  little 
value^  either  as  fodder  or  litter,  but  the  ears, 
especially  when  mixed  with  other  kinds  of  chaff, 
are  good  food  for  horses.  It  requires  a  deep 
adhesive  soil,  and  its  produce  per  acre  is  about 
the  same  in  quantity  as  wheat  It  is  a  native  of 
the  Canary  Islands,  but  is  successfully  cultivated 
elsewhere. 


CANARY  WINE,  a  v 


e  that  comes  from 


s  properly  applied  only  to  the  Bidogne 


sis,  trees  of  the  laurel  family  of  the  Azores  and 
Madeira,  so  called  because  it  was  brought 
originally  from  the  Canaries,  It  is  also  called 
Madeira  mahogany. 

CANASTER,  or  KANASTER,  originally 
the  rush-basket  in  which  South  American  to- 
bacco was  packed  and  exported,  and  hence 
applied  to  a  kind  of  tobacco  consisting  of  the 
leaves  coarsely  broken  for  smoking. 


York  Central,  the  West  Shore  and  the  Lehi^ 
Valley  railroads,  21  miles  east  of  Syracuse.  It 
is  the  centre  of  an  agricultural  district  and 
manufactures  agncultnral  implements,  gasoline 
engines,  boats,  canned  goods,  cut  glass,  etc.  It 
has  two  banks,  public  Ubiary,  churches,  high 
school,  hospital  and  two  grammar  schools.  Can- 
astota  was  settled  about  1806  and  was  first  in- 
corporated in  1835.  The  government  is  admin- 
istered bv  a  president,  elected  annually,  and  a 
board  of  trustees.  Seneca  turnpike,  built  in 
1790  and  now  a  State  road,  runs  along  the 
southern  boundary  of  Canastota.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,247. 

CANBERRA,  the  new  Federal  capiul  o{ 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  situated  in 
lat  35°  IS'  S.  and  long.  149°  15'  E.  on  a  plateau 
about  2,000  feet  above  sea-level  in  the  Yass  Can- 
berra district.  New  South  Wales,  70  miles  dis- 
tant from  ^e  eastern  coast  line  of  Australia. 
The  constitution  of  1900  provided  for  a  new 
capital,  and  after  nearly  10  years'  search  and 
deliberation  the  present  site  was  chosen.  The 
territory  is  900  square  miles  in  area,  and  in- 
cludes a  spot  of  two  square  miles  at  Jervia 
Bay  for  the  construction  of  a  ^ort  and  a  naval 
college.  In  191 1  the  Australian  government 
offered   $15000   in    three   prizes,    for   the   best 


of  opinion  between  the  Minister  for  Home  Af- 
furs  and  British  architects  caused  all  the  best 
of  the  latter  to  withdraw  from  the  competition. 
On  23  May  1912  it  was  announced  that  the  first 
priie,  $^750,  had  been  awarded  to  an  Ameri- 
can architect,  Mr.  Walter  Burlnr  Griffin  of 
Chicago.  The  second  prize  ($3,750)  went  to 
H.  Ehel  Saarinen,  of  Helsingfors,  Finland,  and 
the  tUrd  to  Alfred  Agache,  of  Paris.  From 
these  three  plans  the  woric  of  designiiig  the 


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CANBY  — CAMCBR 


future  dty  was  begun.  The  populadoa  contem- 
plated for  the  capital  was  Execf  at  25,000,  and  a 
period  of  eight  years  in  four  sta^s  was  esti- 
mated for  toe  completion  of  the  preliminary 
works,  at  a  cost  of  $10,000,000.  According  to 
Ur.  Griffin's  plan  the  city  will  be  divided  by 
three  large  loects  of  water,  with  parks  and 
boulevards;  a  cajntol  of  600  feel  frontage  and 
200  feet  depth ;  accommodation  for  all  the  great 
departments  of  state:  courts  of  justice,  mint, 
art  gallery,  museum,  churches,  a  university,  post' 
office,  hospital,  stadium,  gas-works,  etc.  A 
large  reproduction  of  the  winning  oesiEu  ap- 
peared in  the  London  Times  of  24  May  1913. 


CANBY,  Edward  Richard  Epricf,  Ameri- 
an  anny  officer:  b.  Kentucky  181/ ■  4  11  April 
1873.  _  He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839 ; 


served  in  tbe  Mexican  War,  1846-48; 
mandcd  the  United  Slates  troops  in  New  York 
during  the  draft  riots  of  1863;  succeeded  Gen- 
eral Banks  in  the  command  of  the  anny  in 
Louisiana,  1864;  became  brigadier-generaL 
United  States  army,  and  major-general  oi 
volunteers,  1866.  After  the  war  special  duties 
were  assigned  to  him,  and  in  1869  he  took  com- 
mand of  the  department  of  the  Columbia,  He 
was  treacherously  shot  by  an  Indian  chief,  while 
negotiatinc;  for  the  removal  of  the  Modocs 
from  normem  California,  in  the  *Lava  Beds." 

CANBY,     William     Marriott,     American 
botanist:   b.   Philadelphia,   Pa.,   1831;    d.    1904. 


s  educated  privatdy,  and  though  a  busi- 
maiL  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of 
botany.    He  gathered  a  fine  herbarium  of  i 


of  cancellation  may  yet  be  applied  if  conunon 
factors  exist  and  can  be  detected.  The  work  is 
lubstantialli/  the  same  as  that  of  reducing  frac- 
tions to  their  lowest  terms. 

CANCER,  Lttis,  eaHy  Spanish-American 
missionary:  b.  Barbastro,  near  Saragossa;  d. 
Florida  1549.  After  missionary  labors  in 
Dominica  and  liaiti,  he^was  very  successful 
with  the  antagonized  Indians  of  ue  mainland 
and  supportea  their  caus«  in  an  ecclesiastical 
assembly  at  Mexico  in  1546.  He  was  Irilled 
by  Florida  Indians  26  June  1549. 

CANCER.  Nature  of  Cancer^  A  tumor 
is  a  growth  of  abnormal  size  and  situation,  com- 
posed of  cells  of  the  body.  Some  tumors  are 
not  dangerous  to  life,  because  they  do  not  in- 
crease S^tei  they  attain  a  certain  size;  others, 
and  these  are  cancers,  have  no  limit  to  their 

growth,  and  destroy  life  by  extending  into 
ealthy  tissue  or  by  interfering  with  digestion  or 
some  other  important  vital  function.  While  a 
cancer  is  a  particular  sort  of  tumor,  there  are 
also  many  varieties  of  cancer;  and  these  vari- 
eties are  classified  according  to  the  tissue  from 
which  the  growth  originates.  If  the  cancer  be- 
gin in  the  skin  or  epidermis,  it  is  called  an  epithe- 
lioma: if  it  begin  in  a  gland,  it  is  called  a 
carcinoma;  if  it  begin  in  muscle,  fibrous  tissue, 
tendon  or  bone,  it  is  called  a  sarcoma.  These 
kinds  of  cancer  grow  progressively  and  are  fatal 
if  not  promptly  removed. 


30,000  species  of  plants,  which  is  now  owned 
by  the  New  York  College  of  Pharmacy.  A 
smaller  collection  was  brought  together  for 
the  Delaware  Society  of  Natural  History.  He 
was  one  of  the  botanists  attached  to  the  North- 
ern Pacific  Transcontinental  Survey. 

CANCALB,  kan'cal',  France,  fishing  port 
of  Il!e-et-Vilaine  department,  on  the  Bay  of 
Mont  Saint-Michel,  10  miles  east  of  Saint- 
Malo.  Oyster  culture  and  shipbuilding  are  busy 
industries,  and  it  is  a  popular  seaside  resort. 
Pop.  8,000. 

CAN-CAN,  a  dance,somelhiDK  of  the  nature 
of  a  quadrille,  but  accompanied  by  violent  lea^ 
and  indecorous  contortions  of  the  body  origi- 
nated by  the  demimonde  of  Paris,  and  re- 
sembling the  old  Bacchic  dances.  Tne  earlier 
and  usual  meaning  of  the  word  in  French  is 
noise,  racket,  scandal  and  is  derived,  oddly 
enough,  from  the  Latin  conjunction  qitamquam, 
'althougfi,* —  a  ^reat  squabble  baring  arisen  in 
the  Frendb  medueval  law  schools  as  to  the  pro- 
nunciation of  this  word. 

CANCELLARIA,  a  genus  of  Gastropods 
belonging  to  the  family  cancetlariidef,  in  wnich 
the  shelf  is  turbinate,  scabrous  and  generally 
reticulated,  the  spire  and  aperture  nearly  equal 
and  tbe  body  ventricose.  Tate  in  1875  estimated 
the  known  recent  spedes  at  71,  and  the  fossil 
ones,  at  60,  the  latter  from  the  Upper  Chalk 
till  now. 

CANCELLATION,  a  mediod  of  abbrevi- 
ating certain  arithmetical  and  algebraic  opera- 
tions. When  the  product  of  several  numbers 
is  to  be  divided  by  another  such  product,  anv 
factors  common  to  both  products  may  be  left 
out,  or  ■canceled.'  If  divisor  and  dividend  do 
not  appear  hi  exUnso  a  products,  the  process 


In  the  beginning  a  cancer  is  composed  of  a 
few  microscopic  cells,  much  smaller  than  tbe 
point  of  a  pin.  Depending  upon  the  ty^,  it  may 
grow  in  a  few  months  to  the  size  of  a  ^pe- 
Truit,  or  may  require  years  to  reach  the  sue  of 
a  pea.  When  it  first  begins  to  grow  there  are 
no  symptoms  —  no  pain  and  no  bleeding;  but 
later,  when  the  cancer  presses  on  the  nerves, 
pain  results.  Bleeding  begins  only  when  the 
cancer  ulcerates.  Any  other  symptoms  to 
which  a  cancer  may  give  rise  are  due  solely  to 
its  interference  with  some  normal  function  of 
the  body.  A  cancer  looks  like  a  lump  of  tissue. 
It  has  no  roots,  as  is  populariy  believed,  but  it 
may  grow  out  through  tne  vessels  of  the  body 
to  distant  parts. 

Cancer  is  not  a  new  disease  but  one  whith 
has  been  recognized  since  earliest  times.  It  k 
mentioned  by  the  Egmttans  in  the  Papyrus 
Ebers.  and  Iw  the  Hindus  in  their  medical  writ- 
ings. Doth  of  which  probably  date  back  to  about 
2000  B.C 

Occurrence  of  Cancer.—  While  cancer  x- 
curs  not  only  in  man  but  in  all  warm-blooded 
aniaials,  it  is  not  equally  frequent  at  all  ages. 


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v  Google 


481 


Certain  types  of  cancer  may  be  found  in  a  new- 
born infant,  in  other  words,  are  congenital; 
but  these  are  very  rare.  The  usual  rule  is  tliat 
cancer  begins  to  appear  at  the  age  of  35,  and 
increases  rapidly  in  frequency  until  the  age  of 
65  — a  little  earlier  in  women,  a  little  later. in 
men.  After  75,  the  rate  of  occurrence  of  cancer 
decreases  very  rapidly,  until  it  practically  dis- 
appears at  90.  The  same  frequency  distribution 
according  to  age  is  seen  also  in  mice,  rats,  doe(s, 
cats,  etc.  i  that  is,  the  disease  appears  only  in 
older  animals,  but  is  less  often  seen  in  the  very 
old. 

Sex  Variatims, —  Sex  has  same  influence 
on  the  rate  of  occurrence  of  cancer;  for  ex- 
ample, between  the  ages  of  35  and  45,  men  show 
the  disease  lesa  often,  practically  only  one-third 
as  often  as  women;  between  the  ages  of  55 
and  65  the  frequency  in  men  is  about  65  per 
cent  of  that  in  women  of  corresponding  age; 
while  in  old  ^e,  men  have  more  cancer  than 
women.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  women 
a  great  many  cancers  occur  in  the  breast  and  in 
the  womb  at  about  the  beginning  of  the  change 
of  life,  that  is,  from  45  to  50  years  of  age. 
On  the  other  hand,  cancers  of  the  lip  and 
tongue  attack  men  only,  practically;  and  these, 
with  cancer  of  the  skin,  appear  late  in  hfe. 
Similar  variations  in  the  occurrence  of  cancer 
ire  noted  also  in  the  different  organs  of  the 
body;  for  example,  the  more  frequent  site  foe 
cancer  is  either  tne  stomach  or  the  liver.  Thus, 
while  in  1913,  in  the  United  States,  3a205  people 
died  of  cancer  of  the  stomach  or  of  the  liver, 
only  2,633  died  of  cancer  of  the  sldn,  and  3,007 
of  cancer  of  the  tongue  and  mouth. 

Race  Variations.—  The  differences  noted  in 
the  occurrence  of  cancer  in  organs  are  also 
noted  in  the  occurrence  of  cancer  in  different 
races ;  for  example,  the  negro  race  is  attacked 
by  cancer  much  less  frequently  than  the  white 
race,  and  cancer  seema  to  be  more  frequent 
in  people  of  the  northem  European  states  than 
It  does  in  those  living  in  the  tropics  or  in  South 


There  is,  also,  a  difference  in  the  oi^n  dis- 
tribution in  different  countries.  In  England 
and  Wales,  out  of  100,000  women,  18.6  indi- 
viduals lyill  have  cancer  of  the  breast,  while  in 


Japan,  only  1.8  women  out  of  100,000  will  suffer 
from  the  disease.  The  occurrence  of  cancer  of 
the  skin  in  the  negro  race  in  the  State  of  Mary- 
land it  only  half  that  in  the  white  population. 
-.^ 1 1.,.,  .  g,i|]  i,m  little  under- 


the  death  rate  per  100,000  from  cancer  was  67 
in  clergymen  and  265  m  chimney  sweeps.  The 
irritatioii  resultii^  from  the  soot  may  explain 
this  difference. 

Increase  of  Cancer..— There  is  a  widespread 
opinion  that  cancer  is  increasing  rabidly  in 
frequency  of  occurrence.  This  (question  has 
been  subjected  to  elaborate  statistical  analysis 
bv  Hoffman  in  a  volume  on  <The  Mortality  of 
Cancer  Throughout  the  World.'  Hoffman 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  a  gradual 
increase  in  the  number  of  cases  of  cancer  oc- 
curring in  most  of  the  countries  of  the  world, 
but  that  this  increase  tends  to  reach  a  certain 
maximum  and  not  to  pass  that  point  This 
maximum  has  already  been  reached  in  Switzer- 
land, where  the  cancer  death  rate  is  now  124 
per  100,000,  while  in  the  United  States  it  is  only 
74  per  1013,000.  There  are,  however,  many 
authorities  who  consider  that  this  increase  in 
cancer  is  due  not  to  an  absolute  increase  in  the 
number  of  persons  with  cancer,  but  to  an  in- 
crease in  reported  cases;  in  other  words,  that 
improvements  in  diagnosis  and  in  our  under- 
standing of  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  the 
increased  accuracy  of  statistics  have  resulted  in 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  cases  of  cancer 
which  are  reported.    The  matter  cannot  be  c 


sidered   as   finallv   settled,    however;   and   onlv 
greatly  improvea  statistical  reports  from  dii- 


jreatly  improved  statistical  reports  from  dii- 
lerent  countries  can  throw  any  light  upon  the 

Heredity.— The  question  of  heredity  in 
cancer  has  lone  occupied  the  attention  both  of 
statisticians  and  of  workers  with  experimental 
cancers  in  animals.  While  there  is  no  doubt 
that  an  individual  family  may  show  a  large 
number  of  cases  of  cancer  for  one  or  two 
generations,  this  is  by  no  means  a  proof  that 
the  disease  itself  is  hereditary.  It  is  not  even 
a  proof  that  a  liability  to  the  disease  is  heredi- 
tary. If  we  realize  that  out  of  every  100,000 
feople  living  in  the  United  States,  80  will  die 
rom  cancer,  it  is  easy  to  see  that,  as  age 
increases  and  the  frequency  of  cancer  becomes 
greater  (so  that  between  the  ages  of  45  and  65 
one  woman  in  6  and  one  man  in  12  will  die 
from  the  disease)  the  occurrence  of  several 
cases  in  a  family,  especially  if  it  be  longUved, 
is  not  astonishing.  It  is  evident  that  if  cancer 
occur  so  frequently,  some  families  are  bound  to 
have  a  larger  number  of  cases  than  others, 
merely  by  chance.  This  point  is  illustrated  in 
the  "cancer  villages'  which  will  be  discussed  in 
the  next  paragraph.  The  problem  of  heredity 
in  cancer  has  interested  the  life  insuraiKe  com- 
panies, also,  because  if  cancer  be  hereditary,  it 
IS  very  important  that  no  one  in  whose  family 
cancer  has  occurred  shall  be  accepted  by  the 
companies.  But  a  careful  analysis  of  a  lai]ge 
number  of  persons  insured  shows  that  the  lia- 
bilicy  of  death  from  cancer  is  no  greater  be- 
cause that  disease  has  occurred  in  one's  family 
than  it  is  if  no  cancer  death  has  been  recorded: 
so  that  the  insurance  companies  do  not  regara 
a  history  of  cancer  in  the  ancestry  as  any  evi- 
dence that  cancer  will  occur  in  the  descendants. 
,  It  has  been  shown,  however,  by  breeding 
mice  of  cancerous  ancestry,  that  is,  by  selecting 
both  father  and  mother  from  a  highly  can- 
cerous strain,  that  the  amount  of  cancer  occur- 
ring in  the  descendants  after  many  generations 
of  such  selected  breeding,  is  apt  to  be  about 
twice  as  much  as  occurs  m  the  stodc  in  which 


.Google 


before  the  8 
be  produced. 

ContBgion  in  Cancer. —  It  is  a  popular  su- 
perstition that  cancer  is  contagious,  and  that 
it  is  very  dangerous  to  nurse  a  person  with  an 
ulcerating  cancer;  but  there  is  not  the  slightest 
foundation  for  this  belief.  There  is  no  recorded 
evidence  of  a  case  in  which  cancer  has  been 
transferred  from  one  person  to  another  or  in 
which  a  surgeon  has  contracted  the  disease  dur- 
ing an  operation  on  a  cancerous  patient.  If 
omcer  were  a  germ  disease,  it  would  probably 
be  very  easily  transmitted  in  this  way;  but 
there  is  no  evidence  that  a  germ  has  anything 
to  do  with  the  development  of  the  tumor;  ana 
the  onl:f  way  in  which  the  disease  can  be  trans- 
ferred is  by  direct  grafting  of  a  piece  of  the 
growth  from  a  cancer  patient  to  a  healthy 
person.  It  is  very  difficult  even  to  graft  a 
cancer  from  one  mouse  to  another.  Often 
hundreds  of  animals  are  inoculated  in  order 
that  one  or  two  cancers  may  be  grown.  Ani- 
mals bearing  cancer  and  healthy  animals  have 
been  kept  together  in  large  numbers  for  lonp 
periods,  and  not  the  slightest  evidence  of  any 
transfer  has  been  shown. 

It  has  been  popularly  supposed  that  cancer 
is  very  abundant  in  certain  districts  or  villages 
or  houses,  and  that  this  fact  pointed  to  the  con- 
tagiousness of  the  disease;  but  when  the  popu- 
lation of  these  districts  is  studied,  it  is  usually 
found  that  all  the  young  people  have  gone  to  the 
neighboring  large  towns  or  cities,  leaving  only 
those  whose  age  is  such  that  they  are  especially 
liable  to  cancer.  Consequently,  the  number  of 
cases  seems  very  large  and  the  percentage  is 
increased  for  that  particular  locality;  but  it  the 
cancer  incidence  is  considered  in  conjunction 
with  the  age  of  the  population,  it  will  be  found 
that  no  greater  number  of  cases  has  occurred, 
for  example,  between  the  ages  of  45  and  50, 
than  has  occurred  in  the  general  population 
elsewhere  in  the  country  within  the  same  age 
Umits,  It  follows  that  'cancer  villages*  do  not 
exist,  although  old-age  villages  do. 

Human  cancer  is  not  derived  from  animal 
cancer,  for  it  has  been  shown  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  transplant,  even  with  the  greatest  care, 
a  tumor  from  a  mouse  to  a  rat  or  a  tumor 
from  a  rat  to  a  mouse;  in  other  words,  cancer 
of  one  animal  will  not  grow  in  any  other  ani- 
mal except  it  be  one  of  the  same  species;  that 
is,  no  animal  cancer  can  be  transplanted  to  a 
human  being  and  remain  alive  and  grow. 

The  theory  of  the  origin  of  cancer  from  the 
ao-called  cancers  of  vegetables,  which  are  really 
not  cancers  but  only  inflammations,  seems  too 
foolish  to  have  any  wide  credence;  but  oc- 
casionally the  newspapers  take  up  some  such 
wild  story  and  people  are  led  to  believe  that 
there  may  be  somcHiing  in  it.  It  is,  however, 
not  true. 

Cause  of  Cancer.— The  cause  of  cancer  is 
not  known,  though  there  are  two  popular 
superstitions  regarding  it.  One  is,  that  cancen 
may  be  produced  by  a  blow ;  and  the  other, 
that  cancer  is  due  to  a  germ.  To  uphold  either 
of  these  there  is  not  the  slightest  evidence.  A 
large  number  of  cases  in  which  it  was  claimed 
that  a  blow  had  caused  the  growth  of  the  can- 
cer have  been  investigated,   and  it  has   been 


found  that  the  disease  existed  before  the  blow 
was  received.  And  when  we  compare  the  large 
numbers  of  people  who  in  their  lifetime  have 
received  blows  in  various  portions  of  their 
bodies,  with  the  small  numbers  relatively  who 
have  developed  cancers,  it  is  evident  that  there 
can  be  no  relationship  between  the  blow  and  the 
beginning  of  the  tumor.  It  is  true  that  a  blow 
may  stimulate  a  cancer  which  is  already  exist- 
ing, but  usually  on  investigation  of  such  cases 
it  will  be  found  that  the  growth  had  reached  a 
considerable  size  before  the  injury  occurred. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  growth  of  cancer 


^discovered  until  after 

the  injury. 

The  reasons  for  believing  that  bacteria  have 
nothing  to  do  with  cancer  are  based  upon  ex- 
perimental work  on  animals.  If  a  cancer  is 
transplanted  from  one  animal  to  another  of 
the  same  species,  it  will  grow  and  ultimately 
kill  the  second  animal;  some  cancers  are  so 
very   virulent   that    they   will,    when    properly  | 

transplanted,    grow   in   every   mouse   in   which  , 

they  are  implanted  and  cause  the  ultimate  death  i 

of  the  host    But  if  some  of  this  cancer  tissue  I 

is  crushed  or  frozen  so  that  all  the  cells  present 
are  broken  up,  it  will  not  produce  a  tumor  when 

Safted  on  to  another  animal.  Now  we  know 
at  bacteria  will  live  in  liquid  air  which  is 
about  400°  F,  below  freezing,  and  that  they  are 
not  killed  merely  by  being  crushed:  and  for 
these  very  good  reasons  we  bdieve  that  cancer 
is  not  produced  by  bacteria. 

While  we  do  not  know  the  cause  of  cancer, 
we  do  know  the  conditions  under  which  it  is 
liable  to  arise,  and  these  are  any  chronic  inflam- 
mation or  ulceration  of  the  skin  or  of  any 
organ  of  the  body.    If,  for  instance,  the  skin  | 

is  burned,  and  the  burn  remains  for  a  long  ! 

time,   there  is   always   risk  that  a   cancer   may  I 

develop  in  the  site.    The  bums  due  to  X-rays  I 

are   very   chronic;  and   cancers   frequently   de-  | 

velop  in  them.     Ouicers  frequently  follow  irri-  I 

tation  of  the  lip,  tongue  or  cheek,  by  smoking 
or  bv  a  rough  tooth  or  an  ill-fitting  plate. 

This  relationship  between  chronic  irritation 
and  cancer  is  well  shown  by  the  fact  that 
women  of  the  white  race  very  rarely  suflFer 
from  cancer  of  the  cheek,  while  in  Ceylon  and 
the  Philippine  Islands  where  women  chew  a 
highly  irntating  substance  known  as  the  betel- 
nut,  and  keep  the  chewed  mass  in  the  chedc 
over  night,  they  very  frequently  have  cancer 
arising  on  the  inside  of  the  mouth.  Chronic 
ulcer  of  the  stomach  in  persons  over  40  is 
another  condition  which  has  the  same  relation- 
ship to  cancer,  for  it  has  been  shown  that  most 
of  the  cases  of  cancer  of  the  stomach  arise  in 
one  of  these  ulcers.  Chronic  ulceration  or 
irritation  of  the  intestine,  also,  h  a  cause  of  the 
beginning  of  cancer;  and  cancers  of  the  womb 
often  result  from  tears  or  injuries  following 
childbirth. 

Cancer  of  the  breast  occasionally  begins  in 
lumps  which  are  the  seat  of  chronic  inflamma- 
tion, so  that  it  is  well  in  case  a  woman  has  a 
lump  in  the  breast  to  have  it  carefully  examined 
by  a  physician  every  six  months  or  so  in  order 
to  be  sure  that  a  cancer  is  not  b 


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CANCBR  — CANDBB 


Oiratic  imtation,  tberefore,  is  die  cxil^ 
cause  for  cancer  which  we  know  of,  and  yet  it 
b  cttrious  ihat  not  eveiyone  who  has  chronic 
imtation  develops  cancer.  There  is  some 
peculiar  personal  quality  in  the  tissue  which  is 
necessary  before  a  cancer  will  develap.  An 
example  of  this  is  the  fact  that  leg  ulcers  which 
are  so  very  common  among  old  people  almoit 
never  give  rise  to  cancer,  althou^  ufcer  of  the 
stomach  so  frequently  does.  There  is,  there- 
fore, something  besides  the  ulceration  and  the 
chronic  irritation  which  makes  the  cancer  starL 

Cure  of  Cancer. —  The  only  generally  suo 
cessful  cure  for  cancer  is  its  removal  as  early 
as  possible  by  sursical  means.  The  use  of  the 
knife  is  preferred  to  caustics  or  cautery  be* 
cause  it  permits  of  a  cleaner  cut  and  more 
rapid  heahng.  Of  course,  the  knife  is  the  only 
possibility  for  deep  internal  cancers  involving 
the  stomach  or  intestines;  but  occasionally 
cancers  of  the  skin  are  treated  by  caustic  with 
fair  results.  It  is,  however,  better  to  have  the 
cancer  cut  out  clean,  as  the  scar  is  then  much 
less  marked  and  the  healing  is  more  rapid.  It 
is,  also  a  satisfaction  for  tne  patient  to  know 
that  all  the  cancer  is  out  of  the  body,  instead  of 
having  it  burned  out  by  some  slow  caustic  A 
certain  number  of  cancers  of  the  face,  and 
especially  small  earlv  cancers  in  other  sites,  can 
occasionally  be  cured  by  either  radium  or  X-ray, 
but  as  yet  we  have  no  published  statistics  to 
show  what  proportion  of'  cases  can  be  per- 
manently cured  by  either  of  these  agents;  the 
number  of  cures  reported  after  some  10  years 
of  use  of  both  these  is  exceedingly  small,  and 
^e  results  are  not  nearly  so  good  as  those 
whkh  follow  surgical  removal  of  the  entire 
tumor.  For  it  must  be  remembered  that  cancer 
is  not  a  blood  disease  and  that  when  it  begins 
it  is  no  larger  than  a  pin-point,  so  that  if  we 
could  make  a  diagnosis  and  cut  it  out  in  time, 
every  cancer  would  be  curable.  The  difiiculty 
is  to  make  a  diagnosis  and  as  the  symptoms 
of  cancer  are  obscure  and  otten  are  entirely 
absent,  it  is  impossible  for  a  phy.sician  to  learn 
of  the  beginning  of  the  disease  in  time  to  cut 
it  all  out.  Witt)  every  imftrovement  in  diag- 
nosis of  cancer,  the  possibility  of  curing  the 
disease  is  increased. 

Bibliography .— Hoffman,  F.  L.,  'The  Mor- 
tality from  Cancer  Throughout  the  World' 
(Newark,  N.  J.,  1915)  ;  Kettle,  E.  H.,  'Pathol- 
ogy of  Tumors>  (New  York  1916) ;  Williams, 
W.  Roger,  'The  Natural  History  of  Cancer' 
(New  York  1906)  ;  Woglom,  William  H.,  'The 
Stndy  of  Experimental  Cancer:  A  Review' 
(New  York  1913). 

FKancis  Carter  Wood,  U.D„ 
Director  of  Cancer  Research,  Columbia  llnher- 

CANCER,  in  astronomy,  fourth  sign  in  the 
zodiac  (q.v.)  marked  thus  la.  The  sun  enters 
this  sign  on  or  about  the  21st  of  June.  He  is 
at  bis  p'eatest  northern  declination  on  enterins 
the  sign,  and  the  point  which  he  reaches  is  called 
the  summer  solstice,  because  he  appears  for  the 
nioment  to  stop  in  his  progress  northward  ukI 
then  to  turn  south  again.  The  sun  is  thai 
23!^°  north  of  the  equator,  and  a  small  circle 
of  the  sphere  parallel  to  the  equator  at  23S4° 
distant  from  it  is  called  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 
The  sun  leaves  this  sign  about  the  22d  of  July. 
The  constellation  Cancer  is  no  kingcr  in  the 


sign  of  Cancer.  At  present  it  occupies  the 
place  of  the  sign  Leo.  The  constellation  Can- 
cer contains  within  it  the  cluster  of  Praesepe  or 
the  Manger.  Tbis  lies  between  two  stars  of  the 
fourth  magnitude,  the  Aselli  or  Asses,  whose 
disapitearance,  according  to  the  ancients,  pre- 
saged  rain.  The  arrangement  of  the  stars  is 
in  the  triple  or  quadruple  system  C  Cancri. 
Two  close  stars  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  mapii- 
tudes  which  revolve  about  each  other  during 
60  years;  and  a  third  part  which  has  a  retro- 

Eide  motion  of  lontrer  period,  which  is  still  un- 
own  and  variable,  form  the  constellation.  It 
is  probable  that  the  third  component  is  a  satel- 
lite of  a  larger  body,  and  that  the  other  two 
stars  also  revolve  about  this  larger  unknown. 

CANCER-ROOT,  or  BBECH-DROPS,  a 
branched  parasitic  plant  (Leptamnium  virgin- 
Mnutn),  of  the  family  Orobanckacete,  witii 
browmsh  scaly  leaves,  indigenous  in  eastern 
North  America,  growing  almost  exclusively  on 
the  roots  of  the  beech  tree.  The  whole  plant  is 
powerfully  astringent,  and  the  root  of  a  brown- 
ish color,  spongy  and  of  a  very  nauseous  bitter 
taste.  It  was  onc£  popularly  believed  to  be  a 
cure  for  cancer.  Other  plants  of  the  same 
family  are  also  called  cancer-root. 

CANCRIN,  kan-kren',  Georg,  Count,  Rus- 
sian general,  statesman  and  financier:  b.  Hanau, 
Prussia,  8  Dec.  1774;  d.  Saint  Petersburg,  22 
Sept.  1845.  He  studied  at  Giessen  and  Marburg. 
In  1812  he  was  commissary- general  of  the  Rus- 
sian forces^  and  in  1814  accompanied  Tsar 
Alexander  I  to  Paris;  was  Minister  of  Finance 
from  1S23  to  1844;  and  wrote  on  military  and 
economic  subjects,  his  most  noted  works  being 
'Military  Economy  in  Peace  and  War';  'The 
Economy  of  Human  Societies'  (1645). 

CANCRUM  ORIS,  or  NOMA,  gangrene 
of  the  cheek,  due  to  bacterial  infection  and 
mostly  occurring  in  sickly  children,  especially 
those  with  scarlet  feVer  or  measles.  The  im- 
mediate cause  is  infection  from  a  fusiform 
bacillus  and  the  spirillum  of  ^incent,  associated 
with  other  pus-producing  microorganisms.  It 
begins  as  a  red  spot  on  (he  cheek  or  at  the 
angle  of  the  mouth,  spreads  rapidly,  and  soon 
eats  away  the  whole  cheek,  even  the  botte. 
There  is  fever,  and  death  usually  results  in  75 
to  80  per  cent  of  the  cases.  As  soon  as  the  dis- 
ease is  recognized  it  should  be  freely  cauterized 
and  the  parts  kept  bathed  in  antiseptic  solutions. 


queens    of     ._^._ 

(Upper  Nubia),  between  the  Nile  and  me 
Atbara,  in  the  later  period  of  the  kingdom  of 
Meroe.  The  most  distinguished  of  uem  in- 
vaded Egypt  ZZ  B.C,  was  defeated  by  die 
Romans  and  obUged  to  sue  for  peace,  which  she 
obtained  with  a  remission  of  the  tribute  im- 
posed on  her  by  Petronius.  One  of  her  suc- 
cessors is  mentioned  in  Acts  viii,  27;  her  hi^ 
treasurer  was  baptized  by  Philip  the  Deacon  on 
die  road  to  Gaza. 

CAHDAHAR.    See  Kanpahar. 

CANDAULBS,  k^-dolec,  king  of  Lydia, 
who  lost  bis  throne  and  life  through  his  be- 
sotted admiration  of  the  beauty  of  the  person 
of  his  Queen  in  718  RC    See  Gyges. 

CANDEB,  Helen  Churchill,  American 
writer:  U  New  York  1868.  She  was  educated 
at  varioui  private  schools  in  New  Haven  and 


d=y  Google 


C  ANDULLB — CANDIDATE 


Norwalk,  Conn.  Mas  published  'An  Oklahoma 
Romance*  <1902);  'Styks  and  Periods  in 
Furniture  uid  Decoration'  (1908)  ;  'The 
Tapestry  Book'  (1912);  'Jacobean  Furniture' 
(1916).  Is  also  a  specialist  and  lecturer  on 
fine  antiques,   tapestries  and  decorations. 

CANDEILLB,  kan'df;,  Am«Ue  Jnlie, 
Fretict  actress,  singer  and  composer:  b.  Paris, 
31  July  1767;  d.  there,  4  Feb.  1834.  At  a  very 
early  aee  she  began  to  take  leading  parts  in 
classical  opera.  Later  she  abandoned  opera 
and  made  her  appearance  at  the  Comedie  Fran- 
caise  in  1785,  in  'Andromaque,'  'Bajazet'  and 
'TancrMe.'  In  1790,  she  composed  both  libretto 
and  music  of  'Catherine  ou  la  belle  fermiere,' 
a  very  popular  operetta  in  three  acts,  in  which 
she  look  the  leading  part  and  accompanied  her- 
self on  the  harp  and  on  the  piano.  She  also 
made  several  tours  through  the  Continent, 
wrote  novels  and  several  other  operettas. 

CAHDBISH.    See  Khandesh. 

CANDBLABRUH,  a  word  originally  sig- 
nifying candlestick,  but  usually  denoting  a  sup- 
port for  a  lamp  or  lamps  among  the  Romans. 
The  candelabra  were  of  considerable  site  and 
often  intended  to  stand  upon  the  ground.  They 
were  made  of  wood,  bronze,  silver  or  marble, 
and  were  often  elaborately  and  beautifully 
adorned.  Sometimes  they  had  shafts  in  the 
shape  of  columns,  which  could  be  shortened  or 
drawn  out ;  sometimes  the  luxuriant  acanthus 
formed  a  part  of  them;  sometimes  they  repre- 
sented trunks  of  trees  entwined  with  ivy  and 
flowers,  and  tenninaied  by  vases  or  bell-flowers. 
at  the  top,  for  the  reception  of  the  lamps;  and 
not  infrequently  the  lamps  were  supported  by 
figures.  In  ancient  times  Tarentum  and  Mgina 
were  famons  for  their  elegaot  candelabra,  and 
Corinth  also  manufactured  them.  The  Etrus- 
can candelabra  of  bronze  were  celebrated.  Ex- 
amples may  be  found  in  the  plates  of  the 
'Uuseo  Gregoriano*  or  in  the  works  of  Over- 
beck,  'Pompeii  in  seinen  Gebauden,  Altei^ 
thiimem  una  Kunstwerfcen*  (4th  ed.,  Leipzig 
1884),  and  Mankelsy,  'Pompeii:  Its  Life  and 
Art'    (New  York  1902). 

CANDIA.    See  Creic 

CANDIA,  or  HEGALOKASTROH, 
Crete,  a  fortified  seaport  and  capital  of  the 
island,  situated  on  the  north  coast,  65  miles  cast 
of  Canea;  lat.  35°  20*  N.  and  long.  25'  9*  E. 
Its  harbor  admits  only  vessels  of  small  draU|;bt. 
The  governor  and  the  Greek  archbishop  reside 
here.  Soap  is  manufactured  and  exported.  The 
fortifications  of  the  city  date  from  the  time  of 
the  Venetian  occupation,  and  in  1669,  after  a 
prolonged  siege,  it  submitted  to  the  Tutte. 
These  fortifications  have  been  much  demolished 
by  frequent  earthquakes.  Pop.  estimated  at 
20,000. 

CANDIDA,  (^eoi^  Bernard  Shaw's  pl^ 
'Candida'  belongs  to  that  early  group  of  the 
author's  plays  that  followed  hard  U[Kin  the 
close  of  his  novel-writing  period.  Written  in 
1894  for  Richard  Mansfield,  who  had  that  year 
produced  'Arms  and  the  Man,'  it  had  its  first 
production  on  any  stage  in  1897  when  the  In- 
dependent Theatre  Company  offered  it  in  Aber- 
deen and  on  tour,  with  Janet  Achurch  in  the 
title  role  and  Charles  Charrington  in  the  part 
of    the    Rev.    James  Mavor  Morell.    It  was 


printed  the  following  year  as  the  second  play 
in  the  volume  of  'pleasant"  plays  in  the  'Plays 
Pleasant  and  Unpleasant'  series.  The  theme  of 
love,  marriage  and  the  artist  had  been  treated 
l^  Shaw  in  his  novel,  'Love  Among  the 
Artists.'  It  is  returned  to  as  a  minor  theme  in 
'The  Doctor's  Dilemma.'  In  'Candida'  it  is 
handled  in  a  spirit  of  combined  disillusion  and 
reverence  that  raises  the  play  to  first  rank  as  a 
work  of  art  and  as  a  psychological  document 
Into  the  contented  household  of  the  Rev.  James 
Mavor  Moretl  and  his  wife,  Candida,  comes  the 

Ket,  Eugctie  Marcbbanks.  The  aaion  that  f  ol- 
¥S  is  not  so  much  a  development  of  the  tri- 
angle theme,  as  the  testing  of  the  marriage  com- 
pact of  Uorell  and  Candida  before  the  acute 
perceptions  of  the  poet.  Marchbanks'  temporary 
error  in  thinldng  he  is  in  love  with  Can- 
dida but  raises  oer  to  a  greater  clarity  of 
insight;  happily  too  it  gives  the  masterful  Mor- 
ell a  quarter  of  an  hour  of  keen  self-distrusL 
But  there  is  no  real  struggle  between  Morell 
and  Marchbanks.  Each  man  has  wiiat  be  most 
desires  and  most  needs.  In  Marchbanks,  who 
all  through  is  too  much  "aware*  to  be  really  in 
love,  the  autluir  is  revealing  the  lonely  soul 
of  the  poet,  as  in  Clandida  ana  Morell  .he  is  un- 
covering {he  secret  places  in  the  marriage  bond 
*One  of  the  noblest,  if  not  the  noUesL  of 
modem  plays,*  Chesterton  calls  'Candida.*  This 
nobility  aK>ertuns  not  only  to  the  theme,  but 
as  well  to  the  manner  in  which  the  play  is 
written.  In  its  freedom  from  'gallant,  wicked 
and  poetic  attitudes,'  in  its  lofty  idealism  as 
well  as  in  its  searclung  of  human  weaknesses  it 
is  a  work  of  genius.  Unlike  the  greater  number 
of  Shaw's  plays  'Candida'  is  a  true  theatre- 
piece.  Against  all  the  dramatic  anarchy  of  his 
discursive  plays  it  is  Shaw's  indubitable  war- 
rant as  a  great  dramatist.  The  stage  history 
of  the  play  has  been  distingfjisbedT  Finally 
produced  by  Mansfield  in- 1903,  it  was  the  same 
year  given  notable  productions  in  Dresden  and 
by  Arnold  Italy  in  New  YorL  The  following 
year  it  was  a  part  of  the  Court  Theatre  rep- 
ertory of  the  Vcdrcnne  Barker  mamgement  m 
Loncion.  it  vras  givea  in  French  in  Brussds 
in  1907  and  in  Paris  in  t90a  In  recent  years 
it  has  occupied  a  leading  place  in  the  repertories 
of  *new*  theatres,  (insult  Henderson,  Archi- 
bald, '(reorge  Bernard  Shaw:  his  Life  and 
Works'  (London  1911);  Chesterton,  G.  K, 
<(^rge  Bernard  Shaw'  (ib.  1909) ;  BurtoiL 
Richard,  'George  Bernard  Shaw:  the  Man  and 
the  Mask'  (New  York  1916);  Hamon,  Au- 
gustin,  'Le  Moliere  du  XX'  sidcle:  Bernard 
Shaw'  (Paris  1913);  'The  Technique  of 
Bernard  Shaw's  Plays,'  translated  by  F. 
Maurice  (London  1912). 

Thouas  H,  Dickinsok. 
CANDIDATE,  an  applicant  for  an  office, 
from  the  Latin  candtdalus,  ■white-robed,"  be- 
cause, among  the  Romans,  a  man  who  solicited 
a  public  office  appeared  in  a  white  garment — 
toga  Candida— anA  wore  this  during  his  can- 
didature, which  lasted  for  two  yeai^.  In  the 
first  year  the  candidates  dchvered  speeches  to 
the  people,  or  had  them  delivered  by  others. 
After  this  jrear  they  requested  the  magistrate 
to  enter  their  names  on  the  list  of  candidates 
for  the  office  sought  for.  Before  this  was  done 
the  pre^ous  life  of  the  candidate  was  subjected 
to  a  scrutiny  in  the  Senate,  after  the  prxtor  or 


d=,  Google 


CANDmS — CANDLB 


408 


consul  had  received  Itis  name.  If  the  Senate 
accepted  him  he  was  permitted  to  oSer  himself 
on  the  day  of  election  as  a  candidate.  The 
formula  by  wliich  permisiian  was  gianted  was 
"Rationem  habrbo,  rtnunliabo* ;  if  he  was  not 
accepted  he  received  the  answer,  "Ralionem  mm 
kabebo;  non  renunliabo*  The  tribunes  often 
opposed  a  candidate  who  had  been  accepted  by 
the  Senate.  The  morals  of  the  aspinuits,  in  the 
purer  ages  of  the  republic,  were  always  severely 
examined.  ]n  the  later  period  of  the  republic, 
nobody  could  obtain  an  office  if  he  was  not 
present  and  if  he  had  not  offered  hiraielf  aa 
three  market  days.  On  these  days  the  candi- 
dates tried  to  insinuate  themselves  into  the 
favor  of  the  people.  They  went  from  house  to 
house  (_ambitio,  whence  the  word  ambition), 
shook  bands  with  everybody  whom  they  met 
(prtntatia),  addressed  each  one  by-  his  name, 
for  which  purpose  they  generally  had  a  nomen- 
clator  with  them,  who  whispered  the  names  of 
those  whom  they  met  into  their  ear.  Cicero, 
therefore,  calls  the  candidates  tMtfio  oglcio- 
tittinia.  They  placed  themselves  on  market 
days  in  elevated  places  in  order  to  be  seen.  On 
the  day  of  election  they  did  the  same.  Favorites 
of  the  people  accompanied  them  idtduetoes) : 
some  of  their  suite  idivisores)  distributed 
money  among  the  people,  which,  though  pro- 
hibited, was  done  publicly.  InlerpreUt  were 
employed  to  bargain  with  the  people,  and  the 
money  was  deposited  in  the  hands  of  se^Meslres. 
Sometimes  a  number  of  candidates  tmited  into 
parties  (coiliones),  in  order  to  defeat  the  en~ 
deavors  of  the  others.  At  last  the  grounds  on 
which  each  candidate  rested  his  claims  to  the 
office  were  read,  and  the  'Iribes*  delivered  iheir 
votes.  The  successful  candidate  then  sacrificed 
to  the  gods  in  the  capitol  To  oppose  a  can- 
didate was  called  ei  refragari;  to  support  him, 
tuffraqari,  or  iuffragatores  esse.  In  the  early 
Churcti  newly-baptized  Christians  were  called 
candidates,  on  account  of  the  white  robes  worn 
by  them  for  a  certain  period  after  celebrating 
the  rite.  The  word  "candidate*  is  also  used  hy 
Protestants  to  designate  a  theologian  who,  hav- 
ing  finished  his  studies  at  a  university,  is  wait- 
ing for  an  appointment  in  the  Church.  At 
present  it  means,  in  English-spealdng  countries, 
an  applicant  for  any  office  whatever.  (See  CoN- 
vENTioii,  Political;  Corrupt  PsAcncEa  Act). 
Consult  the  treatise  known  as  'Quinti  Ciceroms 
de  Fetitione  Consulatus  ad  li^rcum  Tullium 
Fratrcm'  (printed  with  Cicero's  letters) ; 
Greenidge,  'Roman  Public  Life'  (London 
1901). 

CANDIDE,  OR  OPTIMISM  { "Candide,  ou 
I'Optimisme'),  kan'ded,  oo  lop'le'mes'm'  is 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  works  of  Vol- 
taire. It  is  the  longest  and  the  best  known  of 
the  'Philosophic  Tales'  ('Contes  Philoso- 
phigues'),  in  whicb  he  let  his  inco^nparably 
nimble  intelligence  play  over  all  questions  of 
human  interest — politics,  religion,  morals.  The 
story  of  the  remarkable  adventures  of  C^ptjidc 
and  his  tutor.  PanglQSS,.in  search  of  his  beloveg, 
fjtii^ip.  Q][]fyf^~^.  is  ''merely  me  tnread  on 
wbicli  are  strung  die  flashing  gems  of  his  BJ*. 
his  3^1)0;  and  his  irony.  In  substance  .it  is  a 
pitiless  attack  on  the  easy  optimism  of  "What- 
ever is,  is  right."  Earlier  Voltaire  had  shown 
decided  leanings  toward  such  a  view.  He  had 
translated  Pope's  'Essay  on  Ma»,>  and  in  an- 


other philoso^iic  tale,  <Zadi{b*  in  1747,  he  had, 
though  with  some  mental  reservations,  ap- 
parently "justified  the  ways  of  Providence  to 
man.*  But  his  optimism,  such  as  it  was,  wa* 
shattered  by  the  Lisbon  earthquake,  and  in 
Candide,  in  1752,  he  disposed  the  wanderings  of 
his  personages  so  that  they  are  witnesses  not 
only  of  its  horrors  but  of  a  thousand  others. 

The  endless  pannrama   of  lliimjtn   Jiiffjrijifr.;  and 

meanness  is  unrolled  betore  us,— plague^  pesti- 
lence and  faming  war,  lust,  greed,  injustice, 
cruelty,  disease.  Fangloss,  aEaoBmic-chaPiyiMi 
of  optimism^ long  maintains  in  the  face  of  each 
new  disaster,  that,  after  all,  this  is  the  best 
of  all  possible  worlds.  But  even  he  is  final^ 
reduced  to  stlenct  Cun6gondi,  when  found,  is 
a  mere  wreck,  diseased  in  body  and  soured  in 
temper.  Candide  boys  a  little  plot  of  ground 
and  installs  hiniicif  and  his  companions  -in  a 

modest    cottage.      T.iff    i<   a    f^'^^    snarl       Phi- 

ktsojAy  is  powerless  to  nntangle  it,  'To  work 
without  pbilosophizing  is  the  only  wa^  of  mak- 
ing life  tolerable,*  is  Candide's  conclusion.  And 
to  every  attempt  of  the  incorrigible  Pangloss 
to  discuss  *cauGe  and  effect*  and  other  nigh 
problems  he  opposes  the  famous  final  word  of 
experience  and  common  sense ;  '//  foul  cultivtr 
noirt  iardin* — *We  must  attend  to  our  hoeing.* 
Arthub  G.  Canfield. 
CANDLB,  a  solid  cylindrical  rod  composed 
of  beeswax,  tallow,  paralfine  or  some  other 
fatty  substance,  with  a  wick  running  longitudi- 
nally through  its  centre,  designed  for  slow  com- 
bustion with  illumination,  ^e  wick  is  gen- 
erally composed  of  a  few  threads  of  cotton  yam 
lighQy  twisted  or  plaited ;  but  formerly,  in 
home-made  candles,  dried  rushes  (juncttt 
effusus)  were  employed  for  this  purpose.    The 

Rrocess  of  making  rushlights  is  described  at 
;ngth  by  the  Rev.  Gilbert  White  in  his  well- 
known   'History  of  Selborne.' 

Candles  are  mentioned  in  several  places  in 
the  Bible,  but  no  direu  evidence  Is  given  as  to 
their  form  or  of  what  they  were  made.  There 
seems  to  be  a  distinction,  however,  between  can- 
dles and  lamps, —  the  latter  specifically  calling 
for  oil,  while  the  candle  is  spoken  of  as  being 
lighted  and  placed  on  a  candlestick. 

Considerable  modern  improvements  have 
been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  candies.  One 
of  the  most  important  of  these  consists  in  not 
employing  the  whole  of  the  fatty  or  oily  sut^ 
stances,  but  in  decomposing  them,  and  then 
using  only  the  stearin  or  stearic  acid  of  the 
fonner,  and  the  palmitine  of  the  latter  class  of 
substances.  The  animal  fats  are  combinations 
of  glycerine  and  fattv  adds,  principally  stearic 
an<rpalmitic;  both  solids,  and  oleic  acid,  which 
is  liquid.  If  the  latter  be  in  excess,  the  fat  will 
be  a  liquid  and  constitute  an  oil ;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  the  solid  acids  predominate,  we  shall 
have  a  more  or  less  concrete  fat^  such  as  the 
tallow  of  the  ruminants  and  lara  of  the  bog. 
Stearic  acid  now  constitutes  the  principal  raw 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  candles.  The 
chief  chemical  agents  employed  to  obtain  the 
stearin  are  caustic  Ume,  whicti,  setting  free  the 
glycerin^  produces  '  stearate,  margarate  and 
oleate  of  lime,  in  the  form  of  a  solid  soap;  and 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  by  which  this  solia  soap, 
after  bang  reduced  to  powder,  is  effectually 
freed  of  its  lime.  By  means  of  a  subsequent 
bleaching  process  cakes  of  a  perfectly  white 


d=,  Google 


4ee  CAN 

color,  free  from  impurities,  and  fit  for  the 
manufacture  of  caodles,  are  obtained 

Candles  are  commonly  made  by  dipping, 
molding  or  rolling.  The  former  is  the  older 
method,  and  consists  in  arranging  in  a  fnune 
a  number  of  wicks  of  the  proper  length  and 
diickncss,  and  dipping  them  a  number  of  times 
successively  in  a  lank  of  melted  tallow  or  other 
fatty  composition,  with  intervals  for  the  incipi- 
ent forms  to  cool  and  harden.  These  dippings 
are  repeated  until  the  candles  have  assumed 
the  requisite  thickness  and  weight 

Molded  candles,  as  their  name  implies,  are 
fonned  in  molds.  These  are  generally  made  of 
pewter  or  an  alloy  of  20  parts  of  tm  and  10 
of  lead,  though  glass  has  also  been  introduced. 
They  are  hollow  cylinders  of  the  length  o£  the 
candle,  and  open  at  both  ends,  but  provided  at 
the  upper  end  with  a  conical  cap,  in  which  there 
is  a  hole  for  the  wick.  A  number  of  these 
molds  are  inserted  in  a  wooden  frame  or  trou^ 
with  their  heads  downward;  the  wick  is  then 
drawn  in  through  the  top  hole  by  means  of  a 
wire,  and  kept  stretched  and  in  the  centre  by  a 
peculiar  arrangement.  Tht  molds  thus  prepared 
are  filled  by  running  melted  tallow  of  the  proper 
temperature  from  a  boiler  into  the  trough.  The 
candles  remain  tn  the  molds  for  about  24  hours, 


theyare  exposed  for  sale. 

The  rolhng  of  candles  is  confined  principally 
to  those  made  of  wax.  Although  the  bleaching 
of  wax  was  described  by  Pliny,  the  use  of  this 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  candles  dates 
back  only  to  the  be^nning  of  Uie  4lh  century. 
From  its  tenacity,  and  the  contraction  which  it 
undergoes  in  cooling,  wax  cannot  be  formed 
into  candles  by  meltmg  it  and  then  running  it 
into  molds.  Instead,  wicks,  properly  cut  and 
twisted,  are  suspended  by  a  ring  over  a  basin  of 
liquid  wax,  which  is  poured  on  the  tops  of  the 
wicks,  and,  gradually  adhering,  covers  them.  Or 
the  wicks  may  be  immersed,  as  in  the  case  of 
tallow  *dips.*  When  a  sufficient  thickness  is 
obtained,  the  candles,  while  hot,  are  placed  on 
a  smooth  table  kept  constantly  wet,  and  rolled 
upon  it  by  means  of  a  flat  piece  of  wood.  In 
this  wav  they  assume  a  perfectly  cylindrical 
fotrn.  Machmes  have  been  constructed,  how- 
ever, for  the  manufacture  of  such  products. 
The  large  wax  candles  used  in  Roman  Catholic 
churches  are  merely  plates  of  wax  bent  round 
a  wick  and  then  rolled. 

For  preparing  wax  tapers,  the  wick  is  wound 
around  a  drum  and  is  then  made  to  pass  into 
the  melted  wax  under  a  hook  placed  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  kettle.  The  wick,  coated  with  wax, 
traverses  a  draw-plate  which  gives  it  the  de- 
sired diameter,  and  then  winds  around  a  sec- 
ond drum.  A  littie  tallow,  resin  and  turpen- 
tine is  often  added  to  the  wax  in  order  to  give 
it  greater  ductility. 

Wax  matches,  also,  which  are  generally  of 
parafBne,  are  made  with  the  draw-plate.  They 
are  afterward  cut  to  the  proper  length  and 
^ped  with  a  paste  of  inflammable  material. 
iTie  use  of  wax  for  candles,  by  reason  of  their 
cost,  was  never  very  widely  diffused,  and  of 
course  at  the  present  day  is  likely  to  diminish 
greatly.    See  Wax. 

Hollow  candles  are  provided  with  three 
apertures  extending  throufdJout  their  entire 
length.    They  offer  *e  advantage  of  not  gutter- 


ing when  burning.  They  are  manufactured  tw 
means  of  a  special  machme,  the  molds  of  which 
contain  three  solid  rods,  which  are  withdrawn 
before  the  solidificatioii  of  the  mass. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  sper- 
maceti, a  product  of  the  cachalot,  or  sperm 
whale,  came  largdy  into  use  for  the  mannfac- 
ture  of  candles.  The  competition  of  other  ma- 
terials and  the  decline  of  the  whale  fisheries 
limit  its  use  at  the  present  day. 

Cetin,  a  form  of  spermaceti,  is  too  brittle 
and  lamellar  in  texture  to  use  alone  in  candle- 
making.  These  defects  are  corrected  by  the 
addition  of  about  3  per  cent  of  wax. 

Parafhne  candles  came  into  general  use 
about  1850.  When  crude  (tetroleum  is  distilled 
the  products  obtained  consist  of  light  oils  em- 


in&  yield  a  solid  substance  of  waxy  c 
and  deep  color,  called  parai&ne.  This  material, 
when  purified,  gives  a  white,  odorless  com- 
bustible substance,  which  is  made  into  candles 
which  ^ve  a  brilliant  but  slightly  smoky  tlame. 
Objecttoiis  to  their  use  are  that  at  the  moment 
of  extinction  they  emit  a  disagreeable  odor,  and 
that  tbey  are  too  fusible  and  apt  to  become  dis- 
torted  in  a  warm  atmosphere.  For  these  rea- 
sons paraffin  e  is  generally  mixed  with  stearic 
acid.  The  use  of  paralfine  candles  is  most  com- 
mon in  Great  Britain.     See  Pabaffinc 

Oiokerit,  or  eiritme,  which  is  also  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  candle^  resembles  paraffine 
in  appearance.  It  is  obtained  by  punfying  a 
sort  of  natural  mineral  wax,  the  principal  de- 
posit of  which  is  found  in  Gaticia.  It  is  not 
much  used  except  in  Germany  and  Austria. 
Since  cerfsine  candles  melt  at  a  higher  tem- 
perature than  paralfine,  they  undergo  no  de- 
formation when  used. 

Palm-oil  is  obtained  from  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  especially  the  neighborhood  of  La^os. 
The  palm  which  yields  it  is  the  EUas  guineensis, 
which  produces  a  golden-yellow  fruit  of  the 
size  and  shape  of  a  pigeon's  e^.  By  detaching 
its  pulp  from  the  kernel,  bruising  it  into  a  paste, 
and  then  agitating  it  in  boiling  water,  the  ml 
is  separated,  and,  rising  to  the  surface,  con- 
cretes as  the  water  cools.  About  two-thirds  of 
it  in  weight  consists  of  a  peculiar,  white,  solid 
fat,  called  palmiline ;  the  remainder  is  chiefly 

The  manufacture  of  candle-wicks  is  fuUjr  as 
important  as  the  treatment  of  the  combustible 
fats,  and  Candle-makers  have  studied  the  princi- 
ples of  combustion  with  a  view  to  discovering 
methods  of  producing  the  clearest  light  with 
the  minimum  of  smoke,  odor  and  trouble   in 


snuffing. 

A  flame  is  the  result  of  the  combustion  of  a 
gas.  In  a  burning  candle  the  fatty  or  other 
substances  are  melted  and  carried  I»y  the  wick 
into  the  interior  of  the  flame,  where  they  are 
continuously  converted  into  gas.  We  may  ccMn- 
pare  the  combustion  of  a  candle  to  a  micro- 
scopic gasworks,  and,  just  as  the  gas-burner 
gives  more  or  less  light  according  as  the  pres- 
sure is  varied,  or  the  tip  is  more  or  less  foul, 
or  the  proportion  of  air  that  reaches  the  t^as 
is  greater  or  less,  just  so  a  candle  will  give  a 
different  li^t  according  to  the  draft  of  ur, 
the  size  and  nature  otthe  wick  Too  large 
a  wick  would  absorb  the  melted  material  too 
rapidly,  the  flame  would  be  unduly  increased. 


d=,  Google 


CANDLE — CANDLER 


4BT 


and  the  ftfeding  of  it  would  be  effected  under 
unfavorable  conditions.  Too  small  a  wick 
would  produce  the  opposite  effect ;  around  the 
periphery  of  the  candle  there  would  form  a 
rim,    which,    no   longer    receivii^   a   ftufGdent 

Siutntity  of  heat,  would  remain  in  a  solid  state; 
le  cavity  that  serves  as  a  reservoir  ,for  the 
liquefied  material  would  became  too  full;  and 
the  candle  would  eutter.  So  the  section  of  the 
candle,  the  size  oT  the  wick  and  the  draft  of 
air  in  the  flame  must  be  apportioned  in  such  a 
way  that  there  shall  always  be  an  equilibrium 
between  the  quantity  of  material  melted  and 
that  decomposed  by  the  flame.  The  purity  of 
the  air,  too,  must  be  taken  into  account,  for, 
just  as  a  man  needs  pure  air  in  order  to  live 
m  health,  so  a  candle  has  need  of  the  same  in 
order  to  bum  well.  During  an  evening  party 
it' may  be  observed  that  the  brilUaiKV  of  the 
candles  diminishes  tn  measure  as  the  air  be- 
comes impoverished  in  oxygen  and  enriched 
with  carbonic  add. 

The  wick  must  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
candle,  or  else  it  will  remain  too  long,  produce 
smoke,  and  darken  the  flame.  If  the  end  re- 
mains exactly  in  the  centre  the  air  will  not 
reach  it,  and  the  wick  will  carbonize  and  form 
a  'thief*  or  "waster,"  which,  falling  into  the 
cavity  at  the  top  of  the  candle,  will  make  the 
latter  gutter,  and  end  by  obstructing  the  wick. 
]t  then  becomes  neceasary  1o  snuS  it  In  order 
to  do  away  with  this  inconvenience,  Gay-Lussac 
and  ChevreuL  in  1S25,  recommended  the  use  of 
flat  or  cylindrical  wicks  of  an  uneven  texture, 
having  the  property  of  curving  over.  In  the 
same  year  Cambaceres  proposed  the  use  of  hol- 
low plaited  wicks,  which,  in  measure  as  the 
candle  burned,  had  the  property  of  curving 
toward  the  white  part  of  me  flame.  But  ashes 
nevertheless  formed,  and,  obstructing  the  wicl^ 
affected  the  light.  In  the  month  of  June  1826 
De  Milly  finally  succeeded  in  solving  the  prob- 
lem by  unpre^iating  the  wick  with  boric  acid. 
This  latter,  uniting  with  the  ashes  of  the  wick, 
^ves  rise  to  a  fusible  body,  which  is  rejected 
in  the  form  of  a  drop  or  bead  toward  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  wick.  In  Austria,  wicks  are 
impregnated  with  phosirfiate  of  ammonia,  which 
gives  analogous  results.  Bailey  has  proposed  ■ 
solution  of  sal-ammoniac  of  2°  or  3°  Baum& 
Consult  Calderwood,  'Manufacture  of  Candles' 
(London  1891);  Lamboni  'Modem  Soaps, 
Candles  and  Glycerine'  {lb.  1906);  Lewko-. 
witsch,  '^Chemical  Technology  and  Analyses  of 
Oils,  Fats  and  Waxes*  (Vol.  II,  London  and 
New  Yoric  1909). 


shores  of  America,  of  about  the  siie  of  the 
smelt,  to  which  it  is  allied.  It  is  a  greemsh  olive 
on  the  bac)^  with  a  white  belly,  spotted  with 
yellow.  It  is  ccmverted  by  the  Inmans  into  a 
candle  simply  by  passing  the  pith  of  a  rush  or 
a  strip  of  the  bark  of  the  cypress-tree  through 
it  as  a  wide,  when  its  extreme  oiliness  keeps  me 
wick  blazing.  Onlatlmn  oil,  a  substitute  for 
cod'livcr  oil,  is  obtained  from  it.  This  fish  is 
a  favorite  article  of  food  in  British  Columtaa. 
The  naine  is  also  appUed  to  a  fish  in  San  Fran- 


cisco  {anoploma  fitHbria),  or  Pacific  coaHiih. 
Consult  Swan,  in  'Proceedings  of  the  United  . 
States  National  Uuseum'   (Vol.  Ill,  Washing- 
ton 1881). 

CANDLE-FLY,  or  LANTERN-FLY,  a 
,hemipterous  insect  of  the  group  Homoptera, 
family  Fulgorida.  The  large  (^inese  candle- 
fly  {pHlgora  candelaria)  is  remarkable  tor  its 
greatly  prolonged  hea<^  which  was  formerly 
believed  to  be  luminous.     Compare  Lantesn-  - 

CANDLE-NUT,  the  nut  of  Aleurites  mo- 

luccana,  the  candleberry-iree,  a  native  of 
Malaysia,  belon^ng  to  the  family  Euphorbuuea. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  yields  an 
oil  used  for  food  for  lamps,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  varnish,  while  the  oily  kernels  are 
also   strung  together  and  lighted  as  torches. 

CANDLEBERRY,  BAYBERRY,  CAN- 
DLBBERRY  UYRTLE,  TALLOW-TRES, 
or  WAX  MYRTLE,  a  shrub  (Cerothamniu 
cerifera)  common  in  eastern  North  America, 
where  candles  are  made  from  the  waxy  sub- 
stance collected  from  a  decoction  of  the  fruit 
It  grows  abundantly  in  sandy  soil,  and  seems 
to  thrive  particularly  well  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  sea,  nor  does  it  ever  seem  to  be  found 
far  inland.  The  berries  intended  for  making 
candles  are  gathered  late  in  autumn,  and  are 
thrown  into  a  pot  of  boiling  water,  where  the 
fatty  or  wa:^  substance  floats  on  the  top  and 
is  skimmed  on.  When  congealed  this  substance 
is  of  a  dirty-green  color,  somewhat  intermedi- 
ate in  its  nature  between  wax  and  tallow.  After 
being  again  melted  and  refined  it  assumes  a 
transparent  green  hue.  '  Mixed  with  a  propor- 
tion of  tallow  it  forms  candles,  wbiui  burn 
better  and  slower  than  common  tallow  ones,  and 
do  not  run  so  much  in  hot  weather.  They  have 
also  very  little  smoke  and  emit  a  rather  agree- 
able odor.^  Soap  and  sealing-wax  are  also 
made  of  this  substance.  The  plant  has  been  cul- 
tivated in  France  and  Germany,  where  it  grows 
in  the  ouen  air.  Ajiother  olant  belonr' 
the 


the  open  air.     Another  plant  belonging  t 
'      :iy    is    the    sweet-gale    (Myrii 


gate),  which  grows  abundantly  in  bogs  and 
marshes  in  Europe.  It  is  a  small  shrub  with 
leaves  somewhat  like  the  myrtle  or  willow,  of 
a  fragrant  odor  and  bitter  taste,  and  yielding  an 
essential  oil  by  distillation.  It  was  formerly 
used  in  the  north  of  Europe  instead  of  hops, 
and  in  some  places  it  is  still  so  used.  The 
catkins  or  cones  boiled  in  water  throw  up  a 
scum  resembling  beeswax,  which,  collected  in 
sufficient  quantities,  would  make  candles.  The 
plant  is  used  to  tan  calf-skins.  Gathered  in  the 
autumn,  it  dyes  wool  yellow,  and  is  thus  used 
both  in  Sweden  and  in  Wales.  The  dried  leaves 
are  used  to  scent  linen. 

CANDLEMAS,  an  ecclesiastical  festival  in- 
stituted by  Pope  Gelasius  I  in  492,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  presentation  of  Christ  in  the 
temple,  and  of  the  purification  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  It  is  celebrated  on  2  February,  and  has 
its  name  from  the  fact  that  In  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Clhurch  candles  are  blessed  and  carried  in 
procession,  in  allusion  to  the  words  of  Simeon, 
spoken  of  the  infant  CHirist,  *a  light  to  lighten 
the  (ientiles."    See  PuHiyicATioM. 

CANDLER,  WuTCB  Akin,  American- der- 
ayman:  b.  Carroll  County,  (rfi.,  23  Aug,  18S7. 
He  was  graduated  from  Emory  Collie,  Ox- 


.Google 


CANDLISH  —  CANB-BRAKB 


ford,  Ga.,  in  1875,  being  licensed  to  preacb  and 

.  entering    the    North    Georgia    GMiierence    of 

the   Methodist  Episcopal   CHtirch  in  that  year. 


Christian  Advocate  (the  or^an  of  the  M.  _E. 
Church  South),  serving  in  that  capacity 
until    1888.      In    the    latter    year   be    became 

president  of  Emory  College,  but  resigned  „„„.  .  .nt-,  ^  j 
m  1898  when  he  became  a  bishop  of  the  iT  E.  <^"^'.  ">  ^93.7  j?ounds. 
Church  South.  He  has  written  'History  of 
Sunday  Schools'  (1880) ;  'Georgia's  Educa- 
tional Work'  (1893) ;  'Christus  Anctor' 
(1899)  ;  <Hi^  Living  and  High  Lives*  (1901)  ; 
'Great    Revivals     and    the    Great    Republic* 


CANDON,  kan-ddn'.  Pfailii^es,  a  town 
of  the  province  of  Ilocos  Sur.  situated  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  island  of  Luzon,  very 
near  the  coast  It  manufactures  cotton.  Pop. 
about  15,797. 

CANDY.    See  Cohfbctionhby. 


Bombay   i 


ind,   i 


(1904);  'Dangerous  Donations  and  Degrading 
Doles'  (1909) ;  <WesIey  and  His  Work" 
(1912);  'Practical  Studies  in  the  Fourth  Gos- 
pel* (1913). 

CANDLISH,  Robert  Smith,  Scottish 
clergyman:  b.  Eldinburgh, 23  Uarch  1806;  d. Ed- 
inburgh, 19  Oct.  1873.  He  was  educated  at  Glas- 
gow Universitj^ ;  in  1828  was  licensed  as  a 
6-eacher,  and  in  1834  was  transferred  from 
onhill  to  Saint  George's,  Edinburgh.  In  1839 
he  threw  himself  into  ihe  conflict  with  the  civil 
courts  in  the  matter  of  the  congregational  ri^ht 
of  election  and  independent  chur(£  jurisdiction 
in  matters  spiritual,  and  soon  became,  next  to 
Chalmers,  the  most  prominent  leader  of  the 
■n  on -intrusion*  party  and  of  the  movement  that 
culminated  in  the  Disruption  of  1843,  and  the 
formation  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 
From  the  death  of  Chalmers  till  bis  own  death, 
Candlish  was  the  ruling  spirit  in  the  Free 
Church.  In  1862  he  was  made  principal  of  the 
New  College  (the  theological  college  of  the 
Free  ChurtJi).  Edinburgh,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  tne  Evangelical  Alliance.  He  was 
the  author  of  'Contributions  Toward  the  Expo- 
sition of  the  Book  of  Genesis*  (1842) ;  'Reason 
and  Revelation*  (1859);  'Th«  Fatherhood  of 
God' :  'The  Two  Great  Commandments' 
(I860),  etc.  Consult  'Life,'  by  Wilson  and 
Rainy  (1888). 

CANDOLLE,  kan-dol,  Alphonte  Ixniit 
Pierre  PTTBiniia  de,  Swiss  botanist :  b.  Paris, 
28  Oct.  1806;  d.  4  April  1S93.  He  was  son  of 
Augustin  de  CZandoUc  (q.v.).  He  was  professor 
of  botany  and  director  of  the  Botanical  Garden 
at  Geneva,  published  numerous  works  on  botani- 
cal subjects,  and  continued  his  father's  'Intro- 
duction to  a  Natural  System  of  the  Vegetable 
IGngdooi,'  In  1714,  be  succeeded  Agassiz  in 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris. 


9  Sept.  1841.  He  studied  at  Paris,  where  he 
made  his  reputation  by  his  'History  of  Suc- 
culent Plants,*  and  'Essay  on  the  Medicinal 
Properties  of  Plants.'  In  1808  he  took  the 
chair  of  botany  a*  Monfpellier,  where  he  re- 
placed the  artificial  method  of  Linnseus  by  the 
natural  method  of  Jussieu,  and  published  the 
remarkable  'Elementary  Theorv  of  Botany.' 
After  the  Restoration  of  181S,  ne  returned  to 
Geneva,  where  he  devoted  the  rest  of  his  lite 
to  his  great  work,  'Introduction  to  a  Natural 
System  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,'  the  contin- 
uation of  which  he  entrusted  to  his  ion,  to- 
gether with  an  herbarium  of  70,000  species  of 


Bombay  there  is  a  unit  of  capacity  called  the 
candy,  equal  to  8.2  Imperial  bushels,  and  else- 
where a  dry-measure  candy  is  found  varying 
from  IS  to  30  bushels. 

CANDY  CEYLON.    See  Kandy. 

CANDYLAKTHRA,  a  group  of  prioiitive 
animals,  ancestral  to  the  imguUte  type  and 
especially  the  perissodactyli,  remains  of  which 
are  found  fossil  in  Cretaceous  rocks,  and 
on  into  the  Eocene,  where  they  disap^iear.  They 
were  animals  of  moderate  siae,  imperfectly 
plantigrade,  with  five  toes  on  all  feet,  teetn 
adapted  to  both  animal  and  vegetable  diet,  and 
small,  smooth  brains.  The  best-known  example 
is    Pkenacodui,    found    in    the    lower    Eocene 


formation  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  regior 
had  the  form  of  a  small  tapir,  but  had  a  long 
tail.    Their  nearest  modem  representatives  of 
■       "  !  the  African 


had  the  form  of  a  small  tapir,  but  b 
tail.    Their  nearest  modem   r( 
the  condylarths,  structurally, 
conies   (Hyrax). 

CANDYTUFT  a  genus  of  plants  (/fc^rii), 
of  the  natural  order  Cruciferee^  flowering  m 
dense  corymbs,  and  distinguished  by  an 
emarginate  pouch  with  keeled  and  winged 
valves.  Some  species  arc  shrubs;  some,  her- 
baceous perennials  and  some,  annuals.  It  is  in- 
digenous to  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  several  species,  as  Iberis 
ttmbelhla,  Iberis  odorata  and  others,  are  culti- 

CANE.  kin,  or  KEN,  a  river  in  Bundel- 
cuod  (ov.),  British  India,  a  tributary  of  the 
Jumna  River.  It  follows  a  northeast  course 
and  is  about  250  miles  long. 

CANK<BRAKE,  a  ttrm  applied  to  the  ex- 
tensive growths  of  Arwtdiiuma  macrosptrma, 
the  most  gigantic  of  United  States  grasses, 
which  occur  in  the  southern  portions  of  the 
United  States,  often  covering  vast  extents  of 
.conntry.  The  plant's  stalks  are  much  used  for 
fishing-rods.  Cane-brakes  are  indicative  of 
rich  land,  as  they  are  only  to  be  found  in  per- 
fection in  the  most  inexhaustible  soils,  where, 
having  obtained  a  foothold,  by  their  more  r^id 

Sowth  they  usurp  the  place  of  the  timber.  In 
e  southern  portions  of  the  United  States  the 
plant  often  reaches  the  height  of  15  to  25  feel, 
with  a  base  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches 
diameter.  It  grows  as  strai^^t  as  an  arrow 
from  the  root,  tapering  off  finally  in  a  beauti- 
ful, thread-like,  feathery  top.  The  leaves  com- 
mence at  about  two-thirds  of  the  hei^t  of  the 
plant,  and  seem  to  be  attached  directly  to  the 
stalk,  as  tfie  branches  on  which  they  grow,  save 
the  vciy  top  ones,  are  not  perceptiWe  to  ordi- 
nary observation.  To  the  hunter,  progress 
throu^  a  cane-brake  is  one  of  the  most  toil- 
some journeys  that  can  be  undertaketu  Each 
step  is  disputed  by  the  dense  vegetation,  which 
rises  before  the  intruder  like  a  walL  In  places 
the  cane  is  sometimes  pressed  down  and  inter- 


:,  Google 


CANE  SUOAK— CAMVIELD 


laced,  and  tbtn  it  becomes  quite  impenetrable.- 
Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  the 
knife  has  to  be  freely  used  Cane-brakes  are 
often  many  miles  in  extent,  always  lessening  in 
<lenn^  as  they  reach  hteh  ground.'  They  are 
favonte  baunts  for  all  unds  of  ^mc,  which 
seek  their  solitudes  either  for  protection  or  for 
the  leaves  for  food.  The  deer  are  particularly 
fond  of  the  young  green  leaves,  and  upon  them 
often  become  exceedingly  fat.  Cane-stalks 
bcine  hollow,  having  no  pith,  and  being  divided 
inside  every  few  inches  mto  secti»ms,  are  very 
combustible  when  dried  in  the  sun;  and  the  air 
confined  within  the  hollow  sections,  warming 
by  the  extemai  heat,  explodes  wldi  very  con- 
siderabte  force,  so  that  a  cane-brake  on  fire 
gives  the  idea  of  a  cootlniKd  roar  of  distant 
musketry. 

CANE  SUGAR.  See  Swcab  and  Sugar- 
Uaking. 

CAHSA,  ka-ne'^  (Greek  Khanm),  Crete, 
the  chief  commercial  town  of  Uti  island,  situ- 
ated on  the  northwest  coast,  with  a  good  har-' 
bor.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Cydonia, 
but  the  present  town  is  due  to  the  Venetians, 
from  whom  it  was  wrested  tv  the  Turks,  after 


CANBLLA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  family  Canellace<g.  They  are  ornamental 
shrubs  or  trees.  C,  alba,  the  wild  cinnamon, 
is  a  common  West  Indian  aromatic  evergreen 
tree,  growing  to  a  height  of  from  10  to  SO  feet, 
with  a  straight  stem  branched  only  at  the  top. 
It  is  covered  with  a  whitish  bark,  by  which  it 
is  <asily  distinguished  at  a  distance  from  other 
trees ;  the  leaves  are  placed  upon  short  leaf- 
stalks and  are  alternate.  They  are  oblong, 
obtuse,  entire,  of  a  dark,  shining  green  hue,  and 
thick  like  those  of  the  laurel.  The  flowers  are 
small,  of  a  violet  color,  and  grow  in  clusters 
at  the  tops  of  the  brancoes  on  branched  stalks. 
The  fruit  is  an  obloi%  berry  containing  four 
kidn^- shaped  seeds  of  equal  size.  The  tree  is 
very  aromatic,  and  when  in  blossom  perfumes 
the  whole  neighborhood.  The  berries,  when 
rii»e,  are  greedily  eaten  by  the  wild  pigeons  of 
Jamaica,  and  impart  a  peculiar  flavor  to  their 
flesh.  The  canella  of  commerce  is  the  bark  of 
the  tree  freed  from  its  outward  covering  and 
dried  in  the  shade.  It  is  brought  to  Europe  in 
lone  quills,  which  are  about  three-fourths  of  an 
incE  in  diameter,  somewhat  thicker  than  cinna- 


^  J  the 

taste,  and  aromatic  and  bitterish.  Its  smell  is 
agreeable,  and  resembles  that  of  cloves.  In 
distillation  with  water  it  yields  an  essential  oil 
of  a  dark-yellowish  color,  and  of  a  thick 
tenacious  consistence,  with  iMfficulty  separable 
from  the  aqueous  fluid.  The  remaining  decoc- 
tion, when  evaporated(  leaves  a  very  bitter  ex- 
tract composes  of  resinoos  and  gummy  matter 
iniperfeclly  mixed.  It  hag  been  supposed  to 
possess  a  considerable  share  of  active  medicinal 
powers,  and  was  formerlv  employed  as  a  cure  in 
scurvy.  Now  it  is  merely  esteemed  as  a  pleas- 
ing' and  aromatic  bitter,  and  as  a  useful  adjunct 
in  correcting^  more  active  thou^  nauseous 
medicines.  The  powder  is  ^vcn  along  with 
sloes-  as  a  stimulating  purgative. 


CANEPHOKUS.  a  term  applied  to  one  of 
the  bearers  of  the  baskets  containing  the  im> 
plements  of  sacrifice  in  the  processions  of 
the  Konysia,  Panathenxa  and  other  ancient 
Grecian  festivals.  It  was  an  office  of  honor, 
much  coveted  by  the  virgins  of  antiquity.  The 
term  is  often  applied  to  architectural  figures 
bearing  baskets  on  their  heads,  and  is  some- 
times  improperly   confoimded   with   caryatides. 

CANES  VENATICI.  ka'nez  ve-nat1sl 
("the  hunting  dogs*)  one  of  the  northern  con- 
steDatiuis  added  by  Hevelius  in  1690,  between 
Bootes  and  Ursa  Major.  Coming  in  after  the 
time  of  Bayer,  it  has  none  of  his  assigned  let- 
ters; but  fiaily,  in  the  <'B.  A.  C,"  in  1345.  as- 
signed the  tetters  o  and  fi  to  the  two  brightest 
stars,  and  they  will  probably  stand,  thou^  ihey 
have  not  been  universally  accepted  by  astrono- 
mers. The  former  of  the  two  stars  is  a  well; 
known  double.  On  the  maps,  the  two  dogs, 
Asterion  and  Chara,  are  r^resented  as  held  in 
leash  by  Bootes,  and  pursuing  Ursa  Major  and 
the  celestial  pole,  but  this  change  in  the  figure 
of  Bootes  has  of  course  been  made  since  the 
introduction  of  Canes  Venatici  into  the  celestial 
train.  The  constellation  is  surrounded  by  Ursa 
Major,  Bootes  and  Coma  Berenices.  The  great 
whirlpool  nebula  of  this  train  was  discovered  by 
Lord  Rosse  in  1845,  and  a  fine  globular  cluster 
of  stars  of  the  11th  magnitude  and  fainter, 
notable  for  the  large  (nearly  one-sevenlhj  pro- 
portion of  ^variables  among  them.  Its  pnncipat 
star,  to  which  Hal  ley  gave  the  name  Cor  Caroli, 
is  a  double  star  with  components  of  the  third 
and  sixth  magnitudes. 

CARETB,  kin-yi'ta,  Hanuel,  Spanish 
author:  b.  Seville,  6  Aug.  1822;  d.  4  Nov.  1891. 
He  was  educated  in  Cadiz.  For  a  long  time  be 
was  an  official  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior, 
and  was  later  chamberlain  to  King  Alfonso  XII. 
His  lyric  poems,  published  under  the  title; 
'Poesias,'  are  highly  esteemed,  and  his  dramas, 
also  successful,  mclude  'Un  Rebate  en 
Granada';  'El  Duque  de  Alba';  'La  Flor  de 
Besalu' ;  and  'La  Esperania  de  la  Patria'  (with 
Tammayo).  He  is  best  known,  however,  as  a 
dramatic  critic  and  a  writer  on  the  history  of 
the  S^nish  stage.  His  writings  in  the  field  of 
criticism  had  much  influence  in  the  reform  of. 
the  stage  and  were  not  unconnected  with  his 
advancement  to  important  posts  in  the  commis- 
sions of  Historic  and  Artistic  Monuments  and 
the  inspection  of  Museums.  Among  his  other 
works  are  'Farsas  y  Clogas  de  Lucas  Fer- 
nandez'(1867) ; 'La  Tragedia  Llamada  Josefina' 
{1870J  ;  'Escritores  Espaiioles  e  Hispano- 
Americanos*  (1884);  and  'Teatro  Espanol  del 
Siglo  XVI>    (1885). 

CANEY,  ka'-nc,  Kan,,  city,  Montgomery  ' 
County,  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  and  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  railroads,  144 
miles  southwest  of  Topeka.  It  has  smelting 
plants,  municipal  operated  waterworks,  and 
manufactures  of  glass,  oil,  flour  and  bricks. 
Pop.  (1910)  3,597. 

CANFIELD,  James  Hulme,  American 
educator:  b.  Delaware.  Ohio,  18  March  1847; 
d.  New  York  dty.  29  March  1909.  He  was 
graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1868;  ad- 
mitted to  the  Michigan  bar,  1872,  and  practised 
law  at  Saint  Joseph,  Mich-,  1872-77.  He  was 
professor  of  history  in  the  State  University  of 
Kansas,  1877-91;  dmncellor  of  the  Univsni^ 


[ig 


v  Google 


BOO 


CAMO  — CANISIUS 


of  Nebraska,  1891-^5;  president  of  the  Ohio 
State  University,  1895-99,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed librarian  of  Columbia  University,  New 
York.  He  was  secretan'  of  the  National  Ed- 
ucation Association  for  five  years,  and  its  presi- 
dent for  one.  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the 
degree  of  Litt.D.  in  1902.  He  published  <Tajc- 
ation:  Plain  Talk  for  Plain  People'  (1883); 
'The     College     Student    and     His     Problems' 


GANG,  CANGUB,  or  KIA,  the  wooden 
collar  or  portable  pillory,  weighing  from  SO  to 
60  pounds,  and  fitting  closely  roimd  the  nedc, 
imposed  upon  criminals  in  ChLna,  who  are  then 
paraded  IhrouG^  the  streets  and  exposed  in  the 
public  thorou^fare.  It  renders  the  wearer  un- 
able to  feed  or  otherwise  care  for  himself.  On 
the  cang  is  inscribed  the  nature  of  the  crime 
and  duration  of  punishment. 

CANGA  ARGUELLBS.  kan'ga  ar-gwil'- 
yis,  Joai,  Spanish  statesman:  b.  Asturias  1770; 
d.  1843.  in  1812  he  was  a  member  of  the  Cortes 
from  Valencia,  and  rapidly  rose  to  the  leader 


Recalled  in  1816,  he  became  Uinister  of  Finance 
in  1820.  when  the  constitution  was  restored. 
Througn  the  abolition  of  certain  direct  taxes, 
he  caused  financial  disorder,  and  was  forced  to 
resign  in  1821 ;  was  a  member  of  the  Cortes  in 
1822,  but  fled  to  England  at  the  time  of  the 
revolution  of  1823.  Returning  in  1829,  he  a^in 
was  elected  to  the  Cortes,  where  he  remained 
true  to  his  liberal  principles.  He  wjote  'Me- 
moria  sobre  el  Credito  Publico'  (1820) ; 
'Elementos  de  la  Genoa  de  Hacienda'  (1825) ; 
'Dicdonario  de  Hacienda*  (1827,  and  2d  ed., 
1833-J4) ;  'Observaciones  sobre  la  Guerra  de  la 
Peninsula'  (1833-36);  and  poems,  translations 
in  verse  from  the  (rreek,  etc. 

CANGAS  DB  ONIS,  Spain,  town,  Oviedo 
province,  on  the  Sella  River,  35  miles  east  of 
Oviedo.  It  has  busy  stock  raising  and  coal 
mining  industries,  and  is  noted  for  nisloric  in- 
cidents. Here  the  first  Spanish  Kin^s  resided 
after  the  Moorish  invasion  and  here  m  the  8th 
century  King  Peiayo  started  the  Spanish  Con- 

Suest,  The  famous  cave  of  Covadonga  where 
e  hid  is  eight  miles  distant.  There  are  Roman 
ruins  of  bridges,  etc.,  and  the  19th  century 
church  of  the  Assumption  is  a  replica  of  the 
mediieval  church  which  it  replaced.  Pop.  9,100. 
CANGAS  DB  TINBO,  Spain,  town  of 
Oviedo  province,  37  miles  southwest  of  Oviedo 
on  the  Rio  Narcea,  here  spanned  by  an  historic 
bridge.  Situated  in  a  well-watered  mountain- 
ous and  wild  region,  stock  raisinf^,  farming  and 
coal  mining  are  active  industries  and  cloth, 
leather,  pottery,  liquors,  fiour  and  linen  are 
manufactured.    Pop.  24,000. 

CANIAPUSCAW,  kan-I-Sp'fis-k3,  a  river 
in  Labrador,  outlet  of  a  take  of  the  same  name, 
flowing  northwest  into  Ungava  Bay,  Hudson 
Strait;  length,  400  miles. 

CANICATTI,  ka-ne-fcat'te,  Sicily,  a  city 
in  the  province  of  Girgenfi  on  the  Naro,  situ- 
ated in  a  grain  and  iruit  re^on.  Here  are 
also  sulphur  mines.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
engaged  in  agriculture.     Pop.   (19U)   31,204. 


logeny  between  bears,  hyenas  and 
Their  legs  are  long;  the  daws  non-retractile, 
and  in  all  except  the  lycaon  there  are  five  toes 
in  front  and  four  behind.  The  dentitions 
usually  consist  of  three  indsors,  a  great  canine 
(a  tooth  which  takes  its  name  from  its  prom- 
inence in  the  dog,  and  is  the  seizing  and  tearing 
instrument) ;  four  small  premolars,  and  two 
molars  on  each  side  of  each  jaw;  but  in  the 
lower  jaw  there  are  three  molars.  All  these 
teeth  have  the  carnivorous  characteristic  of ' 
sharp-cutting  crowns  rather  than  broad,  grind- 
ing surfaces,  such  as  characterize  the  molar 
teeth  of  vegetable-eaters.  Dogs  are  mainly 
diurnal  and  hve  in  open  uplands  rather  than  in 
forests,  where  they  oDtain  their  prey  by  chasing 
it  down ;  they  occupy  dens  ana  burrows,  and 
possess  keen  senses  and  great  intelligence.  See 
Dogs.    For  the  fossil  history  of  the  family,  see 

CARNIVCOtA. 

CANIDIA,  a  Neapolitan  woman  (real  name 
probably  Gratidia),  whom  Horace  loved,  and 
who  deserted  him.  Horace,  in  an  epode  and 
the  Satires,  gives  her  name  to  a  sorceress. 

CANIGOU,  ka-ne-goo',  one  of  the  peaks  of 


pignan;  height,  9,137  feet 


Oct.  1795;  d.  Florence,  17  Oct.  1856,  He  was 
for  some  time  professor  of  architecture  at 
Turin,  and  afterward  lived  in  Rome,  where  he 
published  works  of  great  value  on  the  antiq- 
uities of  Rome,  Vei^  Etruria  and  Tusculura, 
among  them  'L  Architettura  antica  descritta  c 
dimostrata  coi  monumcnti'    (1839-46). 

CAHINDB,  ki-nen'di,  a  river  of  Bnuil, 
flowing  into  the  Paranahiba;  length,  2(K>  miles. 

CANI3  MAJOK  ('the  greater  dog>).  a 
constellation  of  the  southern  hemisphere^  re- 
markable as  containing  Sinus,  the  brightest 
star  in  the  heavens,  by  means  of  which  the  con- 
stellation may  be  located  on  a  continuation  of 
riie  line  throuE^  the  belt  of  Orion. 

CANIS  MINOR  ('the  lesser  dog*)^  a 
constellation  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  un- 
mediately  above  Canis  Major,  the  chief  star  in 
which  is  Procyon,  lying  between  Sinus  and 
Pollux.  Procyon  has  a  satellite  of  a  star  of  the 
1 3th  magnitude,  and  the  pair  revolve  about 
each  other  about  every  40  years, 

CANISIUS,  ki-nlsh^-iis,  Petnii  (LaL 
trans,  of  Dutch  name,  De  Hand),  Dutch  Uieo- 
togian:  h,  Nimegnen,  8  May  1524;  d.  Freiburg, 
Switzerland,  21  Dec.  1597.  He  was  the  first 
man  in  Germany  who  entered  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits,  of  which  he  became  a  very  active 
member.  Is  1549  he  was  made  professor  of  tbe- 
ok>^,  rector  and  vice-chancefior  of  the  uni- 
versity at  Ingolstadt,  and  in  1551  court  preacher 
at  Vienna.  He  afterward  reformed  the  Univei^ 
sity  of  Vienna,  according  to  the-  views  of  the 
order.  His  catechism,  which  has  passed  throu^ 
more  than  400  editions,  is  yet  in  use.  He  per- 
suaded Ferdinand  I  to  adopt  stringent  measures 
against  the  Protestants,  and  founded  the  cot- 
leges  at  Prague,  Augsburg.  Dillingen  and  Frei- 
burg in  Switzerland.  He  was  beatified  20  Nov. 
1864.  For  his  life,  consult  Reiss  (Freiburg 
1S6S) ;  Drews,  P,  (Hale  1392)  ;  MeUer,  J.  B. 


d=y  Google 


CANISIUS  COLLBOB  — CANNES 


(Berlin  1897) ;  Ukket,  L.  (Lille  1898)  ;  Krass. 
A-,  'Canisius  in  Oesterreich'  (Vicmia  1898); 
BraunsberKer,  O.  (editor),  'EpistolK  et  Acta' 
(8  vols.,  Freiburs  1896  ct  seq.). 

CANISIUS  COLLEGE,  an  elucational  in- 
stitutioii  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  organized  in  1870 
tinder  the  auspices  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Giurch;  reported  in  1917;  Professors  and  tn- 
itmctors,  25;  students,  S30;  volumes  in  the 
Hbrarjr,  45,000;  value  of  property  (including 
'  endowment)  about  $385,000. 

CANITIES.  Graying  of  die  luir.  See 
Haie. 

CANITZ.  ca'-nits,  Friediich  RadoU  Lud- 
wic,  German  poet  and  diplomat:  b.  Berlin,  27 
Nov.  1654;  d.  there  16  Aug.  1699.  He  studied 
law  at  Leyden  and  Leipzig,  and  was  made  state 
counsellor  io  1697  under  Frederick  I  of  Prussia ; 
in  1698  he  was  given  the  rank  of  baron.    His 

Eems  were  first  published  anonymously  after 
i  death  (1700)  under  the  title  'Nebenstunde 
unterschiedener  Gedichte';  the  second  edition 
with  the  name  of  the  author  appeared  in  1719. 
They  had  influence  on  style  in  opposition 
to  the  mannerisms  of  Lobenstein  and  other 
writers  of  the  time.  Those  most  popular  with 
his  conlempKiraries  are  the  satires,  elegies  and 


Amim.  Consult  Koni^  'Des  Freiherm  ..._ 
Canitz  Gedichte'  (Leipzig  1727)  ;  Vamhagen 
von  Ense,  'Biographische  Denkraale'  (Vol.  IV, 
Berlin  1824-45)  ;  and  Lut^  'Canitz  und  sein 
Verhaltnis  zu  dem  franzosichen  Klassicismus' 
(Munich  1887). 

CANKER,  a  disease  of  plants.    See  Apple. 

CANKBRWORH,  a  caterpillar  of  a  geo- 
metoid  moth  of  the  genus  Anistopteryx,  de- 
structive to  fnut'trees,  especially  apples.  See 
Apple. 

CANLA8SI,  kan-las'se,  Onido,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Sant  Archaneelo  1601;  a.  Vienna 
1661.  He  studied  under  Guido  Reni  at  Bologna, 
and  lived  at  Venice  as  court  painter  under  the 
Emperor  Leopold  1,  and  later  at  Vienna.  He  is 
to  some  extent  an  imitator  of  Guido  Reni,  but 
is  especially  distinguished  for  his  use  of  color. 
His  chief  works,  mostly  biblical  or  mythologi- 
cal subjects,  are  in  Vienna,  Munich  and  Dres- 
den. 

CANNA,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  12  miles 
southwest  of  Sk)[e,  and  3  miles  northwest  of 
Rum.  It  is  4f^  miles  long,  1  mile  broad  and  4;^ 
square  miles  in  area.  The  surface,  nowhere 
falser  than  800  feet,  consists  of  trap.  A  hill 
here  of  basalt,  called  Compass  Hill,  reverses  the 
magnetic  needle. 

CANNA,  a  genus  of  plants,  some  spedes 
of  which  have  fine  flowers,  and  some,  from 
their  black,  hard,  heavy  seeds,  are  called  In- 
dian shot  There  are  about  50  species  in  tropi- 
cal America  and  Asia,  with  ornamental  leaves, 
creeping  rootstoc^  and  panicles  of  red  or 
yellow  flowers.  C.  mdica  is  the  best-knovni 
species,  and  the  roots  of  C.  edtttu  yield  starch. 
Xhe  plants  are  very  popular  in  cullivatian,  es- 
pecially  the  hybrids  between  various  species  and 
the  '  improved  varieties  obtained  by  selective 
breeding.  A  very  large  number  of  named  hor- 
ticultural varieties  has  been  produced  in  recent 

CANNABIS  INDICA.   See  Hemp.  Immur. 


tween  the  modem  Canosa  aud  Bartletta,  and 
was  famous  for  the  battle  in  which  the  Ramans 
were  defeated  by  Hannibal  (216  b,c).  The 
Roman  army  under  the  conspls  j&nilius  Paulus 
and  Terentms  Varro  consisted  of  87,000  men, 
while  that  of  the  enemy  amounted  only  to 
50,000,  among  whom  were  10,000  horse.  The 
battle  was  brought  on  by  Varro  against  the  bet- 
ter judgment  of  his  colleague.  The  Romans 
left  their  strong  position  at  Canusium  on  the 
banks  of  the  Aufidus,  and  the  whole  army 
crossed  the  river.  Varro  drew  up  his  troops  on 
the  plain,  widi  his  right  wing  protected  by  the 
river.  At  the  same  time  Hannibal  forded  the 
Aufidus  and  led  his  small  army  to  the  attack. 
The  battle  was-  long,  and  the  Romans  fell  in 

S-eat  numbers,  among  them  the  consul,  £milius 
aulus,  and  both  the  proconsuls  Servilius  and 
Atilius.  Hannibal's  Numidian  horse  destroyed 
those  who  fled  from  the  field.  The  victor 
made  13,000  prisoners.  The  Romans  lost,  ac- 
cording to  their  own  lowest  statements,  45,000 
men;  according  to  the  highest,  70,000.'  Hanni' 
bal  collected  the  gold  rings  of  the  knights  who 
had  fallen  and  sent  some  pecks  thereof  to 
Carthage. 

CANNAN,  Edwin,  English  economist:  b. 
1861.  A  student  at  Balliol,  Oxford,  he  was  en- 

ffed  as  lecturer  at  the  London  School  of 
onomics  (1897)  and  became  professor  of 
political  economy  in  the  University  of  London 
(1907).  He  is  widely  known  in  advanced  circles 
as  author  of  'Elementary  Political  Economy' 
(1888,  3d  ed.,  1903)  ;  'History  of  the  Theories 
of  Production  and  Distribution*  (1893,  2d  ed- 
1903);  'History  of  Social  Rates  in  England* 
(ia>6,  2d  ed.,  1912);  'The  Economic  Outlook' 
(1912);  'Wealth'  (1914).  He  also  edited 
Adam  Smith's  'Lectures  on  Justice,  Police, 
Revenue  and  Arms '  (1896) ,  and  the  same 
author's  'Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes 
of  the  WealA  of  Nations'  (2  vols,  1904). 
CANNEL  COAL.  See  Coal. 
CANNELTON,  Ind.,  dty  and  county-seat 
of  Perry  County,  150  miles  south  of  Indianapolis, 
on  the  Southern  Railroad,  and  on  the  Ohio 
River.  It  has  cotton  mills,  flour  mills,  foundry 
and  machine  shops,  potteries,  brick  yards  and 
sewer-pipe  manufactories.  Coal  and  sandstone 
are  mined  in  the  neighborhood  and  gas  and  oil 
are  also  found.  The  dty  owns  the  electric- 
lighting  plant  and  the  waterworks.     Pop.  2,136. 


the  west  end  of  the  Riviera,  22  miles  south- 
west of  Nice,  in  the  department  of  Alpes-Mari- 
times.  It  is  beautifully  situated  in  a  rich  fruit 
district.  It  is  famed  for  its  mild  and  equable 
climate,  with  an  averse  winter  temperature  of 
50°,  and  an  average  of  about  70  days  on  which 
rain  falls  in  the  year.  Since  its  discovery  as  a 
health  resort  by  Lord  Brougham  in  1831  it  has 
become  celebrated  as  a  wintering  station. 
There  are  many  hotels  and  fine  villas,  charm- 
ing public  wall^  etc  Perfumes  and  soap  arc 
made  here  and  anchovies,  oils  and  fruit  are 
among  tKe  artides  exported.  It  is  a  place  of 
great  antiquity,  and  twice  suffered  destruction 
at  the  hands  of  the  Moors.  On  the  island  of 
Sainte  Marguerite  opposite,  the  Man  with  the 
Iron  Mask  was  impnsoaed  from  168&-98>^Near 


Google 


CAHHIBALISH 


CANNIBALISM,  the  act  or  practice  of 
eating  human  flesh  l^  mankind.  In  his  acci- 
dental discovery  of  the  West  Indies  Columbus 
heard  of,  if  he  did  not  himself  see,  the  Carib 
Islands,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  spoken 
of  as  Caribales,  or,  owing  to  the  customary 
dialectical  interchange  of  I,  n  and  r,  Canibales. 
These  Canibales  or  Caribales  were  repottcA  to 
be  man-eaters.  This  terrible  association  of 
Canibales  with  the  practice  of  eating  human 
flesh  naturally  enou^  led  straightway  to  the 
transfer  of  the  name  of  the  people  to  their 
horrid  custom.  The  Greek  word,  anthro- 
pophagy JoWptwo^Toc),  coming  down  from 
pre-Christian  times,  indicates  that  the  practice 
though  unknown  to  Columbus,  was  anaent  and 
well  enough  known  to  be  in  the  literature  of 
the  older  peoples.  The  stonr  of  Polyphemiu 
devouring  human  flesh  as  told  in  the  'Odyssej;* 
and  other  legends  of  semi-divine  man-eatere  is 
evidence  enough  that  the  ancient  authors  knew, 
by  hearsay  at  least;  of  this  practice.  It  is  « 
well-established  fact  that  all  races  of  men 
have  at  some  time,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
been  guilty  of  the  practice  of  eating  human 
flesh  for  one  purpose  or  another.  It  is  very 
generally  believed,  and  with  a  good  show  of 
reason,  that  there  never  has  been  a  time,  since 
man  first  appeared,  down  to  and  including  our 
own,  when  the  world  has  been  free  from  canni- 
balism. It  is  nearer  being  free  from  it  now  than 
it  has  been  perhaps  in  all  past  time.  To-day 
it  exists  among  isolated  South  American  tribes ; 
in  West  Equatorial  and  Central  Africa ;  in  the 
Ualay  Archipelago,  some  of  the  South  $ea 
Islands  (mainly  in  Melanesia)  and  in  parts  of 
Australia.  Excluding  Australia  cannibalism 
may  be  said  to  be  confined  to  a  belt  of  land 
extending  to  a  little  more  than  10  degrees 
north  and  south  of  the  equator. 

How  far  back  the  practice  goes  it  is  not 
possible  to  tell.     So   far  as  is  Imown  there  is 


^ecies  ate  one  another.  There  is  little  if  any 
evidence  to  indicate  that  down  to  as  late  a 
period  as  the  close  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  the 
several  races  of  men  which  had  successively 
inhabited  Euro-Asia  and  northern  Africa  prac- 
tised cannibalism.  Cannibalism  is  not  univer- 
sally characteristic  of  the  savage  state.  A  few 
charred  and  broken  and  scraped  human  bones 
from  the  cave-dwelling  period  are  snbstantially 
all  that  has  been  found  which  can  by  any 
stretch  of  the  imagination  be  supposed  to  hint 
at  this  practice.  Tytor  goes  as  far  as  the 
facts  seem  to  warrant  when  he  says  that  thi» 
evidence  may  'perhaps  be  taken  to  show  that 
prehistoric  savages  were  in  this  respect  like 
those  of  modem  times  neither  free  from 
cannibalism  nor  universally  practising  it.' 
Cannibalism  originates  in  and  is  carried  on 
from  widely  different  motives,  ranging  alt  the 
way  from  eating  human  flesh  as  a  regular  part 
of  daily  subsistence  to  the  eating  of  it  for 
purely  magical  or  ritualistic  reasons.  It  is  not 
possible  to  draw  a  dividing  line  between  the 
several  kinds  because  all  or  nearly  all  forms 
are  more  or  less  interrdated.  This  may  arise 
from  the  fact  that  usually  the  practice  does  not 
begin  in  a  single  motive. . 


As  I  Heani  of  StibiiMeBce.— The  most 
repulsive  and  degrading  form  of  cannibalism  is 
that  of  eating  human  flesh  as  a  part,  the  main 
part,  of  the  rqtular  diet.  The  negro  triba 
along  the  Guinea  CoMt  soathwarda  inM  the 
Kongo  and  for  some  distance  eastward  eat 
human  flesh  as  food  It  is  treated  just  as  other 
races  treat  animal  flesh.  Bidds  are  made  to 
capture  prisoners  and  they  are  herded  and  kept 
till  wanted.  Sometimes  ibty  are  fattened  just 
as  other  races  fatten  animals  for  the  slaughter,  ' 
Under  great  stress  of  hunger  occasioned  by 
shipwrecks,  sieges  and  famines  dvUized  persons 
have  been  driven  to  the  eating  of  human  flesh. 
The  siege  of  Samaria  about  the  middle  of  the 
8th  century  b.c  (II  Kings  vi,  24ff)  ;  the  siege  of 
Paris  in  1590;  and  the  famine  in  Algiers  in 
186B  furnish  instances  of  this.  What  civ- 
ilized people  are  driven  to  do  bv  the  pressure 
of  hunger  it  b  not  surprising  tnat  the  savage 
should  do  with  even  greater  readiness  under 
similar  drciunstances.  Many  savage  races  have 
resorted  to  cannibalism  only  in  times  of  famine. 
The  Mungerra  tribe  in  Queensland  in  times 
of  severe  famine  *kiU  and  eat  some  of  their 
female  children.*  The  natives  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  when  starving  in  winter,  ■throttle  and 
devour  the  oldest  woman  of  the  party.  When 
asked  why  they  did  not  kill  and  eat  the  dogs, 
they  reply  iDogs  catch  otters.'  * 

Aa  HuUeatation  of  ASectioa.— In- 
cretfible  as  it  may  seem  cannibalism  in  some 
instances  seems  to  be  prompted  by  affection. 
The  Binderwurs  of  Centra!  India  killed  and 
ate  the  sick  and  age<L  'thinking  this  an  act  of 
kindness  and  acceptable  to  the  goddess  Kali.* 
The  aborigines  of^  southwest  Victoria  practise 
eating  human  flesh  in  a  solemn  service  of 
mourning  for  the  dead  particularty  for  those 
killed  by  accident.  *Tne  Tangara  carry  their 
dead  about  with  them,  and  whenever  they  fed 
sorry  for  their  death,  they  eat  some  of  the 
flesh  till  nothing  remains  but  the  bones.* 
Among  still  other  peoples  parents  partake  of 
the  flesh  of  their  dead  children  'as  a  token  of 
grief  and  affection  for  the  deceased*  The 
practice  of  eating  flesh  for  the  purpose  of 
honoring  dead  kinsmen  is  of  a  similar  charac- 
ter. Herodotus,  writing  of  the  Massagetse,  a 
Scythian  people  living  m  the  northeast  of  the 
Caspian,  relates  that  when  a  man  has  attained 
a  great  a^  among  these  people  it  is  the  custom 
for  his  kinsmen  to  sacrifice  him,  boil  his  flesh 
with  the  flesh  of  cattle  and  eat  it.  This  is 
accounted  an  exceeffin^ly  happy  ending.  Lyden 
describes  a  cannibalistic  custom  which  has  the 
appearance  of  a  very  pious  ceremony.  The 
aged  and  infirm  invite  tneir  descendants  to  eat 
them.  The  victim  ascends  a  tree  around  which 
the  others  assemble  singing  a  funeral  dirRe: 
*The  seaimi  ii  come,  the  fmit  is  ripe,  and  it 
must  descend.*  He  then  descends,  and  is  put 
to  death  and  eaten  in  a  solemn  banquet. 

As  m  Rftoallatfc  Practice.— Cannibalism 
as  a  religious  institution  is  one  of  the  most 
widespread  and  persistent  forms  of  the  practice 
and  it  ranges  all  the  way  from  almost  a  pass- 
able refinement  to  the  most  revolting  or^es. 
The  religious  purpose  is  not  always  uie  same 
In  some  instances  it  is  due  to  a  desire,  as  among 
some  Australian  tribes,  who  make  a  practice  of 
eating  their  totems,  to  become  identified  with 
the  totem  or  god.  In  other  cases  the  desire  is 
sim^  to  establish  a  close  bond  of  frienddiip 


vGooglc 


808 


between  the  flesh-eating  god  and  themselves. 
The  peoples  who  oSer  numan  sacrifices  to  the 

Kd  eat  of  these  sacrifices,  believing  that  by  so 
ing  they_  directly  and  surely  become  possessed 
of  the  divine  virtues  supposed  to  proceed  fiom 
such  sacrifices.  With  the  Khon<U  it  was  the 
custom  for  a  girl  representiiig  the  goddess  Tari 
to  be  sacrificed  and  torn  limb  from  limb  by  the 
worshippers  eager  to  obtain  a  piece  of  the 
deified  victim.  Cannibalism  as  a  purely  re- 
ligious exercise  among  people  possessing  a  hi^ 
degree  of  culture  is  Best  and  most  notoriously 
illustrated  by  the  Mexican  custom  of  oSering 
human  sacnfices  to  the  god  Huitrilopochtli. 
'The  victims  were  enemies  or  slaves  and  were 
offered  before  the  images  of  the  gods.  The 
priest  cut  open  the  breast  with  an  obsidian 
knife,  tore  out  the  heart  and  offered  it  to  the 
gods;  then  he  sprinkled  his  assistant  and  the 
offerers  with  the  blood.  After  this  a  cannibal 
feast  on  the  body  took  place,  priest  and  ofFerers 
[Kkrtaking.*  Early  writers  say  these  cannibalis- 
tic sacrifices  reacned  yearly  into  the  thousands. 
To  obtain  rain  from  the  rain-god  Quiateot 
children  and  adults  were  sacrificed  to  nim  and 
his  images  were  sprinkled  with  their  blood. 

As  Hagic  and  Medicine. —  One  of  the 
most  varied  forms  of  cannibalism  is  that  orig- 
inating in  the  belief  that  by  eating  human  flcMi 
or  certain  parts  of  the  human  body  very  im- 
portant advantages  would  be  gained.  Dead  rel- 
atives in  some  instances  are  eaten  in  the  belief 
that  tile  soul  of  the  deceased  will  thus  pass  into 
the  eater,  and  he  thereby  become  possessed  of 
all  the  desirable  qualities  of  the  d^d  man.  In 
other  instances  the  body  of  an  enemy  was  eaten 
because  that  was  the  way  to  destroy  the  soul 
and  thus  put  an  end  to  further  menace.  Landor 
reports  that  in  Tibet  the  dead  is  eaten  partly  by 
the  Lamas  and  in  part  by  the  relatives,  it  being 
believed  that  the  spirit  whose  flesh  has  been 
eaien  will  always  remain  friendly.  The  Boto- 
cudos  ate  an  enemy  to  render  themselves  invul- 
nerable against  the  arrows  of  the  hostile  tribe. 
Among  some  peoples  at  the  founding  of  a  new 
town  a  human  victim  was  slain  and  the  heart 
and  liver  eaten  by  all  present  so  that  they  might 
not  die  within  the  year.  In  I  Kings  xvi,  34,  is 
reflected  a  survival  of  a  similar  custom.  The 
idea  that  the  eating  of  human  flesh  endows  the 
eater  with  distinctly  magical  or  supernatural 
powers  is  frequently  met  with  in  the  savage 
world.  In  East  Central  Africa  it  is  quite  gen- 
erally believed  that  the  uncanny  powers  sup- 
posed to  be  possessed  W  witches  and  wizards 
are  obtained  by  the  feechng  of  the  latter  upon 
human  corpses.  From  this  comes,  naturally 
enou^,  the  belief  that  whoever  feeds  on  human 
flesh  will  have  the  power  of  witches  and 
wizards. 

Not  infrequently  cannibalism  has  arisen 
from  an  almost  uncontrollable  passion  for  re- 
venge, and  a  savage  belief  that  eating  an  enemy 
is  the  surest  way  of  bringing  about  his  lasting 
disgrace.  The  ferocious  natives  6t  New  Cale- 
donia do  not  consider  tliat  revenue  Is  complete 
until  they  have  devoured  the  slain.  The  can- 
nibal practices  in  Samoa  seem  to  have  bad 
hatred  and  revenge  as  the  motive.  "I  will  roast 
thee*  was  the  greatest  insult  that  could  be 
offered  a  Samoan.  For  a  long  time  after  the 
practice  was  abandoned,  captives,  in  token  of 
submission,  would  oiler  biuning  wood  and  say 


■Kill  and  cook  as  when  it  seems  goodto  thee." 
The  Tupis  of  South  America  ate  their  dead 
enemies,  and  the  children  were  brought  home 
captive  and  cared  for  till  the  age  of  14  when 
they  were  slain  and  eaten.  Instances  have  been 
met  with  where  the  criminal  enemies  within  the 
tribe  are  slain  and  eaten.  Where  this  is  the 
custom  it  is  usually  the  chief  alone  who  has 
the  privilege  of  eating  the  offending  tribesmen. 
In  some  cases  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish 
between  this  custom  and  that  of  mere  glut- 
tonous cannibalism.  The  chief  goes  so  far  as 
to  cause  a  tumult  to  be  raised.  As  a  punishment 
the  offender  is  slain  and  the  chief  invites  guests 
to  share  in  the  meat  of  human  flesh.  So  power- 
ful an  incitement  to  cannibalism  is  this  passion 
for  revenge  that  quite  civilized  peoi^es  have 
been  guilty  of  it 

Other  Ho dvea.— There  are  several  other 
motives  leading  to  cannibalism  more  or  less  dis? 
tinct  from  those  mentioned.  Among  some  peo- 
ples the  flesh  of  a  fallen  enemy  was  eaten  after 
the  fight  by  both  contending  parties  as  a  token 
of  entering  into  a  binding  covenant  of  peace. 
At  the  coronation  of  a  lung  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands  it  was  the  custom  for  the  new  king  to 
swallow  the  left  «ye  of  a  human  victim  that  he 
might  thus  receive  an  accession  of  strength. 
Among  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Northwest  of 
America  cannibalism  took  the  form  of  initia- 
tion into  certain  secret  societies — a  sort  of 
ritualism.  At  the  be^nning  of  the  initiation 
into  the  cannibal  society  the  person  is  supposed 
to  become  possessed  of  the  cannibal  spint,  and 
so  of  a  violent  desire  to  eat  human  flesh.  In 
olden  times,  when  the  cannibal  was  in  a  state 
of  ecstasy,  slaves  were  killed  for  him  and  he 
devoured  them  raw.  Cannibal  practices  are  of 
almost  infinite  variety,  and  perhaps  all,  except 
where  human  flesh  is  eaten  simply  as  food,  have 
their  root  in  a  superstitions  view  of  life  and  the 
worid.  Naturally  the  practice  has  been  disap- 
pearing before  the  progressive  enlightenment 
of  the  world,  and  even  me  tribes  who  are  still 
guilty  of  eating  human  flesh  as  food  are  in- 
creasingly ashamed  of  it,  very  often  carrying  on 
the  practice  in  closely  guarded  secrecy. 

The  bibKographjr  of  the  subject  covers  a 
multitude  of  publications.  Articles  on  an- 
thropolo^  and  ethnology  in  journals  devoted 
to  such  subjects  will  yield  much  information ; 
also  the  narratives  of  travel  and  adventure  by 
well-known  explorers  of  early  and  later  times. 


Fraier,  J.  K.,  'Totemism  and  Exogamy' ;  Stan- 
ley, H.  M.,  <In  Darkest  Africa' ;  Landor,  W.  S.. 
'In  the  Forbidden  Land';  Rannie,  'My  Ad- 
ventures Amone  South  Sea  Cannibals' ;  Dennys, 
'Folklore  of  China.' 

CANNIFF,  William,  Canadian  physician: 
b.  Thurlow,  near  Belleville,  Ontario,  1830;  d. 
1910.  He  was  educated  at  Victoria  College, 
Cobourg,  and  studied  medicine  in  Toronto,  New 
York  and  London,  England,  where  he  Code  the 
degree  of  MJl.C.S.  He  served  in  the  Crimean 
War,  18S6;  returned  to  Canada,  became  profes- 
sor of  pathology  in  Victoria  College;  visited  the 
Washington  hospitals  during  the  Civil  War.  and 
finally  settled  in  the  practice  of  his  profession 
at  Toronto.  He  was  one  of  the  originators  of 
the  'Canada  First"  movement.  He  was  the 
author  of  'The  Medical  Profession  in  Upper 


Google 


8M  CAN 

Canada,  1783-1&50'  (18M)  ;  'The  Settlement  of 
Upper  Canada>  (1S72>- 

CANNING,  Charles  Jolm  (Earl),  English 
statesman,  son  of  Geocge  Canning  (q.v.) :  b. 
Dear  London.  14  Dee.  1812;  d.  London,  17  June 
1862.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford. 
He  entered  Parliament  in  1836  as  member  for 
Warwick,  and  in  the  following  year  succeeded 
to  the  peerage,  on  his  mother  s  death,  as  Vis- 
count Canning.  In  1841  he  was  appointed 
under- secretary  for  foreign  affairs  in  Feel's 
government,  and  in  1846  commissioner  of  woods 
and  forests.  In  the  Aberdeen  ministry  of  1853, 
and  under  Palmerston  in  1855,  he  held  the  Post- 
master-Generalship, and  in  1856  went  out  to 
India  as  governor-general.  Throughout  the 
mutiny  he  showed  a  fine  coolness  and  clear- 
headedness, and  though  his  carefully  pondered 
decisions  were  sometimes  laclcing  in  prompt- 
ness, yet  his  admirable  moderation  and  the  im- 
plicit trust  he  imposed  in  able  military  sub- 
ordinates did  much  to  re-establish  the  British 
empire  in  India.  In  1858,  when  the  govern- 
ment of  India  was  transferred  from  the  East 
India  Company  to  the  Crown,  Canning  became 
the  first  viceroy;  and  in  the  succeeding  year  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  earl.  From  that  time 
till  his  retirement  in  March  1862,  the  arduous 
task  of  undoing  the  mischief  wrought  by  the 
mutiny  devolved  upon  him,  and  his  great  suc- 
cess   was    a    witness    to    his   ability.    Consult 


wick,  8  Aug.  1827.  His  father  offended  his 
family  by  m^arrying  a  lady  of  beauty  and  ac- 
complishments, but  without  fortune,  and  died 
in  1771,  leaving  her  destitute.  She  however 
tived  to  see  the  success  of  her  son,  from  whom 
she  ever  received  the  tenderest  marks  of  filial 
k>ve.  Canning,  who  had  inherited  a  small  estate 
in  Ireland,  was  educated  at  Eton.  In  1787  he 
was  entered  at  Oxford.  His  vacations  were 
passed  with  Sheridan,  by  whom  he  was  intro- 
duced to  Burkt  Fox  and  other  distinguished 
Whigs.  But  althouf^  Sheridan  had  already  an- 
nounced him  in  Parliament  as  the  future  orna- 
ment of  his  party.  Canning  entered  into  terms 
with  Pitt,  by  whom  he  was  brought  into  Parlia- 
ment in  1793.  During  the  first  session  he  re- 
mained silent  In  17%  he  was  under-secretan 
for  foreign  aSairs,  In  1797  he  projected,  with 
some  friends,  the  Anti-Jacobin,  of  which  Gif- 
ford  was  appointed  editor.  Canning  contri- 
buted many  poetical  and  other  articles  to  this 
periodical,  the  happiest  of  his  efforts  in  this 
direction  being  the  <Needv  Knife-grinder.'  In 
1798  he  supported  Wilberforce's  motion  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  In  1800  Canning 
increased  his  fortune  and  influence  by  a  mar- 
riage with  Joanna,  daughter  of  General  Scott, 
a  lady  of  ample  fortune.  The  adminis- 
tration    being    dissolved     in     1801,  _  Canning 


tration.  A  political  misunderstanding  with 
Lord  Castlerea^  led  to  a  duel  between  that 
minister  and  Canning,  in  which  the  latter  was 
slightly  wounded.  This  dispute  occasioned  the 
dissolution  of  the  ministry.    In  1810  he  opposed 


the  reference  of  the  Roman  Catholic  claims  to 
the  committee  of  the  whole  House,  on  the 
groimd  that  no  security  or  engagement  had  been 
offered  by  the  Roman  Catholics.  Some  of  his 
most  brilliant  speeches  were  on  this  subject. 
The  adoption  of  the  measure  being  a  matter  of 
policy,  the  state  of  opinion,  the  condition  of 
affairs,  and  the  securities  with  which  it  should  be 
accompanied,  were  with  him  elements  of  the 
question.  He  proposed  securities  in  1813,  which, 
with  the  bill,  were  rejected.  He  supported  in 
1812  and  1813  the  same  motion  which  he  had 
0pi)O9ed  in  1810.  To  Canning  was  principally 
owing  the  first  blow  which  shook  the  throne  of 
Napoleon :  the  British  policy  in  Spain  was 
directed  and  animated  by  him.  In  1312  he  was 
elected  member,  for  Liverpool,  from  which  he 
was  also  rttumed  in  1814,  1818,  1820.  In  1814 
he  was  appointed  Ambassador  Extraordinary 
to  Portugal,  and  remained  abroad  about  two 
^ears.  In  1819  he  declared  his  decided  hostil- 
ity to  parliamentary  reform  in  whatever  shape 
(^  the  occasion  oi  the  proceedings  relative  to 
Queen  Caroline,  the  discartkd  wife  of  George 
iV,  he  declared  that  "toward  the  object  of  that 
investigation  he  felt  an  unaltered  regard  and 
affection* ;  and  soon  after  resigned  the  presi- 
dency o£  the  board  of  control  and  went  abroad. 
Having  been  nominated  governor-general  of 
India,  oe  was  on  the  point  of  embarking  when 
the  death  of  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry  called 
him  to  the  Cabinet  as  Secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  16  Sept.  1822.  One  of  ms  earliest  acts 
in  this  situation  was  to  check  the  French  in- 
fluence in  Spain,  the  French  havmg  sent  an 
army  into  that  country  to  put  down  the  revo- 
lutionary party.  By  way  of  withdrawing  the 
Spanish- American  colonies  from  French  influ- 
ence he  decided  to  recognize  their  independ- 
ence; thus,  as  he  afterward  phrased  it,  'calling 
the  New  World  into  existence  to  redress  the 
balance  of  the  Old.*  He  continued  to  support 
the  propositions  in  favor  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, and  in  1625  communicated  to  foreign 
ministers  the  determination  of  the  government 
to  appoint  chargts  d'affaires  to  Colombia,  Mex- 
ico and  Buenos  Aires. _  In  consequence  of  the  - 
attempts  made  by  S^ain  to  assist  the  malcon- 
tents of  Portugal,  It  was  immediately  deter- 
mined by  the  ministry  to  support  the  regency 
in  that  country,  and  troops  were  sent  to  Lis- 
bon in  January  1827.  On  12  April  1827  his  ap- 
pointment as  Prime  Minister  was  announced. 
His  administration  was  terminated  by  his  death, 
but  not  until  it  had  been  crowned  by  the  Treaty 
of  London  (6  July),  for  the  settlement  of  the 
affairs  of  Greece.  As  an  orator  Canning  was 
showy  and  graceful,  with  a  brilliant  wit  and 
caustic  satire,  though  neither  formed  on  a  very 
masculine  taste.  During  his  career  the  leading 
domestic  subjects  on  which  the  British  Parlia- 
ment was  called  upon  to  legislate  were  the  fol- 
lowing: the  liberty  of  the  press,  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  test  and  cor- 
poration acts,  the  corn-laws  and  reform  in 
Parliament  Those  of  a  forrign  nature  were; 
among  others^  the  various  overtures  of  peace 
between  Britain  and  France,  the  settlement  of 
Europe  on  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon,  the 
treatment  of  Italy  by  the  Austrians,  the  Span- 
ish revolution  and  recognition  of  the  South 
American  republics.  On  all  these  questions, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  he  supported  the 
high  Tory  side.     The  tidtA   excepnons  were 


Digitized  by 


Goo 


CANNING  — CAHNINQ  AND  PRBSSBVINO  INDUSTRY 


th«  emancipation  of  the  Roman  Catholks  and 
the  recognition  of  the  South  American  repub- 
lics. He  was  also  desirous  of  refonninf  the 
corn-laws.  Hi«  speeches,  edited  by  Thierry, 
were  pubUshed  in  six  volumes  in  1830.  Coti- 
sult  Stapleton,  'Political  Life  of  Canning' 
(1831)  ;  Stapleton,  'Canning  and  His  Times' 
£1835)  ;  Temperley's  <Life  of  Canning'  (1905)  ; 
Bago^  'GeorKe  Canning  and  His  Friendj' 
(1909);  Mamott,  'George  Canning  and  His 
Times'  (1905):  Lord  Dalling,  'Historical 
Cliaracien'   (1867). 


gincer:  b.  Wiltshire  1823;  d.  24  Sept.  1908. 
He  is  best  known  in  connection  with  tne  laying 
of  the  Atlantic  cables,  and  those  in  the  Medi- 


CANNING,  Stratford  ( Ist  Viscount 
SiRATFOBD  D£  KEDCLirFE),  English  dlplomatisi, 
cousin  of  George  Canning  (q.v.)  :  b.  London,  4 
Nov.  1786;  d.  14  Aug.  1^.  His  father,  Strat- 
ford Cannm^  who  lud  been  disinherited  owing 
to  an  imprudent  marriage,  and  had  gone  into 
business  as  a  merchant,  <ued  a  few  months  after 
his  son's  birth,  and  in  consequence  young  Strat- 
ford and  his  mother  removed  to  Wanstead. 
He  went  to  Eton,  and  in  1805  he  was  elected  to 
a  scholarship  at  King's  Ckjllege,  Cambridge. 
Before  graduating  he  was  in  1807  appointed  by 
his  cousin,  George  Canning,  then  Foreign  Sec- 
retary,  to  be  his  precis  writer,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  that  year  was  sent  as  second  secretaiy 
wilb  a  mission  to  Denmark.  la  the  following 
year  he  accompanied  as  first  secretary  an  im- 
portant mission  to  Constantinople,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  conclusion  of  a  trea^  of  peace 
with  the  Porte  on  5  Jan.  1809.  In  the  summer 
of  1810  his  chief.  Sir  Robert  Adair,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Vienna,  and  Canning  temporarily  suc- 
ceeded him  as  Ambassador  at  Constantinople. 
Before  the  arrival  of  Adair's  successor.  Can- 
ning made  his  reputation  as  a  diplomatist  by 
the  masterly  way  in  which  he  conducted  the  dif- 
ficult negotiations  which  led  to  the  signing  of 
the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  on  28  May  1812.  This 
treaty  put  ao  end  for  the  time  to  the  war  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey,  and  thus  left  Rus- 
sia free  to  resist  the  aovance  of  Napoleoa 
Moreover,  it  firmly  secured  English  predomi- 
nance at  Constantmople,  and  was  in  this  re- 
spect the  first  notable  triumph  in  the  tradi- 
tional British  policy  on  the  Eastern  Question 
In  1812  Canning  returned  to  London,  and  after 
declining  in  1813  the  offer  of  the  chief  secre- 
taryship to  Lord  Aberdeen's  Vienna  mission, 
accepted  in  the  following  year  the  post  of 
Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipoten- 
tiary in  Switzerland.  He  held  this  post  till 
1818^  and  was  completely  successful  in  his  en- 
deavors to  free  Switzerland  from  French  domi- 
nation and  to  erect  it  into  a  neutral  federal 
republic  Shortly  after  his  return  he  was  ap- 
pointed Ambassador  to  the  United  States  and  he 
arrived  at  Washhigton  in  the  autumn  of  1820: 
He  was  again  in  London  in  1823.  The  diplo- 
matic agreement  arrived  at  in  1824  was,  how- 
ever, thrown  out  by  the  United  States  Senate 
After  a  brief  but  important  mission  to  the  Rus- 
sian capital  he  was  again  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople in  October  1825  as  Ambassador.  In  the 
following  year  he  succeeded  in  again  patching 
up  a  peace  between  Russia  and  Turli^,  and 


of  insurgent  Greece.  N^otiations  were,  how- 
ever, abruptly  broken  ofi  by  the  Sultan's  indig- 
nation on  learning  of  the  battle  of  Navarino^ 
and  Canning  was  later  in  the  same  year  en- 
gaged, along  with  the  representatives  of  France 
ana  Rassia,  in  drawing  up  proposals  for  estab- 
lishing a  Greek  kingdom.  These  were  ulti- 
mately forced  on  the  acceptance  of  Turkey  in 
a  more  stringent  form  as  part  of  the  peace 
treaty  which  ended  the  Russo-TuHdsh  War 
of  1828-29.  In  1629  he  resigned  hit  position  and 
returned  to  England,  where  he  was  created 
G.C.B.    He  entered  Parliament  as  member  for 


ish  case  in  the  Saint  Croix-Saint  Lawrence 
bounda;^  dispute  with  the  United  States  for 
submission  .'to  tlie  King  of  the  Netherlands. 
After  acting  as  special  envoy  to  the  Porte  in 
1831^32,  and  to  Porti^al  in  1832-^3.  he  was 
in  1841  appointed  for  the  thiid  time  Ambassador 
at  Constantinople.  For  a  considerable  period 
he  was  mainly  engaged  in  assisting  and  encour- 
aging the  Sultan,  Abd-el>Mejid,  in  his  policy  of 
reform,  but  after  a  visit  to  England  in  1852, 
during  which  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  his 
efforts  had  to  be  directed  to  thwarting  Russian 
designs.  His  diplomatic  triumph  over  Prince 
Menichikoff  caused  the  Tsar  in  a  moment  of 
irritation  to  precipitate  the  Crimean  War.  He 
resigned  in  1858,  and  the  remainder  of  his  ca- 
reer was  passed  mainly  in  retirement.  In  addi* 
tion  to  a  few  volnmes  of  poetry,  he  published 
works  entitled  'Why  am  I  a  Christian?'  (1873), 
and  'The  Greatest  of  Miracles'  (1876).  A  se- 
lection of  his  articles  on  Eastern  affairs  was 
published  in  1881  under  the  title  of  'The  East- 
em  Question.'  See  'life'  by  Stanley  Lane- 
Poole  (1888). 

CANNING    AND    PRESERVING    IN- 


passed  the  experimental  stage 
of  the  leading  industries  of  the  country.  The 
inventive  genius  of  man  has  from  the  earliest 
times  turned  toward  some  method  of  prevent- 
ing articles  of  food  from  deteriorating,  and 
toward  some  way  of  preserving  food  so  that  it 
will  be  palatable  at  some  future  time.  "Desicca- 
tion* or  drying  was  probably  the  first  method 
used,  but  the  food  thus  preserved  lost  its  natural 
flavor  and  became  tough  in  texture.  Prior  to 
1750  this  method  of  drying,  and  that  of  using 
salt  and  sugar,  were  the  only  methods  in  use 
for  preserving  food  From  1809-10  a  French- 
man, Nicholas  Appert  <b.  1750;  d.  1841), 
evolved  a  plan  for  hermetically  sealing  foods 
for  use  at  sea,  and  his  process  was  purchased 
by  the  French  government,  which  gave  it  to 
manufacturing  firms  in  France  and  England 
for  use  in  producing  canned  goods.  Appert 
described  his  invention  as  an  inexpensive  and 
simple  method  of  preserving  various  sorts  of 
animal  and  vegetable  food  in  perfect  condition 
for  an  indefinite  period.  He  gave  the  world 
one  of  the  principles  involved  in  the  art  of 
canning,  and  since  his  time  there  have  been 
several  new  principles  discovered  equally  as 
important  as  his  steriUnng  process  which  did 
not  take  in  the  prevention  of  souring  prior  to 
sterilization.    There  have  also  beta  oAer  imr 


.Google 


CAHNUfO  AMD  PRESSRVUia  INDUSTRY 


provemeiits  in  machinery  especially  adapted  to 
the  prindples  involved,  whereby  cost  has  been 
enornious&  reduced,  so  that  food  preserved  in 
tins  is  within  reach  of  all  classes  of  consumers. 
He  was  later  awarded  a  priie  of  12,000  francs 
by  Napoleon,  but  spent  roost  of  this  money  for 
further  experiment  and  died  when  over  90 
years  of   atre,  after  having  seen  his  process 


patent  to  Peter  Durand  for  the  preservation  of 
fruits,  vegetables  and  fish  in  hermetically  sealed 
cans,  made  of  tin,  glass  or  other  fit  material. 
He  made  no  claims  to  the  discovery  of  the 
process,  and  it  was  stated  at  the  time  that  he 
received  his  infonnaCion  in  regard  to  it  from 
a  'foreigaer  residing  abroad.^  The  methods, 
despite  the  secrecy  in  their  use,  gradually  be- 
came known,  and  m  the  course  of  time  came  to 
America.  It  is  beheved  that  a  man  by  the  name 
of  Eira  Da^rett  was  the  first  to  put  the  prac- 
tice of  canning  goods  into  actual  use  in  this 
country,  in  the  years  from  1815  to  1818.  He 
with  his  son-in-law,  Thomas  Kensett,  began  to 
manufacture  hermetically  sealed  goods,  on  a 
large  scale  in  the  year  1819,  and  Uie  principal 
foods  thus  packed  were  salmon,  lobsters  and 
oysters.  A  patent  was  granted  tbent  in  1825  on 
the  use  of  the  tin  can,  or  "case*  as  it  was  then 
called,  and  they  immediately  started  the  use  of 
this  process  in  their  factory.  Glass  jars  were 
then  very  little  in  use,  because  of  their  cosdi- 
ness,  buUc  and  inability  to  withstand  the  ex- 
tremes of  temperature. 

In  1820  William  Underwood  and  Qiarles 
Mitchel  combined,  in  Boston,  for  the  purpose 
of  manufacturing  f^oda  in  hermetically  sealed 
cans.  The  principal  business  engaged  in  daring 
the  early  days  of  the  combination  was  the  prep> 
eration  of  pickles,  jams,  jellies,  sauces  and  mus- 
tard;  but  they,  also  put  up  quinces,  cranberries^ 
currants,  etc.  About  the  same  tim^  Allen  Tay- 
lor and  U.  Fallagher,  who  had  learned  their 
trade  in  Ireland,  came  to  this  country  and  were 
for  some  time  employed  in  New  York.  They 
with  Kensett  did  much  to  put  the  industry  on 
a  permanent  basis.  In  1839  William  Under- 
wood began  to  substitute  tin  for  glass,  though 
it  was  a  number  of  years  before  the  jar  and 
bottle  gave  way  entirely  to  the  'tin  can.*  The 
methods  of  can-making  were  for  many  years 
very  slow  and  primitive.  A  tinker  who  could 
turn  out  60  cans  a  day  was  a  master  workman, 
for  every  can  was  made  by  hand.  The  body 
for  each  had  to  be  measured,  marked  and  cut 
out  from  the  plate  by  hand  shears,  and,  to 
make  the  seam  or  lap  secure  and  air-tight,  it 
was  thought  necessary  to  pile  on  the  solder 
until  a  ridge  an  ei^th  of  an  inch  thick  was 
built  up  from  end  to  end.  It  was  also  a  slow 
and  difficult  operation  to  make  the  covers  and 
bottoms.  Eacji  one  had  first  to  be  drawn  on 
the  tin  with  compasses  and  then  cut  out  with 
the  shears,  and  finally,  with  a  mallet;  the  edges 


toms,  like  the  seams,  were  soldered  on  with  a 
heavy  beading  of  metal,  and  enough  solder  was 
used  on  one  can  to  make  a  dozen  of  to-day's 
manufacture. 

So  was  bom  Ae  tin  can  that  now  is  scat- 
tered in  every  direction,  along  the  paths  of 
travel  and  prepress;  but,  strange  enough,  this 
growing    iidant    had,    in    its    younger    days. 


another  name,  one  which  more  became  its  ia- 
fantile  and  clumsy  form  —  "The  Tin  Canister.* 
In  all  th«  correspondence  for  the  next  10 
or  IS  years,  cans  or  canned  goods  never  seem 
to  be  mentioned.  They  were  always  spoken  of 
as  hermetically  sealed  goods  in  canisters  or  tin 
cases,  In  the  salesbook  or  'Waste,'  as  it  was 
then  callecL  canisters  were  abbreviated  thus, 
"Cans,*  ana  probably  by  such  abbreviations,  tin 
packages  for  food  came  ultimately  to  be  known 

The  stamp-can  was  invented  in  1847  by  Allen 
Taylor  and  was  a  decided  improvement  over 
any  previously  made.  Two  years  later,  1849, 
Henty  Evans,  Jr.,  of  New  Jersey,  brought  forth 
the  'pendulum*  press  for  making  can  tops,  and 
so  the  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  cans 
has  gone  on  till  now  we  have  the  key-opened 
can,  the  invention  of  a  Mr.  Zimmerman,  while 
the  manufacture  of  cans  has  become  a  distinct 
industry  and  not  now  generally  connected  with 
the  canning  industry,  nearlv  10  per  cent  of 
those  now  in  use  are  made  Dy  the  canning  es- 
tablishments. These  cans  are  made  from  sheets 
of  tinned  steel,  14x20  inches  in  size  and 
weighing  about  one  pound.  The  objection  to 
tin  cans  as  containing  poisonous  acid  or  in- 
jurious substances  has  caused  the  methods  of 
manufacture  to  be  carefulhr  scrutinized,  so  that 
now  alt  cans  are  svbjectec  to  an  acid  prepara- 
tion for  removing  dirt,  grease,  etc.,  and  then 
coated  with  pure  tin  by  the  acid  process  or 
palm-oil  process,  the  latter  of  which  is  consid- 
ered the  safer. 

In  the  methods  of  co<^ng  there  have  been 
many  improvements^  the  slowness  and  low  tem- 
perature of  212°  F.  allowable  in  the  Apperl 
process  being  gradually  raised  by  the  use  of 
chloride  of  calcium,  till  now  a  temperature  of 
250*  F.  is  possible,  although  this  process  is 
more  expensive,  as  the  cans  become  discolored 
and  have  to  be  cleaned  before  they  can  be  put 
on  the  market  The  'closed-kettle*  process  of 
cooking  goods  by_  means  of  superheating!  ^''^^ 
with  steam  was  invented  by  A.  K.  Shnver  of 
Baltimore,  and  about  the  same  time,  the  in- 
vention of  the  patent-process  kettle,  securing 
similar  results  m  the  use  of  dry  steam,  was 
brought  out  by  John  Fisher  of  the  same  city. 
One  of  the  modern  systems  for  sterilization  is 
the  Continuous  Caldum  Process  System,  pat- 
ented by  the  Sprague  Canning  Machmery  Com- 
pany of  Chicago.  Another  is  the  Continuous 
Process  System  in  oil,  used  by  the  packers  of 
canned  meats.  Another  Is  the  Polk  Agitating 
System,  patented  by  Ralph  Polk,  of  Greenwood, 
Ind.  By  this  system  the  time  of  Sterihiation  is 
materially  shortened. 

The  c 

in  the  U --     -. 

become  of  much  importance  until  the  middle 
of  the  century,  but  from  1850  came  to  the  front 
by  leaps  and  bounds.  In  1889  the  products  of 
the  industry  were  valued  at  $46,600,000;  in  1899 
at  $99,33S,(»0;  in  1904  at  $130,466,000;  in  1909 
at  $162,000,000;  and  in  1914  at  $235,000,000. 
This  last  tremendous  increase  appears  to  be 
partly  fictitious,  owing  to  the  fact  that  more 
foods  are  now  reported  by  the  census  under  the 
heading  aS  <^nmng.°  For  instance,  condensed 
evaporated  milk  totaled  $58,747,000  in  1914,  or 
nearlv  one-sixth  the  entire  production. 

Hsmy  unaccountable  losses  were  met  nitlL 
when  in  certain  years  the  canned  goods  would 


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CANNIHQ  AMD  PBXSSKVING  INDUSTRY 


M7 


Dot  all  keep.  Numerous  theories  were  ezpen- 
mented  with,  in  vain  eSorts  to  leam  the  cause 
of  these  mysterious  deterioratioos. 

In  aome  cases  it  seemed  certain  that  spoiUuR 
was  caused  by  freezing.  Some  salmon  had 
been  stored  in  a  warehouse,  which,  during  the 
winter,  had  not  been  constantly  heated.  Many 
cans  of  this  lot  spoiled;  so  the  freezing;  theory 
was  atxepted  ancf  held  good,  until  some  other 
cans  from  the  same  packing  spoiled,  which 
could  not  posEihly  have  frozen.  To  explain 
this  new  pluse  of  the  sittation,  another  theory 
had  to  be  concocted. 

la  searching  for  the  probaUe  origin  of 
diese  mysterious  losses,  the  real  cause  was  not 
suspected.  The  exclusion  of  air  was  thouebt  to 
be  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  keep- 
ing the  goods,  and,  until  recently,  this  opinion 
has  prevailefL 

The  researches  in  bacteriology  in  1893-99  at 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Teduolosy 
brought  out  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  vtJt 
spoilage  of  canned  goods  was  due  to  imperfect 
sterilization  through  lack  of  sufficient  heat  to 
destroy  all  bacteria.  This,  however,  accoimted 
for  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the  spoilage  caaeai 
There  are  several  other  causes  which  have  been 
brout^t  out  by  the  research  woik  of  Edward 
W.  Duckwall,  M.S.,  in  the  Sprague  Caitners' 
Laboratory,  an  institutioii  which  was  foimdcd 
in  August  1903  by  Mr.  Daniel  G.  Trench  of 
Chicago.  (The  name  of  this  laboratory  hds 
since  been  changed  to  the  National  Canners' 
Laboratory).  It  was  discovered  that  a  large 
per  cent  of  what  is  known  as  'sour°  cpm  and 
peas  was  due,  not  to  insufficient  iherilizatioiL  but 
to  souring  which  had  been  accomplished  by 
bacteria  in  the  raw  product  J>rior  to  toe  steribx- 
ing  process.  It  was  also  discovered  that  some 
of  we  spoilage  was  diM  to  the  evolution  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  seeds  of  certain 
fruits  and  v^etables.  The  germ  hfe  of  the 
seeds  was  not  destroyed  by  the  heat,  and  car- 
'  bonic  add  was  liberated  when  the  seeds 
sprouted  in  the  cans.  Gradually  all  obsta* 
cles  are  being  overcome;  new  processes  have 
been  invented^  the  purity  of  the  canned  article 
has  been  proved  by  expert  chemists  and  the 
manufacture  has  become  general  in  every  part 
of  the  United  States  where  fruits  or  vegetable! 
are  grovta  or  where  the  supply  of  &sh  and  tes- 
ters is  nearbv. 

The  installation  of  labor-saving  machinery, 
the  rcmarbble  growth  in  the  number  of  firms, 
the  dechne  in  the  market  value  of  the  goods, 
made  necessary  uniform  grades  and  rates  of 
sale  throughout  the  country.  In  October  1872 
the  first  organization  of  canned  «oods  packers 
met  in  Phtladelphia,  but  this  was  only  short- 
lived, and  it  was  not  until  February  1883  that 
a  permanent  exchange  was  established.  The 
■Canned  Goods  Exchange"  of  Baltimore  was  at 
that  time  organized,  with  the  intention  of  hav- 
ine  sales  on  the  floor  daib'j  but  after  a  thorough 
tnal  they  abandoned  that  plan  and  adopted 
grades  for  ^oods,  and  ndes  and  terms  govem- 
ins  transactions.  These  exchanges  began  rap- 
idW  to  come  into  existence.  In  1885,  the 
■Western  Canned  Goods  Packers'  Association* 
was  formed,  composed  of  those  doing  business 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  In  the  same  year 
the  New  York  State  packers  organized,  and  two 
years  later  those  of  New  Jersey  and  Virginia, 
la    May    1689    the   National   Association  was 


formed  at  Indianapolis,  followed  by  the  'Penin- 
sula Packers'  Association*  of  Delaware,  formed 
in  1894,  and  the  "Atlantic  States  Canned  Goods 
Packers'  Association'  of  Baltimore,  organized 
in  the  fall  of  the  same  year. 

The  localization  in  the  canning  industry  is 

Erincipally  due  to  climatic  conditions.  Califomia 
as  forged  ahead  and  monopolized  one-fourth 
of  the  industry.  New  York  producing  over  10 
per  cent  and  Maryland  7^  per  cent,  in  1914. 
Thus  we  have  Illinois,  Maine,  Iowa,  New  Yotic, 
Ohio  and  Manrland  as  the  principal  com-iMck' 
ing  States;  l^ryland.  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
Indiana,  Virginia  and  Califomia  as  the  tomato- 
canning  States;  while  Wisconsin,  New  York, 
Illinois  and  Ohio  produce  die  hu^st  amount 
of  canned  milk:  Maine  is  the  principal  packer 
of  sardines,  while  Washington  and  Oregon 
monopolize  the  salmon  canneries.  Peaches  are 
principally  canned  in  Califomia,  Maiylan^ 
Uiditgan  and  Geoi^;  New  York,  Michigan, 
Maryland,  Califomia  and  Maine  put  ini  the 
major  portion  of  the  apples  packed,  tnoi^ 
the  indnstry  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  in 
Washin^n  and  Oregon.  Pean  are  packed 
mainly  m  California,  New  York  and  Mary- 
land,  while  luneapples  are  ahnost  wholly 
paidDed  in  Baltimore,  Md.  Beans  are  canned 
mainly  in  Indiana,  New  York,  Marirlsnd  and 
Illinois;  peas  in  Wisconsin  and  New  York; 
prunes  and  raisins  are  dried  ahnost  wholly  in 
Califomia;  nearly  all  the  salt  fish  is  packed 
in  Massaehusetts. 

For  general  purposes  of  cotmarison,  the 
canning  and  preserving  industry^  may  be 
divided  on  the  lines  of  the  United  States 
ocDSus  statistics  into  four  distinct  classes: 
Frttita  and  ve^taUes ;  fish,  both  canned 
smoked  and  dried;  oysters  and  clams;  and 
pickles,  preserves,  jellies  and  sauces;  and  i 


preserving  of  fruits  and  vegetables  gives  em- 
ployment to  over  50,000  persons;  that  of  fish 
to  9,000;  and  that  of  oysters,  etc.,  to  over  2.00a 

Finita  and  VegetaMea.— Fruits  were  the 
first  foods  to  be  successfully  canned,  as  the 
low  temperature  used  in  die  early  methods 
was  more  eauly  applied  to  thb  class  of  goods 
because  less  heat  is  required  to  preserve  them 
than  all  others.  Glass  bottles  were  filled  up 
to  the  neck,  loosely  corked,  and  then  placed 
in  tepid  water,  the  temperature  of  which  was 
gradually  raised  from  170'  to  190°  F.,  re- 
maining there  for  a  period  varying  from  30 
to  60  minutes  according  to  the  article  being 
pctiserved.  In  1823  Pierre  Antoine  Angilbert 
made  an  improvement  on  this  method  1^ 
placing  the  fruk  in  a  tin  can  containing  water, 
then  placiDg  on  the  cover  in  which  there  was 
an  aperture  to  allow  for  gas  escape.  It  was 
then  placed  in  water  and  heat  applied;  after 
boiling'  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  Uie  aperture 
was  closed  by  a  drop  of  solder, 

Not  much  is  known  of  this  brandt  of  the 
canning  industry  between  the  years  1820-45, 
and  it  probably  was  not  very  extensive,  and  it 
is  certain  diat  tomatoes  and  coro  were  not  put 
up  to  any  great  extent  during  those  years.  It 
appears  from  a  narrative  presented  by  William 
Lyntan  Underwood  that  his  grandfather,  Wil- 
liam, began  to  use  the  Appert  process  about 
1820,  and  exported  preserved  goods  to  Manila 
in  1^1.    In  1830  he  padied  pie  fnut  in  bottles, 


[ig 


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CANNING  AND  PRBSBKVING  INDUSTRY 


and  in  1630  imporled  tomito  seed.  His  son, 
William  J.,  has  a  label  used  in  1845  on  ■her- 
metically sealed  tomatoes,*'  and  which  contains 
the  following :  *This  is  prepared  by  strainiiiK 
the  skins  and  seeds  from  the  tomatoes,  evap- 
orating the  panicles  by  slow  heat.  The  bottles 
contain  the  substance  of  about  two  dozen 
tomatoes,  and  it  will  keep  good  any  length 
of  time.*  The  style  of  the  label  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  those  now  in  use.  In  1847  Harrison 
W.  Crosby,  when  he  was  steward  of  Lafayette 
College,  at  Eastoii,  Pa.,  first  used  tin  cans  to 
seal  tomatoes  hermetically,  and  in  1893  the 
canning  of  com  was  begun  b^  two  firms,  one 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  one  in  Portland,  Me. 
The  establishment  in  Portland  gained  little 
headway  until  1&52,  in  which  year  Isaac  Wins- 
low,  who  was  in  charge,  applied  for  a  patent 
on  his  process,  but  which  was  not  granted 
bim  until  8  April  1862.  His  method  was  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  the  Appert  process,  with 
the  exception  that  the  first  cooking  was  done 
away  with  by  the  introduction  of  "cookers,' 
which  are  steam  retorts  used  to  cook  the  com 
before  placing  it  in  the  can.  Prior  to  1846 
numerous  canneries  were  in  operation  in  New 
York,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Portland  and  East- 
port,  lie.,  and  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  it  was 
in  the  latter  place  that  the  fruits  and  vegetables 
were  prepared  for  Kane's  Arctic  Eitpeaition. 

In  I860  factories  began  to  sfiring  up  in  all 
tiie  great  fruit  and  vegetable  raising  sections  of 
the  country.  The  Middle  West  loomed  Dp  as 
a  manufacturing  centre.  Thomas  Duckwall 
erected  the  first  canning  factory  in  Claremont 
County  near  Cincinnati,  and  Albert  Fisher  fol- 
lowed at  Cincinnati.  A  few  years  later  a  can- 
nery was  started  at  Cirdeville,  Ohio,  and  at 
Indianapolis,  Ind.  Frcm  that  time  up  until 
1880  factories  sprang  up  all  over  the  Middle 
States  like  mushrooms. 

California  then  began  to  be  heard  of,  and 
rapidly  came  to  the  front  as  a  producer  of 
canned  fruits,  now  being  in  the  lead  in  the  pre- 
serving and  canning  of  small  fruits,  such  as 
the  plum,  pear,  peach  and  cherry,  and  such 
vegetables  as  asparagus,  tomatoes  and  peas. 
The  dried  fruit  industry,  in  which  prunes  and 
raisins  lead,  and  which  has  reachecf  its  fullest 
development  in  California  now  exceeds  in 
volume  the  production  of  canned  fruit. 

The  canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables  has 
grown  more  rapidly  in  the  last  30  years  than 
any  other  branch  of  the  industry,  due  to  the 
greater  territory  in  which  it  may  be  carried  on 
and  to  the  unlimited  cullivation  of  these 
articles.  The  canned  vegetable  branch  of  the 
industry  yielded  products  of  $29,000,000  in 
1899.  $53,000,000  m  1905,  and  $84,000,000  in 
1914.  The  dried  fruit  production  of  1909  was 
$22,000,000,  and  about  $35,000,000  in  1914, 

The  tomato  has  proved  the  most  popular 
of  canned  vegetables,  and  the  manufacture  in 
1909  was  valued  at  $18,747,000,  rising  to  $25,- 
532,000  in  1914.  Com  and  peas  represented  a 
value  of  about  $1S,000,000  each,  and  beans  $16,- 
500,000.  Of  fruits  peaches  now  lead,  apples 
having  fallen  into  fifth  place.  Of  dried  fruits, 
raisins  and  prunes  are  far  in  the  lead.  In  1915 
leading  canneries  contracted  for  the  largest 
acreage  recorded  to  that  date— 190.105  for 
sweet  com,  140,000  for  tomatoes  and  102,000  for 
peas,  this  last  figure  being  a  reduction  from 
the  1914  acreage,  contracted  for,  of  126,000. 


Flab. —  All  die  known  processes  are  used 
in  the  preservation  of  fish,  which  of  all  foods 
is  the  most  rapid  Co  putrefy.  Smoking  and 
drying  are  the  older  methods,  and  they  are 
still  in  use.  The  Hollanders  put  up  fish  in 
cans  long  before  the  Soddington  and  Appert 
methods  were  known.  About  1845,  sardine 
canning  was  successfully  established  on  the 
coast  of  France.  Prior  to  1843  the  canning  of 
fish  in  the  United  States  was  little  known,  bat 
in  that  year  lobster  and  mackerel  canneries 
were  successfully  established  at  Eastport,  Ue, 
and  the  business  grew  rapidly  till  1860,  when 
the  supply  of  lobsters  decreased  and  the  preju- 
dice against  the  canneries  resulted  in  the  enact- 
ment of  strict  laws  restricting  the  rime  of 
operation  of  canneries  and  the  canning  of  short 
labsten,  so  that  in  1895  the  last  factory  so 
engaged  suspended,  and  in  1900  there  were  no 
lobsters  canned.  Mr.  Underwood  established 
the  first  lobster-packing  factory  in  this  country 
at  Harpswell,  Me.,  in  1848,  and  in  1853  started 
a  factory  for  packing  salmon  at  Bathburst, 
N.  B.,  at  one  time  the  only  source  of  supply. 
Quantities  of  this  fish  were  sent  to  California 
prior  to  salmon  being  taken  from  the  Columbia 
River.  He  died  in  1864,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  firm  of  William  Underwood  Company,  of 
which  his  grandson,  H.  O.  Underwood,  is 
president.  Prior  to  1864  salmon-canning  was 
carried  on  to  a  small  extent,  but  after  that  year 
the  industry  grew  rapidly;  factories  were 
established  on  the  Pacific  Coast  at  Washing 
ton,  Cal.,  on  the  Sacramento  River,  and  in 
1866  on  the  Columbia  River.  Perhaps  the  most 
striking  illustration  of  the  growth  of  this  busi- 


TOOd, 


Home  &  Company,  consisting  of  William 
jic,  G.  W.  Hume  and  A.  5.  Hapgoo^, 
uuined  a  few  cases  of  salmon  on  the  Sacra- 
mento River,  where  William  Hume  had  been 
a  bunter  and  fisherman  for  several  years. 
William  Hume  carried  the  samples  around  to 
introduce  them,  using  a  basket  for  that  pur> 
pose,  from  which  the  salmon  were  sol±  In 
1866  the  business  was  transferred  to  Eagle 
Cliff,  Wash.,  on  the  Columbia  River,  where 
William  Hume  had  been  prospecting  the  year 
before,  and  there  (in  1866)  the  first  Columbia 
River  Royal  Chinook  salmon  were  packed, 
thus  introduring  to  the  trade  what  is  unques- 
tionably the  finest  food-fish  known.  That  year 
they  packed  about  4,000  cases  of  48  l-pound 
cans  each,  or  192,000  cans.  Most  of  this  was 
shipped  to  Australia,  selling  at  about  $4  in 
Sjofd  (which  was  at  a  heavy  preminm  at  that 
time),  and  a'  small  amount  was  shipped  to 
New  York,  around  Cape  Horn,  bringing  $5 
per  doien  there  at  wholesale.  In  1883  there 
were  in  Alaska  5  canneries,  which  in  six  years 
increased  to  37  with  an  output  of  714,196  cases. 
Next  in  importance  comes  the  sardine  can- 
ning of  Maine,  which  did  not  come  to  a  point 
of  success  until  1875,  and  this  branch  of  the 
business  outranked  all  others.  The  process  ot 
putting  up  fish  is  extensive  and  complicated, 
and  since  the  beginning  of  the  industry  many 
changes  have  been  made,  more  especially  in 
the  time  allowed  for  cooking,  softening  the 
hones  of  the  fish,  and  in  filling,  capping.  label- 
ing and  boxing  the  same.  Up  to  IBSO  the 
business  done  in  this  line  was  very  small,  but 
gradually  grew  after  that,  and  the  establisb- 


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CAHHINO  AND  PRB8SKVING  INDUSTRY 


ments  at  Eastport,  Robinson,  Lubec,  Jones- 
port,  East  Lamoine  and  Camden,  all  in  Maine, 
are  now  thriving. 

Besides  the  fishes  named,  smelt,  stui^eoiL 
menhaden,  halibut,  Spanish  mackerel,  eels  and 
herring  are  put  up  m  large  quantities.  The 
canning  of  fish  is  ^nerally  divided  into  five 
classes;  H)  Those  plain  boiled  or  steamed, 
which  include  salmon,  mackerel,  halibut,  lob- 
sters, etc.;  (2)  those  preserved  in  oil,  of  which 
sardines  constitute  the  major  portion;  (3)  those 
preserved  with  vinegar,  sauces,  spices,  etc^ 
among  which  are  herring,  eels  and  sturgeon; 

(4)  those  cooked  with  vegetables,  namely, 
fish  chowder,  clam  chowder  and  codfish  balls; 

(5)  those  preserved  by  any  other  process, 
such  as  smoking  and  salting,  and  which  are 
put  into  cans  for  convenience.  Smoldag  and 
salting  of  fish  is  principally  confined  to  the 
Eastern  States  lying  along  Uie  Atlantic  Coast, 
althoi^h  the  industry  is  carried  on  to  some 
extent  in  the  Pacific  Slates. 

In  1S5S  one-pound  lobsters  sold  at  $2.75  and 
salmon  at  $4  a  dozen.  No  one  believed  turn 
when  Wilham  J.  Underwood  made  a  predic- 
tion that  the  prices  of  salmon  and  lobsters 
would  cross  each  other  during  his  generation, 
tbe  lobster  tending  upward  and  the  salmon 
dropping  down,  a  situation  which  has  come 
about  even  earlier  than  he  anticipated. 

The  canned  fish  production  of  1909  was 
$14,500,000;  smoked  fish  $3,000,000.  and  salt 
fish  $7,000,000.  In  1914  the  total  canned  fish 
production  rose  to  $19,000,000;  smoked  fish  fell 
oS  to  $2,760,000  and  salt  fish  increased  to  over 
$8,000,000. 

Ovaten  and  Clami.— The  oyster  is  a 
lamellibranch  or  bivalve  mollusk  o{  the  genus 
Ottraa,  the  most  important  in  commercial 
value  to  be  found  in  American  waters  being 
Ostraa  virgittiaaa,  which  are  generally  found 
attached  to  some  solid  substance  in  the 
bracidsh  waters  at  tbe  mouth  of 


Cod  and  Long  Island  Sound,  but  the  constant 
fishing  up  to  1860  soon  depicted  these,  and  the 
supply  in  the  public  beds  along  the  coast  of 
Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 
ware would  have  been  exltausted  lonp  a^  but 
for  the  systematic  breeding  and  cultivation  of 
this  succulent  bivalve.  Maryland,  Louisiana, 
California,  Mississippi  and  South  Carolina  are 
now  the  chief  sources  of  supply. 

The  canning  of  oysters  has  grown  ^mul- 
taneously  with  the  canning  of  fish,  and  die  two 
were  generally  carried  on,  in  the  early  days  of 
the  industry,  under  the  same  roof.  Thomas 
Kensett  was  probably  the  pioneer  of  oyster 
canning,  and  commenced  operations  in  Balti- 
more as  early  as  1820,  later  being  followed  by 
others,  but  it  was  not  until  1850  that  the  in- 
dustry was  put  on  a  permanent  basis.  Origi- 
nally, the  oysters  were  opened  by  hand,  but 
L.OU1S  UcMurray,  of  Baltimore,  introduced,  in 
1858,  a  new  method,  that  of  scalding  the 
oysters  before  removing  the  shells,  and  this 
method  made  the  removal  of  the  oyster  from 
die  shell  much  easier.  Two  years  later  steam- 
ing took  the  fJace  of  McMurray's  mediod,  and 


this  process  consisted  of  placing  the  oysters 
in  baskets  having  a  capacity  of  mree  pedes  or 
more,  and  then  putting  diese  baskets  into  a 
box  throu^  whidi  steam  was  passed.  In  1862 
Henrv  Evans  introduced  the  method  of 
"bucking,'  his  process  being  as  follows;  The 
ousters  were  placed  in  cars  of  iron  frameworit, 
SIX  to  c^fat  feet  long,  which  held  about  20 
bushels  oi  unshucked  oysters;  the  cars  were 
tlien  tun  on  a  track  from  the  wharf  to  an 
air-tight  and  stftam-tight  box;  after  steaming 
for  about  IS  minutes,  the  cars  were  run  into 
tbe  shucking  shed  and  opened;  after  shuckii^ 
they  were  washed  in  ccAi  water,  packed  in  air- 
tight cans,  hermetically  sealed  and  weired; 
the  cars  were  then  run  on  a  track  to  a  steamer 
and  treated  to  a  sufficient  degree  to  kill  all 
germs  of  fermentation,  and  then  cooled  off  in 
a  vat  of  cold  water.  The  total  cost  of 
handling  a  bushel  of  oysters  by  this  method 
was  estimated  at  29  cents.  In  canning  the 
variety  of  oysters  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
the  following  process  was  introduced  i'   '""" 


mercial  vinegar  and  one-tenth  gill  of  a  sat- 
urated aqueous  solution  of  salicylic  acid,  to 
which  mixture  sufficient  common  salt  is  added 
to  impart  tie  requisite  salty  flavor  to  the 
oyster.  The  mixture  is  boiled  a  few  minutes 
and  poured  over  the  oysters  in  the  cans,  which 
are  at  once  sealed  and  placed  in  a  steam  bath, 
the  temperature  of  wbicb  is  202°  F.  This 
temperature  is  gradually  raised  to  240°,  and 
maintained  at  that  degree  for  about  40  minutes- 
The  cans  are  then  vented,  reaealed  and 
steamed  as  before  for  about  30  minutes,  after 
wbicb  th^  are  ready  to  be  labeled  and  lacked." 

It  seems  rather  extraordinary,  but  in  1850 
oysters  were  packed  in  Boston,  which  found  a 
ready  sale  in  direct  competition  with  Baltimore, 
goods,  and  for  a  number  of  years  tbere  was 
considerable  rivalry  between  the  two  markets. 
The  oysters  were  brou^t  from  the  coasts  of 
New  Brunswick  and  Prince  Edward  Island, 
and  were  said  to  have  a  finer  flavor  and  to 
keep  much  better  than  those  from  the  warmer 
waters  of  the  South.  They  were  packed  in 
one-  and  two-pound  canisters,  and  large  sales 
were  made  in  Saint  Louis  at  $4  and  17.50  per 
dozen,  llie  canned  oyster  production  of  1909 
was  valued  at  $2,443,000,  and  clams  at  $402,000. 
In  1914  the  figures  increxsed  to  $2,677,000,  and 
$67D,00a 

PicklM,  PisMTves,  JalUes  aod  Saocu. — 
This  important  branch  of  the  industry  is  of 
more  recent  develiqiment.  It  can  hardly  be 
called  canning  because  most  of  it  is  put  up 
in  ^ass.  The  methods  of  cooking  and  pre* 
serving  are  very  similar.  The  trade  consists 
mainly  of  branded  goods  whose  sale  is  created 
and  maintained  largely  by  advertising.  The 
brands  are  put  up  attractively,  trade  marks 
are  used  to  protect  ihem,  and  notwithstanding 
critidsms  of  pure  food  agitators,  they  have 
moved  steadily  forward  in  pc^ular  favor.  The 
goods  packed  in  glass  are  more  liable  to  con- 
tact with  the  air,  and  therefore  the  mannfao 
tnrers  have  depended  more  on  >  artificial  pre> 
servatives,  of  which  benzoate  of  soda  is  the 
most  common.  Hie  difficulties  of  making  the 
goods  keep  and  of  avoidiBtc  harmful  preserva- 
tives seems  to  have  been  met  successfully,  as 


1  by  the  vast  sale.    In  1909  the 


ifully, 
total 


fof 


d=y  Google 


CANM12ZARO  —  C  ANMOH 


was  ?66,00Ofl0O  worth. 

Cuuung  Tools  and  Procaua.—  In  1876, 
at  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  Philadelphia, 
the  Ferracute  Machine  Comiany,  of  Brii^ie- 
ton^  N.  J.,  displayed  a  collection  of  tools  for 
making  cans  and  cannerl'  Roods,  and  imme- 
diately thereafter  secured  larKe  sales.  To 
Oberltn  Smith,  president  of  the  concern,  and 
also  for  a  time  president  of  the  American 
Society  of  .  Uechanical  EJigineers,  must  be 
given  a  great  deal  of  the  credit  for  supplying 
canneries  with  simple  and  inexpensive  machin- 
ery. A  line  of  presses  was  marketed  for 
stamping  out  the  tops  and  parts  of  cans  of 
all  sizes;  gasoline  fircpots  were  made  for  heat- 
ing the  capping  steels  and  tinning-cowers,  or 
tools  for  closm^  the  cans.  These  fire-pots 
were  provided  with  air-pumps  for  drinog  air 
into  the  gasoline  tanks  and  thus  forcing  out 
the  oil,  which  was  vaporiied  by  the  heat  aad 
burned  as  a  gas  under  the  pot.  These  pots 
for  heating  the  soldering  toob  are  designed 
to  stand  on  the  capping- tables  where  the  tops 
of  the  cans  are  soldered.  Among  special 
machines  made  for  the  caimer  are  hulling 
machines  with  a  capacity  of  1,000  bushels  of 
peas  in  10  houra,  and  rotary  seiJarators  that 
grade  the  peas  into  sizes  at  about  two-diirds 
this  speed.  There  are  also  pea'sieves  for  sort- 
ing peas  in  small  quantities,  and  pca-blandhers 
for  scalding  and  blanching  ^eas.  There  are 
corn-cutters  on  the  market  with  a  capacitjr  of 
4,000  ears  an  hour,  and  com-iilking  machines 
for  removing  the  silk  and  refuse  from  the 
com.  Many  automatic  can-Allinf;  machines 
will  handle  1,200  cans  an  hour.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  machines  for  handling  the 
different  fruits  and  vegetables,  as  well  as 
numerous  parers,  graters,  corers  and  seeders. 

In  canning  fruit,  steam-boilers  are  necessaiy 
to  suppW  the  various  tanks  and  kettles,  which 
are  used  in  washing  and  scalding.  Baskets  of 
heavy  galvanized  wire  are  used  for  handling 
tomatoes  and  various  fruits  when  dipping  into 
the  scalding  kettles.  For  iteam-«ooking  a 
common  method  is  to  fill  a  large  wire  tray 
with  filled  cans  which  have  been  capped  but 
not  wholly  dosed,  a  vent  being  left  for  the 
escape  of  air  and  steam.  Immediately  after 
cooking,  while  yet  hot,  this  vent  is  sealed  with 
a  drop  of  solder,  so  that  the  destructive  germ 
has  no  chance  to  enter.  Salmon  is  cooked  and 
sealed  afterward  in  the  same  manner. 

St>tistici<— Calif omia  is  now  the  leading 
State  in  the  canning  and  preserving  industry. 
Her  production  increased  120  per  cent  in  the 
decade  ending  in  1909,  in  which  latter  year 
over  $33,00(^000  worth  of  goods,  mostly  canned 
fruits,  were  placed  to  her  credit,  this  being 
20  per  cent  of  the  country's  total.  New  York 
was  the  second  State,  with  $19,000,000  pro- 
duction, and  Maryland  has  fallen  to  third 
place  with  $14,700,000,  Washington  advanced 
from  13th  to  fourth  rank  with  a  production 
of  $9,600,000,  a  gain  of  88  per  cent;  Pennsyl- 
vania continued  the  normal  output  of  $9,500,- 
000;  Indiana  developed  wonderfully,  showing 
$8,758,000,  a  gain  of  158  per  cent.  The  other 
States  of  large  production  are  Maine,  Illinois, 
Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Oluo  and 
New  Jersey.  Of  these,  Wisconsin  is  making 
the  most  rapid  progress,  showing  an  advance 


of  253  per  cent  in  the  census  period.  There 
is  really  only  one  State  that  shows  a  consider- 
able falling  ofi  in  canning,  Mississippi,  where 
the  fish  Bnd  oyster  industry  has  decayed. 

The  average  number  of  people  employed 
in  canning  and  preserving  in  the  United  States 
is  72,0O0t  but  this  is  a  very  variable  fi^re, 
because  canning  is  largely  a  seasonal  business. 


.  from  100,000  to  155,000,  September  bemg 
the  busiest  month.  Nearly  one^half  of  the 
employees  are  women  and  children,  but  the 
proportion  of  men  increases,  and  the  disposi- 
tion to  employ  children  diminishes. 

A  total  of  $119,000,000  capiul  b  inverted  in 
the  industry;  the  earnings  are  nominally  $235,- 
OOC^OOO,  but  subtracting  the  cost  of  the  ma- 
terials, the  real  income  being  the  value  added 
by  manufacture,  gives  about  $85,00(^000  as  the 
rtal  measure  of  the  industry  annually. 

Cmables  H.  0)chrame, 
A*ihor  'Modem  ittdtutrial  Progress* 

CANNIZZARO,    kan-ne-tsa'rd    StanlsUo. 


chemistpf  at  Pisa.  In  1848  he  was  a  tnember 
of  the  Sicilian  Parliament  and  had  part  in  the 
revolution  in  Sidly.  In  1852  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  Alessandria;  in  185/  in 
Genoa;  in  1860  in  Palermo;  and  in  1870  in 
Rome.  He  emphasiied  by  clear  definition  the 
difference  between  atomic  and  molecular 
weights,  and  was  one  of  die  most  influential  in 
establishing  Avogadro's  law  as  a  maxim  of 
chemical  sdence.  He  also  discovered  benzyl- 
atcohol  and  cyanamide.  He  wrote  'Sunto  di 
un  Corso  di  Filisofia  Chemica,  e  Nota  Sulle 
Condensazioni  di  Vapore'  (1880);  'Relazione 
Sulle  Analisi  di  alcune  Acque  potabili'  (1882) ; 
and  'Abriss  eiaes  Lehrganges  der  theoretis- 
chen  Chemie,*  which  appeared  in  Ostwald's 
'Klassiker  der  exakten   Wissenschaften.* 

CANHOCK,  England,  an  urban  ■  district 
and  parish  in  West  Staffordshire,  eight  miles 
north-north  west  of  Walsall,  in  the  district 
known  as  Cannock  Chase,  which  is  rich  in  coal 
and  ironstone.  Manufactures  of  boilers,  edge- 
tools,  bricks  and  tiles  are  carried  on,  and  there 
are  numerous  collieries.    Pop.  (1911)  28,586. 

CANNON,  Annie  Jump,  American  astron- 
omer :  b.  Dover,  Dd,  11  Dec  1863.  A  student 
at  Wellesley  College,  she  was  engaged  in  1897 
as  staff  assistant  in  Harvard  Cofiese  observa- 
toiv  and  in  1911  became  curator  of  astronom- 
ical photographs.  During  her  photographic 
work  she  discovered  three  new  stars,  one 
spectroscopic  binary  and  150  variable  stars, 
and  completed  a  voluminous  bibliography  of 
variable  stars  with  4S,(KX)  references.  Sne  also 
wrote  'Second  (Catalogue  of  Variable  Stars' 
(1907);  'Maxima  and  Minima  of  Variable 
Stars  of  Long  Period'  (1909);  and  "William 
Paton    Fleming'    (1911). 

CANNON,  Frank  jenne,  American  politi- . 
cian,  son  of  George  Q.  Cannon  (q.v.)  :  b.  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah,  25  Jan.  1859.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  Utah  in  1878,  and 
in  the  same  year  engaged  in  the  printing  busi- 
ness, acquiring  interests  also  in  western  miniiifc 
enterprises.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Repubh- 
can  National  Convention  in  1892  and  1896,  and 
a  delegate  to  Congress  from  the  Tertitoiy  of 


d=,  Google 


CANNON  — CAHO 


611 


Utah  in  1895.  In  1896,  against  the  wishes  of 
the  Monnon  leaders,  he  became  candidate  for 
and  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
serving  until  1S99.  As  a  result  of  polidcal 
differences,  ^^  separated  himself  from  the 
Uormon  Church  and,  joining  the  Democratic 
party  in  1900,  was  State  chairman  from  1902 
to  1904.  He  became  managing  editor  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  News  and  contributed  articles 
on  ^litical   subjects   to   magazines.        He   has 

fublished  'Under  the  Prophet  in  Utah,'  with 
larvey  J.  O'Higgina  (19U),  and  'Brirfiam 
Young  and  the  Mormon  Empire*  (1913). 
Both  works  are  exposes  of  conditions  in  Utu 
under  the  Mormon  domination. 


CANNON,  George  Quale,  American  poli- 
tician: b.  Liverpool,  England,  11  Jan,  1827;  d. 
Monterey,  Cal.,  12  April  1901.  He  went  with 
bis  parents  to  Nauvoo,  111.,  in  1844,  and  was 
one  of  the  earliest  settlers  in  Salt  Lake  Gty. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  leraslative  council 
of  Utah  in  1865-66  and  1869-72,  and  was  ■» 
delegate  lo  Congress  from  1872  to  1881,  where 
he  was  seated  only  after  a  long  fight  against 
him  on  the  ground  thai  he  was  a  poly  gam  bt. 
At  a  Constitutional  Convention  at  Salt  Lake 
City  in  1872  he  was  chosen  to  present  the  con- 
stitution and  memorial  to  Congress  for  the 
admission  of  the  Territory  '"to  the  Union  as 
a  State.  He  translated  the  'Book  of  Mormon* 
into  the  Hawaiian  language.  He  held  various 
positions  of  importance  in  the  Church,  includ- 
ing that  of  first  councillor  after  1880,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  pamphlets  in  support  of 
Mormonism,  and  a  biography  of  Joseph  Smith 
(1888).  His  son,  Frank  J.  Cannon,  was  elected 
one  of  the  first  two  United  States  senators 
from  Utah  in  1896. 

CANNON,  Henry  White,  American  bank 
president:  b.  Delhi,  N.  Y,  27  Sept.  1850.  He 
was  educated  at  Delaware.  Academy  in  his  na- 
tivc  town  and  engaged  in  banking.  He  was 
comptroller  of  the  currency,  1884-85,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  International  Monetary  Con- 
ference at  Brussels  in  1892.  He  is  a  director 
of  several  important  railroads  and  of  the  u!an- 
hattan  Trust  Company,  and  was  president  of 
the  Chase  National  Bank  in  New  York,  1886- 
1904.  He  is  vice-president  and  director  of  the 
United  States  Guarantee  Company,  and  of  the 
Brooklyn  Union   Gas ,  Company. 

CANNON,  Tames  Graham,  American 
financier :  b.  Delhi,  N.  Y.,  1858.  A  brother  of 
Henry  White  Cannon  (q.v.),  besides  b«ing  di- 
rector in  several  banks  and  influential  corpora- 
tions, he  was  for  some  time  president  and 
director  of  the  Fourth  National  Bank  of  New 
York.  He  is  author  of  the  standard  work 
'Oearing  Houses;  Their  History,  Methods  and 
Administration*  (New  York  1908),  and  of  an 
address  *Oearing  Houses  and  Currency* 
(1913). 

CANNON,  Joseph  Gnmey,  American 
politician:  b.  Guilford,  N.  C,  7  May  1836. 
Admitted  to  the  Illinois  bar,  he  was  State's 
attorney  of  Vermillion  County,  1861-68.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1873  to  1891, 
»nd  again,  _  1893-1903.  He  was  20  years  on 
the  Committee  on  Appropriations,  and  its- 
chairman  in  the  55th  and  56th  Congresses.  He 
was  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
iD_  the  59th  and  many  succeeding  Confesses. 
n;c  ...,.».„^,.  power  was  grexlly  limited  by 


His 


the  House  resolution  of  19  March  1910,  en- 
larging the  Committee  on  Rules  and  taking 
its  appointment  from  the  speaker  and  giving 
it  to  the  House.  In  1911  Champ  Clark,  Demo- 
crat, succeeded  him  as  speaker,  and  in  1912, 
be  failed  of  re-election  as  representative  but 
was  elected  from  the  18th  Illinois  District  to  the 
64th  Congress  (1915-17).  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  reactionary  branch  of  the  Republican 
party,  to  whose  methods  the  downfall  of  the 
party  in  1912  was  generally  attributed. 

CANNON,  William  Austin,  American 
botanist:  b.  Washington,  Mich.,  23  Sept.  187a 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Michigan  and 
at  Columbia  University  and  from  1903-05  was 
resident  investiptor  at  the  Desert  Laboratory. 
He  became  staff  member  in  1905,  and  1911-12, 
was  acting  director  of  the  department  of  botan- 
ical research  of  die  Camegie  Institution.  He 
is  author  of  'Studies  in  Plant  Hybrids* 
(1903);  'Studies  in  Heredity  as  Illustrated  by 
Uie  Trichomcs  of  Spedes  and  Hybrids  of  Jug- 
lans,  (Enothera,  Papaver  and  Solanum* 
(1909);  'Root  Habits  of  Desert  Plants* 
(1911)  ;  'Botanical  Features  of  the  Algerian 
Sahara*   (1913). 

CANNON.     See   Ordnance. 

CANNON-BALL  TREE,  a  .large  tree 
(Cotiroupila  guianensis)  of  the  family  Lecy- 
ihidaceee,  a  native  of  Guiana,  with  a  hard, 
woody,  globular  fruit  six  or  ei^t  inches  in 
diameter  —  whence  the  popular  name  of  the 
tree.    It  has  large  white  or  rose-colored  flowers 

Kiwins  in  clusters  on  the  stem  and  branches, 
e  pulp  of  the  friut  is  pleasant  to  eat  when 
fresh. 

CANNSTADT,  kan'st^t,  CANNSTATT, 
or  KANSTATT,  Germany,  town  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  district  on  the 
Nedtar,  two  miles  northeast  of  Stuttgart  with 
whidi  It  was  incorporated  in  1905.     Its  antiq- 


_.  has  celebrated  and  much -frequented  mineral 
springs.  The  Neckar  is  here  crossed  by  three 
bridges.  The  newer  portion  of  the  town :  is 
well  built,  with  handsome  streets  and  pleasatit 
recreation  grounds.  Overlooldng  the  Neckar, 
near  by,  is  the  castle  of  Wilhehna,  Of  late 
years  Cannstadt  has  entered  to  a  considerable 
extent  into  industrial  pursuits,  iind  has  rail- 
way shops,  and  flourishing  manufactures  of 
machinery,  cooking  utensils,  woolen  goods,  fur- 
niture, electrical  supplies,  etc  It  suffered 
much  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and 
throu^  the  repeated  invasions  of  the  French. 
It  was  the  scene  of  the  victory  of  the  French 
under  Korean  over  the  Austrians  under  Arch- 
duke Charles,  21  July  1796.  Pop.  26,497.  Con- 
sult Beck,  'Cannstatt  and  the  New  Neckar 
Bridge*    (Cannstatt  1893). 

CANO,  ka'no,  Alonzo,  Spanish  painter, 
sculptor  and  architect:  b.  Granada,  19  March 
1601;  d  5  Oct.  1667.  When  quite  young  he 
went  to  Seville,  where  he  studied  both  painting 
and  architecture,  and  at  Madrid  bi  1637  he  be- 
came intimate  with  Velasquez  who  helped  him 
in  many  ways,  among  others  by  introducing 
him  at  court  where  he  became  a  court  painter 

1639.     He  was  forced  to  leave  Madrid  in 


returned  to  Madrid  and  was  there  subjected 


d=,  Google 


612 


CANO— CANOE 


to  the  rack.  But  his  innocence  being  proved  he 
went  to  Granada  where  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  and  where  he  was  made  a  canon,  and 
chief  architect  of  the  cathedral,  to  which  he 
devoted  much  of  his  attention,  carving  statues 
and  painting  jjictures  for  it.  He  became  so 
distinguished  in  each  of  these  arts  that  his 
countrymen  called  him  the  Michelangelo  of 
Spain,  although  the  title  is  due  more  to  his 
versatility  than  to  any  resemblance  in  points 
of  genius  to  the  great  Florentine.  His  'Con- 
ception of  the  Virgin,'  in  the  church  of  San 
Ehego,  at  Granada,  is  considered  his  master- 
piece.  His  works  in  sculpture  and  architec- 
ture are  numerous.  Amon^  the  best  of  these 
works  are  his  series  of  pictures  'The  Seven 
Joys  of  the  Vir^n,'  bis  busts  of  Adam  and 
tve  and  his  vanous  statuettes  of  the  Virfjin. 
In  carefulness  of  design  and  in  the  execution 
of  his  work  Cano  ranks  high ;  but  in  the  mas- 
tery of  coloring  he  is  inferior  to  the  really 
great  artists  of  his  day.  His  contemporaries 
ranked  him  with  Velasquez,  but  time  nas  not 
sustained  this  verdict. 

CANO,  Jaau  Sebastian  del,  Spanish  navi- 
»ktor:  b.  Guetaria,  about  1460;  d.  on  the 
Pacific  4  Aug.  1526.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  circumnavigate  the  globe  (1522),  as  captain 
of  one  of  Magellan's  fleet,  which  he  after- 
ward commanded.  In  1525  be  was  placed 
second  in  command  of  a  similar  expedition 
and  became  its  commander  by  the  death  of 
Loaisa. 

CANO,  Helchlor,  Spanish  theolofdan:  b. 
Tarancon  1523;  d.  Toledo,  30  Sept.  1560.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Dominican  order  and 
an  opppnent  of  the  Jesuits.  He  was  professor 
of  theology  at  the  universities  of  Alcantara 
and  Salamanca,  and  was  made  bishop  of  the 
Canaries,  but   did  not  live  in  his   see.       He 


other  theological  works.  He  was  sent  as  the 
representative  of  the  Crown  to  the  Council  of 
Trent  in  1551  to  maintain  the  court  theological 
traditions.  His  complete  works  were  published 
at  Padua  in  1720. 

CANOE,  k?-noo',  a  light  boat  designed  for 
propulsion  with  a  paddle  or  paddles.  The  term 
IS  very  commonly  used  to  designate  the  small 
vessels  used  by  uncivilized  people  living  near 
the  water.  The  name  is  of  West  Indian  origin, 
the  Carib  word  being  ean&oa.  Canoes  are 
built  in  divers  forms  and  of  various  materials. 
The  primitive  canoes  were  light  frames  of 
wood  over  which  skins  or  barks  of  trees  were 
Stretched.  The  most  common  form  was  the 
hollowed  tree-trunk;  the  excavation,  before 
the  advent  of  adequate  cutting-loo  Is,  being 
accomplished  by  means  of  fire.  This  form  is 
of  wide  distribution,  being  found  in  Africa, 
South  and  Centra)  America,  China  and  the 
islands  of  the  south  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans. 
In  the  form  known  as  a  "dugout*  it  is  com- 
mon in  the  United  States.  AJfnong  the  island 
races  of  the  Pacific  the  stability  of  the  canoe 
is  largely  increased  by  the  adoption  of  an 
outrigger,  which,  of  varying  forms,  prevents 
capsizing  on  the  one  side  by  its  weight  and 
leverage,  and  on  the  other  by  its  bu03^ncy. 
Many  of  these  islanders  sew  planks  together 
to  form  their  canoes,  making  the  joints  water- 
ti^t  by  nMans  of   gums,  etc.        Others  use 


double  canoes  united  by  a  strong  platfoim. 
Such  a  vessel  is  capable  of  carrying  a  num- 
ber of  persons  and  a  considerable  lading.  In 
South  America,  where  large  trees  are  abundant, 
very  large  canoes  are  constructed.  The  same 
is  true  of  Africa,  where  the  war-canoes  of  the 
native  kings  carry  very  large  crews.  Thev  are 
often  fantastically  carved  and  ornamented. 

As  stated  above,  the  propelling  force  of  the 
canoe  is  usually  the  paddle,  but  sails  are  often 
used,  particularly  on  sea-going  craft. 

The  Esquimaux  canoe  is  known  as  a  iayak. 
This  consists  of  a  light  wooden  or  bone  frame 
covered  with  seal-skins  sewed  together  with 
sinews.  The  skin  covering  extends  across  the 
top,  forming  a  water-tight  deck  with  but  one 
opening  amidships  to  admit  the  boatman,  A 
hoop  IS  fitted  to  this  opening,  and  after  the 
boatman  has  entered  he  fastens  himself  in  by 
means  of  an  apron  so  that  the  whole  boat  is 
water-light,  and  he  becomes^  as  it  were,  part 
of  the  craft.  So  intimate  is  this  union,  and 
so  skilful  are  the  Esquimaux  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  kayaks,  that  the  boatman  can 
with  a  twist  of  his  paddle  capsize  the  craft  and 
turn  completely  around  under  water,  coming 
up  again  on  the  op^site  side  to  that  he  went 
over.  The  paddle  is  about  10  feet  long  and 
double-bladed.  The  oomiak,  or  women's  boat, 
is  also  made  of  seal-skins  sewed  over  a  frame- 
work; but  it  is  of  large,  even  clumsy  build, 
and  but  for  its  propulsion  by  paddles  mif^t  be 
classed  as  a  boat  rather  than  as  a  canoe.  It  is 
designed  as  a  transport  for  women,  children 
and  household  goods  rather  than  for  the  chase, 
for  which  the  kayak  is  prindpally  used. 

The  Aleuts  build  large  skin  boats,  somewhat 
resembling  the  Esquimaux  oomiak,  which  are 
propelled  by  paddles.  Such  a  boat  is  known  as 
a  bidarkee.  Other  tribes  of  the  west  coast 
build  large  canoes  of  wood,  the  war-vessels 
being,  like  those  of  Africa,  curiously  decorated. 

A  peculiar  form  of  canoe  is  found  in  the 
Kootenai  district  and  on  the  Columbia  River, 
While  most  canoes  are  constructed  with  the 
bow  and  stern  either  perpendicular  or  with  a 
flaring  overhang,  these  Kootenai  craft  are 
shaped,  both  at  bow  and  stern,  like  the  ram  of 
a  warship.  In  other  words,  the  greatest  length 
is  along  the  bottom.  These  canoes  are  gener- 
ally about  15  feet  long  and  are  constructed 
with  a  li^t  framework  of  cedar  covered  with 
spruce  or  white-pine  bark.  This  bark  is  cut 
off  in  one  piece  in  the  spring,  when  the  sap  is 
running,  and  is  turned  inside  out,  bringing  the 
smooth  side  in  contact  with  the  water.  TTie 
canoes  are  sewed  with  rawhide  or  tendons, 
and  cracks  and  knot-holes  are  stopped  with 
resin.  Two  squaws  will  make  a  canoe  in  four 
or  five  days;  the  chief  difficulty  being  to  get 
the  bark  off  whole  and  to  turn  it  wrong  side 
out  successfully. 

The  North  American  Indiana  have  brouf^t 
the  canoe  to  its  highest  state  of  perfection. 
With  the  most  frail  material,  larch  bark,  they 
construct  a  craft  so  light  that  it  may  be  carried 
by  one  man,  and  yet  so  strong  and  buoyant  that 
it  will  carry  a  very  considerable  load.  A 
framework  of  light  but  tough  wood  is  covered 
with  sheets  of  birch  hark,  which  are  sewed 
together,  the  seams  being  waterproofed  with 

gms,     TTiey  are  propelled  b_y  means 
_    -bladed  paddle,  which  is  diiiped  on 
side  only    (a  slight  twist  correcting  the 


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aJternately  on  either  sitte.  Tbe  use  . 
birch-bark:  canoe  by  the  Indians  of  the  United 
States  b  rapidly  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past; 
but  the  art  of  buildinf;  them  has  been  preserved 
by  tbeir  construction  as  pleasure-craft 

A   form   of    canoe   of  recent  invention  i» 
solely    for   pleasure.     About    1865    John 


craft  of  cedar,  about  14  feet  lone  and  2  feet 
in  beam,  depth  10  inches  to  16  inches,' entirely 
decked  over  with  the  excepiion  of  a  ■well"  in 
which  the  canoeist  sits.  This  is  propelled  by 
means  of  a  double-bladed  paddle,  but  a  short 
mast  enables  the  carrying  of  a  sail.  In  a 
:  of  this  type,  which  he  named  the  Rob 


fjords.  From  this  early  model  other  forms 
have  been  evolved,  notably  the  Nautilus  and 
Shadow  types.  Water-tight  compartments  en- 
sure permanent  buoyancy.  Centre-boards 
counteracl  leeway  when  under  sail  on  a  wind. 
The  interior  space  is  so  arranged  as  to  pro- 
vide a  sleeping-place  for  the  cmiser. 

There  are  many  canoe  clubs  in  the  United 
States,  England  and  Canada,  and  .the  canoe 
may  be  seen  on  all  the  coastwise  and  inland 
waters  of  those  countries,  as  well  as  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  Consult  MacGregor,  'A 
Thousand  Miles  in  the  Rob  Roy  Canoe>  (18%)  ; 
'The  Rob  Roy  on  the  Baltic' ;  Powell,  W.  B., 
'Canoe  TraveUng'  (J8?!);  Aldeii,  W.  L., 
•Canoe  and  the  Flying  Proa'  (New  York 
1878)  ;  Hayward,  T.  D.^  <CampinK  out  with  th« 
British  Canoe  Association' ;  Vaux,  C.  B_ 
'Canoe  Handling'  (New  York  1888)  i 
Stephens,  'Canoe  and  Boat  Building^  (New 
York  1881);  'Canoea  uid  Canoeing,'  'Spald- 
ing's Athletic  Library'  (New  York,  annually), 
CANON,  ka'non,  Tohann,  Austrian  painter: 
b.  Vienna,  13  March  1829;  d.  there,  12  Sept 
1885.  He  studied  with  Rahl,  but  imitated  Uii 
old  masters  more  closely.  He  entered  the 
Austrian  army  and  in  1848-5S  Tvas  lieutenant 
of  cuirassiers,  but  even  while  in  the  army  had 
given  much  attention  to  painting  and  finally 
devoted  his  whole  time  to  it.  His  name  first 
became  known  through  his  pictnre  'The 
Fishermaiden,'  exhibited  in  18S8.  His  work  in- 
cludes genre  pictures,  historical  paintings,  and 
w>rtraits;  the  latter  are  thout^t  to  resemble 
Rubens  or  Van  Dyck  in  style.  Among  his 
other  paintings  are  'Cromwell  Beside  the 
Corpse  of  Charles  I' ;  'The  African  Lion 
Hunt';  'Flamingo  Hunt';  and  the  'Fish 
Market'  His  decorative  paintings  are  in 
Vienna,  Karlsruhe  and  New  York.  There  is 
a  moninnent  dedicated  to  him  at  Vienna.  Con- 
sult his  obituary  in  'Zeitschrift  fiir  bildende 
Kunst*    (1886). 

CAfiOH.  Sec  Canvom;  Gbamd  Camvon. 
CANON  (Greek,  a  mie,  measure  or  stand- 
ard). 1.  In  the  arts. —  When  art  has  succeeded 
in  producing  beautiful  forms  the  question  arises, 
with  what  proportions  beauty  of  form  is  united: 
Artists  of  i^enius  first  started  this  question,  and 
imitators,  inferior  to  th?m  in  talents,  scrupu- 
lously followed  their  results,  and  naturally  ex- 


»18 


alted  lome  existing  work  into  a  model  for  evei? 
performance.  Among  the  Greeks  the  celebiaied 
statuary  Polycletus  (452-412  ac.)  first  insti- 
tuted such  inquiries;  and  as  he  generally  repre- 
sented youthful,  pleasing  figures,  it  is  probable 
that  he  fixed  the  standard  of  beauty  in  the 
youthful  form.  The  canon  (the  model  statue) 
of  Polydetus  was  accordingly  a  statue  whicn 
was  made  principally  for  the  purpose  of  show- 
ing the  beautiful  prcyortions  of  the  human  form 
in  ayontfa  just  ripening  into  manhood.  No  copy 
of  it  is  known  to  exist;  the  artist  probably 
gave  his  model  of  proportion  a  guiet,  simple 
attitude,  without  any  strong  distinguishing 
marks.  His  successors  imitated  it  without  de> 
vlation.  .  Polycletus  vns  not  the  only  Gredc 
artist  who  pursued  such  investigations  respect- 
ing the  m3portioQ3  o£  form.  Among  the 
nodems,  Diirer  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci  hav« 
devoted  themselves  to  similar  inquiries. 

2.  In  Scriptural  literature,  a  term  employed 
to  designate  the  collection  of  books  con- 
taining the  mle  or  standard  of  primitive 
Christianity;  dial  is^  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  The  canon  of  the  books  ol 
tiie  OW  Testatment,  as  contained  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  receives- in  this  form  equal  respect  among 
all  Oristians,  because  (Hirist  and  the  apostles 
have  expressly  appealed  to  them,  and  in  this 
way  pronounced  them  writings  inspired  by  God. 
There  are  certain  books,  however,  belonging  in 
subject  to  the  Old  Testament,  but  whose  canoni- 
cal character  the  Jews  did  not  acknowledge,  and 
which  Protestants  class  together  under  the  head 
of  Apocrypha,  and  reject  from  the  canon.  For 
these  there  is  only  a  Greek,  and  not  a  Hebrew, 
text  The  Western  Churdi  accepted  them  as 
canonfcat  in  the  African  councU,  about  the  end 
of  the  4tb  century;  but  the  opinions  of  the 
elerKy  respecting  them  remained  for  a  long  time 
divided.  Saint  Jerome  denied  their  canonicity, 
and  many  theologians  coincided  widi  him.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  finally  declared  them 
canonical  Jn  the  Council  of  Trent.  (Sec  APOC- 
Byfha).  Respecting  the  number  of  books  be- 
longing to  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament^  the 
(»)inions  of  Christians  were  much  divided  till 
tfte  6th  century.  As  early  as  the  2d  century  the 
separation  was  made  into  the  EvangeKcon  (the 
four  Evangelists)  and  the  Apostolion  (the 
Acts  and  Epistles  of  th«  Apostles).  The  five  his- 
torical books,  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  the  First 
Epistle  of  Peter,  and  the  Krst  Epistle  of  John 
were  universally  acknowledged  to  be  ^nuine 
in  the  3d  century;  hence  EJisebius,  in  his  'Ec- 
clesiastical History.'  written  about  325  A.a, 
calls  them  Homologomena  (universally  re- 
ceived). ITie  other  five  Catholic  epistles 
(Second  of  Peter,  Second  and  Third  of  John, 
Jude  and  James)  he  calls  Antitegomena  (doubt- 
ful, not  universalV  received).  At  that  time  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  considered  genuine 


of  flie  4th  century  in  the  Egyptian  Churtjl 
(where  Athanasius  lirst  used  the  term  canoni- 
cal), and  in  the  Western  Chnrch.  In  the  East- 
em  CThurch,  property  so  called  (the  dioceses  of 
the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Antioch  and 
Jerusalem),  orAy  the  Catholic  epistles  were  of 
canonical  authority  at  that  time;  the  Apocalypse 
not  til!  the  6th  century.  The  canon  of  the  New 
Testament  has  since  remained  unaltered,  and 
the  Protestant  churches  liold  it  in  conunon  with 


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caRon  city—canon  law 


the  Greek  and  Catholic  cfaurcUesi  The  results 
of  critical  examiaations  of  the  genuineness  and 

canonical  character  of  the  single  books  of  the 
Bible,  even  when  they  were  unfavorable  to  the 
books,  have  produced  no  alteration  in  the  estab- 
lished canon.  The  reasons  of  the  ancient 
fathers  of  the  Church  for  or  against  the  canoni- 
cal character  of  the  biblical  bodes  were  merely 
historical  and  traditional,  and  built  on  philologi- 
cal critidam ;  they  are  still  the  most  tenable  and 
rational ;  the  philosophical  grounds  are  mare 
sobject  to  be  affected  by  extraneous  influences. 
For  bibliograi^y  see  Baix 

3.  /h  eeclesiaslical  use,  a  rule  or  law  of  doc- 
trine or  discipline  as  established  by  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority.  The  term  is  further  applied  to 
various  matters  of  church  organization  and 
ceremony;  also  to  books  containing  the  rules 
of  religious  orders^  etc.,  and  to  a  list  or  cata- 
logue of  acknowleoged  and  canonized  saints  in 

'  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Another  distinctive  ecclesiastical  use  of  the 
term  is  that  which  designates  a  dignitary  pos- 
sessing a  prebend,  or.  revenue  allotted  for  the 
performance  of  divine  service  in  a  cathedral  or 
collegiate  church.  Canons  were  originally 
priests  who  lived  in  community,  appointed  to 
assist  the  bishop  in  his  duties,  ana  supported 
by  the  revenues  of  the  bishopric  Secular 
canons  are  those  who,  in  progress  of  time^  have 
left  off  the  custom  preyaleut  in  monasteries  of 
living  a  community  life,  and  have  the  privilege 
of  enjoying  the  returns  of  their  respective  bene- 
fices. The  obligations  of  the  canom  are  cot>- 
tained  under  three  beads:  (1)  The  duty  of  re- 
siding in  the  place  where  the  church  they  be- 
long to  is  situated;  (2)  assisting  at  the  canoni' 
cal  offices  which  are  celebrated  in  the  church; 
and  (3)  attending  the  meeting  of  the  chapter 
at  the  appointed  times.  They  cannot  be  absent 
from  their  benefices  for  a  longer  period  than 
three  months,  and  are  obliged  to  sing  or  recite 
their  ofHce  in  choir.  In  their  collective  capacitjr 
they  are  called  a  chapter,  and  form  the  council 
of  the  bishop.  In  each  chapter  there  are  digni- 
tades.  The  name  was  originally  applied  to  all 
the  clergy,  but  was  afterward  confined  to  those 
who  were  connected  with  the  cathedral  church, 
or  to  specially  privileged  churches. 

4.  In  rmisic,  with  the  ancient  Greeks,  the 
term  cation  signified  what  now  is  called  mono- 
chord.  At  present  it  signifies  a  composition  in 
which  the  several  voices  be^n  at  fixed  inter- 
vals, one  after  the  other,  and  in  which  each 
successive  voice  sings  the  strain  of  the  preced- 
ing one.  In  Italian,  therefore,  it  is  called  fuga 
di  conseguenza;  in  Latin,  canon  perpetuus,  or 
continuous  fugue;  in  German,  Kreisfuge  (circu- 
lating fugue).  Sometimes  each  voice  oegins 
with  the  same,  sometimes  with  different  notes. 
The  phrase  orpassage  for  imitation  is  called  the 
theme  or  subject,  the  imitatioi^  the  reply. 
Canons  may  be  finite  or  infinite.  The  former 
end,  like  any  other  compositions,  with  a  cadence, 
while  the  infinite  canon  is  so  contrived  that  the 
theme  is  begun  again  before  the  parts  which 
follow  are  concluded.  A  canon  may  oiasist  of 
two,  three,  four  or  more  voices.  Canons  differ 
from  ordinary  fugues ;  for,  in  the  latter,  it  is 
sufhcient  that  the  subject  be  occasionally  re- 
peated and  imitated  according  to  the  laws  of 
counterpoint-  but,  in  the  former,  it  is  essential 
that  the  subject  be  strictly  repeated  by  all  the 
succeeding  parts ;  which  repetition  may  be  made 


in  the  unison  or  octave,  the  fourth,  or  the  fifth, 
or  any  other  interval  of  the  scale.  There  are 
several  other  canons,  as  canon  polymorphus, 
canon  per  diminutionem  and  canon  per  augmen- 
lationem.  Sometimes,  also,  a  musical  passage 
of  a  composition  in  which  one  voice  repeats  for 
a  short  time  another  is  called,  improperly,  a 
canon,  Consuh  Ouseley's  'Treastise  on  Coun- 
terpoint, Canon,  and  Fugue*  (1S69). 

S.  In  printing,  canon  is  the  name  given  to  a 
large  tvpe  which  is  so  called  from  the  early  use 
of  it  tor  printing  the  canon  of  the  mass  and 
the  Church  service-books. 

CARON  city,  Colo.,  a  dty  and  county- 
seat  of  Fremont  Coimty,  situated  on  the 
Arkansas  River,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Grand 
Canon,  and  on  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande, 
and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  F^  r^l- 
roada.  It  is  a  well-known  health  resort,  over 
5,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  with  an  excellent 
climate  and  hot  and  cold  mineral  springs.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  State  penitentiary  ana  Odd 
Fellows'  sanatorium  and  home,  an  academy  for 
voun^  women,  and  has  a  Carnegie  library,  two 
hospitals,  seven  public  parks  and  a  hot-water 
natatorium.  The  city  has  abundant  water 
power,  with  an  excellent  ^vity  system ;  the 
soil  is  fertile,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  rich  de- 
posits of  iron,  coal,  silver,  copper,  marble,  lime- 
stone and  petroleum.  Fruit  growing  is  an  im- 
portant industry,  and  there  arc  canning  and 
brick  and  tile  factories,  a  lar^  smelter  and  a 
reduction  mill    Pop.  (1910)  5,162. 

CANON  FINCH,  TOWHEE,  WREN. 
See  Finch,  Towhse,  Wren. 

CANON  LAW.  Canon  law  is  so  named 
because  it  consists  of  rules  or  canons,  wtuch  are 
established  to  gtiide  the  faithful  to  eternal  hap- 
piness. In  a  strict  sense,  canon  law  comprises 
ony  those  laws  which  emanate  from  an  ecclesi- 
asbcal  authority  that  has  supreme  and  universal 
jurisdiction.  In  a  wide  sense,  it  takes  in  also 
those  laws  enacted  for  the  ^ood  of  the  faithful 
by  anyone  having[  ecclesiastical  authority.  The 
sources  or  fountains  from  which  canon  law  has 
originated  are  sacred  Scripture;  divine  tradi- 
tion; laws  made  by  the  Apostles;  teachings  of 
the  Fathers;  decrees  of  the  sovereign  pontiffs; 
ecumenical  councils;  certain  congregations  of 
cardinals  under  orders  of  the  Pope ;  custom, 
which,  however,  could  in  no  case  be  contrary  to 
divine  law,  common  sense,  good  manners,  pub- 
lic order  or  the  spirit  ana  the  rights  of  the 
Church.  The  Old  Testament  contains  three 
sorts  of  precepts,  moral,  ceremonial,  judidaL 
The  moral  code  remains  in  full  force  under 
canoa  law:  the  ceremonial  and  judicial  laws 
have  lapsed.  The  New  Testament  is  the  chief 
source  of  ecclesiastical  law.  It  contains  also 
dogmas  of  faith,  but  with  these  canon,  law 
does  not  deal  except  in»hrectly.  By  tradition  b 
meant  a  doctrine  not  written  by  its  first  author, 
but  conveyed  by  word  of  mouth.  Usual^  it  is 
subsequently  put  into  writing.  Traditions,  con- 
sidered in  their  source,  are  divine  or  human. 
Divine  are  those  which  have  God  for  their  au- 
thor, and  which  the  Apostles  recdved  dther 
directly  from  Christ  or  by  the  suggestion  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  Human  traditions  are  termed 
apostolic  if  they  originate  with  the  Apostles,  or 
ecclesiastical  if  they  come  from  the  successon 
of  the  Apostles,  called  bishops  of  the  Church. 
Divine  traditions  bind  all  the  faithful;  human 


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CAHOHLAW 


BIB 


oahr  tlxue  of  the  localtiiu  and  dma  to  viuck 
they  are  ^iplkable.  Some  of  the  toactmeiUs 
■ttribttted  to  the  A^stlet  aic  Ae-  Apostles' 
Creed;    abttmence    tnm    dtiogi   sacrificed   to 


Creed;    __ 

idoli  and  from  blood  and  from  things  strangledL 
part  of  nrfHcb  prohibition  has  l^Med;  the  sub- 
stitudon  of  Snnd^  for  the  Sabbath  of  the 
Jews;  the  msthution  of  certain  feast  d^s;  the 
fait  of  Lent.    The  scnteitces  of  the  Fathers,  ap- 

t raved  by  the  Church  and  made  into  tmivenU 
iwi  by  coondls  or  the  Roman  pontifli^  are  pait 
of  canon  tew.  Hies*  sayings  were  not  inictted 
in  the  collection  of  canons  before  the  6th  cen- 
tury, John  Scbolasticus  being  the  first  to  do  this 
'n  the  East  in  that  ccn^iry,  and  Kegino  first  in 


lions  or  decrees  of  the  Roman  pontiSs  consti- 
tute the  chief  louice  of  canon  law;  in  fact,  the 
entire  canon  law  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  tenn 
is  based  upon  the  ksislative  authority  of  Hie 
Pope.  To  understaiM  this  it  is  necessary  to 
retail  that  in  the  Catholic  doctrine  all  authority 
m  the  Oiurch  comes  from  ahov^  not  only  in 
the  office  of  priesthood,  but  alio  m  die  matter 
of  jurisdictioii  or  pow^  of  ruling.  Catholic 
writers  hold  that  the  primacy  or  heajdsbip  in  the 
Oiuni  was  cstabliahed  by  Christ  in  Peter  be- 
fore the  priesthood  was  conferred  on  him  and 
the  odier  Apostles,  the  purpose  of  the  Saviour 
being  to  effect  unity  in  his  organization.  The 
Church  thus  organiied  is  a  spiritnal  monarchy; 
electire  it  u  true,  but  not  an  aristocracy  or 
democracy.    Other  religious  organisations  bold 

Suite  the  opposite  doctrine  and  would  make 
leir  unity  a  coalition  of  equal  parts.  This 
point  of  primacy  of  the  Roman  pontiff  is  also 
Ae  line  of  scnaiation  between  the  canon  law  of 
the  West  and  that  of  the  separated  Gredc  and 
die  Russian  churches,  the  review  of  which  is 
given  later  in  this  article.  Ecumenical  councils, 
whose  decrees  aiv  a  source  of  canon  law,  are 
those  meetings  of  the  bishops  of  the  Church 
tfarougbont  the  world,  whidi  are  held  tmder  the 
presidency  of  the  Pope  or  his  lentes,  and 
whose  acts  are  by  him  confirmed.  l%ere  are 
20  councib  recoBuied  as  ecumenic:  the  first 
being  that  of  Niam  in  325;  the  latest  that 
of  tnc  Vatican  in  1870. 

During  the  first  duee  centuries,  the  Church 
was  adnunistered  according  to  the  Scriptures 
on^  and  the  rules  laid  down  bv  the  Apostles  and 
bishops,  as  occasion  required.  Thus  Clement, 
the  (fisciple  and  successor  of  Peter,  mentions 
the  rule  given  by  the  Apostles  concerning  the 


in  hie  epistles,  exhorts  his  followers  diligently 
and  tenaciously  to  observe  the  traditions  of 
die  Apostles.  Thus,  too,  in  the  controversy  con- 
cerning the  celebration  of  Easter,  the  contest- 
ants on  each  side  alleged  the  apostolic  tradition. 
But  councils  were  held  at  Ancyra  and  Neo- 
Cesnixa  in  314,  at  Nicsea  in  325,  at  Antioch  in 
322,  at  Sardica  in  347,  at  Gangra  from  362  to 
370;  at  Laodioea  between  337  and  381,  at  Con- 
stantinople in  381,  at  Ephesus  in  431,  and  in  the 
coundl  of  Chalcedon  in  451  a  collection  of 
canons  made  up  from  these  previous  councils 
was  read  and  partly  authorized  for  the  entire 
Church.  With  the  exception  of  those  of  Sar- 
dica, which  are  in  Latin,  the  canons  of  all 
these  early  cotmcils  were  formulated  in  Gredc 
Tlie  name  of  the  compiler  of  this  first  collection 
M  unknown  and  few  of  these  early  canons  have 


reached  oar  timea,  only  their  tenor  being  Imown 
tbfou^  subseqnent  use  in  the  Western  Church, 
espeaali^  in  Spain.  After  the  emperors  as- 
sumed the  Christian  religion,  ecclesiastical  legis- 
lation became  important,  and  the  laws  of  the 
Churdi  were  therefore  in  the  year  438  inserted 
in  his  collection  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius  IL 
Valentiniao  III  afterward  adopted  this  collec- 
tion for  the  West.  About  this  time  — the  latter 
half  of  the  5th  century  — a  compilation  was 
made  of  the  so-called  apostolic  canons  and  con- 
stitutions together  with  decrees  of  some  of  the 
coimcili.  Originallv  there  were  50  canons 
calkd  apostolic,  but  their  number  was  afterward 
increased  to  85,  some  of  which  are  certainly 
spurious.  In  the  East  these  were  received  as 
having  the  stamp  of  authority,  but  not  so  in  the 
West,  where  their  origin  was  doubted.  How- 
ever, Dicoysius  adopted  the  smaller  collection 
of  50^  considering  them  useful  for  discipline, 
and  thereby  without  determining  their  origin 
procured  for  them  in  Rome  the  stamp  of  au- 
thority. John  Scbolasticus  made  a  collection 
of  canons  for  the  Greek  Church  in  564,  to  which 
he  added  68  canons  taken  from  Saint  Basil.  He 
divided  the  work  into  50  titles.  To  this  he  later 
added  the  laws  of  the  empire  which  had  relation 


peror  Justinian  II  in  692  assembled  a  council 
m  his  palace  at  Constantinople,  called  the  Trul- 
lan  council  from  the  room  in  which  it  was 
held,  and  102  canons  were  enacted.  When  the 
acts  and  canons  of  this  council  were  submitted 
to  Pope  Seigius  at  Rome  for  approval  he  re- 
fused even  though  the  Emperor  ordered  his 
armor-bearer  to  bring  the  Pope  to  Constanti- 
nople. The  Trullan  compilation  consisted  of 
the  so-called  canons  of  the  Apostles,  those  of 
the  10  councils  previously  mentioned,  the  canons 
of  the  synod  of  Cartluge,  the  decrees  of  a 
mod  in  394  at  Constantinople  under  Nectariui, 
me  canonical  decisions  of  the  12  eastern 
patriarchs  and  of  some  bishops  from  the  3d  to 
the  Sth  centuries,  the  canon  of  a  council  held  at 
Carthage  tmder  Cyprian  in  256,  to  all  of  which 
were  added  the  IOC  canons  drawn  up  by  the 
Trullan  council  itself.  Afterward  22  canons  of 
the  second  council  of  Nicau  held  in  787  were 
added  On  this  foundation  the  Church  law  of 
the  East  was  based  up  to  the  middle  of  (he  9tb 
centuiy.  By  the  Trullan  synod,  priests  were 
allowed  to  tnarry,  which  up  to  that  time  was 
against  the  canon  law  of  both  the  Eastern  and 
the  Western  Church.  The  Trullan  synod  also 
sanctioned  the  canons  of  the  Apostles,  one  of 
which  teaches  the  doctrine  of  the  re-baptiser^ 


vergence  between  Eastern  and  Western  canon 
law.  Pbotius,  who  was  intruded  into  the  see 
of  Constantinople,  called  a  council  against  the 
patriarch  Ignatms  in  861,  and  17  canons  made 

gr  this  council  were  added  to  the  codex  of  the 
reek  Church,  He  also  formulated  a  new  col- 
lection, in  which  the  second  part,  called  the 
Nomo-canon,  remained  unchanged.  The  Em- 
peror Leo  the  Fhiloscnther,  who  deposed 
Photius,  rescinded  his  collection  of  laws,  but 
nevertheless  the  seeds  of  the  separation  of  the 
Greek  Church  from  that  of  Rome  had  been  im- 
planted by  the  work,  although  a  complete 
schism  took  place  only  later  in  1054  under 
Uichael  Cenilarius.    From  time  to  time  new 


:,  Google 


SIS 


CANON  LAW 


ecclesiastical  coiutitudatis  issued  from  the  em- 
perors,  as  from  Leo  Philosopbus  in  911,  from 
C(nisuuitine  Porphyrogenitus  in  961,  from 
Alexius  Commenus  m  1118,  from  Isaac  Alcxiui 
in  1185-90.  The  resolutions  of  synods  sum- 
moned by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople^ 
epistles  of  renowned  bishops  and  their  de- 
cisions, fonned  another  adtution  to  the  canon 
law  of  the  Eastern  Church.  The  first  com- 
mentary on  the  Greek  codex  was  undertalcen  by 
Theodore  Frodromos  in  the  8th  century,  Th« 
second,  containing  the  text  with  a  commentary, 
is  the  Nomo-canon  of  Doropater.  The  moi^ 
^ohn  Zonares  composed  a  comprehensive  verbal 
mterpretaiion  in  1120,  using  the  collection  of 
Photius  as  a  basis.  Fifty  years  later,  Theodore 
Balsamon  made  a  commentary  with  a  view  to 
practical  questions,  comparing  the  canons  with 
the  civil  law  and  inststinK  that  Justinian's 
maxims  only  applied  when  conformable  to  the 
Basilica.  He  added  many  matters  not  found  in 
the  collection  of  Pbotius.  Epitomes  of  canon 
law  were  composed  at  a  comparativdy  early 
period,  the  author  of  the  first  of  which  appears 
to  have  been  Stephen  of  Ephesus  in  the  Stu  cen- 
tury. There  is  a  synopsis  by  Aristenus  aug- 
mented by  Alexius  Aristenus  in  1160,  and 
another  by  Arsenius,  a  monk  of  Mount  Athos. 
in  1255.  Constantine  Harmenopoulos  in  1350 
composed  an  eiHtome  of  the  spiritual  taw  in 
six  parts,  using,  with  some  omissions,  the  cot- 
lection  of  Photius  as  altered  by  Zonares.  In 
order  to  reduce  canon  law  to  a  more  practical 
form  than  it  appeared  in  the  collection  of 
Photius  and  at  the  same  time  present  a  more 
comprehensive  work  than  these  epitomes,  Mat- 
th»U3  Blastares  drew  up  his  syntagma  in  1335. 
divided  into  chapters  ol  different  lengths  and 
arranged  according  to  the  principal  word  of 
these  rubrics,  tlie  numbers  of  the  chapters  com- 
mencing anew  under  each  letter.  Each  chapter 
begins  with  the  ecclesiastical  law,  followed  by 
the  civil  law  applicable  to  it,  without,  however, 
mentioning  the  source  of  the  latter.  This  work 
came  into  very  general  use  among  the  clergy. 
The  collection  of  Photius  and  the  syntagma  of 
Blastares  continued  still  in  use  under  the  Turic- 
ish  rule  and  were  alike  termed  Nomo-canon 
and  metaphorically,  the  'Rudder.'  The  col- 
lection and  interpretation  of  Zonares  also  ob- 
tained canonical  anihority.  From  diese  ma- 
terials many  extracts  were  translated  into 
modem  Gredc  up  to  the  18th  century,  and  sev- 
eral textboolcs  compoted  for  the  use  of  the 
clergy,  some  of  which  were  printed  in  Venice. 
Lastv  a  comprehensive  collectian  was  pub- 
lished in  1800  at  the  instance  of  the  patriarch 
and  synod.  It  contains  the  old  Greek  text  of  all 
die  authentic  canons  of  councils  since  Photius 
and  Zonares.  to  which  are  added  interpretations 
of  the  authentic  commentators  in  modem  Gred^ 
especially  those  of  Zonares  and  Baliamon.  In 
the  interpretation,  the  canons  of  those  fathers 
are  taken  into  account  which  tiad  not  been  con- 
firmed tiy  any  general  svnod,  but  had  obtained  a 
canonical  authority.  Nothing  was  inserted 
from  the  municipal  law  works  which  did  not 
agree  with  the  canons.  Several  appendices 
were  added,  including  formulas  for  ecclesiasti- 
cal business,  and  upon  these  and  similar  collec- 
tions is  founded  the  present  law  of  the  Greek 
separate  church.  The  Russian  followed  the 
Creek  Church  in  adopting  compilations  of 
Church  taw  up  to  the  end  of  the  15th  centuir. 


In  1550  certun  t«gul«tioni  respectii«  the  iuris- 
dictkn  of  tiishops  were  introdnoed.  Some 
canonical  epistles  and  rules  drawn  up  at  coun- 
cils are  used  in  addition  to  the  Greek  codex, 
and  manuals  adapted  to  the  country  have  been 
compikd  therefrom.  Peter  the  Great  in  L721 
changed  the  chief  executive  ainhority  in  the 
Church  from  a  patriarch  into  the  Hdy  Synod, 
t>y  decrees  of  wmch  the  Qiurch  to-day  is  ruled. 
By  an  arrangement  latelv  made  with  the  Roman 
pontiff  the  bishops  ana  priests  under  RcMnan 
jurisdiction  are  mled  by  the  canon  law  of  Rome, 
subject  to  the  civil  laws  of  the  Rnasian  empire^ 
and  to  prevent  complications,  Russia,  besides  a 
resident  minister  and  two  secretaries,  has  at  the 
Vaticaa  a  representntive  agtnt  for  eccksiasticil 

In  the  Weatem  or  Latm  Church  the  canons 
ol  Nioea  and  Sardica  were  the  only  code  put>- 
lidy  received  up  to  the  end  of  the  5th  ccntory. 
About  this  time  the  Spanish  translation  of  the 
Greek  code  «ras  turned  into  barbarous  Latin, 
and  became  known  as  the  Prises.    The  decre- 


Prisca,  but  it  seems  tfiat  DionyEius  the  Little 
about  the  year  500,  was  the  first  to  formnlate  a 
collection  of  the  coundU  and  the  decretals.  He 
had  previously  made  a  collection  of  the  condlia 
for  Stephen,  the  bishop  of  Dalmatia.  The  dea- 
con Theodosius  later  made  a  new  collection 
founded  on  the  old  Spanish  and  the  Diooysian. 
A  third  collection  termed  the  Avellanian,  val- 
uable for  the  historical  documents  it  contains, 
|im)eared  in  the  latter  half  of  the  6th  century, 
lliese,  however,  were  superseded  by  a  second 
edition  of  Dionysius,  made  probabl^f  in  731 
under  Pope  Gregory  II.  In  this  edition  some 
decrees  overlooked  previously  were  added,  to- 
gether with  an  appendix  conusting  of  the 
statutes  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  from  Linus 
downwards,  those  np  to  5ericius.  however,  be- 
ing given  only  in  an  historical  form  as  no 
longer  actually  in  existence.  The  Gennan  con- 
querors of  Italy  in  476  did  not,  although  Ariai^ 
interfere  with  the  la^s  by  which  the  Church 
was  governed,  but  when  Justinian  recononered 
Italy  he  introduced  his  Novelhe  in  the  Julian 
translation  in  place  of  the  codex  of  Theodosius 
II,  and  this  order  of  things  was  later  upheld  by 
the  Lombard  kings  in  their  edicts.  In  Africa 
the  deacon  Fulgcntius  Farrandus  made  the  first 
collection  in  547,  termed  Breviatio.  This  was 
an  excerpt  m  232  numbers  of  nearly  all  the 
Greek  canons,  including  the  Nictean,  to  which 
was  added  the  African- concilia  under  Gratus 
in  348-49,  under  GeneAlius  in  390,  and  that  of 
Carthage  in  419  with  its  33  canons,  I 
with  304  taken  from  synods  as  well  a 


of  Bishop  Cresconins  in  690,  founded  upon  the 
DionysiaiL  but  arranged  in  300  titles  instead  of 
in  chroQoloKical  order.  This  woHe  was  incoi^ 
porated  with  the  Dionysian  and  appeared  under 
the  name  Breviarium.  But  the  Arabs  now  put  a 
sudden  sto_p  to  all  further  development  of 
canon  law  m  this  quarter.  As  early  as  the  5th 
century,  as  noted  above,  there  was  in  Spain  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  canons ;  in  the  6ui  cen- 
tury Martin  of  Braga  made  a  collection  of 
canons,  but  in  the  7th  century  Isadore  of 
Seville  held  two  councils,  half  churdi,  half 
avU,  the  cinons  of  which  may  be  said  tlmost 


d  by  Google 


CANON  LAW 


BIT 


to  have  fanned  the  basis  oi  the  conttitiitioiia] 
bw  of  Spain  in  both  Giurch  and  State  ^wn  to 
the  IStfa  centut^.  The  coUectton  of  canons 
Imown  as  Collectio  Isadoriana  or  His^ana  waa 
divided  into  two  parts ;  the  first  conlaming  the 
classified  series  of  Greeic,  African,  Fnuikist 
and  Spanish  canons,  and  the  second  the  de- 
cretals from  Pope  Damasus  in  366  to  Gregory 
the  Great  in  604.  In  the  5th  century  an  extett* 
sive  but  confused  collection  of  councils  and  de- 
cretals was  compiled  in  Gaul  under  Gelasius. 
It  was  founded  upon  the  old  Spanish  vernon 
and  some  peculiar  version  of  the  canons  of 


6th  century,  containing  tlie  eoundls  of  Nic 
and  of  Sardica,  some  Frankist  conciEa  i 
papal  decretals;  the  second  of  the  same  date 


diird  in  the  7di  century,  containing  103 
bers,  many  decretals,  Frankist,  Roman  and 
Italian  concilia.  A  fourth  and  a  fifth  collec- 
tion of  the  same  centurj;  contained  chiefly 
Pranldst  and  Spanish  condliar  decrees.  After 
Giarlemagne  in  774  on  his  fir^t  visit  to  Rome 
had  received  from  Pope  Hadnan  a  copy  of  the 
Dionjysian  collection  with  some  addibons,  he 
had  It  sanctioned  in  a  synod  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
as  the  codex  cononum  for  the  Frankist  emiure. 
In  addition  to  these  principal  works  many  oj 
the  bishops  composed  capitularies  for  their  own 
dioceses,  as  Boniface  of  Maj^ence,  Theodnlpb 
of  Orleans,  Hincmar  of  Rheims.  The  <His- 
pana'  circidated  among  the  Franks  in  a  more 
or  less  corrupt  form.  One  edition,  which  ap- 
peared between  the  years  of  829  and  657,  has 
caused  great  controversy,  and  is  known  as  'Col- 
lectio Pseudo-lsadoriana.'  or  False  Decretals. 
The  author  called  himself  Isatfere  Mercator, 
and  the  name  led  many  to  believe  the  work  that 
of  Isadore  of  Seville,  The  best  evidence  shows 
that  LevTtes  Benedict  of  Maine  was  the  com- 
piler, but  no  purpose  for  the  forgeries  in  the 
work  has  been  conclusively  shofwn.  After  the 
preface  and  some  minor  apocryphal  documents, 
the  first  part  contains  30  of  the  apostolic  canons 
taken  from  'Hiepana'  and  60  supposed  decre- 
tals of  the  Popes  from  Gement  m  92  to  Ue^ 
chiades  in  314,  arranged  chronologically.  The 
second  pan  consbts  chiefly  of  cancms  taken 
from  the  'Hispaoa.'  Jn  the  third  part  founded 
also  on  the  'Hispana,'  the  compiler  has  inter- 
polated 35  decretals.  A  SHpi^ement  contains 
■   brief     regulations    regarding    processes 


arded  as  Rcnuine  by  all  canonists  and  tbcolcv 
gians  for  700  ^reare  frcm  the  9tfa.  to  the  15tb 
century.  Cardinal  Nieholas  of  Cuaa  in  the  15th 
century  first  expressed  donbts  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  some  of  its  contents.  In  the  following 
century  religions  bitterness  overshadowea 
icbcdariy  inquiry,  but  it  is  now  admitted  by 
Protestant  writers  that  the  compilation  was  pro- 
duced, not  in  the  interest  of  uie  Pope  but  of 
the  Fiwnlcist  bishops  in  order  to  protect  thera- 


FoT  this  reason  sncfa  insistoice  is  fotmd  in  the 
collection  on  the  ri^t  of  appeal  to  the  Pope  in 
every  major  cause  of  a  bishop  and  also  that  the 
Pope's  permission  is  necessary  to  the  holding 
of  a  provincial  synod    The  sources  from  wbicfa 


the  compiler  chiefly  borrowed  his  materials 
were  the  Bible,  the  Fathers,  genuine  canons  and 
decretals,  Roman  law,  the  works  of  Rufinus  and 
Cassiodorus  on  Church  history  and  the  lives  of 
the  Popes  in  'Liber  Pontificalis.'  Of  the  sup- 
posed decretals  a  large  number  are  authentic 
although  antedated  and  ascribed  to  earlier 
Fapes  to  ipve  them  the  value  of  antiquity, 
while  others  embody  the  traditional  contents  of 
actual  but  lost  decretals.  The  influence  of  the 
psetido  Isadorian  collection  has  been  mttch  ex- 
anerated,  for  it  wrought  no  material  change 
either  in  the  faith  or  the  discipline  of  the 
Ckurt|h,  since  it  merely  put  Into  enactments  die 
prevailit^  ideas  and  doctrines  of  that  period  on 
Church  government.  Had  it  introduced  a  vio- 
lent change  the  innovation  would  have  caused 
a  speedy  inquiry  into  the  genuineness  of  the 
work.  However,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  a 
written  text  often  to  controversy  is  a  more 
forcible  argument  than  traditional  law.  and 
hence  the  false  decretals  naturally  exerted  some 
influence. 

To  meet  the  necessity  of  rendering  canon 
law  more  accessible  from  the  10th  to  aie  12th 
century  at  least  36  compilations  were  made, 
only  the  authors,  titles  and  dates  of  which 
seem  necessary  for  this  article.  The  first  was 
a  manuscript  under  12  heads,  divided  into  354 
chapters,  abstracted  from  Cresconius.  The  sec- 
ond was  extracted  from  Dionysius  and  the 
pseudo-Isadore  collection.  The  third  is  very 
voluminous,  and  taken  from  Hadrian's  codex 
with  numerous  additions.  The  fourth,  by  an 
unknown  author,  contains  portions  of  concilia, 
decretals  and  extracts  from  the  Fathers.  The 
fifth,  made  bj;  Regino,  abbot  of  Pnun,  between 
906  and  915,  is  founded  on  three  Frankist  col- 
lections,  the  Fathers  and  the  West  Gothic  Bre- 
viaiy.  Tile  sixth  is  a  Leipzig  codex;  the  sev- 
enth a  Darmstadt  codex.  The  eighth  is  attrib- 
uted to  Rotgcr,  bishop  of  Treves  in  922.  The 
ninth  is  a  Viennese  manuscript  The  10th  is 
also  a  manuscript  of  five  book^  composed  in 
Italy  in  the  middle  of  the  10th  century,  and  is 
founded  upon  the  Irish  collection  in  65  titles, 
on  fragments  of  the  Fathers,  lives  of  the 
saints,  decretals,  Julian's  'Novellx,'  with 
capitularies  of  the  emperors  added  up  to 
Henry  I.  The  11th  was  addressed  by  Abbo, 
abbot  of  Fleuiy,  to  King  Hu^  and  his  son 
Robert,  and  consists  of  a  treatise  of  ^  chap- 
ters on  the  Church  and  clergy.  The  12th  was 
composed  by  Burchard,  bishop  of  Worms, 
in  .  1012-23,  and  contains  the  canons  of  the 
Apostles,  Uie  transmarine,  German,  Gallic  and 
Spanish  councils,  papal  decrees  and  other 
passages.  The  13th  is  a  manuscript  in  12  books 
made  in  Germany  or  France.  'The  14tfa  is  a 
Terraconian  manuscript  belonging  to  die  Uth 
century.  The  I5th  is  an  introduction  to  disd- 
pline.  The  16th  is  a  collection  taken  chiefly 
from  Halitgar,  Rasbanu,  Manurus  and  Bur- 
chard. The  17th  is  a  rich  collectitMi  in  man> 
nscript  by  Ansebn,  bishop  of  Lucca  in  1086. 
The  18th  is  74  titles  taken  from  the  above 
worl^  and  the  I9th  and  20th  appear  about  the 
end  of  the  Uth  century,  both  taken  from  the 
works  of  Ansebn  ancf  Burchard.  The  21st 
is  a  work  in  13  books.  The  22d  is  the  capitu- 
laries of  Cardinal  Atto  in  1061  and  excerpts 
from  decretals.  Cardinal  Deusdedit  composed 
the  23d  in  four  boc^  at  the  end  of  the  11th  cen- 
tury,  from  Dionysius,  the  Gredi  eano»is,-die 


.glc 


918 


CANON  LAW 


old  Italian  and  Spuiish~SaxDti  and  Roman  reC' 
ords.  Ilie  24th  is  by  Bourgo,  bishop  of  Satrim 
in  1089,  and  is  in  10  books.  The  25th  is  in  two 
books  and  belongs  to  the  11th  or  the  12th  cen- 
tury. The  first  chapter  is  inscribed  from  the 
Pnmate  of  the  Eoman  Church  and  ispublished 
with  the  Dionysian  collection.  The  26th  is  the 
decree  altribuled  to  Ivo,  bishop  of  Chartres, 
and  the  27ih  is  the  Pannormia  in  ei^t  parts 
hy  the  same  author  in  109a  The  ^h  is  a 
large  manuscript  collection;  first  of  decretals, 
second  of  councils,  third  of  fathers,  then  Roman 
and  Frankish  legal  collections.  The  29th 
was  made  under  Pascal  II  in  1102-18  in  seven 
books.  The  30th  is  attributed  to  Hildebert, 
hbhop  of  Tours,  in  1134,  and  may  be  the  same 
as  the  10  books  attributed  to  Ivo.  The  31st 
ts  a  manuscript  in  15  books  called  the  collection 
of  Saragossa.  The  32d  is  wholly  extracted 
£rom  the  above.  The  33d  is  taken  from  Bur- 
chard  and  Ivo.  The  34th  is  a  penitential  book 
in  nine  titles  belonging  to  the  I2th  century. 
The  35th  belongs  to  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century  and  is  taken  chiefly  from  Anselm  of 
Lucca  and  the  collection  dedicated  to  Ansel- 
fflus.  Gregory,  a  Spanish  priest,  is  die  author. 
Lastly,  Algcnus  of  Li^e  in  the  beginning  of 
the  12th  century  compiled  a  work  on  'Justice 
and  Mercy,'  which  contains  a  treatise  on 
Church  discipline  in  three  parts,  taken  from 
Anselm  and  Burchard  for  the  most  part 
Gratian,  a  Benedictine  monk,  composed  at 
Bologna  in  the  middle  of  the  12th  centurv  a 
scientific  and  practical  work  on  the  canon  law 
with  references  and  proofs.  The  first  part 
treated  of  ecclesiastical  administration,  the 
second  contained  26  legal  positiotts,  with  their 
answers,  the  third  part  concerned  the  liturgy 
of  the  Church.  The  whole  work  is  founded 
on  previous  collections  and  contains  many 
mistakes.  It  was  never  approved  by  the 
Church  though  it  obtained  great  authority  and 
superseded  all  other  collections.  Other  col- 
lections are  by  Cardinal  Laborans  in  11^  that 
of  Bernard  of  Pavia  in  1190,  that  by  Gilbert 
an  Englishman,  in  1203.  The  universities  of 
Bologna  and  Paris  at  an  early  period  began 
to  exercise  great  influence  on  canon  law  and 
their  opinion  in  controverted  questions  was 
considered  decistv&  and  was  termed  the  au- 
thority of  the  schools.  Gratian' s  collection 
was  made  the  basis  of  lectures  in  Bokigna  and 
teachers  of  the  canons  were  called  magiftri 
and  doclores  decrelomttt.  Their  teachings 
were  soon  gathered  together  in  books  of  com- 
mentaries. Soon  after  the  collection  by  Gra- 
tian, the  Extravagantes,  or  decrees  not  ret 
collected,  were  gathered  together,  there  being 
between  the  years  1179  and  1227  14  different 
compilations,  only  five  of  which  received  the 
stamp  of  authori^.  Pope  Gregory  IX  ordered 
a  code  to  be  published  in  which  die  entire  body 
of  law  was  to  be  properly  arranged.  What 
was  useless  was  to  be  cut  out,  what  was  am- 
biguous was  to  be  corrected.  Raymond  of 
Pennafort  was  entrusted  widi  this  taslt,  which 
he  iinished  in  the  year  1233,  and  the  collection 
was  sent  to  the  universities  of  Bologna  and 
Paris  with  instructions  that  it  was  to  be  the 
sole  authority.  The  whole  work  is  divided  into 
five  books.  The  first  treats  of  ecclesiastical 
judicature  and  of  prelates;  the  second  of  civil 
suits;  the  third  of  civil  causes  before  the 
episcopal  forum  i  the  fourth  of  betrothals  and 


marriage;  the  fifth  of  judicial  proceedings  in 
criminal  matters  and  of  punishments.  To 
these  five  books  was  added  by  Pope  Boniface 
VIII,  in  129&  a  sixth  book  o/  decretals.  This 
was   followed  in   1334  by  the  Clonentins  < 


the  Extravagantes  O^nmunes  (73  decretals 
from  Boniface  VIII  to  Sixtus  V)  were 
gathered  by  authori^  and  made  part  of  the 
code  or  'Corpus  Juris  Canonici.'  Commen- 
taries on  the  'Corpus*  were  made  by  the 
doctors,  and  systematic  works  for  the  use  of 
courts  were  published.  In  the  ISth  centui; 
legal  literature  seems  confined  to  these  efforts. 
But  in  the  16th  century  Pope  Paul  IV  con- 
fided _  to  a  congregation  of  cardinals,  with 
canonists  as  consultors,  the  work  of  revising 
and  correcting  the  'Corpus  Juris.'  Gregory 
XIII  approved  the  work  of  the  committee  and 
an  authentic  edition  was  published  in  1580.  in 
which  the  glosses  are  retained,  and  on  which 
all  subsequent  editions  have  been  based.  The 
corrections  made  hy  the  commission  are 
marked  'cor.  Rom."  in  the  text  Two  append- 
ices were  added,  one  the  Institutiones  Lancelotti, 
the  other  Septimus  Decretal! um,  which  con- 
tained the  Extravagantes  of  Sixtus  V  in  1590. 
Neither  b  of  public  authori^,  but  both  are 
very  useful  and  recognized  by  scholastic  ap- 
proval. Since  then  the  Bullarium  Benedict! 
XIV,  which  contains  the  constitutions  of  that 
Pope,  has  been  made  of  public  authority.  There 
is  also  a  collection  of  papal  bulls,  called  Bulla- 
rium Uagnum  Romanum,  made  up  in  14  vol- 
umes, which  was  published  in  1744  and  con- 
tinued in  tS40;  but  it  is  very  imperfect  and 
only  a  private  collection.  Anyone  who  desires 
to  know  canon  law  must  learn  the  'Corpus 
Juris,'  even  thougli  to-day  many  parts  have 
been  changed  by  the  councils  of  Trent  and  the 
Vatican  and  by  new  papal  decrees.  In  the 
'Corpus'  itself  the  different  portions  stand 
as  lex  prior  and  lex  posterior,  so  that  in  cases 
of  contradiction  the  latest  is  preferred  With 
certain  modifications  the  'Corpus'  still  has 
the  force  of  law  in  matters  relating  to  ec- 
clesiastical judicature,  to  divine  worship,  to 
doctrine  and  discipline.  It  is  the  code  still 
followed  in  the  schools  and  used  in  Church 
oourts,  not  only  as  the  source  of  argument  but 
also  as  the  method  of  procedure  in  many 
cases,  The  'Jus  Novissimlim'  in  canon  law 
consists  of  laws  published  from  the  time  the 
'Corpus  Juris'  was  closed,  that  is,  since  the 
Extravagantes  were  inserted  down  to  the 
present  day,  and  includes  the  decrees  of  the 
councils  of  Trent  and  the  Vatican.  Except 
the  Bullarium  of  Benedict  XIV,  mentioned 
above,  no  authentic  collection  has  been  n^de 
of  the  various  constitutions  and  laws  made 
by  the  Roman  pontiffs  since   the  close   of  tlie 


that  of  the  council  which  authoritatively  in- 
terprets the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
So  evident  vras  the  need  of  a  revision  of 
canon  law  that  at  the  ecumenic  Vatican  Coun- 
cil, held  in  1870,  proposals  were  made  by  a 
number  of  bishops  to  have  a  comi  '"' 
pointed,  consisting  of  the  most  emim 
lEts^  to   revise  the    'Corpus  Juris* 


.Google 


CAHOM  1.AW 


019 


preiure  a  new  one,  otnittinK  whatever  owing 
10  changed  times  was  no  looKcr  applicable. 
Nothing  was  done  before  the  aajournment  of 
that  coundl,  but  Fope  Pius  X  by  a  mohi 
propria  in  me  year  1904  appointed  a  special 
committee  of  cardinals,  with  a  number  of 
consultors,  and  a  canonist  from  each  nation, 
to  revise  thoroughly  not  only  the  'Corpus 
Juris'  but  all  the  canon  law  of  the  Church, 
that  general  for  the  world  and  that  special  to 
the  va.rious  nations.  He  himself  was  president 
o(  the  committee  to  which  he  assigned  the  fol- 
lowing cardinals :  Seraphin  Vanutelli,  A^aVdi, 
Vincent    Vanutelli,    Satolli,    Rampolla,    Gottl, 


Vives  y  Tuto  and  Cavagnu.  Archbishop  (later 
Cardinal)  Gasparri  was  appointed  secretary. 
The  plans  of  the  various  titles  have  been  con- 
fided to  canonists  in  every  country.  The  gen- 
eral plan  of  the  Code  indndes  (after  the  pre- 
liminary section)  four  main  divisions:  per- 
sons, things  (with  subdivisions  for  the  sacra- 
ments, sacred  places  and  objects,  etc),  trials, 
crimes  and  penalties.  The  articles  are  num- 
bered consecutively.  The  work  is  now  com- 
pleted and  embodies  several  modifications  and 
reforms  in  the  andent  law.  This  code  is  now 
the  only  authoriied  canon  law  of  the  Latin 
Church. 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  canon  law 
is  not  traceable  to  anv  origiaal  code,  but  is 
a  development  founded  on  the  general  moral 
rules  laid  down  in  the  Scriptures  and  espedally 
in  the  New  Testament.  Neither  is  the  Roman 
dvil  law  traceable  to  any  code,  but  is  a  gather- 
ing of  prindples  sug^Sted  by  good  reasoning 
'  for  promoting  the  ctvil  interests  of  its  snbjects. 
Compared  to  the  Jewish  law,  the  prindple 
upon  which  Roman  jurisprudence  was  founded 
was  very  diSerenl — 'the  former  treats  prin- 
dpally  of  criminal  matters  and  is  most  severe 
in  its  penalties ;  the  latter  on  the  conlraiy 
treats  all  questions  as  civil,  and  prefers  resti- 
tution to  punishment.  When  the  Roman  em- 
perors had  been  converted  to  Qiristianity,  in 


necessarily  ^ve  to  canon  law  much  of  the 
spirit  of  their  dvil  law.  Thus  it  happens  that 
in  the  canon,  as  in  the  Roman  civil  law,  there 
was  little  severity  in  criminal  matters,  and 
many  cases  which  other  peoples  than  the 
Romans  treated  as  criminal  were  cognizable  by 
a  dvil  tribunal  and  an  indemnification  was 
effected  by  damages.  Generally  no  crime  was 
punished  capitally,  espedally  where  no  force 
or  violence  was  emoloyefi.  This  spirit  of 
leniency  is  manifest  thronghout  canon  law  to 
the  present  day.  During  and  after  the  4th 
century  wherever  Roman  power  conquered  the 
nations  and  wherever  C^hristian  missionaries 
converted  the  pagans  canon  law  was  intro- 
duced throu^  the  influence  of  the  Pope  and 
the  Emperor.  It  permeated  and  modified  the 
laws  of  the  peoples  of  northern  Europe,  as 
well  as  those  of  England  to  a  certain  extent 
With  it  n^ceMarily  came  the  prindples  of  Ro- 
man dvil  law.  The  rules  for  the  application 
of  canon  law  were  as  follows:  (1)  In  cases 
not  contained  in  the  dvil  law,  or  the  rule  for 
which  was  obscure,  open  to  doubtful  inter- 
pretation, or  not  expressly  determined,  if  ex- 
pressly and  clearly  resolved  by  the  canon  law. 


this  latter  farmed  the  basis  of  the  decision; 
and  on  the  contrary,  if  the  case  was  not  pro- 
vided tor,  or  ambiguously  resolved  by  canon 
law,  when  it  was  express^  met  or  its  solution 
more  dearly  indicated  by  the  civil  law,  this 
latter  was  to  be  preferred.  (2)  In  cases  of 
conflict,  the  dvil  law  formed  the  rule  for 
courts  of  dvil,  and  the  canon  in  those  of  ec- 
clesiastical, jurisdiction.  Thus,  when  a  matter 
of  canon  law  cognizance  arose  in  the  dvil 
courts  the  dedaion  was  given  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  canon  law;  and  vice-versa,  when  a 
question  of  civil  cognizance  occurred  before 
an  ecdestastical  tribunal.  (3)  Within  the  Im- 
perial states  the  dvil  law  lonned  the  basis, 
and  the  canon  law  in  the  papal  states.  (4)  In 
matters  of  a  feudal  nature  the  dvil  was  pre- 
ferred to  the  canon  law.  (S)  In  forensic 
catises  the  canon  is  not  presumed  to  differ 
from  the  dvil  law.  When  the  Western  empire 
passed  under  the  rule  of  a  barbarian  race  Oie 
Roman  and  the  canon  law  were  not  only  pre- 
served, but  to  a  great  extent  they  influenced 
the  legislation  ot  the  conquerors.  Alaric. 
Attila,  Ricimir  did  not  disturb  the  outward 
form  of  Roman  government.  In  the  collec- 
tion of  West  Gotlnc  laws,  gathered  in  672  a.d., 
there  are  evident  traces  of  the  part  which  the 
Roman  dergy  took  in  the  compilation.  The 
Bnrgundian  laws  also  show  literal  excerpts  from 
the  Roman  law.  Roman  law  is  found  also  in 
the  Bavarian  code  composed  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury, as  well  as  in  the  capitularies  of  the 
Franks,  which  commence  in  the  year  560  and 
are  introduced  by  a  literal  transcript  of  a 
novel  of  Valentinian.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
the  CSerman  tribes  did  not  force  their  laws 
upon  their  subjects  in  those  portions  of  their 
conquests  where  the  Roman  law  was  acknowl- 
edged. It  was  natural,  too,  that  the  Churches, 
as  juristical  persons,  should  follow  the  Roman 
law,  not  only  on  account  of  its  connection  with 
reli^OD  and  the  great  degree  of  favor  it 
manifested  toward  the  Church,  but  also  of  the 
accuracy  of  its  provisions  in  this  respect.  Like 
the  lawi  of  die  Teutonic  tribes,  that  of  Eng- 
land Is  an  accumulation  of  individual  laws. 
While  Britain  was  conquered  by  Julius  Cxsar 
in  54  B.C,  still  it  was  only  at  the  end  of  the 
1st  century  of  the  Cliristian  era  that  Roman 
manners,  arts,  architecture,  langtiage  and  laws 
were  introduced.  The  Roman  law  superseded 
the  cnstoma^  laws  of  the  island  and  remained 
in  force  until  the  year  455,  when  Britain  be- 
came derelict  because  of  the  removal  of  the 
seat  of  empire  to  Constantinople  and  the  im- 
possibility of  the  emperors  defending  it  a^inst 
the  Picts  and  Scots.  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced into  Britain  under  the  Roman  dominion 
and  was  preached  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  be- 
fore the  year  430.  Roman  literature,  arts  and 
law,  however,  received  a  sudden  check  by  the 
Saxons,  vriio,  when  they  invaded  Britain,  im- 
posed thdr  taw  upon  the  conquered  people. 
The  Danes  subsequently  did  the  same.  Still 
we  are  informed  by  the  Venerable  Bede  that 
Ethdbert,  king  of  Kent,  in  613,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  his  wise  men,  made  certain  decrees 
and  gave  judgments  between  his  subjects  in 
conformity  with  the  prindples  of  Roman  and 
canon  law,  at  least  so  far  as  regarded  sacrilege, 
bishops,  and  the  like.  Indeed,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  Saxons  and  Danes,  whose 
eodes  contained  a  great  admixture  of  Ronan 


.glc 


CANON  LAW 


__..„ :  East  Angles,  and  in  the  laws  ^Iv 

lished  by  Canute  which  were  translated  into 
Latin.  Thus  it  happened  that,  when  Edward 
the  Confessor  compiled  a  code  out  of  the 
materials  then  at  hand,  much  of  the  Roman 
and  canon  law  was  inserted  and  thus  became 
die  basis  of  much  of  the  common  law  of  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States.  During  the  do- 
■ninion  of  the  Sucons  and  Danes,  those 
Britons  who  had  fled  to  Wales  were  governed 
by  their  own  princes,  Howet  Dha,  in  940,  is 
said  to  have  assembled  his  bishops  and  the 
more  literate  among  the  laity  for  the  pan>oae 
of  revising  the  law  which  was  translated  into 
Latin  at  his  command.  In  the  85th  article  he 
aftproves  the  Roman  rule  of  two  witnesses 
beinK  sufficient  in  cases  where  no  specific  num- 
ber IS  stated,  and  for  holdii^  the  testimony  of 
one  to  be  insufficient,  except  of  a  woman  in 
cases  of  rape,  of  a  lord  between  two  tenants,  an 
abbot  between  two  monks,  a  father  between 
two  of  his  children,  a  priest  in  a  matter  at- 
tested in  his  presence,  and  a  thief  turning 
king's  evidence  in  the  place  of  execution. 
Most  of  the  Roman  laws  of  this  age  seem  to 
have  been  taken  from  the  Theodosian  code. 
Althou^  the  foot  of  the  Roman  soldier  never 
trod  on  the  bosom  of  Ireland,  nor  did  a 
Roman  general  have  a  chance  to  introduce  the 
Roman  Taw,  still  the  principles  of  canon  law 
were  enforced  througbout  Ireland  and  Scot' 
land  by  Saint  Patrick  in  his  canons.  One  of 
them,  translated  by  the  Ai^lican  Bishop  Usher, 
reads :  ■Wherever  any  cause  that  is  very  diffi- 
cult and  unknown  to  all  the  judges  o£  the 
Scottish  nation  shall  arise,  it  is  rightly  to  be 
referred  to  the  see  of  the  archbi^op  of  the 
Irish  (chat  is,  of  Saint  Patrick)  and  to  the 
examination  of  the  prelate  thereof.  But  i£ 
there,  by  him  and  his  wise  men,  a  cause  of  this 
nature  cannot  easily  be  made  up,  we  have  de- 
creed  it  shall  be  sent  to  the  see  apostolii^  that 
is,  to  the  chair  of  the  Apostle  Peter,  which  hath 
authority  of  the  diy  of  Rome." 

In  680,  at  the  command  of  Ethelred,  Egfrid, 
king  of  Northumberland,  Aldwulf,  king  of  the 
East  Angles,  and  Lother,  king  of  Kent,  Theo- 
dore, at  that  time  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
summoned  a  synod  at  Hatfield,  in  which  the 
canons  of  the  five  general  councils  of  Nioea, 
Constantinople,  Ephesus,  Chalccdon,  the  second 
of  Constantinople,  were  enforced,  together  with 
the  concilia  drawn  up  under  Pope  Martin  at 
Rome  in  64&  He  also  collected  m  his  capittt- 
bries  the  roost  important  points  of  Church 
discipline.  L^ter  he  wrote  hi*  'Book  of  Pen- 
ances.' In  the  latter  half  of  the  8th  century, 
Egbert  of  York  made  an  extensive  collection  of 
canon  law  from  the  sources  then  existing.  He 
also  wrote  the  book  *De  Remediis  Peccatonmi.' 
In  the  8th  century  a  collection  was  made  in 
Ireland  in  which  the  Dionysian  collection  and 
Roman,  Gallic  and  Irish  councils  are  used. 
King  Henry  I,  in  1100,  endeavored  to  repudiate 
a  number  of  Church  laws  and  ordered  ifaat 
Peter's  Pence  was  to  be  paid  to  the  King  in~ 
Stead  of  the  Pope.  Henry  II  entered  into  a 
controversy  over  the  enforcement  of  ^non  law 
with  Thtmws  &  Bedcet  In  1215,  V  the  Magna 
Ghana,  King  John  confitaed  to  the  prelates 


and  barons  of  his  kingdom  the  freedom  of 
election  of  the  clergy,  and  this  acted  as  a  gen- 
eral acknowledgment  of  ecclesiastical  rights  and 
Kberties.  In  1230,  Otho,  die  legate  of  Pope 
Gregory  IX,  hdd  a  national  synod,  and  in  1268 
Othobon,  the  legate  of  Pope  Oement  IV,  held 
a  second,  both  of  which,  as  Blackstone  says, 
had  a  great  effect  on  the  ecclesiastical  jurispru- 
dence of  England.  Under  King  Henry  III, 
Boniface,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  enacted 
several  canons  which  seemed  against  the  exist- 
ing laws  of  the  realm,  and  under  Stephen  an 
eccleraastical  and  a  secular  party  were  formed, 
the  latter  adhering  to  the  common  law  as 
tenaciously  as  the  dergy  and  nobility  did  to  the 
canon  and  civil  law.  In  the  Parliament  of 
Merton,  however,  the  adherents  of  the  canon 
and  civil  [aw  -were  defeated  on  the  proposition 
to  make  Ugilimalio  per  mbiequens  matritHonium 
legal  also  in  En^and  as  it  was  imder  canon 
and  civil  law.  Under  Richard  II,  more  than 
100  years  later,  the  feud  still  existed.  Anglo- 
ccnon  law  vras  further  aucmented  by  the  de- 
crees of  provincial  councils  held  under  the  arch- 


Wifliam  Lindwood,  and  later  enforced  also  1^ 
the  archbishops  of  York.  The  king  meantime 
had  also  enacted  many  statutes  oti  the  relations 
between  secular  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction. 
A  statute  of  Henry  VIII  rendered  void  all 
canons  which  were  contrary  to  the  law  of  the 
realm  or  hurtful  to  the  royal  prerogatives,  and 
provided  a  commission  to  revise  them.  Edward 
Vl  renewed  the  commission,  but  the  code  was 
not  confirmed  before  his  death.  Mary  repealed 
all  these  acts,  but  Elizabeth  revived  the  first  act 
of  Heniy  VIII.  In  1603  some  canons  were 
made  in  die  convocation  of  the  province  of 
Canterbury  and  confirmed  by  the  tang  but  not 
by  Parliament  It  is  held  that,  therefore,  these 
bmd  the  clerpr  in  Church  matters,  but  not  tbe 
laity,  except  in  so  far  as  not  repugnant  to  the 
laws  of  the  realm.  By  acts  of  Parliament  (36 
Henry  VII,  I;  35  Henry  VIII,  3;  1  Elizabeth 
1)  the  king  was  declared  the  supreme  head  of 
the  Church,  and  it  became  treason  (1  Ed.  VI, 
12;  5  Eliz.,  1)  to  doubt  it  or  to  defend  the 
sigiremacy  of  the  Pcqie  as  head  of  the  Chnrdi. 
These  acts  and  subsequent  ones  reversed  canon 
law  in  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland.  Speak- 
ing of  the  courts  of  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  of  tbe  English  Churdi  to-day,  Black- 
stone  says :  'An  appeal  lies  from  all  these 
courts  to  tbe  sovereign  in  the  last  resort, 
which  proves  that  die  jurisdiction  exercised 
in  them  is  derived  from  uie  crown  of  England. 
...  It  appears  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  civil 
and  canon  taws,  though  admitted  in  some  cases 
by  custom  in  some  courts,  are  only  subordinate 
and  iegts  s»b  grwiori  lege.  They  are  by  no 
means  with  lu  a  distinct,  independent  species 
t^  law,  but  are  uiferior  branches  of  the  cus- 
tomary or  unwritten  laws  of  England.*  In 
Scotland  many  of  the  provisions  of  canon  law 
became  the  law  of  the  land.  During  the  IMi 
and  17th  centuries  cason  law  was  tau^t  in 
the  Scottish  univerrities,  and  from  very  esrly 
times  mai^  of  the  youths  of  Scotland  attended 
the  schools  of  the  Continent,  whence  not  a 
few  returned  as  doctors  m  utrocftu  jure,  that 
is,  canon  and  dvil  law.  The  canons  of 
provincial  coimcils,  held  yearly,  and  at  whose 
meetings    re^esentatives    of    the    Idng   were 


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CANOM  LAW 


present,  constituted  a  nadtmal  canon  law  which 
was  recognized  by  the  Pope  and  t^  Parliament 
and  enforced  in  the  courts  of  bw.  Even  to 
this  day,  though  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  the 
country  is  Preibsrteriaii,  the  old  canon  law 
Hill  prevails  to  a  certain  extent.  'So  deep 
bath  this  canon  law  been  rootedi,*  says  Lord 
Stair  in  his  'Institutes  of  the  Law  of  Scot- 
land.' 'that  even  where  the  Pope's  authority 
b  rejected  yet  consideration  must  be  had  to 
these  laws,  not  only  as  those  by  which  the 
Church  benefices  have  been  erected  and  ordered, 
but  as  lilceuiise  containing  nuny  equitable  and 
profitable  laws  which,  because  of  their  wei^ty 
matter  and  their  once  being  received  may  more 
fitly  be  retained  than  rejected."  In  two  old 
acts  of  the  Scotch  ParKament,  made  in  1540 
and  1551,  the  canon  and  Roman  law  are  meo- 
tioned  as  the  common  law  of  the  country,  the 
clause  used  being  "the  common  law,  oaith 
canon,  civil  and  statutes  of  the  realme.*  Since 
the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  hierarchy  is 
England  in  1850,  and  in  Scotland  in  1878,  the 
churches  under  Roman  jurisdiction  have  held 
various  councils  and  enacted  laws  to  fit  the 
chan^d  conditions.  These  laws,  having  'beea 
exammed    by    the    committee    of    cardinals    in 


olics  of  those  countries.  In  a  similar  way  the 
Catholics  of  newly  established  nations,  owing 
to  various  reasons,  are  ruled  by  a  modified 
canon  law  which  gives  the  bishops  and  superiors 
a  very  extensive  authority.  Such  is  the  case  at 
present  in  Canada,  Australia  and  the  United 
States.  These  modifications  pertain  chiefly  to 
die  election  of  bishops,  the  appointment  and 
removal  of  parish  clergy,  the  tenure  and  ad- 
tninistretton  of  Church  property^  The  second 
and  third  plenaiy  counalt  of  Baltimore  con- 
tain special  modifications  for  the  United  States. 
For  Mexico,  West  Indies  and  South  America 
a  council  waE  held  in  Rome  of  the  bishops  of 
those  countries,  and  its  decrees  were  pubhriied 
in  1901.  Other  national  modifications  of  canon 
law  in  the  course  of  time  have  been  introduced 
by  concordats  made  by  the  Pope  with  the 
rulers  of  Christian  nations  by  which  he  {[rants 
them  certain  concessions.     As 


the  people  in  their  diarge;  but  the  oath  of 
fealty  was  imposed  on  the  prelates  as  vassals 
of   the  king.     On  the  other  hand,  the  kings 


show  the  beginning  of  a  national 
for  France.  The  fourth  canon- of  the  Council 
of  Aries,  convoked  by  King  Clovis  in  511, 
prohibited  certain  laymen  and  teachers  from 
receiving  holy  orders  without  the  king's  coa- 
sent.  The  Council  of  Orleans,  in  549,  shows 
that  at  that  lime  the  king's  consent  was  neces- 
saiy  for  the  election  of  Bishops.  Many  points 
regarding  a  special  liturgy,  the  admimstration 
of  the  sacraments,  the  matter  and  forms  of 
ecclesiastical  trials  are  to  be  found  in  these 
same  early  councils.  The  laws  of  Dagoberl, 
in  620,  show  special  protection  given  the 
Church  but  also  ^y  the  foundation  tor  future 
subjection;  for  councils  could  not  be  held  with- 
out consent  of  the  king,  and  bishops  were 
elected  not  infrequently  at  the  dictation  of  roy- 
alty. But  the  capitularies  of  Charlemagne  and 
his  successors,  collected  in  825  by  the  abbot 
Aosegiso,  were  very  favorable  to  the  Church. 
Under  the  third  dynasty,  especially  because  of 
the  feudal  law,  iMshops,  abbots  and  chapters 
exercised  almost  comtrietc  civil  authority  ova 


the  death  of  the  prelate  they  were  the  guardians 
of  the  vacant  see,  they  performed  many  acts 
of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  among  which  was 
the  administratian  of  the  temporalities  of  the 
vacant  church.  This  was  not  done,  however 
without  the  assent  of  the  sovereign  pontiffs. 
Herein  is  found  the  origin  of  jus  RtgaUtt 
<t^ch  later  caused  such  Ironble.     In  the  yea 


»tic  sanction  was  issued  by  Saint 

gave  liberty  of  election  of  bishops 

and  ordered  that  the  general  canoti  law  should 


a  pragntal 
s  whi<i  ga 


be  observed  throuehout  France.  However,  the 
genuineneas  of  this  law  has  been  seriously 
questioned.  Under  Philip  the  Fair  the  seeds 
of  absolute  independence  of  the  secular  from 
the  ^ritual  auttiority  were  sown;  and  about 
the  same  time  serious  contests  arose  between 
clerical  and  lay  judges  concerning  their  juris- 
diction.  On  appeal  to  the  king  the  clergy  won; 
but  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  was  gradti- 
ally  lessened,  and  at  this  time  the  appeal  *as 
from  abuse*  was  introduced,  that  is,  a  clergy- 
man might  appeal  to  the  km^  from  an  abuse 
of  the  power  exercised  by  a  bishop.  This  was 
diametrically  ot^oscd  to  general  canon  laW- 
The  ^at  schism  of  the  West  brought  out  the 
question  whether  the  Pope  or  an  ecumenical 
council  were  superior,  and  the  controversy  be- 
came especially  bitter  in  France.  Charles  VII 
selected  certain  passages  from  the  Condltabule 
of  Basel,  and  in  1438  issued  a  pragmatic  sanc- 
tion in  which  the  superiority  of  the  council  over 
the  Pope  was  declared,  and  elections  both  to 
episcopal  sees  and  in  monasteries  were  to  be 
held  after  the  andent  law  of  France.  Louis 
XI  snmressed  this  decree,  but  it  was  revived 
after  his  death  until  finally  condemned  by  the 
Fifth  Latcran  Council,  and  changed  by  the 
concordat  made  between  Leo  X  and  Frauds 
I.  In  this  concordat  many  of  the  dispositions 
of  the  pragmatic  were  preserved;  but  the  con- 
cordat differed  from  the  pra^atic  in  this:  that 
in  place  of  the  election  of  bishops  and  prelates 
in  case  of  vacancy  the  king  was  ^ven  the  right 
to  present  to  the  sovereign  pontiff,  within  six 
months,  a  doctor  or  Ucentiale  in  theology  who 
should  be  at  least  27  years  of  age  ana  other- 
wise competent  The  pontiff  would  grant  insti* 
tutioD.  The  Parliament,  after  a  long  contest, 
MTeed  to  the  execution  of  this  concordat 
Herein  is  seen  the  beginning  of  the  system  of 
Eovennnent  nomiiuttion  of  bishops,  concem- 
mg  which,  in  1903-04,  the  Pope  and  the  French 
government  were  at  variance.  In  the  16th  cen- 
tury the  goreniment  long  opposed  the  pubhca- 
tion  of  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent,  but 
finally,  without  mentioning  the  source,  the  chief 
decrees,  word  for  word,  were  puUished  in  1579 
by  royal  order.  In  1681  the  Ciallican  clergy,  at 
the  instance  of  the  government,  met  in  extraor- 
dinary convention  and  adopted  a  declaration 
favonog  the  extension  of  the  RegaUa  to  all 


four  propositions  in  which  they  attacked  the 
Holy  See  in  admimstering  temporal  matters, 
and  declared  that  the  judgment  of  the  Pope  on 
a  matter  of  faith  was  not  irreformable  except 
when  the  consent  of  the  Church  lad  been  addM. 


[ig 


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CANON  OF  THE  HABS^CANOHESS 


The  king  ordered  the  observance  of  this  dec- 
laration, but  it  was  condemned  In'  Alexander 
VIII.  Later,  King  Louis  XIV  wrote  the 
Pope  that  he  had  ordered  that  the  decree 
should  not  be  observed.  Nevertheless,  the  Re- 
galia was  observed  up  to  1789  throughout  all 
France,  and  the  government  continued  taking 
the   revenues  of  all  vacant  bishoprics  and  ap- 

Kinting  to  benefices  during  the  interregnum. 
an  edict  of  1695  a  code  o£  ecclesiastical  law 
as  observed  in  France  was  enactecL  and  in  it 
was  the  appeal  *as  from  an  abuse,*  that  is,  from 
the  ecclesiastical  to  the  civil  authorities.  The 
national  convention  in  1790  passed  a  dvil  con- 
stitution for  the  clergy  by  which  dioceses  and 
parishes  were  suppressed  and  the  Church  made 
subject  to  the  state.  In  1801  Napoleon,  as 
First  Consul,  and  Pope  Pius  VII  made  a  con- 
cordat in  which  the  Catholic  Church  was  ac- 
knowledged as  the  state  Church,  and  by  which 
new  limits  were  assigned  to  dioceses  and  par- 
ishes, and  bjr  which  especially  the  ri^t  of 
nominating  bishops  was  given  to  the  ruler  of 
France.  To  the  nominees  the  Pope  would 
grant  institution.  Various  other  regulations 
were  made,  and  the  French  government  took 
upon  itself  the  support  of  the  bishops  and  par- 
ish priests  in  ^lace  of  restoring  the  immense 
Church  properties  which  had  been  confiscated. 
During  the  year  1904  a  great  agitation  occurred 
for  the  suppression  of  this  concordat  because 
oE  controversies  over  some  bishops  held  delin- 
quent and  suspended  by  the  Pope.  The  con- 
cordat was  suppressed  in  1906.  With  the  abro- 
gation of  the  concordat  the  state  no  longer 
supports  the  clergy,  nor  can  it  nominate  to 
bishoprics.  There  is  complete  separation  of 
Church  and  State  in  France  since  the  passage 
of  the  law  abrogating  the  concordat  of  1801. 
During  the  19th  century  the  liturgical  worship 
of  the  Church  in  France  was  made  conformable 
to  that  of  Rome,  and  other  matters  of  discipline 
were  brought  under  general  canon  law. 

Undoubtedly  canon  law  has  exerted  a  wide 
and  lasting  influence  on  the  nations  of  Europe 
and  America.  It  made  them  Christian  states 
and  directly  or  indirectly  modified  their  consti- 
tutions. State  legislative  assemblies  based  their 
proceedings  on  the  methods  of  Church  councils. 
The  law  of  nations  is  simply  the  application  to 
nations  of  the  principles  of  Christian  law 
taught  to  individuals.  The  ancient  Romans  as 
well  as  barbarous  tribes  considered  all  foreign- 
ers enemies;  the  Church  taught  the  brother- 
hood of  all  men.  The  Pope,  as  the  common 
father  of  all  Christians,  acted  as  arbitrator  in 
the  disputes  between  nations,  and  so  noteworthy 
became  the  Roman  Rota,  to  which  the  Pope 
referred  international  disputes,  that  at  times 
much  of  its  work  was  deciding  important  ques- 
tions for  rulers  of  nations.  The  system  of 
Church  administration  served  as  a  model  for 
that  of  states,  and  the  clergy,  especially  in  the 
earlier  and  Middle  Ages,  being  the  educated 
class  and  following  canon  law,  naturally  intro- 
duced many  of  its  rules  into  everyday  life.  The 
elevated  condition  of  woman  is  due  to  the  canon 
law  prescriptions  regarding  marriage,  which  the 
Church  enforced  on  all  nations  converted  to 
Christianity.  Questions  retatino;  to  widows  and 
orphans  were  within  the  jurisdiction  of  canon 
law  and  Church  courts.  The  incorporation  of 
Church  bodies,  from  which  other  corporations 
took  their  origin,  had  its  foundation  in  the  law 


of  Justinian  and  was  imported  into  England 
with  the  dvil  and  canon  law.  As  in  the  Roman 
law,  the  charter  of  the  sovereign  is  always  ex- 
pressed, or  at  least  implied.  From  England  die 
idea  of  corporation  and  corporation  sole  came 
into  American  law.  The  wnt  of  habeas  corpus 
had  its  origin  in  the  Roman  law  'iitterdietum 
dt  libero  komine  exhibendo.'  Inheritance  t^ 
will  and  the  rule  for  the  descent  of  real  prc^ 
erty  came  from  Roman  law,  while  trial  by  jury, 
with  challenges  of  the  jutymen,  was  detemiinea 
in  the  Roman  Lex  Servilii  and  Lex  Cornelia. 
While  in  Elngland  'Christianity  is  part  of  the 
law  of  the  land,'  in  the  United  Sutes  this  *is 
true  only  in  a  qualified  sense*  (33  Barb.  548), 
and  owing  only  to  "the  fact  that  it  is  a  Christian 
country  and  that  its  constitution  and  laws  are 
made  by  a  Christian  people*  (23  Ohio  St  211). 
Nevertheless  'the  decision  of  ecclcsiastica] 
courts  or  oSicers  havii^  by  the  rules  or  laws  of 
the  bodies  to  which  they  belong,  jurisdiction  of 
such  questions,  or  the  ngfat  to  decide  them,  will 
be  held  conclusive  in  all  courts  of  dvil  admin- 
istration, and  no  {question  involved  in  snch  de- 
dsions  will  be  revised  or  reviewed  in  the  dvil 
courts,  except  those  pertaining  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  such  courts  or  officers  la  determine  sudi 
questions  according  to  the  laws  or  U£^:e  of  the 
bodies  which  they  represent.*  ([Quotea  with  ap- 
proval in  98  Penn.  213).  *Civil  courts  will  not 
review  the  action  of  ecdesiastical  tribunals  ex- 
cept where  rights  of  property  are  involved*  (62 
Iowa  567;  23  111.  456).  Justice  Strong  in  'Re- 
lations' of  Civil  Law  to  Church  Pohcy,*  con- 
cludes :  *I  think  it  may  be  safely  asserted,  as  a 
Seneral  proposition,  that  whenever  questions  of 
iscipUne,  of  faith,  of  church  rule,  of  member- 
ship, or  of  office  have  been  decided  b^  the 
Church  in  its  own  modes  of  decision,  cfvil  law 
tribunals  accent  the  dedsions  ais  final  and  apply 
them  as  made.*  See  also  Law;  Cathouc 
CBtJBCB,  Roman. 

P.  A.  Baabt,  S.T.L.,  LL.D., 
Atlihor   of   <Cktirck   and  Statt  in   the   United 
Statet  of   Anterica,^    'Tke   Roman    Court,' 

'Legal  Formulary,*  ^Tenure  of  Church  Prop- 
erty in  tke  United  Slater,*  etc. 

CANON  OF  THE  MASS^at  part  of  the 
mass  following  the  sanctus.  The  rule  of  the 
Roman  CathoRc  Church  for  celebrating  the 
Eucharist  is  contained  in  this  canon. 

CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE.     See  Bible. 

CAN0NES5.  At  the  dose  of  die  8th 
ocntury  the  title  of  canoness  was  given  to  a 
dass  of  women  who  took  the  tows  of  chastity 
and  obedience,  but  not  that  of  poverty,  and 
were  not  cloistered,  though  they  had  a  common 
table  and  dormttoty,  and  were  bound  to  the 
recitation  of  the  breviary,  as  were  nuns.  They 
derived  their  name  from  their  being  enrolled 
in  the  canon  or  official  list  of  the  Church.  Their 
occupations  were  diiefly  education  of  girls, 
transcription  and  embellishment  of  Church 
office-books  and  embroidery  of  vestments.  The 
advantages  of  such  institutions  as  asylums  in  a 
rough  age  were  soon  visible,  and  they  multi- 
plied in  consequence,  but  as  iu  man^  houses  the 
rcl^ous  motive  had  little  to  do  with  entrance, 
a  £stinction  was  drawn  ere  long  between 
canonesses  regular  and  secular.  Trie  secular 
canonesses  were  for  the  most  part  members  of 
princely  or  noble  families,  [wactiscd  mud)  stale 
and  luxury  and  rvtaiaed  none  of  the  mle  save 


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CANONGATE  —  CANONIZATION 


the  ccHumon  dormitonr  and  the  recitation  of  the 
Hours  in  choir.  In  Gennany,  several  abbesses 
of  canonesses  were  princesses  of  the  empire, 
kept  up  feudal  state  and  furnished  contingents 
to  the  Imperial  army  from  their  vassals;  and  at 
the  Reformation  some  chapters  adopted  the  new 
MHnions,  and  subsist  to  tbe  present  day  as 
Protestant  foundations,  enjoying  the  revenue*, 
and  admitting  to  membership  only  ladies  of 
noble  birth  or  daughters  of  distinguished  mem- 
tiers  of  the  military  and  civil  service,  whose 
sole  obUgation  is  celibacy  during  membership. 
The  institute  never  spread  beyond  the  limitS'  of 
the  empire,  and  the  non-German  houses  were 
chiefly  in  Hainault,  Flanders  and  Lorraine. 

CANONGATE,  The,  the  principal  street 
In  the  Old  Town  of  Edinburgh.  It  is  upward 
of  one  mile  in  lengtt^  rising  gradually  with  a 
regular  and  steep  incline  from  a  small  plain  at 
tbe  east  end  of  the  town,  on  which  stands  the 
palace  of  Holyrood,  and  terminating  at  the 
castle.  The  appearance  of  this  street,  the  scene 
of  many  interesting  historical  incidents,  is  ren- 
dered remarkable  by  the  loftiness  and  antiqae 
aspect  of  the  nouses  with  which  it  is  lined,  most 
of  tbem  ranging  from  five  to  seven  stories  in 
front,    and    often    more    behind.     At    different 

Cints  it  is  known  by  other  names.  High  street, 
wnmarket,  etc 

CANONICAL  BOOKS,  the  books  oE 
Scripture  belonging  to  the  canon.  See  Bibles 
Canon. 

CANONICAL  HOURS,  certain  times  of 
the  day  set  apart  t^  ecclesiastical  law  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the  offices  of  piayer 
and  devotion,  namely,  matins  with  lauds,  prim^ 
tierce,  seit,  nones,  even-song  or  vespers  ana 
comptine.  These  hours  of  prayer  originated 
early  in  the  Church's  history,  being  mentioned 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Jerome 
and  others.  The  day  was  divided  into  seven 
parts  and  the  observance  of  the  canonical  hours 
was  as  follows:  prime,  tierce,  sext  and  nones 
at  the  first,  third,  sixth  and  ninth  hours  of  the 
day,  counting  from  six  in  the  morning;  vespers 
at  the  eleventh  hour,  compline  at  midnight  and 
matins  shortly  after  midni^t  These  times  are 
no  longrer  strictly  adhered  to.  In  England  the 
canonical  hours  are  from  eight  to  twelve  in  the 
forenoon,  before  or  after  which  the  marriage 
service    cannot    be    legally    performed    in    any 

Earish  church.  See  Bheviabv  and  consult  Bing- 
am,  'Origines  Ecdesiastid>;  Proctor,  'On 
Common  Prayer.* 

CANONICALS,  the  preuribed  dress  or 
vestments  worn  by  the  clergy  of  the  Roman 
Catholic,  Protestant  Episcopal  and  other 
churches  when  ofEciating  at  religious  services. 
The  wearing  of  vestments  is  of  ancient  origin. 
In  all  the  pagan  religions  the  priests  wear  sym- 
bolic garments,  and  in  the  Jewish  system  the 
priestly  robes  were  very  elaborate  and  signifi- 
cant. The  modem  Jewish  system  retains  these 
ecclesiasrical  vestments  and  the  ministers  of 
many  Protestant  denominations  wear  such  at- 
tire. See  Chasuble;  Costume,  Ecclesiastical; 
Stole  ;  Vestments. 

CANONICUS,  Indian  chief:  h.  about 
1565;  d.  4  June  1647.  When  tbe  Pilgrims 
landed,  lie  and  his  nephew  Miantonomo  (qv.) 
were  associate  sachems  oi  the  fierce  Nanasut- 


setts,  mustering  some  3,000  warriors.  In  the 
winter  of  1621-22  he  sent  to  the  little  colony, 
with  about  50  fightinjg  men,  a  bundle  of  arrows 
bound  with  a  snakeslon,  either  as  a  preliminary 
of  war  or  a  demand  of  gifts  to  avert  it  Thnr 
returned  the  skin  stuff ecf  with  powder  and  ball, 
and  the  frightened  savages  did  not  dare  keep  it 
A  lasting  treaty  was  negotiated,  and  it  was  ow- 
ing to  the  inRuence  of  Canonicus  that  the  tribe 
never  made  war  against  the  English,  even  many 
years  after  his  death,  till  "King  Philip's  Wai' 
of  1675.  In  1636,  Roger  WOliams  and  his 
company  sought  refuge  frnn  the  Uassachusetts 
authorities  among  tnc  Narragan setts.  Th^ 
were  kindly  received,  and  to  them  was  granted 
tbe  peninsula  where  Providence  stands,  in 
1637  the  Pequots  of  Connecticut  were  attempt- 
ing to  form  a  general  Indian  league  to  extermi- 
nate the  English  settlements,  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts government  sent  an  embassy  to  pre- 
vent the  Narragansetts  from  joining  it 
Canotiicus  received  them  with  great  Indian 
pomp  in  his  wigwam  of  poles  attd  mats,  sur- 
rounded by  his  'mugwumps*  and  leading  war- 
riors, gave  tbem  a  feast  with  boiled  chestnuts 
and  huckleberry  Indian  pudding  for  dessert; 
and  probably  more  from  Idnd  regard  for  Wil- 
liams than  throng  the  embassy's  persuasions, 
kept  the  peace,  and  even  furnished  a  couple 
of  hundred  warriors  to  help  the  English. 
These  allies,  however,  played  the  usual  ambig- 
uous Indian  part,  ready  to  massacre  the  beaten 
side.  In  1644  the  Gorton  (q.v.)  party  suc- 
ceeded m  persuading  the  chiefs  tluit  tt  wai 
under  the  protection  of  irresistible  powers  in 
England;  and  on  9  April  Canonicus,  his  son 
Mixan  and  his  nephew  Pessacus,  brother  and 
successor  of  Miantonomo,  signed  two  astonish- 
ing documents,  of  whose  purport  it  is  very  un- 
likely that  they  had  been  correctly  informed 
One  of  them  c^ed  the  land  and  people  of  the 
Narragansetts  to  his  Majesty  of  Great  Britain, 
placing  the  Indians  themselves  under  his  pro- 
tection, and  appointing  Gorton  and  three  others 
their  attorneys  to  carry  the  instrument  to  him. 
The  other,  addressed  to  the  Massachusetts  au- 
thorities, was  the  refusal  of  their  invitation  to 
visit  Boston.  It  also  menaced  the  authorities 
on  accotmt  of  Miantonomo's  death  and  threat' 
ened  to  revenge  it  on  Uncas.  Finally,  however, 
a  truce  was  signed,  and  three  years  later 
Canonicus  died. 

CANONIZATION,  a  rite  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  by  which  a  deceased  person  is 
inscribed  in  the  catalogue  of  the  saints  and  by 
which  it  is  publicly,  solemnly  and  canonically 
declared  that  such  person  is  to  be  honored  as 
a  saint  by  all  the  faithful. 

The  desire  to  honor  the  dead  is  an  instinct 
of  human  nature^  "Ilie  state  picks  out  its 
great  ones  for  civil  honors;  the  Church  holds 
up  to  the  veneration  of  its  members  those  who 
by  the  sanctity  of  their  lives  and  their  love  o£ 
God  and  their  fellow-men  merit  imitation. 

The  state  Lonors  its  heroes  on  account  of 
intellectual  abili^  oratorical  gifts,  courage  or 
patriotism;  the  Church  demands  purity  of  life 
and  eminent  virtue  in  her  spiritual  heroes.  As 
a  proof  of  that  virtue  she  requires  miracles 
wrought  by  or  through  their  intercession.  'The 
virtues,  which  must  be  heroic,  and  the  miracles, 
are  proved  by  a  prooets  moat  laiaute  and 
searching. 


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504  CAN 

E)ttring  the  early  centuries  the  deeds  of  the 
martyrs  were  recorded  by  Christian  notaries. 
For  this  purpose  Pope  Clement  divided  the  dty 
of  Rome  into  seven  quarters  with  a  special 
notai^  for  each  quarter.  The  letters  of  Saints 
QfpTOB,  Jerome,  Augustine  and  Epiphanius 
tell  us  of  the  efforts  of  the  bishops  to  collect 
the  deeds  of  the  martyrs  and  to  have  them 
venerated. 

In  the  early  times  individual  bishops  sifted 
the  testimony  regarding  those  brou^t  to  their 
notice  as  worthy  of  veneration  and  declared  for 
or  gainst  it.  But  this  gave  rise  to  inconven- 
iences and  the  necessity  of  a-  central  authority 
for  judging  in  such  cases  was  made  manifest. 

At  earl;^  as  the  4tfa  century  the  case  of  Saint 
Vigilius,  ushop  of  Trent,  who  was  martyred 
A.D.  399,  was  brought  to  Rome  to  secure  the 
consent   of   the  Pope   for  his   veneration   as  a 

Gradually  the  procedure  in  these  matters 
was  elaborated  and  in  1587  the  Congregation  of 
Rites  was  charged  with  the  duty  of  investipt- 
ing  the  causes  of  Beatification  and  Canonization. 

Beatification  precedes  Canonization,  and  is 
a  decree  which  permits  ihe  honoring  of  a  servant 
of  God  by  public  worship  in  a  certain  i^acc.  It 
differs  therefore  from  Canonization  in  that  the 
latter  not  only  concedes  but  declarts  tbax  ven- 
eration be  paid  by  the  universal  Church  to  the 
canonized  one  wlutst  Beatification  permits  only 
in  a  certain  place  the  honoring  of  the  beatified. 

The  process  by  which  Beatification  is  reached 
is  a  lengthy  one.  *The  fierce  light  which  beats 
upon  a  throne*  is  nothing  to  the  minute  and 
protracted  inquiry  which  turns  upon  the  every- 
day life  of  the  person  submitted  to  it 

Thirteen  or  fourteen  at™s  may  be  distin- 
guished in  the  process  of  Beatification.  The 
bishop  of  the  diocese  first  inquires  at  to  the 


,,an-ctUtns*  is  eitamined-  namely  whether  any 
veneration  was  paid  to  tne  servant  of  God  or 
whether  any  thing  wu  done  contrary  to  the  de- 
crees of  Urban  Vllt  which  prescribes  the  form 
of  Beatification  and  Canoniiation. 

As  a  third  step  die  minutes  of  these  two  in- 
quiries are  sent  to  Rome.  The  process  is  then 
opened  before  the  Congregation  of  Rites.  See 
CoNGREOATiONS,  Roman. 

The  Promoter  Fidei  (called  in  popular  lan- 
guage the  'devil's  advocate*)  is  amiointed. 
His  duty  is  to  raise  objections  against  me  proc- 
ess and  person.  All  the  works  printed  or  in 
manuscript^  if  the  person  were  an  author,  are 
then  exammed.  If  a  favorable  report  is  made, 
then  begins  what  is  called  the  Awistolic  Proc- 
ess. A  commission  is  given  to  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites  to  investi^te  the  notoriety,  real- 
ity and  nature  of  the  virtues  and  miracles  as- 
cribed to  ibe  one  to  be  beatified. 

Three  bishops  are  Mpointed  to  deal  with  the 
ease  systematically.  Their  findings  are  sent  to 
the  Congregation  of  Rites  and  examined  and 
argtnnents  are  heard  pro  and  contra. 

A  new  delegation  makes  another  and  more 
searching  inquiry,  if  the  result  of  the  last  ex- 
amination is  favorable.  The  process  is  again 
returned  to  the  Congregation  of  Rites  to  be 
again  examhied.  In  three  successive  meetings, 
at  the  last  of  which  the  Pope  is  present,  the 
virtues  and  miracles  of  the  subject  for  beati- 
fication are  again  discussed. 


Having  sought  to  know  the  will  of  God  by 


In  a  new  general  assembly  the  question  is 
considered  whether  the  Beatincation  may  pro- 
ceed without  further  delay.  In  the  ev«it  of  an 
affirmative  decision  the  Pope  appoints  a  day  for 
the  ceremony,  and  orders  a  bnef  to  be  prepared 
setting  forth  the  Apostolic  sentence. 

The  Beatification  takes  place  in  Saint 
Peter's  with  ceremonies  appropriate  to  tfie  oc- 
casion. Proof  of  at  least  two  miracles  is  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  Beatification,  and  before 
proceeding  to  Canonization  it  must  be  proved 
that  at  least  two  more  miracles  were  wrought 
through  the  intercession  of  the  ■Blessed*  per- 

So  strict  is  th«  examination  of  these  mira- 
cles, that  according  to  an  Italian  proverb,  *It  is 
next  to  a  miracle  to  get  a  miracle  proved  in 
Rome.*  To  prove  the  triith  of  miracles  worked 
after  Beatification,  the  same  formality  and 
rigorous  conditions  are  required  as  are  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  miracks  before  Beatifica- 

The  three  congregations  or  assemblies  which 
were  required  before  Beatification  are  again 
convoked  and  after  mature  deliberation  if 
everything  is  favorable  to  the  Caus^  declare 
for  It.  A  decree  is  drawn  up  hy_  the  direction 
of  the  Pope  expressing  that  decision.  Canon- 
ization then  takes  place  in  Saint  Peter's. 

Most  solemn  ceremonies  mark  the  event  and 
never  does  the  veneratde  Basilica  with  its  thou- 
sands of  worshippers  look  so  grand  and  in- 
Siring  as  when  t&e  Pope  declares  and  ordains 
at  the  servant  of  God  in  question  shall  be  in- 
scribed in  ihe  raster  of  the  Saints  ('Canon 
Sanctorum*)  ana  that  his  (or  her)  memoiy 
shall  be  celebrated  on  a  given  day  in  every 

Consult  the  celebrated  treatise  of  Pope 
Benedict  XIV,  <De  Servornm  Dei  Beatifica- 
tione  et  Beatorum  Canoniiatione'  (1734-38), 
the  standard  work  on  the  subject;  a  portion  of 
it  has  been  translated  tinder  the  title  'Heroic 
Virtue'  (3  vols.,  1856)  ;  also  Addis  and  Arnold, 
'The  Catholic  Dictionary'  (1893) ;  Aichner, 
'Compendium  Juris  Ecclesjastici'  (1900); 
Baart,  'The  Roman  Court*;  Bargilliat,  'Prse- 
lectiones  Juris  C^oniri,*  Vol.  1,  pp.  344-45 
(1903);  Bouix,  *Tractatus  de  cuna  Romana,' 
180  p.  183  (1880):  Ferraris,  'Bibliotheca  Canon- 
ica' '  Fomari,  'Codex  pro  Postulatoribus' ; 
C^ardellini,  'Decreta  authentica  S.  C.  Congre- 
eationis  Rituum'  ;  Reiffenstiil,  'Jus  (Tanonicum 
Universum';  Schmalzgruber,  'Jus  Ecclesiasti- 
cum  Universum* ;  'Catholic  Encyclopedia' 
(New  York  1912).  Consult  also  ^Catalogus 
ac  Status  Causarum  Beatificationts*  (Rome 
1901). 

CANONS,  Book  of,  a  system  of  canons 
or  rules  prepareH  for  the  C^iurch  o£  Scotland 
by  its  bishops,  in  accordance  with  the  direction 
of  Charles  I.  It  was  published  in  XtaSKt,  hav- 
ing undergone  revision  at  the  hands  of  Arch- 
bishop Laud.  It  limited  greatly  the  power  of 
the  Church  courts  inasmuch  as  their  findings 
were  now  subject  to  ratification  by  the  tMshops, 
and  also  asserted  the  king's  anpremacy  in 
spiritual  matters.  Its  promulgation  was  fell 
to  be  Brbiirai3r,  and  the  (tiongiesi  objcdiam 
w«re  made  against  it 


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CANONS  OP  THE  CHURCH  OP  ENGLAND  —  CANOSA 


CANONS  OF  THB  CHURCH  OF 
ENGLAND,  the  'consdtntiena  and  canons 
ecdesiastical*  dnwn  up  in  convocatioii  in  1604 
by  the  synod  in  London.  These  canons.  Mill  in 
force   as    rerised,   number   141,    and   were   de- 

gned  to  confirm  the  established  aysteni  of  the 
urch  of  England,  particularly  tbrou^  the 
test  oath,  aimea  at  the  Puritan  party,  in  which 
the  clergy  were  sworn  to  subscribe  willingly  to 
the  supremacy  of  the  sovereign,  to  the  Articles 
and  to  the  Prayer-book.  Consult  Walcott,  'The 
Constitutions  and  Canons  Ecclesiastical  of  the 
Church  o£  Eueland'  (Oxford  and  Loodon 
1874). 

CANONS  OF  HIPPOLYTUS,  The,  a 
book  divided  into  38  canons,  believed  to  have 
been  wiitten  by  Hippolytus,  archbishop  of 
Rome,  about  the  middle  of  the  3d  century.  It 
contains  instructions  in  regard  to  the  selection 
and  ordination  of  Christian  ministers,  conver- 
sion and  baptism  of  the  heathen,  rules  for  the 
celebration  of  the  Endtarist,  for  fasting,  etc 
The  book  originally  was  made  from  a  Coptic 
version  of  the  Gredc  but  has  been  handed  down 
only  in  Arabic.  It  first  attracted  attention  in 
the  17th  century,  was  published  in  1870  by 
Haneberfc,  who  added  a  Latin  translation,  and 
was  revised  by  Achelis  in  1891.  A  German 
translation  was  made  by  Reidd  in  1900  from 
new  manuscript,  which  showed  that  the  book 
had  been  previously  thrown  into  disorder  by 
the  displacement  of  two  pages,  and  which  also 
removed  other  difficulties  upon  which  the 
theory  of  interpolation  was  based.  There  has 
been  much  controversy  about  the  authorriiip 
of  the  book  and  as  to  whether  the  canons  were 
the  original  form  from  which  the  Efg^tnn 
Church  Order  was  derived,  but  all  documents, 
as  well  as  the  general  style  of  writinc^  poiat  to 
Hippolytus  as  the  author. 

CANONSBUHO,  Pa.^  borough  of  Wafih- 
io^on  County,  on  me  Pittsburgn,  Cincinnati, 
Qucago  and  Saint  Louis  Railroad,  13  miles 
southwest  of  Pittsburgh.  Named  after  CoL 
John  Canon,  who  plotted  the  town  in  1789.  It 
was  the  active  centre  in  i:^  of  the  WhisI^ 
Insurrection.  In  1802  it  received  a  borough 
charter.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich  coal  region  and 
has  manufactures  of  sheet  iron,  structural 
steel,  tin  plate,  stove  pipes,  pollery,  etc.  The 
original  building  of  Rev.  Dr.  John  McMillan's 
UtiR  School,  founded  in  1780,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Training  School,  the  buildings  of  Jeffer- 
son Collie  founded  in  1802,  now  pan  of  Wash- 
bton  and  Jefferson  College  (p-v.),  are  situated 
here.  Pop.  with  South  CaoonsDUrg  annexed 
5,588. 

CANOPIC  VASES,  or  CANOPI,  certain 

large-bellied  vessels  found  in  tombs  of  Egypt, 
containing  the  embalmed  viscera  of  bodies  that 
had  been  converted  into  mummies.  Four  of 
these  were  placed  in  a  tomb,  each  appropriated 
to  a  particular  deity,  and  surmounted  by  the 
efligy  of  the  head  of  such  deity,  as  of  a  man, 
an  ape,  a  jackal  or  a  hawk.  It  is  to  those 
with  the  human  head  that  the  term  canofH  has 
been  more  particularly  applied  They  were 
frequently  made  of  basalt,  and  decorated  with 
figures  in  relievo  or  paintings;  or  of  costly 
white  alabaster,  with  spiral  flutings;  or  they 
were  formed  from  black  burned  clay.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  town  Canopus. 


CAHOKPI,  ka-no'pe,  Antonio,  Italian 
scene-painter:  b.  1773:  d.  Saint  Petersburg 
1S32.  He  received  his  first  education  from  his 
father,  who  was  employed  as  civil  en^neer  by 
the  Duke  of  Modena,  and  after  occuj)ying  him- 
self for  some  time  with  fresco- pain tii%,  was 
subsequently  employed  as  scene-painter  in  Ven- 
ice and  Mantua.  Compelled  to  resort  to  fl^t 
at  the  time  of  the  French  invasion,  he  first 
betook  himself  to  Vienna  and  afterward  to  Mos- 
cow, where  he  was  engaged  in  the  decoration 
of  many  places,  which,  however,  were  burnt  in 
the  great  fire  of  1812,  From  that  time  until 
his  death  he  was  engaged  as  scene-painter  of 
the  Imperial  theatre  of  Saint  Petersburg.  His 
most  admired  efforts  in  that  branch  of  art  were 
his  architectural  scenes  for  Mozart's  'Magic 
Flute,'  and  for  'Semiramis.' 

CANOPUS.  (1)  In  Egyptian  mythology, 
a  water-god,  represented  on  vessels  of  a  sphen- 
cal  shape.  These  vessels  were  used  by  the 
ancient  Eeyptians  to  keep  the  water  of  the  Nile 

good  onnking  condition.     The  worship  of 


covered  by  Mr,  Hamilton  amid  the  t 
Alexandria.  (2)  In  ancient  geograiAy,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  towns  of  lower  Esyp^ 
near  the  most  western  mouth  of  the  Nile,  atiout 
14  miles  east  of  Alexandria.  The  name  of  the 
town  is  variously  ascribed  to  the  divinity  of 
the  same  name  and  to  Canopus,  or  Canobus, 
the  helmsman  of  Menelaus  who  died  in  Egypt 
of  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  after  his  return  from 
Troy,  and  who  was  buried  on  the  site  of  the 
town.  It  became  important  after  the  founda- 
tion of  Alexandria,  as  a  summer  resort  of 
doubtful  reputation.  U  was  an  important  port, 
and  although  the  channel  is  now  filled  up,  mere 
are  still  ruins  of  the  old  city  on  the  shore  at 
Aboukir.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  temple  at  Sera- 
pis  (successfully  excavated  in  1893),  whose 
oracle  was  celebrated,  especially  among  the 
sick  seeking  for  restoration  to  health. 

CANOPUS,  or  CANOBUS,  the  brightest 
star  except  Sirius  of  the  first  magnitude,  be- 
lon^ng  to  the  southern  constellation  Argo,  and 
invisible  in  the  north  or  middle  parts  of  the 
United  States,  on  account- of  its  nearness  to 
the  South  Pole.  It  is  one  of  the  few  brilliant 
stars  for  which  no  sensible  parallax  has  been 
found.  Tl^e  name,  according  to  Plutarch,  was 
derived  from  Canopus,  the  pilot  of  Menelaus. 

CANOPY,  in  genera),  any  suspended  cover- 
ing that  serves  as  a  protection  or  shelter,  as  an 
awning,  the  tester  of  a  bed,  or  the  like'  espe- 
ciallv,  an  ornamental  covering  of  cloth  sus- 
pended on  iMSts  over  a  throne  or  the  seat  o£ 
a  high  dignitary,  or  any  covering  of  cloth  so 
ditposed-  In  architecture,  it  is  the  decorative 
hood  or  cover  sumtorted  or  suspended  over 
an  altar,  throne,  chair  of  state,  pulpit  and  the 
like;  also  the  ornamented  projecting  head  of  a 
niche  or  tabernacle.  Early  English  canopies 
are  gencrallv  simple  with  a  trefoned  or  cinque- 
foiled  heads.  The  triangular  arrangement 
over  an  early  English  and  decorated  doorway 
is  often  called  a  canopy. 

CANOSA,  ka-n5s'si,  DI  PUOtIA,  Italy, 
city  in  the  province  of  Bari  delle  Pugtie,  14  miles 
to  the  »uthw<st  of  Barletta  on  tne  Adriatic 


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C  ANOSSA — C  ANO  VA 


The  cathedral  of  San  SaUno,  with  pav«iiieni  - 
several  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  street, 
was  built  about  1101.  In  an  adjacent  court  is 
the  tomb  of  Bohcmond  1 ;  it  has  bronze  doors 
by  RuReieri  of  Amalfi.  There  is  a  ruined  cas- 
tle, built  by  Charles  I  of  Naples.  It  was  the 
ancient  Canusium,  and  various  relics  of  Roman 
times,  including  an  ampitheatre,  have  been 
found.  Between  £arletta  and  Canosa  was  the 
ancient  CannK  (q.v.),  where  in  216  B.C.  Hanni- 
bal defeated  the  Romans.  Tombs  cut  in  rock 
on  a  hill  have  been  found  in  the  nei^borhood, 
and  in  1813  a  beautiful  burial-chamber  was 
opened,  which  contained  the  corpse  of  a  war- 
nor  in  armor.  A  copper  lamp  and  a  number  of 
beautiful  vases  were  also  found  here  The 
paintioKs  upon  the  vases  were  the  most  import- 
ant part  of  this  discovery.  They  refer  to  the 
Greek-Italian  mysteries.  The  town  was 
founded  by  the  Greeks,  and  till  the  Second 
Punic  War  was  an  important  commercial  cen- 
tre.   Pop.  about  26,000. 

CANOSSA,  small  villa^  in  northern  Italy, 
12  miles  southwest  of  Reggio.  On  a  rock  near 
by  are  the  ruins  of  Canossa  castle,  which  was 
destroyed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Reggio  in  1255. 
In  the  llttt  century  the  castle  belonged  to 
Countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany,  with  whom  Pope 
Gregory  was  staying  in  1077  when  the  German 
Emperor  Henry  IV  came  to  render  submission 
after  his  excommunication  by  the  Pope.  The 
monarch  was  compelled  to  stand  barefooted  in 
the  court^rd  for  three  days  and  nights  before 
the  pontiff  would  receive  him,  Bismardc  in 
1871  used  the  historic  phrase,  "We  are  not  go- 
ing to  Canossa,^  in  a  speech  directed  against 
the  clerical  party.  Hence,  "going  to  Canossa* 
signifies  submitting  to  humiliation. 

CANOT,  ka-no',  Theodore,  Italian  adven- 
turer and  slave  trader:  b.  Florence  1807;  d. 
1850.  His  father  was  a  French  officer.  He 
visited  Boston,  sailed  to  various  parts  of  the 
world,  was  shipwrecked  near  Ostend,  and  again 
on  the  coast  of  Cuba,  where  he  fell  into  the 
hands  of  a  gang  of  pirates,  one  of  whom 
claimed  to  be  his  uncle,  befriended  him  for 
some  timtL  and  finally  sent  him  to  an  Italian 
grocer  at  Regla,  near  Havana,  who  was  secretly 
concerned  in  the  African  slave  trade.  Canot 
made  his  first  vo^-age  to  Africa  in  1826,  landing 
at  the  slave  station  of  Bangalang,  on  the  Rio 
Pongo,  Senegambia.  After  quelung  a  mutiny 
on  board  and  helping  to  stow  away  108  slaves 
under  15  years  of  age,  the  young  adventurer 
entered  the  service  of  the  owner  of  the  station. 
He  visited  various  parts  of  the  neighboring 
country,  collecting  by  aid  of  the  African  princes 
a  slock  of  slaves  for  his  newly-established 
depot  a<  Kambia  near  Bangalang,  which  in  May 
1828  was  destroyed  by  fire.  He  afterward  pur- 
chased a  vessel  at  Sierra  Leone,  in  which  with 
a  cargo  of  slaves  wrested  from  a  trader  in  the 
Rio  Numez,  he  sailed  to  Cuba.  Three  more  expe- 
ditions soon  followed;  in  the  first  he  lost  300 
slaves  by  smallpox;  in  the  last  he  was  taken 
by  the  French  and  condemned  to  10  years'  con- 
finement in  the  prison  of  Brest,  in  France,  but 
after  a  year's  durance  was  pardoned  by  Louis 
Philippe.  He  returned  to  Africa,  and  was  the 
pioneer  of  the  slave  traffic  at  New  Sestros. 
After  a  pleasure  trip  to  England  he  returned 
to  New  Sestros  and  in  1840  shipped  to  Cuba 
749  slaves.     He  now  resolved  tQ.  abandon  his 


illicit  course,  and  obtaining  from  an  African 
chief  a  valuable  grant  of  land  at  Cape  Uotmt, 
established  there  in  1941  a  trading  and  fanning 
settlement  under  the  name  of  New  Florence, 
which  in  March  1847  was  destroyed  by  the 
British,  who  suspeaed  it  to  be  a  slave  station. 
Canot  subsequently  removed  to  South  America, 
then  to  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  finally  received 
from  Napoleon  III  an  office  in  one  of  the 
French  colonies  in  Oceanica.  Consult  Ma^er, 
'Captain  Canot,  or  Twenty  Years  of  an  African 
Slaver'    (1854). 

CANOVA,  ka-n6'va,  Antonio,  Italian  sculp- 
tor: b.  Possagno,  Treviso,  1  Nov.  1757;  d. 
Venice,  13  Oct.  1823.  He  was  the  founder  of 
a  new  school  of  Italian  sculpture  in  which  soft- 
ness and  delicacy  of  expression  predominate. 
Canova  came  of  a  family  of  stone-cutters  and 
makers  of  small  statuary.  At  a  very  early 
age  he  was  tau^t  by  his  grandfather  to  draw, 
design  and  copy  the  statuary  in  his  workshop. 
He  very  early  showed  talent  and  great  interest 
in  the  traditional  trade  of  his  family;  and  in 
this  he  was  encouraged  by  his  grandfather, 
who  acted  as  bis  guardian,  tor  his  parents  had 
died  while  he  was  still  an  infanL  Before  his 
tenth  year  Canova  had  begun  to  imitate  the 
work  of  his  elders;  and  two  small  shrines 
executed  by  him  at  this  period  are  still  in  exist- 
ence. From  this  time  on  he  worked  continu- 
ously in  the  shop  of  his  grandfather,  who  had 
some  knowledge  of  painting,  drawing  and  archi- 
tecture, a  strong  love  for  his  profession  and  a 
desire  to  see  his  grandson  distinguish  himself 
in  it.  At  the  age  of  13  the  boy  had  already 
acquired  a  local  reputation  which  attracted  the 
attention  of  Giovanni  Falieri,  senator  and  mem- 
ber of  an  old  palridan  family,  and  a  man  of 
great  influence  in  the  community,  who  intro- 
duced him  to  Torretti,  a  local  sculptor.  Canova 
worked  with  and  studied  under  me  latter  for 
two  years  and  went  with  bim  to  Venice,  where 
Torretti  died  a  few  months  later.  The  bojr 
continued  with  Ferrari,  a  nephew  of  Torretti, 
who  made  marble  house  decorations.  While 
here  Canova  made  for  his  patron .  Falieri  two 
statues  'Orpheus*  and  'Eurydice,'  in  which 
the  latter  saw  evidence  of  great  talent,  and 
gave  him  an  order  for  more.  The  next  three 
years  were,  for  Canova,  a  period  of  study,  at- 
tendance at  the  art  and  other  classes  in  the 
school  and  of  investigation  in  anatomy  and 
working  from  natural  objects;  at  the  end  of 
which  time  he  presented  to  his  patron  work 
much  superior  to  anything  he  had  previously 
done,  among  them  'DKdaTus  and  Icaru^*  the 
best  known  of  his  works  of  this  period.  As 
his  reputation  grew  he  turned  his  eyes  toward 
Rome,  then  the  centre  of  Italian  art,  as  it  is 
to-day.  Falieri  came  to  his  aid  and  secured  for 
bim  a  pension  of  300  ducats  ($290)  a  year  for 
diree  years  from  the  Venetian  Senate  to  enable 
him  to  continue  his  studies.  In  1779,  at  the 
age  of  22,  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  letter  of 
introduction  to  the  Venetian  ambassador,  who 
became  his  friend  and  patron.  There  (^nova 
applied  himself  to  study  and  work  with  enthusi- 
asm; and  under  the  influence  of  the  city,  its 
ancient  monuments,  its  traditions  and  the  en- 
thusiasm inspired  by  Winkelraann  and  other 
students  and  reformers  of  art,  the  young  Vene- 
tian developed  rapidly  and  soon  acquired,  in 
the  Imperial  city,  a  reputation  superior  even 


d=y  Google 


to  that  be  had  left  behind  him  in  Venice. 
^TheieuB  Sitting  upon  the  Slain  Uinotaur*  was 
the  first  large  work  by  Canora  in  Rome  (1783). 
lo  1783  be  undertook  the  execution  of  the  tomb 
of  Pope  Oetnent  XIV,  in  the  church  DegU 
Apostoli.  He  retained  the  usual  style  of  com- 
position, and  only  improved  on  the  depraved 
taste  of  the  school  of  Berpini.  He  neid  exe- 
cuted the  KToup  of  <Ctqud  and  Psyche,'  in  which 
he  first  displayed  his  own  peculiar  styl^  of 
which  loveliness  b  a  strikine  charactenstic 
The  figures  are  exceedingly  delicate  and  Ki^ee- 
ful.  He  was  etnployea  on  a  seccMid  public 
monument,  the  tomb  of  Pope  Clement  XIII, 
in  Saint  Peter's,  which  was  finished  in  1792. 
It  is  distinguished  for  its  colossal  size  and  sim- 
pie  style.  Meanwhile  the  fame  of  the  artist 
continually  increased.  He  established  in  the 
palace  of  the  Venetian  Ambassador  a  school  for 
the  benefit  of  young  Venetians.  His  next  worics 
1  winged  Cupid,  standing;  another  gnmp 


tomb  of  the  Venetian  Admiral  Emo,  for  the 
republic  of  Venice.  This  latter  is  a  combina- 
tion of  bas-reliefs  with  figures  in  fidl  relief. 
In  a  very  lovely  'Psyche,'  standing,  half- 
dressed,  with  a  butterfly  in  her  left  han^  which 
she  holds  by  the  wings  with  her  ri^t,  and 
contemplates  with  a  calm,  smiling  mien  and 
a  'Repentant  Magdalene,'  natural  size,  be  has 
carried  the  expression  of  blending  and  softness 
to  the  hi^iest  degree.  His  'Hebe'  is  a  delight- 
ful figure.  In  an  easy  and  animated  attitude 
the  smihng  goddess  of  youA  horeta  over  a 
dond,  pouring  nectar  with  her  right  band  into 
a  bowl  which  she  holds  in  her  left.  Both  ves- 
sels, as  well  as  the  coronet  of  Hebe  and  the 
edges  of  her  liarment,  are  gilt  Canova  is  fond 
of  a  variety  of  material,  and  often  endeavors  to 
give  to  his  statues  the  efiect  of  pictures.  He 
displayed  his  talent  for  the  tragical  in  the 
r^png  'Hercules  Hurling  Lichas  into  the  Sea.' 
The  group  is  colossal  and  Hercules  is  some- 
vhat  larger  than  the  Famesian ;  but  it  makes  a 
disagreeable  impression,,  for  the  genius  of  Ca- 
nova was  not  adapted  to  such  subjects.  Hii 
repreGentation  of  the  two  pugilists,  'Kreugas 
and  Demoxenos,'  is  much  more  successful,  A 
standing  group  of  'Cupid  and  Psyche'  was  the 
triumph  of  his  art  P^che  here  appears  again 
holding  the  butterfly.  In  1796  and  1797  Canova 
finished  the  model  of  the  celebrated  tomb  of 
the  Archduchess  Christina  of  Austria,  wife  of 
Duke  Albert  of  Saxe-Teschen,  which  in  180S 
was  placed  in  the  church  of  the  Augustine s  at 
Vienna.  In  1803  he  made  the  colossal  statue  of 
the  King  of  Naples,  one  of  his  finest  works, 
which  is  15  palms  high,  and  executed  in  marble. 
During  the  revolution  of  1798  and  1799  Canova 
accomflanied  Prince  Rezzonico  on  a  journey 
throu^  Germany.  On  his  return  he  remained 
for  some  time  in  the  Venetian  territory,  and 
painted  for  the  church  of  his  native  village  an 
altar-piece,  in  which  are  represented  the  dead 
Christ,  the  Harys,  Nicodemus  and  Joseph, 
and,  on  high,  God  the  Father.  He  afterward 
executed,  in  Rome,  his  'Perseus  with  the  Head 
of  Medusa,'  which,  when  the  Apollo  of  Belvi- 
dere  was  carried  to  France,  occiq>>ed  its  place 
and  pedestal.  This  statue  mcreased  the  fame 
of  Ouiova  more  than  any  of  his  preceding 
TTOrks.  But  Perseus  is  only  an  imitation  ol 
die  Apollo.    The  separate  parts  are  of  exquisite 


>VAK  ttvr 

beauty  in  form  as  well  as  in  masterly,  delicate 
finishing.  In  1802  he  was  invited  by  Bonaparte 
to  Pans  to  make  the  model  of  his  colossal- 
statue.  In  the  beginning  of  1803  the  model  of 
the  Emperor's  bust,  and  afterward  that  of  his 
statue,  was  to  be  seen  in  the  workshop  of  the 
artist.  There  is  not  a  more  successful  work  of 
the  kind  than  this  bust:  the  figure  of  the  statue 
is  not  so  good.  Among  the  later  works  of  the 
artist  are  a  Washington,  of  colossal  size,  in  a 
sitting  attitude;  the  tonribs  of  the  Cardinal  of 
York  and  of  Pius  VII;  an  imitation  of  the 
Medicean'  Venus;  a  'Venus  Rising  from  the 
Bath' ;  the  colossal  group  of  'Theseus  killing^ 
the  Minotaur,*  far  surpassing  his  earlier  works 
in  the  heroic  style;  the  tomb  of  Alfieri.  for  the 
Countess  of  Stolberg,  in  Florence,  and  erected 
in  that  place  (the  'Weeping  Italia,'  a  colossal 
statue  in  marble,  is  particularly  aibnired)  ;  the 
'Graces  Rising  from  the  Bath';  the  monument 
of  the  Marchioness  of  Saint  Croce;  a  'Venus'; 
a  'Dancing  Girl,'  with  almost  transparent  gar- 
ments; a  colossal  'Hector';  a  'Paris';  a 
'Muse,'  larger  than  natural  size;  a  model  of 
a  colossal  <  Ajax' ;  and  the  model  of  a  sitting 
statue,  in  rich  robes,  of  the  Archduchess  Maria 
Louisa  of  Austria.  After  the  second  fall  of 
Napoleon,  in  1815,  Canova  was  commissioned  by 
the  Pope  to  demand  the  restoration  of  the  worla 
of  art  carried  from  Rome.  He  went  from 
Paris  to  London,  and  returned  to  Rome  in  1816i 
where  Pius  VII  inscribed  his  name  in  the  golden 
book  of  the  capitol,  declared  him  "to  have 
deserved  well  of  the  city  of  Rome,*  and  made 
him  Marquis  of  Ischia,  with  a  pension  of  3,000 

As  a  man  _  Can'Ova  was  activ^  open,  mild, 
obliging  and  kind  toward  everybody.  His  opin- 
ion of  himself  was  very  modest,  notwithstanding 
his  fame.  He  assisted  promising  young  artiste 
and  established  prizes  for  the  encouragement  of 
the  arts.  When  the  Pope  conferred  upon  him 
the  title  of  Marquis  of  Ischia,  with  a  pension, 
he  dedicated  the  latter  to  the  support  and 
encouragement  of  poor  and  deserving  artists. 
Canova  was  also  an  agreeable  punter,  butv 
strangely  enough,  more  of  a  colorist  than  a 
correct  designer.  Engraved  copies  of  all  his 
works  have  appeared  in  Italy  and  at  Paris. 
Consult  Missinni,  Melchior,  'Vita  di  Canova* 
(1824);  Cicognara,  'History  of  Modem  Sculp- 
ture' (Venice  182S) ;  Quatrem^re  de  Quincey, 
'Canova  et  ses  ouvrages'  (Paris  1834);  Tn- 
paldo,  'Biographia  degli  Italiani  Tllustn* ;  An- 
zelmi,  'Ope  re  Scclte  di  Antonio  Canova' 
(Naples  1842)  ;  Meyer,  A.  G.,  <Canova> 
a898);  Borzelli,  Angelo,  'La  Relazione  del 
Canova  con  Napoli'  (1901);  MalamanL  'Ca- 
nova' (Milan  1911). 

CANOVAI,  ka-no-va'e,  Stanislao,  Italian 
ecclesiastic  and  historian :  b.  Florence,  27  March 
1740;  d  Parma,  17  Nov.  1811.  Having  taken 
holy  orders,  he  officiated  afterward  as  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Parma.  In  1788^  as 
a  member  of  the  academy  of  antiquities,  he 
contended  for  the  ^rize  which  was  offered  for 
an  essay  on  Amcngo  Vespucci  He  opposed 
the  common  opinion  that  Columbus  was  the  first 
discoverer  of  the  New  World,  claiming  that 
Vespucci  one  year  before  him  had  touched 
tipen  the  nortli^m  part  of  the  continent  and 
had  landed  ia  Brazil.  His  paper  gained  the 
priA,  but  produced  much  discussioa.    He  was 


d=;  Google 


CAHOVAS  DBL  CASTIZ,!^  —  C ANTACUZBNU8 

I  mathe- 


also  die  author  of  several  books 
matids  and  history, 

CANOVAS  DBL  CASTILLO,  ka'noras 
d£l  kis-tel'yo,  Antooio,  Spanish  statesman  a.iid 
man  of  letters:  b.  Malaga,  8  Feb.  1828;  d.  SanU 
Aqueda,  8  Aug.  1897.  He  was  editor  of  the 
Conservative  journal,  Palrio,  and  in  1854 
entered  the  public  service  as  member  of  the 
Cortes;  thereafter  he  held  various  posts  in 
the  govemtnent.  At  his  death  he  had  been 
for  two  years  Prime  Minister,  and  had  held  the 
same  position  three  times  previously.  He  is 
author  of  'Literary  Studies*  (1868);  'History 
of  the  Austrian  Dotninion  in  Spain'    (1869); 


'Problems  of  the  Time'  (2  vols.,  18841 
<Studies  on  the  Reign  of  Philip  IV»  (3  vols., 
1888-90).  He  was  editor-in-chief  of  a  'General 
History  of  Spain,'  consisting  of  monographs  by 
sundry  writers  (1890^).  He  was  assassinated 
at  the  baths  of  Santa  Aqueda,  Consult  Pons  y 
Humbert,    'Carovas  del  Castillo'    (I90I). 

CANROBERT,  kaA-ro-baTi  Franfioia  Cer- 
tain, marshal  of  France :  h.  Saint  Ciri  in  Lot, 
27  June  1809:  d.  Paris,  28  Jan.  1895.  He  was 
educated  in  the  military  academy  of  Saint  Cyr, 
and  in  1828  entered  the  army.  He  had  seen 
nearly  20  gears'  brilliant  service  in  Algeria, 
and  bad  actively  supported  the  future  emperor 
at  the  coup  d'itat  of  1S51,  when_he  received 
die  rank  of  a  general  of  division  in  1853.  As 
such  he  commanded  the  first  division  of  the 
French  army  under  Marshal  St.  Amaud,  sent 
to  the  Crimea  in  18S4;  and  at  the  battle  of 
the  Alma  was  wounded  in  the  breast  and  hand 
by  the  splinter  of  a  shell.  On  St.  Arnaud's 
death,  nine  days  later,  Canrobert  assumed  the 
chief  command  of  the  French  artny  and  was 
Bent  to  Sweden  and  Denmark  on  diplconatic 
missions.  According  to  the  historian.  King' 
lake,  he  deliberately  retarded  the  process  of 
operations,  let  sli^  man^  opportunities  and 
hampered  the  English  —  his  object  being  to  for- 
ward Napoleon's  design  of  coming  out  to  head 
a  final  and  victorious  campaign.  In  the  war 
in  Italy  against  the  Austrians  (1859)  Canrobert 
liad  the  command  of  the  third  division  of  the 
French  army,  and  at  the  battles  of  Magenta 
and  Solferioo  his  corps  d'armie  was  engaged. 
In  the  Frai)co-(jerman  War  of  1870  he  was  Uiut 
up  in  Metz  with  Bazaine,  and  became  a  prisoner 
in  Germany.  He  was  an  ardent  Imperialist  till 
the  death  of  the  Prince  Imperial  0879).  In 
1876  he  became  a  member  of  the  Senate  and 
was  returned  in  1879  and  18SS.  Consult  Martin, 
<Le  Marichal  Canrobert'  {Paris  1895). 

CANSO,  Got  or  Strait  of,  a  narrow  strait 
or  channel,  about  17  miles  lotig  and  Z%  miles 
in  width,  separating  Nova  Scotia  from  Cape 
Breton  Island,  leading  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
into  Northumberland  Strait.     It  is   navigable 


CANSTADT,  kan'stat,  the  name  e^ven, 
from  Cannstatt  or  Canstadt,  Germany,  to  the 
dolidio-cephalic  or  long-headed  man  of  the 
Quaternary  Age,  whose  existence  was  inferred 
from  a  piece  of  skull  found  near  there  in  170C^ 
by  Duke  Eberhard  Ludwtg.  Consult  Mortillet, 
'Le  pr^historique'    (Paris  1900). 

CANSTBIN,  kin'stfn,  Karl  HQdebraad 
von,  German  philanthropist ;  b.  Lindenberg 
1667;  d.  1719.    He  studied  at  Frankfort-on^tfae- 


Oder,  traveled  much  L_ __,_,   ._ 

to  Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed  page  of  the 
Elector  of  firandenbanb  and  served  as  a  vol- 
unteer in  the  Netherlands.  A  dangerons  sick- 
ness obliged  him  to  leave  the  military  service 
He  went  to  Halle,  where  he  became  familiarly 
acquainted  with  Spener  and  Prancke,  and  hi- 


that  the  poor  should  have  Bibles  at 
as  low  rate  as  possible,  and  thtis  originated 
the  famous  institution  called  die  Canstein  Bible 
Institution,  which  after  the  death  of  Canstein 
in  1719  became  associated  with  the  institutions 
founded  by  Francke,  and  still  continues  its 
benevolent  operations.  He  wrote  a  'Harmony 
of  the  Four  Evangelists'  and  a  'Life  of 
Spener.'  Consult  Francke,  'Memoria  Can- 
sieinisna>  (Halle  1722)  and  Bertram,  'Ge- 
schichte  der  cansteinischen  Btbelanstalt'  (Halle 
1863). 

CAHT-TIMBBSS.  in  ship-building,  diose 
timbers  which  are  situated  at  the  ends  of  a 
ship.  They  derive  their  name  from  bring 
canted,  or  raised  obliquely  from  the  keel,  in 
contra- distinction  from  those  the  planes  of 
which  are  perpendicular  to  it 

CANTABILE,  kin-taloi-U,  in  music,  a 
term  applied  to  movements  intended  to  be  per- 
formed in  a  graceful,  elegant  and  melodious 
style. 

CANTABRI,  the  rudest  and  most  aav^e 
of  all  the  Iberian  tribes  wbo  inhabited  the 
greater  part  of  what  is  now  La  Montana  and 
the  Dorthwest  part  of  the  province  Bui^ps. 
They  defied  Roman  arms  for  a  long  time,  and 
though  the  campaign  against  them  b^on  in 
about  ISO  KC,  they  were  not  subdued  until 
Augustus  and  Agrij>pa  liad  carried  out  a  series 
of  campaigns  against  diem.  They  were  in- 
cluded m  a  part  of  tlie  province  of  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  with  some  measure  of  self-gov^ 
emuent.  But  some  time  elapsed  before  the)r 
became  romanised.  In  ancient  history  Cantabri 
is  used  to  denote  all  of  die  inhabilocits  of  the 
northern  mountains  of  ^taiiL 

CANTABRIA,  the  name  applied  to  a  dis- 
trict of  Spain  on  the  south  coast  of  the  Bay 
of  Biscay,  the  home  of  the  Cantabri  (q.v.). 

CANTABRIAH  MOUNTAINS,  die  geo- 
eial  name  of  the  various  mountain  ranges  ex- 
tendiug  for  a  distance  of  over  300  miles  from 
the  western  Pyrenees  along  the  north  coast 
of  Spain. to  Cai>e  Finisterre.  They  attain  in 
some  ^rts  a  height  of  about  9,000  feet,  and 
are  nch  in  minerals,  especially  copper,  lead, 
inm  and  gold.  Large  forests  of  oak,  chestnuts 
and  other  trees  are  also  found  on  their  slopes. 
On  the  western  coast  they  are  very  steep  and 
ioim  a  bold  seacoast,  but  on  the  southern  and 
eastern  slopes,  they  are  less  rugged  and  descend 
gradually  to  tne  (^tilian  plateau.  Local  aames 
are  given  to  different  portions  of  the  ridge. 

CANTACUZENUS,  kfin-ta-koo-t&'noos, 
Jolm,  Byzantine  onperor  and  historian :  h. 
about  1292;  d.  about  1380:  While  minister  of 
Andronicus  III  he  negotiated  a  favoraUe  peace 
with  the  Genoese  in  1336,  and  repelled  the  en- 
croachments of  die  Turks  in  1337.  On  the 
death  of  Androoicos  in  1341  Cantacuienus  be- 


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CANTAGAUU>  — CAHTERfeUSV 


IM 


Bnlgariam  and  Turks,  assumed  the  diadem  and 
eiiiered  Constantinople,  victoriouB  over  his 
irrals,  in  1346.  In  1347  he  became  joint  em- 
peror with  John  Palxologus,  but  really  usur[ied 
the  royal  authority.  He  used  his  power  with 
moderation,  and  endeavored  to  heal  the  wounds 
which  five  years  of  civil  war  had  inflicted  on  the 
slate ;  but  religious  disputes,  civil  dissensions 
and  foreign  enemies  soon  disturbed  his  govern- 
ment ;  and  the  jealousy  of  PaUeologus,  the 
rebelhon  of  his  own  son,  war,  plague,  the 
frightful  disorders  which  prevailed  in  the  em- 

C,  and  his  own  loss  of  popular  favor,  induced 
to  renounce  the  crowa  He  retired  to  a 
monastery  (1355),  where  he  employed  himself 
in  literary  labors.  He  is  considered  one  of  the 
ETcatest  among  the  successors  of  Coostantine. 
His  'Four  Books  of  Byzantine  History'  were 
printed  in  1645,  and  belong  to  the  collection  of 
the  fiyiantine  historians.  His  other  works, 
principally  theological,  are  partly  printed  in 
the  collec^ons  of  Byzantine  historians  and 
partly  in  manuscript.  Consult  Pears.  'Destruc- 
tion of  the  Greek  Empire*  (London  1903)  j  Val- 
Partco^  'Cantacuieme,  borame  d'etat  et  his- 
torien>    (1845). 

CANTAOALLO.  kan-ta-Kall^t  Braril, 
town,  Rio  de  Janeiro  state;  100  miles  by  rail 
northeast  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  chief  industry 
is  coffee  growing;  sugar  cane  and  fruits  arc 
also  cultivated  and  cattle  and  swine  raised. 
The  former  gold  placer  mines  have  been  ex- 
hausted.   Pop.  26,000. 

CANTAL,  Vail'  til',  France,  a  central  de- 
partment ;  area,  2,215  square  miles ;  capital, 
Aurillac.  It  is  named  from  its  highest  moun- 
tain, the  Plomb  du  Cantal,  Mons  Celtorum  of 
the  ancients,  which  rises  to  the  height  of  6^094 
feet.  The  department  is  one  of  the  poorest  and 
least  productive  districts  of  France.  The 
climate  is  rather  severe  near  the  monntains,  and 
agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state.  The  prin- 
cipal crops  are  lye,  buckwheaL  potatoes  and 
chestnuts  and  some  hemp  and  flax.  Of  wheat 
and  oats  the  product  is  insufficient  for  die  con- 
stimption.  In  the  declivities  of  the  mountains 
there  is  excellent  pasturaj^ ;  cattle,  sheep, 
horses  and  mules  are  raised  in  targe  numbers; 
and  on  the  refuse  of  the  dairies  numerous  pigs 
are  fed.  The  fat  cattle  from  this  department 
are  much  esteemed,  and  are  sent  to  all  parts  of 
the  country.  Large  quantities  of  cheese  are 
made,  and  sold  principally  in  the  south  of 
France  under  the  name  of  Auvergne  cheeses. 
There  are  deposits  of  coal  and  marble.  Hot 
mineral  springs  are  abundant,  those  of  Chaude»- 
Atgues  being  the  most  fretjuented.  Cantal 
is  divided  into  four  arrondissements,  contain- 
ing 23  cantons  and  267  communes.  Pop.  223,361. 
CANTALOUPE,  a  small  round  variety  of 
muskmelon,  globular,  ribbed,  of  pale-green  or 
yellow  color  and  of  delicate  flavor;  first  grown 
m   Europe  at  Cantalupo,  in  Italy.     See  Musk- 

CANTANI,  kanla'ne,  Amaldo,  Italian 
physician:  b.  Hainsbach,  Bohemia,  15  Feb.  1837; 
d.  Naples,  30  April  1893.  He  was  educated  at 
Prague,  and  was  physician  in  the  general  hos- 
pital there.  In  1864  he  became  professor  of 
Sarmacology  and  toxicolon  at  Pavia;  in  1867 
was  director  of  the  dinical  institute  at 
Milan,  and  in  1868  of  that  at  Naples.  In  1889 
be  became  a  senator  of  Italy.    He  investigated 

V0i~5— M 


chiefly  malaria,  typhus  and  taberculosis ;  and 
was  uflucAtial  b  introducing  the  methods  of 
German  medicine  into  Italy.  He  wrote  'Man- 
uale  di  materia  medica  e  tera^utica>  (1865); 
'Maouale  di  farmacologia  clituca*  (1835-90). 

CANTARINI,  kin-ta-re'ne,  Simone,  alao 
known  as  II  Pesakese,  Italian  painter:  b. 
Pesaro  1612;  d.  Verona  1648.  He  stu(Ued  un- 
der Guido  Reni  at  Bologna,  where  he  after- 
ward painted  a  large  number  of  pictures,  all 
much  in  the  style,  but  without  the  grace  and 
delicacy,  of  his  master's  work.  His  37  etch- 
ings more  closely  resemble  those  of  Guido. 
Throughout  his  life  Cantarini's  intolerable  ar- 
rogance made  him  numerous  enemies ;  and 
after  a  quarrel  with  his  chief  patron  the  Duke 
of  Mantua,  he  died  in  Verona.  Among  his 
best-known  paintings  are  an  'Assumption';  *A 
Holy  Family* ;  and  'Joseph  and  Potiphar's 
Wife.* 

CANTATA,  kjin-ta't4,  literally,  «sung 
music*  to  distinguish  it  from  'sonata*  or 
^sounded  music"  A  musical  term  applied  to 
aa  elaborate  vocal  composition,  with  different 
movements,  arias,  recitatives,  with  piano  ac- 
compaoimenL  Orchestral  accompaniments  are 
also  found,  and  in  character  the  cantata  may  be 
anything  from  a  short  oratorio  to  a  slight  opera 
not  intended  for  dramatic  representation.  In 
early  times  the  cantata  was  sung  by  a  single 
vocalist  to  the  accompaniment  of  one  instru- 
ment, in  which  form  it  was  called  cantata  da 
camera  to  distinguish  it  from  the  church  can- 
tata which  had  a  religious  text 

CANTEEN,  in  the  United  SUtes,  a  soldier's 
metallic  water  flask,  containing  two  to  three 
pints,  and  covered  with  a  woven  fabric  In 
uigland  the  canteen  is  combination  pan,  dish 
and  plate,  for  use  at  mess  hy  the  army. 
(2)  The  departments  of  the  British  garrison 
store,  usually  divided  into  a  dry  canteen  and 
wet  canteen,  the  fonner  being  for  general 
groceries  and  provisions,  and  the  latter  for 
liquid  refreshment,  excluding  spirituous  liquors. 

Previous  to  1901,  beer  and  wine  were  sold  at 
canteens  in  the  United  States  army,  though 
spirits  were  prohibited.  In  that  year  an  anti- 
canteen  law  went  into  effect,  as  the  result  of 
temperance  agitation.  Strong  efforts  were 
made  in  1910  and  1911  to  repeal  the  anti-canteen 
law,  but  they  were  unsuccessful.  The  canteen 
was  succeeded  by  the  «^st  exchange"  (q.v.). 
The  name,  'canteen,*  is  sometimes  given  at 
present  (1918)  to  the  stores  and  restaurants 
for  soldiers  established  at  the  front  by  such 
institutions  as  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  (q.v.). 

CANTERBURY.  Engfland,  cathedral  dty,  a 
parliamentary  and  a  municipal  borough,  and  a 
county  borou^  under  the  l.ocal  Government 
Act  of  1888.  It  is  situated  in  the  eastern  divi- 
sion of  the  county  of  Kent,  55  miles  distant  by 
road  from  London  and  62  by  rail.  It  stands  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Stour,  is  14  miles  from 
Margate  and  16  from  Dover.  It  is  connected 
with  Whitstable  by  means  of  a  branch  line  of 
railway  about  seven  miles  in  length,  llie  town 
is  on  the  lower  London  tertianes. 

Indnatries.— The  district  is  chieHy  agricul- 
tural. Canterbury  was  formerly  noted  for  its 
silks,  velvet  and  brocade  manufacture- 
Breweries,  linens  and  worsteds,  leather,  bricks 
and  lime  are  the  main  industries,  it  is  the 
centre  of  important  com  and  hop  markets.  Ex.- 


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CAHTBRftUR? 


cepting  the  supply  of  electric  lif^t,  there  are  no 
great  municipal  undertakings,  not  only  the  gas 
and  waterworks  but  also  the  swinuning  baths 
being  managed  privatdy. 

Chnrcheg^idldlngs,  Edncatiomd  Institn- 
tiotu,  etc.^  There  are  14  parish  churohe*  and 
various  chapels.  In  addition  to  the  churches, 
of  which  the  most  historic  is  Saint  Martin's, 
built  originally  by  the  Romans,  Canterbary  coiv- 
tains  a  number  of  interesting  buildings,  tlie 
principal  of  which  are  ■The  Guildhall*  (boilt 
1439,  rebuilt  1697),  Uarket  House,  Saint  Augus- 
tine's College,  Chaucefs  Inn,  the  'Chequers  of 
the  Hope  (1477),  and  the  Crown  Inn,  erected 
by  Prior  Chillendcn  in  the  ISth  cenHiry.  The 
only  remaining  city  gate  is  the  West  Gate,  re- 
built by  Archbishop  Sudbury,  1380,  and  now 
used  as  a  Museum  of  Arms  and  Armory. 
Saint  J[ohn's  Hospitat  East-bridge  Hospital 
and  Saint  Nicholas  Hospital  at  Harbledown 
are  picturesque  survivals  of  ancienl  charitable 
foundations. 

The  public  library  was  established  in  1S58. 
The  museum,  which  has  been  in  existence  since 
1825,  is,  together  with  the  public  library,  housed 
in  the  Beaney  Institute.  This  institute  was 
partially  paid  for  out  of  a  legacy  of  flO,0OO, 


Australia.  The  Cathedral  library,  which  was 
founded  in  1660,  contains  about  13,000  volumes, 
and  the  library  at  Saint  Augustine's  College  has 
about  18,000  volumes.  An  art  gallery  was  pre- 
sented to  the  town  in  1882  by  Mr.  T.  'Sidney 
Cooper,  the  famous  artist,  who  was  born  in  the 
dty.  Attached  to  (he  cathedral  is  a  school 
founded  by  Henry  VIH,  and  until  recently  a 
bluecoat  school  founded  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
now  merged  into  a  sdteme  called  the  Simon 
Langtoti  schools.  Saint  Augustine's  Monastery 
has  been  restored  and  enlarged  and  is  now  need 
as  a  Church  Missionary  College. 

Canterbury  Castle,  one  of  the  largest  in 
England,  was  of  Norman  construction,  bnt  all 
that  now  remains  of  it  is  the  keep. 

The  Cathedral.— The  most  remarkable  ob- 
ject in  the  city  is  the  cathedral,  which  is  one  of 
die  finest  ecclesiastical  structures  in  England. 
No  part  of  the  original  building  remains.  The 
cathedral  is  built  on  the  site  of  a  Roman 
church,  which  was  renamed  Christ  Church  by 
Saint  Augustine  when  he  was  elected  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  TTie  church  was  de^ 
stroyed  by  fire  the  year  after  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, 10^7,  but  rebuilding  was  commenced 
three  yja"  afterward  and  was  completed  in 
1130.  This  was  again  destroyed  by  fire  four 
vears  afterward.  It  contains  the  tomb  of 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  1376,  also  that  of 
Henry  IV  and  his  Queen  in  the  'Trinity  Oiapel; 
the  stone  chair  in  which  the  archbisho^is  are 
enthroned ;  and  some  beautiful  13th-centnry 
stained  glass.  The  principel  historical  event 
connected  vi(b  the  cathedral  is  the  murder  of 
Thomas  k  Becket,  ^ich  took  place  in  1170. 
The  archbishop  of  Canterbuty  is  Primate  of  all 
Eiigland  and  metropolitan  for  all  (he  dioceses 
south  of  the  Trent.  See  Catbsdral  and 
Chctech. 

GoTemment.— Canterbury  sends  a  member 
to  the  House  of  Commons  and  is  governed  by 
a  mayor,  aldermen  and  councillors.  Several 
charters  have  been  granted  to  the  city  from 


time  to  tiro^  the  fint  hjr  Ibaiy  II  and  the  last 
by  Charles  II,  who  granted  a  charter  of  incor- 
poration in  1686l  The  first  mayor  was  elected 
in  the  year  1448. 

History.— Canterbury  is  suppoied  to  have 
been  a  place  of  importance  before  the  Roman 
invasion,  the  Roman  name  Durovemum  show- 
ing apparently  the  British  prefix  Dttir,  water, 
although  antiquaries  differ  in  the  interpretaiicn 
of  the  remainder  of  the  cotnpound.  Druidical 
remains  have  been  found  hert  together  widi 
the  British  weapons  termed  celts.  Its  import- 
ance during  the  Roman  occupation  is  proved 
by  die  discovery  of  a  great  variety  of  remains 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  brides  of 
Roman  manufacture  have  been  found  in  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  remaining  walls.  It  derives 
its  present  name  from  the  Saxon  Cant-toara- 
byrtg,  the  Kentishmen's  dty.  During  the  rew- 
dence  of  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  the  memor- 
able arrival  of  Saint  Augustine  took  place  in 
597 — an  event  rapidly  followed  by  the  conver- 
sion of  this  King  and  his  people  to  Christianity 
and  the  foundation  of  the  archieoiscopal  see  of 
Canterbury.    In  the  8th  and  the  mree  foltowii^ 

..._■__   (he  city  was  f_rom  time  to  time  dread- 


ants,  including  women,  duldren  and  die  arch- 
bishop himself,  were  barbarously  massacred, 
and  the  cathedral  burned  to  its  bared  walls.  It 
was  gradually  reconstructed  and  at  the  Con- 
quest its  buildings  exceeded  in  extent  those  of 
LondoB.  The  occiesiastical  imi^nance  of  the 
place,  in  particular,  advanced  with  great  rapid- 
itr,  and  was  consummated  by  the  murder  of 
Inoinas  i.  Becket,  whose  canonization  by  the 
Pope  rendered  Cajiterbuty  the  resort  of  pil- 
grims from  every  part  of  Europe,  Not  only 
were  the  priory  ana  see  enrichccl  by  the  offer- 
ing of  the  wealthy  devotees,  but  the  prosperity 
of  the  town  itself  was  greatly  advanced  by  the 
money  spent  in  it  by  so  many  strangers. 
Erasmus  describes  the  cnurch,  and  especially  the 
chapel  in  which  Becket  was  interred,  as  Rhiter- 
in^  with  the  gold  and  jewels  offered  i^  l>y  the 
pnnces,  nobles  and  wealthy  jMlgnms  to  his 
shrine.  Henry  VIII  awropriated  all  its 
revenues  on  the  dissolution  of  the  nriory  in 
1539,  when  he  ordered  the  bones  of  Bet^t  to 
be  burned  to  ashes.  Several  of  the  English 
monarchy  have  made  a  temporary  residence  at 
Canterbury,  which  was  also  occupied  by  Oliver 
Cromwell  in  the  dvil  war,  whose  troopers 
Boade  a  stable  of  the  cathedral  Fop.  (1911) 
24,626l 

Bibliogispfay,'— Willis,  'Architectural  His- 
tory of  Canterbtu?  Cathedral'  (1845-60)  ;  Stan- 
ley, 'Historical  Ucoiorixb  of  Canterbury' 
(_1883)  ;   Hool^   'Lives   of   the  Archbishops   of 


S^\ 


Canterbury'  (1880)  ;  Cox,  'Canterbury:  A  i 
torical  aod  Topographical  Account  of  the  City' 
(1905) ;  Taylor.  'Canterbury'  in  the  Mediicval 
Towns  Series   (1912). 

H.  T.  MEAt). 
Librarian  of  the  Public  Library, 
CANTERBURY,  New  Zealand,  a  provin- 
rial  district  occupying  the  centre  of  South 
Island;  capital,  Christdiurch.  Its  area  is  14,040 
square  miles.  The  interior  is  mountainous, 
and  covered  wth  dense  forests.  The  famous 
Canteriiury   Plain,   of    2,S0(UI0O  acres,    slopes 


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CAHTERBDRY  BELLS  (CAHPAmTLA) 


TGobglc 


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CANTSnURY-KBLL-CAlfTBRBOBT  TALES 


s  along  tBe  east  coast,  while  the 
IS  a  true  pastoral  country,  well  watered  by 
ntunerous  streams,  and  covered  with  a  per- 
Mtual  herbage  of  various  grasses.  A  vast  toal- 
field  seems  to  underlie  the  whole  country,  and 
coal  is  worked  in  the  districts  of  Timaru  and 
Malvern.  Good  fire-clays,  quartz,  sand  for 
glassmaking,  marble,  limestone,  etc.,  are  also 
found.  The  productions  include  wool,  graii^ 
frozen  meat,  ddns  and  hides,  butter,  cheese  and 
some  silk.    Pop.  including  Maoris,  173,185. 

CANTBRBURY-BELL,  a  name  fnven  to 
species  of  CampannUi  (q.v.),  especially  C. 
medium. 

CANTERBURY  TALES,  The.  'The 
Book  of  the  Tales  of  Canterbury'  has  a  per- 
manent claim  on  the  attention  of  reading  men. 
It  represents  the  most  mature  and  the  most 
variously  brilliant  achievement  of  the  man 
whom  Uie  world  will  always  regard,  and  in 
many  respects  rightly,  as  the  father  of  English 
poetry.  In  its  structure  it  is,  thou^  uocomplete<L 
the  luppiest  scheme  of  the  many  that  have  been 
devised  for  presenting  a  series  of  stories  in  a 
manner  at  once  natural,  dramatic  and  the  re- 
verse of  monotonous.  In  its  setting  it  intro- 
duces us  to  an  acquaintance  on  terms  of  in- 
timacy with  the  society,  high  and  low,  of  merry 
England's  14th  century,  an  age  of  color,  of 
contrasts  and  of  essential  liveliness.  In  its 
contents  it  offers  an  inviting  approach,  for  most 
men  probably  the  readiest,  to  the  literature  of 
the  late  Middle  A^es,  a  realm  of  gold  for  all 
its  dross,  whose  literary  coin  still  bore,  after 
its  own  peculiar  fashion,  some  stamp  of  the 
antique  ifoman  world  and  is  still  current  in  the 
world  of  beauty  to-day. 

•The  Canterbury  Tales,'  as  we  know  it,  is  a 
collection  of  24  stones,  two  of  them  un&mshed 
and  two,  for  dramatic  reasons,  interrupted  and 
not  continued.  These  stories  are  bound  to- 
gether in  a  scheme,  only  partly  realized,  by 
means  of  the  words  of  the  host,  Harry  Bailey, 
toast-tnaster  o£  the  occasion;  by  the  talk  of  the 
pilgrims  — the  tellers  of  the  tales  — among 
themselves;  and  by  occasiojoal  narrative  and 
descriptive  touches  on  the  part  of  Chaucer, 
himself  a  pilgrim  and  reporter  of  the  whole. 
Though  some  of  the  stories  were  composed 
earlier,  the  writing  of  many  of  them  and  the 
work  of  weaving  them  all  into  a  ^rland 
seem  to  have  been  the  chief  Hterary  activity  of 
thff  last  15  years  of  the  poet's  life.  For  death 
found  turn  with  the  work  still  trnfinished. 


acteristically,  again,  it  underwent  modific 
and  adjustments  as  the  work  proceeded;  this 
fact,  together  with  the  further  rearrangements 
introduced  by  different  copyists,  makes  it  im- 
possible always  to  speak  with  certainty  of 
Chaucer's  final  intention.  But  enouf^  of  the 
structure  emerges  to  ^ve  to  the  collection  as  a 
ivhole  vastly  more  significance  than  any  one 
Etory,  or  all  of  them  arranged  in  a  manner  not 
so  original|  could  possibly  possess.  It  is  per- 
fectly possible  for  a  continental  critic,  steeped 
in  the  literatures  of  the  Romance  tongues,  to 
assert  that  he  finds  little  in  the  'Tales'  that  is 


new  to  him.  He  might  be  understood,  if  he 
preferred,  as  most  English  readers  woiild  not, 
Boccaccio's  version  of  the  story  of  Palamon 
and  Arcite  to  that  which  Chaucer  puts  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Knight  He  might  assure  us  with 
some  truth  that  the  story  oi  the  patient  Gri- 
selda  is  a  translation  and  nothing  more  of 
Petrarch's  "Latin  version  of  the  'Decameron' 
Btoiy.  And  so  he  might  go  through  the  list, 
conceding  however,  perhaps  more  readily  than 
the  English  reader,  the  originality  of  Chaucer's 
adaptation  of  the  fabliau  type  in  the  'Miller's 
Tale,'  'The  Reeve's  Tale'  and  the  like,  being 
more  cwable  of  awireciating  these  things  in  the 
Chaucenan  spirit  than  the  English  reader,  who 
is  troubled,  as  Chaucer's  autUence  plainly  wa> 
not,  by  the  indecorous  character  of  die  material 
upon  winch  such  qilendid  narrative  artistiy  is 


„  proceed  thus  is  to  refuse  the  poet 

credit  for  much  that  he  has  tried  to  do.  He 
has  not  assembled  his  company  of  nine  and 
twenty— perhaps  there  were  a  couple  of  priests 
besides — ncreiy  to  treat  us  to  a  portrait  gal- 
lery. Hi^  and  tow,  every  one,  be  it  noted, 
succeeded  in  the  life  he  bad  chosen,  Knight, 
Squire,  Monk,  Prioress,  on  the  one  hand. 
Yeoman,  Cook  and  Plowman  on  the  other; 
rascals  like  the  Friar,  the  Pardoner,  the.  Sura- 
moner;  profesfflonal  men  and  tradesmen,  and 
the  never-forjotten  Wife  of  Bath,  all  step 
before  ds,  it  is  true,  in  the  general  prologue 
Under  the  clear,  encouraging  eye  of  Chaucer 
they  declare  themselves  for  the  folk  they 
are,  so  that  Dryden  could  see  "their  humors, 
their  features  and  their  very  dress,  as  dis* 
tiuctly  as  if  |he)  had  sni^'d  with  them  at  the 
Tabard  at  South  w  ark."  If  Chaucer  had 
ttapped  here,  if  he  had  given  us  nothing  beyond 
his  prologue,  he  would  still  have  written  some- 
thing more  brilliant,  more  sympathetic  than  any- 
thing that  can  be  found  in  mediaeval  literature 
before  him,  but  nothing  essentially  different 
from,  let  us  say,  the  'Stats  du  moode'  of  many 
a  French  satirist.  But  Chaucer,  fortunately, 
does  not  stop  there.  Having  got  his  characters, 
he  set  out  to  order  his  material  in  terms  ot 
drama.  Tale  was  to  be  adjusted  nicely  to  teller; 
character  was  to  play  upon  character ;  litUc 
personal  hostilities,  class  prejudices,  different 
individual  reactions  upon  some  general  theme 
of  discussion  were  to  bring  the  successive  stories 
naturally  and  dramatically  into  being,  as  the 
pilgrims  took  their  leisurely  way  along  the 
weUi-known  road  to  the  shrine  of  the  martyred 
saint.  There  was  lo  be  a  constant  flow  of 
narrative,  washing  pleasantly  upon  the  alternate 
shores  of  fiction,  p'ave  or  gay,  and  of  the  real 
life  of  his  own  tune.  This  plan,  as  has  been 
said,  is  imperfectly  carried  through.  To  have 
conceived  it  at  all,  however,  and  even  in  part 
to  have  given  to  it  poetic  expression  is  to  nave 
made  a  distinct  and  permanent  contribution  to 
the  literature  of  the  world. 

The  reader  to-day,  making  his  wajf  throi^fa 
this  *God's  plenty*  of  stories,  serious  and 
trivial,  dignified  and  the  reverse,  will  find  his 
pleasure  in  tracing  out  some  of  the  threads  of 
Chaucer's  interests,  which  make  up  a  strand 
capable  of  giving,  in  spite  of  imperfections, 
unilT  and  significance  to  the  whole.  He  will  start 
easily  with  the  'Knight's  Tale,'  noting  its  nice 
adaptation  to  its  grave,  gentle,  its  thoroughly 
chivalrous  teller,  and  he  may,  if  he  like,  pass 


[ig 


v  Google 


CANTH  AHBLLU8 — CAHTHAiUXNn 


Tale,'  and  to  Chancer's  gentle  and  learcbing 
ridicule  of  degenerate  romance  in  his  own  'Tftle 
of  Sir  Thopai.'  But  if  he  is  wiser  he  will  read 
the  tales  in  their  setting,  interrupting  with  the 
drunken  Uiller  the  Host's  well- laid  plans  and 
^ring  with  the  Reeve  his  resulting  indigna- 
tion, noting  in  the  stories  of  both  the  robustness 
of  the  characters  and  the  richness  of  the  social 
background.  A  like  situation  he  will  observe  in 
the  tales  of  the  Friar  and  Snmmoner.  With  the 
^Physician's  Tale* — and  the  experience  will 
doubtless  be  repeated  in  the  case  of  the  tales 
of  the  Man  of  Law,  the  Sfaipmah  md  the  Man- 
ciple—  he  will  miss  the  sense  of  delicate  and 
inevitable  adjustment ;  temporary  assignments. 
Stop-gaps,  berhaps  some  of  them  were.  But  the 
<Pardoner  s  Tale'  is  one  of  the  toast  effectively 
told  of  all,  and  bis  prolate  an  amaring  and 
subtle  piece  of  psychologizing.  With  it  be  will 
be  interested  to  compare  tiut  other  essay  in 
the  "literature  of  exposure,'  the  tale  of  the 
Canon's  Yeoman.  <The  Monk's  Tale>  and  the 
'Parson's  Tale*  do  not  spring  of  sheer  neces- 
sity from  the  situation,  but  they  are  excellent 
in  character,  and  because  informing  and  edify- 
ing, more  deliKhtfuI  to  contemporary  readers 
than  can  nowadays  be  easily  appreciated.  And 
to  the  'Monk's  Tate'  the  humor  of  the  Nun's 
Priest,  set  off  with  all  the  arts  of  a  toilful 
preacher  on  a  holiday,  affords  a  perfect  foil, 
just  as  Chaucer's  ponderous  'Meliboeus'  con- 
trasts with  the  gaiety,  imperfectly  grasped  by 
the  host,  of  his  own  'Sir  Thopas.'  No  more 
delicate  adjustment  is  to  be  found  between  tale 


value  by  the  artistic  uses  to  which  it    is  put 

Very  much  on  Chaucer's  mind,  apparently, 
was  the  problem  of  what  to  do  with  a  certain 
coarse,  forth-putting  type  of  woman  whose  de- 
termination to  carry  things  in  her  own  high- 
handed way  was  sure  to  make  trouble  for  wrat- 
ever  member  of  the  inferior  sex  she  chanced 
to  mate  with.  Harty  Bailey  has  such  a  wife; 
and  he  has  already  confided  some  of  his  woes 


in  good  scholastic  style,  with  full  illustration 
from  her  own  experiences,  states  her  case.  Such 
a  subject  will  not  down,  and  it  is  the  clerk  who 
makes  ^e  story  of  Griselda  serve  the  end  of  a 
savage,  though  delicately  administered,  satire 
upon  the  extravagant  positions  advanced  by 
the  Wife  of  Bath.  At  once  the  Merchant  cuts 
in  with  a  hint  of  his  own  miseries  in  marriage 
and  a  story  which  makes  clear  his  own  theory 
of  the  bitter  disillusion  in  store  for  those  who 
trust  their  wives.  It  is  possible  that  the 
'Squire's  Tale,>  which  treats  of  love,  some- 
thing quite  apart  from  marriage,  according  to 
die  mediaeval  view,  might  irfien  finished  have 
been  brought  Into  closer  relation  with  what 
goes  before.  It  is  certain  that  it  prompts  the 
Franklin  to  tell  his  story  presenting  a  husband, 
a  wife,  a  clerk  and  a  squire  in  such  an  amiable 
tight,  developing  at  the  same  time  a  theory  of 
mutual  forb^rance  and  trvst  in  marriage  which 
is  the  finest  flower  of  "gentiles se.*     One  cao. 


ticai  view  of  marhage  as  something  inferior 
to  celibacy. 

But  it  would  probably  be  wrong  to  do  so  or 
to  insist  that  Chaucer,  throug^iout  the  talea 
discussed,  felt  htniMlf  constrained  to  a  rigiij^ 
doctrinaire  discussion  of  marriaKe  as  a  problem. 
He  is  coocemed  with  ^e  e^resuon  of  human 
character  in  conduct,  with  the  relations  of  man 
to  bis  fellow  men  and  womerL  and  to  God.  Be- 
ing of  the  Middle  Ages  he  exiubits  some  of  the 
conventions  of  the  Middle  Ages;  the  talk  of 
his  pilgrims  una^iamedly  informs,  it  frankly 
edifies,  it  indulges  in  class  satire  and  sex  satire, 
it  inevitat>ly  finds  itself  revolving  around  tradi- 
tional qpestions  —  bow  da  rogues  thrive  in  the 
world?  how  shall  we  make  terms  widi 
fortune?  how  is  man  to  succeed  in  civilizing 
woman?  what  is  the  nature  of  true  gentility? 
It  is  impossible  for  Chaucer  to  look  thougfat- 
fulty  on  human  conduct  without  proceeding 
in  Uiis  way  to  raise  these  questions.  Hnman 
conduct,  a^n,  for  him,  as  for  his  time,  falls 
naturally  into  the  elastic  and  all-em  bracing 
category  of  the  seven  deadly  s'         "  '   ''~' 


anecdotes  to  illustrate  die  seven  deadly  sins. 
It  is  unlike  him  to  attempt  anything  so  rigidly 
schematic ;  certainly  whatever  his  intention  1m 
adiieved  nothing  of  die  sort;  it  was  not  for 
nothing  that  Dirden  called  him  H  perpetual 
fountain  of  gooa  sense.'  It  is  this  good  sense 
of  his  which  has  led  him  to  pierce  through  the 
conventions  in  iriiich  he  inevitably  woriied  to 
the  plane  of  our  common  humanity  on  ^t^dl 
all  who  love  good  literature  can  a^ectionately 
meet  widi  him. 

Consult  Skeat,  'Camplete  Wotks  of  Geoffrey 
Chaucer'  (?  vols.,  Oxford  189*),  and  'Student's 
Chaucer'  (complete  text  in  one  volume,  Ox- 
ford 1894);  Hamtnond,  Eleanor  P.,  'Chaucer: 
A  Bibliographical  Manual'  (New  York  1906); 
Kitlredw,  G.  L.     'Chaucer  and  His  Poetry' 

f Cambridge  I91S);  Legonis,  E.,  'Chaucer' 
trans,  oy  Lailevoix,  London  1913);  Tat- 
lock  and  Mackaye,  'The  Modem  Reader's 
Chaucer'  (New  York  1914) ;  Wells,  John  E, 
<A  Manual  of  Writings  in  Middle  t^^sh' 
(New  Haven  1916). 

HaSKT  MORCAIf  AVKES, 

Assistant    Professor     of    EngKsk,     ColunAta 

University. 

CANTHARELLUS.     See  Fungi,  Edible. 

CANTHARIDBS,  or  Spanish  Fues,  the 
blister-beetle  (q.v.)^  when  prepared  for  medical 
use.  Their  value  is  doe  to  die  presence  of  a 
chemical  principle,  called  cantfaariden,  which 
constitutes  f  ro«n  J4  to  1  per  cent  of  cantbaiida, 
with  the  fonnnla  ChHoCX.  On  hydrolysis,  this 
is  converted  into  cantharidic  add,  C^iaOb. 
Cantbaradin  is  obtained  tiy  treating  the  pulver- 
ued  insects  with  a  solvent,  such  as  alccdiol, 
ether  or  chloroform  (not  water),  die  last  baing 
preferable.  The  solution  is  evaporated,  and  du 
residue  is  purified  from  a  grcoi  oH  which  ad- 
heres to  it  obstinately,  bjr  (Ugesting  with  bunt- 
fJiide  of  carbon  or  by  redissolving  in  alooboL 
Purification  is  further  affected  by  animal  diar- 
coat  and  the  cantharidin  crystalHxed  from  hot 
alcohol  or  chloroform. 

Cantharides    is    used    eKtcnully    for   itt 


d=,  Google 


C  ANTHO  VLAffTY — 0ANTICLB8 


cotintar-irritatit  action.  It  most  be  nsed  with 
dscretion  especially  in  case*  of  older  persons^ 
chihlren  or  paralysis.  It  mnst  nbt  be  used  in 
renal  disease,  owing  to  The  risks  attendant  on 
absorption.  It  is  adminisMred  internally  is 
cases  of  impotence.  Its  criminal  employment  iS 
usually  intended  to  heighten  sexual  desire,  and 


-.  ..,  .  e  patient  usually  dyutK  from 
the  renal  functions.  The  antiaote  is  I 
istering  of  bland  flifids,  auch  as  milk,  soda- 
water  and  plain  water,  to  (tilute  the  poison  in 
tiie  blood. 

A  nmnber  of  insects  other  than  cantharides 
possess  the  vesicant  property,  such  as  the 
Chinese  beetle  (Mylabris  cichorii>  which  It 
especially  rich  in  cantharidin,  yielding  about 
twice  as  much  as  the  cantharides.  Our  native 
blister-beetle^  when  powdered,  nearly  resemble 
Mylabris  in  color,  and  are  used  as' adulterants 
to  cantharides. 

CANTHOPLASTY  (Gr.  kontkos.  «the 
angle  of  the  eye"  and  plaslikos,  •formative'), 
the  operation  of  slitting  up  the  outer  canthus 
or  corner  of  the  eye,  so  as  to  enlarge  the 
opening  between  the  lids,  an  operation  proposed 
by  Amnion  when  the  eyelids  are  not  sufficiently 
cleft,  or  when  'the  evelids  produce  tension  on 
the  eyeball,  as  in  inflammatory  processes. 

CANTICLS  OP  THS  SUN,  The  (Q 
Cantico  del  Sole),  known  also  as  the  Praites 
of  the  Crtatures,  is  the  only  work  in  Italian 
that  we  possess  of  Saint  Francis  of  AssisL 
Giulio  Bertoni  calls  it  *the  roost  brilliant  gem 
of  the  Italian  religioua  poetry  of  the  13th  ceii- 
tury.*  Renan  goes  even  so  far  as  to  term  it 
*the  tinest  piece  of  religious  poetiy  since  the 
Gospels,*  Written  in  the  Umbrian  dialect  of 
the  Saint's  native  region,  its  assonanced  prose 
and  occasional  rhymes  constitute  in  its  primitive 
form  <Mie  of  the  oldest  monuments  of  medifeval 
Italian.  It  was  improvised  at  San  Damiano  in 
the  fall  of  122S  at  a  moment  of  great  sfnritual 
ezahaticai  during  a  reaction  from  a  pcnod  of 
acvere  illness  and  mental  stress.  Tradition 
daiiDS  the  last  two  stan^  as  sobacquent  addi- 
tions, the  final  one  having  been  composed  by 
Saint  Francis  just  prior  to  his  death,  3  Oct 
1226-  Consult  'Mirror  of  Perfection'  Chap. 
CI,  CXIX,  CXX.  CXXIII. 

In  this  canticle  Saint  Francis  lays  bare  his 
own  simjde,  naive  soul,  his  wonderful  love  of 
inanimate  nature,  his  artless  faith  and  innate 
mystic  love.  He  raises  to  tlK  Creator  a  pzan 
of  praise  for  the  light  of  the  sun,  the  moon  and 
stars,  the  air  and  clouds,  rain  and  lire,  for 
motber  earth,  for  those  who  forgive  and  endure 
in  peace,  and  finally  for  the  bodily  death  'from 
ivhicfa  no  living  man  can  flee.*  In  the  loftiness 
of  its  inspiration  the  'Canticle  of  the  Sun'  must 
be  compared  to  Psaim  148  of  David.  Like  the 
famous  'Fioretti*  of  Saint  Frands,  a  work  of 
later  date,  the  'Canticle  of  the  Sun>  has  touched 
the  souls  of  men  and  has  preserved  in  Italian 
hearts  the  popular  tradition  of  their  ^p%at  Saim 
It  became  in  his  last  days  the  favortte  song  of 
Saint  Francis,  and  must  be  regarded  as  the  mes- 
sage of  the  Saint  himself  in  all  his  joyousness. 
his  hopefulness,  his  broad  sympathy  toward  all 
things,  his  feeling  for  universal  brotherhood. 
We  must  not  look  for  great  literary  merit  in  diis 
cwiticle.     Francis  was  not  a  man  of  lexming. 


nor  in  those  prinutive  times  was  the  ait  of 
verve  in  the  vemacnlar  sufficiently  devel(qied  to 
be  compared  with  the  perfected  compositions  of 
the  foHowing  centuiy.  Yet  in  his  religious 
poetry  Saint  Piancis  is  of  the  lineage  of  laco- 
pone  da  Todi,  his  Franciscan  successor,  who  ia 
turn  is  the  precursor  of  Dante  (consult  'Par- 
adise,' canto  XI).  For  a  critical  study  of  the 
writings  of  Saint  Francis  consult  Robinson, 
Paschal,  'The  Writings  of  Saint  Francis  of 
Assisi'  (Philadelphia  1906).  For  the  Italian 
original  text  consult  Sabalier,  Paul,  'Specidiun 
perfectionis'  (Paris  1898).  For  an  English 
translation  consult  Cuthbert,  'Life  of  Saint 
Francis  of  Assisi'  (1914). 

Alfsed  G.  Fanaroni. 
CANTICLES.  One  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  catttiettta,  plural  of  fonftcu/um, 
•a  little  son^.*  In  the  Vulgale  it  is  called 
eanlicum  canticorum,  'song  of  son^s.°  This  is 
a  literal  translation  of  the  Hebrew  uile  which  is 
gcnerallv  understood  to  mean  "the  best  song.* 
It  may,  nowever,  signify  *the  best  songs,*  if  tne 
first  word  is  taken  in  a  collective  sense,  as  it 
probably  should  be  in  the  superscription  "Songs 
of  the  Ascents'  in  the  Pilgrim  Psalter  (Pss. 
cxx-cxxxii).  The  Alexandrian  MS  of  the 
Greek   version   has   the  plural;    the   Old   Latin 

Sparently  rendered  the  title  canticula  coKlic- 
onim;  and  the  Targum  paraphrases  it  'son^ 
and  hymns  which  Solomon  uttered.'  This  is 
likely  to  be  the  original  meaning.  When  the 
name  of  Solomon  was  added,  it  may  have  been 
the  intention  to  characterize  the  collection  as  the 
choicest  of  the  1,005  songs  ascribed  to  this 
monardi  in  1  IGngs  v,  12.  The  conception  of 
the  work  as  a  unit  naturally  led  to  understand- 
ing the  title  in  the  former  sense.  At  the  time 
when  the  canon  was  reduced  as  a  result  of  the 
critical  inquiry  caused  by  the  idea  that  holy 
books  possessed  a  sanctity  rendering  it  impro{>er 
to  touch  profane  things  without  a  ceremonial 
washing  after  they  had  been  handled,  the  ques- 
tion of  canonicity  arose;  but  it  was  settled  at 
the  Council  of  Jamnia  (c  90  a.d.)  in  favor  of 
the  book,  probably  through  the  wei^t  of  the 
traditional  authorship  and' the  allegorical  inter- 
pretation R.  Aldba  seems  to  have  adopted. 
Whenever  in  earlier  times  the  all^rical 
exegesis  was  rejected,  there  was  a  tendency  to 
tfuestion  again  the  canonidty.  To-day  the 
Utera)  sense  is  generally  accepted,  and  most 
modem  interpreters  either  locJc  upon  the  love 
expressed  in  the  poems  as  typical  of  spiritual 
devotion  or  seek  for  no  ulterior  signnicance, 
feeUng  with  the  historian  Niebuhr  ttat  'som^- 
thiog  would  be  missing  in  the  Bible,  if  there 
were  not  in  it  some  expression  of  the  pro- 
foundest  and  strongest  of  human  emotions.* 

There  is  no  intimation  of  anything  but  the 
obvions  meaning  in  the  oldest  Greek  version, 
and  the  bocdc  is  not  mentioned  by  Philo  or  in 
the  New  Testament  But  R.  Akiba  affirmed 
that  the  whole  world  was  not  worth  the  d^ 
when  it  was  given  to  Israel,  since  all  Scriptures 
were  holy  but  this  the  holiest  of  all  (<Vadaini> 
iii,  5),  and  dedared  that  'whoever  sings  from 
-the  Song  of  Songs  in  die  wine-houses  and 
makes  it  a  fprofane)  song  shall  have  no  share 
it)  the  world  to  come*  ('Tosephta  Sanhedrin* 
xii).  He  no  doubt  saw  in  the  book  a  descrio- 
tion  of  the  love  of  God  and  Israel  and  this 


:,  Google 


continued  lo  be  the  interpretation  in  the  s;roa- 
gogue.  Hippolylus  (c.  200  ad.)  applied  it  to 
the  relation  of  Christ  and  the  Church.  In  spite 
of  his  suggestion  that  the  literary  form  is  that 
of  an  epilSalamium,  Origcn  rejected  the  literal 
sense  as  inadmissible,  a.nd  explained  that  ac- 
cording to  the  moral  or  tropological  sense  the 
love  of  the  soul  for  the  heavenly  bridegroom 
was  represented,  and  according  to  the  mystic 
sense  the  union  of  Christ  and  the  Church.  The 
mediie'^  church  also  saw  the  love  of  Christ 
and  the  Virgin  Mary  depicted  in  the  book. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux  wrote  86  serrnons  on  it. 
A  fine  type  of  mystical  interpretation  is  found 
in  Teresa  de  Cepeda's  commentary  on  the  first 
chapter.  Nicolaus  de  Lyra  saw  in  the  poem  a 
prophetic  adumbration  of  the  course  of  ec- 
clesiastical history,  and  Cocceius  discovered  in 
it  the  history  of  the  Church  down  to  the  synod 
of  Dort  in  1618  A.D.,  just  as  the  author  of  the 
Aramaic  Targum  had  found  in  it  the  history 
of  Israel  down  to  S86  b.c.  In  the  same  way 
ingenious  exegetes  have  discerned  veiled  de- 
scriptions of  the  pohtical  courting  of  the  10 
tribes  by  Hezekiah,  or  of  Samaria  by  Tirhaka. 
A  different  method  was  suggested  by  Honorius 
of  Autun  (died  1140),  who  held  that  the  literal 
sense  might  be  accepted,  if  a  typical  signiii<^nce 
were  attached  to  it,  and  this  view  nas  been 
adopted  by  Vatabli,  Bossuet,  Lowth  and  many 
Catholic  and  Protestant  scholars  in  recent  times. 
The  type  may  then  be  thought  of  either  as 
having  already  been  in  the  mind  of  the  author 
or  only  subsequently  recopniied.  From  the 
former  standpoint  a  comparison  has  been  made, 
e.g.,  by  Harper  with  the  poems  of  Hafiz,  Jami 
and  Jeyadeva,  where  a  double  meaning  seems 
to  be  intended,  while  the  recognition  of  an 
original  literal  sensC(  having  no  mystical  mean- 
ing, afterward  Icptunately  receiving  an  addi- 
tional tyriical  significance,  is  characteristic,  e.g.. 


Constantinople  in  553.  Some  of  the  Anabaptis 
seem  to  have  taken  the  same  view.  Sibastien 
Chateillon  recognized  the  secular  character  of 
the  poem,  and  for  this  offense  he  was  driven 
out  of  Geneva  through  the  influence  of 
Calvin.  Luis  de  Leon  (d.  1591)  made  a  Latin 
translation  of  it  for  a  sister  in  a  convent  with- 
out suggesting  any  mystical  sense,  and  was  in- 
carcerated  by  the  Inquisition  for  five  years  as  a 
punishment.  Jean  le  Clerc  maintained  that  only 
earthly  love  was  depicted  in  the  songs;  and 
J.  D.  Michaelis,  regarding  the  work  as  in  part 
obscene,  was  unwilfing  lo  give  it  a  place  in  fats 
translation  of  the  Bible.  The  growing  con- 
viction that  the  poet,  or  poets,  had  no  other 
purpose  than  to  depict  the  love  of  man  and 
woman  hat  not  strengthened  this  feeling  as 
regards  the  book;  on  the  contrary  there  has 
been  during  the  last  century  a  deddedly  higher 
estimate  of  its  moral  worth  as  well  as  a  greater 
admiration  of  its  literary  charm. 

On  two  important  points  there  is  ss  yet  no 
consensus  of  opinitfn.  Is  Canticles  a  drama  or 
a  mere  collection  of  lyrics?  And  is  the  love 
described  that  of  husband  and  wife,  a  bride- 
groom and  a  bride,  a  betrothed  couple,  or  only 
that  of  man  and  woman.  Caspar  Sanctius,  in 
161^  affirmed  that  Canticles  was  a  sacred 
drama;    Cornelius    a    Lapide     (d.    in    1637} 


divided  it  into  five  acts;  Laurentiiu  Fetneui  a 
Daoi^  pastor,  arranged  it  in  dramatic  fonn, 
translated  it  metrically  and  set  music  to  it  in 
1640;  Huet,  in  1670,  declared  it  to  be  a  drama; 
Hermann  von  der  Hardt  (before  1706),  an 
anonymous  Breslau  pastor  in  1720,  G.  Wachier 
in  1722,  and  Nicholas  Noonen  in  1725  presoited 
various  attempts  to  indicate  a  plot  A  shepherd 
lover  as  a  rival  of  Solomon  was  introduced  by 
J.   F.   Jacobi   in    1771.     While   Franz   Dditisch 

Sve  the  most  perfect  expression  to  the  type  of 
unalic  construction  which  made  Solomon  and 
Sujamith  the  real  lover^  it  was  largely  through 
Ewald  (hat  the  idea  of  a  heroine,  faithful  to 
her  absent  sht^erd  in  the  face  of  the  blandish- 
ment of  the  infatuated  despot,  became  widely 
popular.  It  fiiroisfaed  an  ethical  motive,  pre- 
sented a  moral  single  and  suggested  the  ulti- 
mate triumph  of  virtue.  Duhm  in  1902  and 
Driver  in  1910  still  adhere  to  this  view.  The 
chief  difhcuities  that  have  been  raised  against  it 
are  that  the  ancient  Hebrews  possessed  no 
theatre ;  Canticles  has  no  plot,  on  which  two 
interpreters  can  agree ;  Solomon's  character  and 
conduct  are  unintelligible;  Sulamith's  speeches, 
ostensibly  answering  his,  in  reality  addressed  to 
her  absent  friend,  place  her  in  an  absurd  situa- 
tion and  a  morally  dubious  light;  the  tone  of 
the  King's  words,  those  assigned  to  the  shep- 
herd, and  those  placed  on  her  own  lips  is  vety 
much  the  same ;  and  ihe  -necessity  for  puttinR 
her  to  sleep  on  the  stage,  to  dream  throu{£ 
entire  scenes,  is  not  less  embarrvsing  because 
these  scenes  are  so  short  that  they  can  scarcely 
have  occupied  more  than  a  minute  or  two. 

Already  Bossuet  and  Lowth  suwested  that 
Canticles  may  have  been  written  for  a  royal 
wedding,  and  divided  it  in  sections  for  the  seven 
days  of  the  festival.  Renan  (1860)  threw  out 
the  idea  that  it  may  be  the  libretto  of  a  simple 
play  performed  at  some  rural  wedding,  where 
the  singem  took  the  parts  of  Solomon's  guards, 
ladies  of  Jerusalem  and  others.  He  was  in- 
fluenced by  Charles  Schefer  who  had  seen  such 
performances  in  Egypt  and  in  Syria.  In  1873 
J.  G.  Wetcst^in  described,  in  an  article  on  the 
■Syrian  Thre^ng  Table*  a  wedding  at  El 
Hamma,  near  Damascus.  On  the  morning  after 
the  weddiiig  night  the  husband  and  wife  played 
Idng  and  queen,  sitting  upon  the  threshing 
table  as  a  throne,  dancing  and  listening  to 
son^  in  their  praise.  At  a  Jewish  wedding  in 
Turns  similar  ccremcmies  were  observed  by 
Saint  Haon  in  1882;  thourii  there  was  no 
sword-dance  by  the  bride.  Especially  throng 
Bndde  the  view  has  opined  much  currency  that 
Canticles  is  a  collection  of  songs  brought  to- 
gether by  an  old  wedding  poet  from  his  lore. 
This  scholar  insists  that  throughout  the  cot- 
lection  wedded  love  is  described  All  pictures 
of  natural  scenery  are  covered  allusions  to  the 
complete  satisfaction  of  the  sexual  instincts  in 
wedlock.  The  purpose  is  to  commend  matri- 
mony. Against  this  view  it  has  been  urged  that 
it  is  difficult  to  sec  wedded  love  tn  scenes  which 
describe  the  husband,  according  to  the  theory,  as 
knocking  at  his  wife's  window  and  being  re- 
fused admittance  because  she  is  not  dressed,  or 
the  wife  as  expressing  a  wish  that  he  were  her 
brother  so  that  she  might  kiss  him  without 
being  reproved. 

According  to  Luis  de  Leon  (1569).  Rent 
Rapin  (1659),  Charks  Cotin  (1662),  Richard 
Simon   (1678),  Jean  le  Oerc  (1685),  CUnde 


vGooglc 


CANTWH — CANTON 


Herder,  (1778),    E.    Renss    (1879),    W.    W. 


Reuss  has  especially  called  attention 
the  poet's  peculiar  manner  of  making  the 
woman  -widi  whom  be  is  in  love  the 
speaker  by  preference.  There  is  an  un- 
mistakable sbnilarity  of  this  diwsn  to  the 
'Antholopa  Palatina.*  Greek  influence  scans 
certain ;  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  poet  had 
beard  some  idyl  of  Theocritus;  and  his  sense 
of  beauty  in  nature  reminds  of  Ueleager. 
Nevertheless,  it  may  not  be  safe  to  ko  as  far 
as  to  the  reign  of  Aretas  IV  <c  8S-63  B.a), 
while  it  would  seem  necessary  to  assume  a  date 
later  than  the  3d  century  B.C.  The  language 
with  its  Aramaisms,  neo-Hebraic  turns,  ana 
Persian  and  Greek  loanwords  appears  to  be 
as  late  as  the  2d  centuiy  b.c  But  if  the 
author  lived  in  the  East-Jordan  countnr  tbii 
appearance  may  to  some  extent  be  due  to 
dialectical  differences.  There  is  no  lunt  that 
he  was  a  married  man,  or  a  wedding  poet  He 
did  not  ung  to  teach  the  value  of  a  social 
institution,  bat  to  voice,  in  the  most  delicate  and 
beautiful  terms  he  could  master,  the  joy  with 
which  the  glories  of  spring  and  die  impulses  of 
love  filled  nis  heart  The  mention  of  Solomon 
by  way  of  comparison  naturally  led  to  the  idea 
that  he,  who  had  so  much  experience 
with  love,  was  the  author,  and  St^omon's 
reputation  for  wisdom  led  to  the  search 
for  a  hidden  meaning.  This  meaning  made 
it  appropriate  to  read  the  book  at  the 
Passover  when  the  intimate  relation  between 
Yahwe  and  Israel  was  celebrated.  There  does 
not  seen),  therefore,  to  be  any  occasion  on  this 
account  to  suspect,  as  Erbt  and  Sellin  do,  that 
originally  these  songs  were  composed  in  honor 
of  a  sun -god  and  a  moon-goddess  whose 
nuptials  were  celebrated  at  the  feast  of  Ae 
vernal  equinox. 

Bibliography.— BaudissiiL  W.  W.,  'En- 
leitung  in  die  Bticher  des  A.  T.>  (Berlin  1901)  ; 
CasteUi,  I.,  <Il  cantice  dei  camici'  (Milan  1892)  ; 
Comill,  C.  H^  <EinIeitung  in  das  Alle  Testa- 
ment* (7th  ed.,  1913)  ;  Comely,  R.,  'Introduc- 
tio  in  V.  T,  Libros  Sacros>  (Paris  1897) ; 
Cunitz,  Edouard,  'Histoire  critique  de  I'inler- 
pretation  du  cantique  des  cantiques'  (Paris 
1834);    Delitzsch,   FraQz,JHohe5lied   und   Ko- 


(Lcipzig  1906)  ;  Gautier,  L.,  "Introduction  ^ 
I'Ancien  Testament*  (2d  ed.,  Lausanne  1914)  ; 
Gietmann,  E.,  'Commentarius  in  Ecclesiasten  et 
Canticum  canticorum'  (Paris  1890)  ;  Gigot, 
F.  E.,  'Introduction  to  the  Study  ot  the  Old 
Testament'  (New  York  1906)  ;  Ginsburg,  F., 
<The  Song  of  Songs*  (Undon  18S7) ;  Griti, 
H.,  'Das  Salomonische  Hoheslied*  (Leipzig 
1839)  ;  Harper,  A.,  'Song  of  Solomon*  (CSmi- 


der.  J.  G..  'Lieder  der  Liebe*  (Leipzig  1778) : 
Hontfieim,  J.,  'Song  of  Solomon*  (London 
1908)  ;  Kanfen,  F.,  and  Hoberg.  G.,  'Einleitung 
■a  die  beilige  Schrift*  (Sth  ed.,  Freiburg  1913)  ; 


MMtitteau.  RosscU,  in  Amtricad  Jtmmal  of 
Philology  <VoL  XVUI.  1892)  ;  llartln,  G.  C, 
'Song  of  Songs*  (New  York  1906);  Hoore, 
G.  P.,  'The  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament* 
(ib,  1913)  ;  Benan,  E.,  <Le  cantique  des  can- 
Oques*  {Paris  I860)  ;  Reuss,  Edouard,  <Le  can- 
tique des  cantiques*  fPans  1879);  Scbmidti 
Nathaniel,  'Uesnges  ot  the  Poets'  (New  York 
1911);  SelUc.  E,  <Einleitung  in  das  Alte  TesU- 
ment'  (Leiww  WW)  ;  Siegfried,  K-,  'Prediger 
nnd  Hofaeslied*  (Leipzig  1898). 

Natbamiel  Schmidt, 
ProftMor  of  Semitic  Ltmgvaget  and  Literaturet, 
Cornrtl  Uniiiernty. 

CANTIUM,  dn'tl-fim,  England,  an  andent 
territory  in  South  Britain,  whence  the  English 
word  Kent  is  derive<^  sup^sed  to  have  been 


.  CANTO  FIGURATO,  fe-gu-ra'to,  a  term 
■spiled  l^  the  old  Christian  ecclesiastics  to  the 
cnant  in  its  more  florid  forms,  or  in  which  more 
than  one  note  was  sung  to  a  syllable. 

CANTON,  John,  English  electrician:  b. 
Stroud,  31  July  1718;  d,  22  March  1772.  He 
settled  as  a  scnoohnasler  in  London,  and  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  17^. 
He  invented  an  electroscope  and  an  electrom- 
eter; originated  experiments  in  induction;  was 
the  first  to  make  powerful  artificial  magnets; 
and  in  1762  demonstiated  the  compressibility  of 
water.  He  and  Franklin  discovered  almost 
simultaneously  that  some  clouds  were  charged 
with  positive  and  others  with  negative  elec- 
tricity. 

CANTON,  William,  English  writer:  b.  Isle 
of  Cfausan,  China,  27  Oct.  1845.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  France  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priest- 
hood, but  decided  upon  a  secular  career  and  was 


Other  Poems*  (1887) ;  'The  Invisible  Play- 
mate,' a  strikingly  original  piece  of  work 
(1894):  'W.  v..  Her  Book,  and  Various 
Verses'  (1896);  'The  Invisible  Playmate,  and 
W.  V,  Her  Book*  (with  final  chapter)  {1897)  ; 
'A  Child's  Book  of  Saints,'  republished  in  the 
United  States  as  'W.  V.'s  Ciolden  Legend* 
(1898) ;  'Children's  Sayings*  (1900) ;  <A 
Child's  Book  of  Warriors'  (1912) ;  'Saint 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary'  (1912)  ;  'The  Bible  and 
the  Anglo-Saxon  People'   (1914). 

CANTON,  China   (more  correctly  Quana- 


tung  (of  which  name  Canton  is  a  corruption), 
and  consists  of  the  city  proper  and  of  many 
suburbs,  and  its  total  population  is  estimated  at 
from  1,250,000  to  1,800,000  with  500  foreign 
residents.  The  city  proper  is  enclosed  by  walls. 
forming  a  circuit  of  six  miles,  and  is  dividea 
into  two  parts  by  a  partition  wall  running  east 
and  west ;  the  portion  north  of  this  wall,  which 
is  much  the  larger,  being  called  the  old,  that  on 
the  south  of  it  die  new  aly.  The  walls  mainly  of 
brick,  rise  to  the  height  of  25  feet,  with  a  thick- 
ness of  about  20  feet  There  are  12  gates,  all 
of  which  are  shut  at  night  The  streets  are 
long  and  straight  and  in  general  paved  with 
flat  stones,  but  they  are  very  narrow,  the 
average  breadth  not  exceeding  eig^t  feet   The 


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bouses  of  tbe  poorer  dutes  arc  mere  raod 
hovels ;  those  of  the  shopkeeping  class  are  com- 
monly of  two  stories,  the  lower  of  which  serves 
as  the  shop.  The  streets  are  to  a  great  extent 
lined  with  these  shops,  in  which  are  to  be  f  onnd 
the  productions  of  all  parts  of  the  globe.  Neat 
and  gaudi^  painted  signs  and  nameB  give  a  ga? 
appearance  to  the  narrow  streets ;  in  most  cases 
there  are  no  windows  in  front,  but  the  whole 
is  thrown  imen  by  day  and  dosed  at  ni^L 
Temples  ana  other  religious  edifices  are  very 
numerous,  but  few  of  them  are  in  any  way 
remarkable.  There  are  two  lofty  pagodas, 
forming  a  notable  feature  in  any  general  view 
of  the  dty.  One  of  these,  170  feet  hi^  is 
about  1,300  years  old,  the  other,  160  feet  hi^h. 
about  1,000.  Amon^  the  chief  temples,  which 
are  far  from  attractive  buildings,  may  be  men- 
tioned those  of  the  Ocean  Banner,  ot  the  Five 
Hundred  Gods,  of  Longevity  and  of  the  Five 
Genii.  Amonj  other  buildings  may  be  men- 
tioned the  residences  of  the  govemor-generad, 
the  commander-in-chief,  the  treasurer,  the  pre- 
fect, etc.  There  are  four  large  prisons,  one  of 
them  capable  of  bidding  1,000  onsooers.  In  the 
European  quarter  are  churcnes,  schools  and 
other  buildings  in  the  European  style.  Wheeled 
carriage!  are  not  in  use  in  Canton ;  goods  are 
transported  on  bamboo  poles  laid  across  the 
shoulders  of  men,  while  people  who  can  afford 
it  have  themselve*  carried  about  in  sedan-chairs. 
The  river  opposite  tbe  city  for  the  space  of 
four  or  five  miles  presents  a  roost  interesliiM; 
scuie.  The  prodigious  number  of  boats  with 
wludi  it  is  crowded  is  the  first  thing  that  strikes 
the  eye.  A  large  number  of  these  —  as  many, 
it  is  said,  as  .40,000,  containing  a  peculation  ot 
200,000— are  fixed  residences,  and  most  of  them 
moored  stem  and  stem  in  rows.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  called  tankia  or  boat-people,  and  form 
a  class  with  many  customs  peculiar  to  them- 
selves. Millions  are  bom  and  live  and  die  in 
these  floating  dwellings  without  ever  having  put 
foot   on    dry   land;    while    their   ancestors    for 

¥-nerations  were  ail  amphibious  like  themselves, 
he  family  boats  are  of  various  sties,  the  bet- 
ter sort  being  from  60  to  80  feet  long,  and  about 
IS  feet  wide.  A  superstructure  of  considerable 
height,  and  covered  with  an  arched  roof,  occu* 
pies  nearly  the  whole  of  the  interior  of  the  boat. 
This  structure  is  divided  within   Into  several 


poses,  all  of  them  being  kept  very  dean. 
smaller  boats  of  this  description  are  not  above 
25  feet  long  and  conOin  only  one  ronn.  By 
far  the  handsomest  boats  are  the  hwa-ting  or 
flower-boats,  which  are  graceful  in  form  and 
have  their  raised  cabins  and  awnings  fancifully 
carved  and  painted.  These  arc  let  to  pleasure- 
parties  for  excursions  on  the  river.  The  foreign 
mercantile  houses  and  the  Ameriian,  British 
and  French  consulates  have  as  their  special 
quarter  an  area  in  the  suburbs  in  the  southwest 
of  the  city,  with  water  on  two  sides  of  it.  The 
river  banks  are  faced  with  a  granite  wall ;  hand- 
sonte  hongs  or  factories  have  been  built,  and 
much  money  has  been  spent  on  improvements. 
The  manufactures  and  other  industries  of  Can- 
ton are  varied  and  important,  embradng  silk 
cotton,  porcelain,  glass,  paper,  sugar,  lacquered 
ware,  ivory  carving,  m«tal  goods,  etc.  Its 
foreign  trade  has  been  known  for  three  cen- 
turies throughout  tbe  world,  and  it  was  the 
chief   foreign  emporiim  in  China  until    1851% 


when  Shanghai  began  to  surpass  it.  Since  then 
the  opening  of  ouier  ports  and  various  other 
causes  have  interfered  withjts  prosperity,  but 


tives  and  foreigners  are  transacted  in  a  jargon 
known  as  "pidgin -English.*  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  colonv  of  Hon^ong  there  has 
sprung  ap  (juite  a  flotilla  of  river  steamer^ 
which  ply  daily  between  Canton,  Hon^ong  and 
Uacao,  and  convey  the  greater  part  of  the 
produce  and  merchimdise  for  native  and  foreign 
consumption.  Tliese  steamers  equal  the  best 
river  boats  of  Europe,  and  carry  large  ntmibers 
of  passengers,  llie  climate  of  Canton  is 
healthy;  in  Juhr  and  Aiwust  the  thermometer 
may  nse  to  100°  F.  in  the  shade,  and  during 
winter  it  is  at  times  below  freering-point.  Can- 
ton was  first  visited  by  Enghsh  vessels  in  1634. 
From  1689  to  1634  the  East  India  Company  had 
a  monopoly  of  the  Englbh  trade.  In  1839  war 
was  declared  by  Great  Britain  gainst  Chitia, 
and  Canton  would  have  been  occupied  had  it  not 
been  ransomed  by  the  Chinese.  In  the  war  of 
1856  the  foreign  factories  were  pillaged  and 
destroyed,  and  about  a  year  after  this  Canton 
was  taken  by  an  Englbh  force.  From  this  time 
to  1861  it  was  jointly  occupied  by  an  &igUsb 
and  French  garrison.  Since  then  it  has  been 
open  to  foreign  trade.  Of  revolutionary  move- 
ments that  mve  aflected  the  poUtical  life  of 
China  Canton  has  been  the  centre. 

CANTON,  Conn,,  town,  Hartford  County, 
on  Farmington  River  and  on  the  Central  New 
England  Railroad,  15  miles  northwest  of  Hart- 
ford. The  manufacture  of  edged  tools  and  the 
bottling  of  plain  and  carbonated  waters  arc 
thriving  industries.  The  town  includes  the 
village  districts  of  Canton,  Canton  Centre, 
NorOi  Canton  and  CoHinsville,    Pop.  2,732. 

CANTON.  lU.,  dty  of  Fulton  County,  sit- 
uated on  the  Chicago,  B.  &  Q.  and  the  Toledo, 
P.  &  W.  railroads,  28  miles  west  of  Peoria.  It 
is  the  trade  centre  of  the  fertile  i^cultural  and 
coal-mining  region;  and  has  numerous  indus- 
trial interests,  including  a  large  manufactory 
of  agricultural  implements,  cigar  factories  ana 
several  lesser  plants.  The  United  Slates  cen- 
sus ot  manufactures  for  1914  reported  34  in- 
dustrial establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 1,113  persons,  of  whom  920  were  wage 
earners,  receiving  $829,000  annually  in  wages. 
The  capital  invested  aggregated  $9,733^000,  and 
the  year's  production  was  valued  at  $2,577,000: 
of  mis,  $1,451,000  was  added  by  manufacture. 
It  has  a  puhUc  library  a  high  school  and 
munidpal  waterworks.  Canton  was  settled  in 
1832,  first  incorporated  in  1849  and  is  governed 
under  a  charter  of  1692,  providing  for  a  mayor, 
elected   every  two  years,  and  a  dty  coundL 

Pop.  i2,ooa 

CANTON,  Mass.,  town  in  Norfolk  County, 
about  15  miles  southwest  of  Boston,  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad.  It 
includes  several  villages.  The  town  contains  a 
public  library,  the  Massachusetts  Hos[ntal 
School  and  has  manufactories  of  fdt  gTx>ds, 
cotton  padded  goods,  bladdne,  woolens,  rubber 
goods,  patent  and  enameled  leathers,  electrical 
supplies,  fire  hose,  etc.  Canton  was  seRled 
about  1690  and  Waa  separated  from  Stou^ton 


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CANTON  — CANTU 


B3T 


in  1797  and  incorporated.  The  watenvorki  are 
the  property  of  ihe  town,  the  govenimeDt  of 
which  is  carried  on  by  town  meetinKs.  Pop. 
4,7W.  Consult  Huntoon,  'History  of  the  Town 
of  Canton>   (Cambridge  1893). 

CANTON,  N.  Y.,  village  and  county-seat 
of  Saint  Lawrence  County,  on  Grass  Kiver, 
and  the  Roin&  W.  &  0.  Railroad,  59  miles 
northeast  of  Watertown.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Saint  Lawrence  University,  a  Slate  school  of 
agriculture,  a  goveniment  weather  bureau,  and 
has  large  flour  and  lumber  interests,  boat 
building  industries,  a  national  bank,  a  public 
library,  county  almshouse,  several  churches  and 
an  assessed  property  valuation  of  over  ^,000,- 
000.  Canton  was  settled  in  1803  and  incor- 
porated in  1846.    Pop.  3,000. 


glvauia.  Wheeling  &  Lake  Erie,  Baltimore 
hio  railroads,  60  mites  southeast  of 
Cleveland.  Interurban  electric  railroads  con- 
nect all  cities  and  towns  within  a  raditts  of  50 
miles.  The  commercial  centre  of  the  second 
richest  agricultural  county  of  Ohio,  also  rank- 
ing among  the  six  richest  of  the  nation.  Canton 
has  an  extensive  grain  trade,  and  manufactures 
of  brick,  sheet  steel  and  iron,  watches,  enamel 
ware,  roller  bearings,  safes,  bridges,  toys, 
knives,  etc.  The  total  manufacturing  output 
is  valued  at  $52,000,000  annually.  Neighboring 
deposits  of  coal,  limestone  and  [lOttery  clay  are 
also  extensively  worked-  An  immense  plant 
supplies  electric  light  and  power,  natural  gas  ii 
piped  at  a  domestic  rate  of  30  cents;  an  artesian 
water  supply  is  maintained  and  operated  by 
the  municipality,  and  a  fire  department  with  a 
modem  motor-equipped  apparatus.  Bank 
clearings  in  1915  amounted  to  $95^73,208,  an 
increase  of  $16,000,000  over  J914;  bank  de- 
posits totaled  $27,000,000,  resources  over  $30,- 
000,000.  Canton  was  the  home  of  President 
McKinley  and  one  of  tKe  city's  features  is  the 
stately  National  memorial  erected  in  1907  on 
Uontmient  Hill  in  West  Lawn  Cemetery,  where 
the  President  and  his  wife  are  buried.  Of 
granite,  with  a  bronze  statue  of  the  President 
and  with  two  sarcophagi  containiRg  the  bodies, 
the  monument  stands  in  beautiful  grounds 
covering  26  acres ;  from  the  lowest  step  it 
reaches  a  height  of  163  feet  6  inches  and  78 
feet  9  inches  in  diameter.  The  memorial  to  the 
American  soldiers  of  the  Spanish- American 
War  is  also  noteworthy.  The  city's  princi^ 
building  include  the  Federal  building,  city 
hall,  aty  auditorium,  county  administration 
building,  public  library,  high  and  other  schools, 
several  theatres,  numerous  handsoctie  churches 
which  cost  $250,000,  membership  1,500. 
Nimisilla  park  and  Meyer's  Lake  park  are  at' 
tractive  outing  resorts.  Canton  was  settled 
about  1805,  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in 
1822  and  received  a  city  charter  in  1854.  It  is 
administered  by  a  mayor  and  nine  aldennen, 
elected  under  a  law  of  1902. 

CANTON,  S.  D.,  city,  coital  of  Uncoln 
County,  on  the  Chicago,  M.  &  Saint  P.  Rail- 
road, and  on  the  Sioux  River,  20  miles  from 
Sioux  Falls,  is  the  seat  of  Augustan  a  College 
and  of  the  government  asylum  tor  insane  In- 
dians. The  city  owns  its  waterworks  and  has 
a  Camef^e  library,  a  handsome  courthouse, 
churches,  public  schools  and  important  mann- 


factures  of  concrete,  engines  and  agricultural 
implements.  The  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment exists  since  1909.     Pop.   (1910)  2,103. 

CANTON,  a  small  division  of  territory, 
constituting  a  distinct  state  or  Kovemment,  as 
in  Switzerland,  where  each  of  the  22  states  is 
so  desi^aled.  In  Prance  judicial  districts 
comprising  a  number  of  communes,  but  consti- 
tuting in  the  case  of  very  large  cities  only  a 
part  of  such  commune,  are  called  cantons. 

CANTONt,  kan-t5'ne,  Csrlo,  Italian  phi- 
losopher; b.  Gropello  1840;  d.  1906.    He  studied 


University  of  Pavia..  In  his  philosophi- 
cal theory  he  agrees  in  general  with  fCant,  ex- 
cept his  ueory  of  phenomenon  and  noumenon. 
He  wrote  <G.  Battlsta  Visco,  studii  virtu  e  com- 
paraiione'  (1867);  'C^rso  elementare  di  filo- 
sofia'  (1870);  "Giuseppe  Ferrari>  (1S78); 
"Emanuele  Kant>  (1879^), 

CANTONMENT,  the  district  in  which 
troops  are  quartered  when  they  are  not  col- 
lected into  a  camp,  but  detached  and  distributed 
over  the  neighboring  towns  and  villages.  The 
object  of  sending  troops  into  cantonments  is  to 
be  able  to  concentrate  them  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible on  one  spot,  when  circumstances  do  not 
admit  of  a  camp  being  formed,  or  do  not  render 
it  advisable  to  form  one.  In  India  the  perma- 
nent military  stations  erected  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  die  principal  cities  are  so  called.  The 
larger  types  contain  barracks  for  European 
cavalry,  infantiy  and  artillery,  houses  for  offi- 
cers, huts  for  native  troops,  gymnasiums,  store- 
houses, parade  grounds  and  administrative 
buildings. 

CANTOR,  GeorK,  Russo-German  mathe- 
matician: b.  Saint  Petersburg  184S.  After 
1879  when  he  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics'at  the  University  of  H^le,  he  orig- 
inated the  theory  of  assemblages  or  ^sterns 
of  numbers  which  may  contain  —  as  does  the 
universe  —  a  finite  or  an  infinite  number  of 
numbers,  or  an  infinity  of  such  infinities;  this 
last  class  he  termed  transfinite  numbers  and 
made  a  classification  of  the  systems,  relating  the 
potency  or  de^ee  of  infinitude  of  each.  His 
learned  contributions  appear  chiefly  in  the 
Mathematische  Annalen. 

CANTOR,  UoriU,  German  mathematician: 
b.  Uannheim  1849.  From  1853  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  an<J  prtyat-docent  in  the 
University  of  Heidelberg  and  became  widely 
known  by  the  standard  "Geschichte  der  Mathe- 
matik'— History  of  Mathematics,  which  brings 
the  subject  down  to  the  year  1799  (4  vols.,  Letp- 


CANTU,  kan'too,  Ceuire,  Italian  historian, 
poet  and  philosopher;  b.  Bnvio,  7  Dec.  1804; 
d.  11  Marcn  1895.  He  was  educated  at  Sondrio 
in  the  Valtellina,  where  he  taught  belUf'lettrej 
at  a  youthful  age,  resided  afterward  in  Como, 
and  next  at  Milan  until  1848.  One  of  his 
earliest  works,  entitled  'Raf^onamenti  snlla 
Storia  Lombarda  nel  Secolo  XVII*  ('Lec- 
tures on  the  History  of  Lombardy  in  the  17th 
Centuiy' )  appeared  in  a  second  edition  in 
1842-44,  and  contained  liberal  ideas  that  brought 
upon  the  author  the  anitnadvovioii  o(  the  Aub- 


[ig 


v  Google 


CAHTU6  PJRHUS  — GANUTS 


trian  government,  wluch  condemned  him  to  a 

year's  imprisonment.  During  his  confinement 
lie  composed  a  historical  romance,  entitled 
'Margherila  Pusteria'  (1845),  which  became 
very  popular.  His  great  work,  on  which  his 
reputation  will  chiefly  rest,  'Storia  Universale> 
('Universal  History')  appeared  first  in  1837, 
at  Turin.  It  has  been  since  revised  and  re- 
printed at  Palermo  and  Naples,  and  translated 
into  German.  A  French  translation  by  Aroux 
and  Leopardi  was  published  in  Paris  in  1843. 
Cantu  became  director  of  the  archives  of  Lom- 
bardy  in  1874.  Other  works  are  'Storia  degli 
Italiani'  (1854);  'TheLast  One  Hundred  Years' 
(1864):  'The  Italian  Heretics'  (1866^,  and 
monographs  on  various  men  of  letters.  Consult 
BertoTini,  'Cesare  Cantu  e  le  sue  opere'  (1895). 
See  Margherua  Pustexla. 

CANTUS  PIRMUS,  an  ancient  chant  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  These  diants 
were  adopted  as  standing  melodies,  and  until 
counterpoint  was  discovered,  were  unaccom- 
panied, or  only  harmonized  with  octaves.     , 

CANUCK,  a  term  sometimes  used  in  the 
United  States  to  denote  a  Canadian. 

CANUTE  IV,  Saint,  King  of  Denmark 
1060-86.  He  suppressed  the  ancient  heathen 
customs  of  his  people,  and  thus  aroused  opposi- 
tion; in  1085  he  started  on  an  expedition  against 
William  the  Conqueror,  but  was  murdered  by 
rebels  in  his  own  army  in  1086.  He  was  canon- 
ized, in  1100  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  con- 
sidered the  patron  saint  of  Denmark. 

CANUTE,  ka-noot',  THE  GREAT,  Knnd, 
or  Knut,  the  second  king  of  Denmark  of 
that  name,  and  first  Danish  king  of  England: 
b.  in  the  farmer  country,  about  995;  d.  Shaftes- 
bury, England,  103S.  He  was  the  son  of  Sweyo, 
King  of  Denmark,  and  accompanied  his  father 
in  his  victorious  campaigns  in  England.  Sweyn, 
having  proclaimed  himself  king  of  England, 
died  in  1014,  before  his  power  was  estabhsbed, 
and  appointed  Canute  his  successor  diere.  The 
latter  was  immediately  driven  out  by  Ethelred, 
the  representative  of  the  Saxon  tine,  and  fled 
with  60  ships  to  the  court  of  his  brother, 
Harold,  king  of  Denmark.  Harold  enabled 
him  to  collect  a  large  fleet  in  the  north  to 
prosecute  his  cause  in  England.  He  invaded 
that  country  anew  in  1015.  He  fought  many 
hatttes  with  Edmund  Ironside,  wbo  nad  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ethelred,  in  1016,  and  was 
finally  victorious  at  the  battle  of  Ashington, 
After  this  battle,  Edmund  and  Canute  agreed 
upon  a  division  of  the  kingdom.  To  Canute 
were  assigned  Mercia  and  Norlhumbria,  while 
the    Saxon    Prince    reserved    West    and    East 


without  further  resistance.  He  refrained  from 
murdering  the  children  of  his  late  rival,  and 
sent  them  to  his  half-brother,  Olave,  king  of 
Sweden.  He  put  awav  his  wife,  Alfpve,  the 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Northampton,  and  es- 
poused Emma,  the  widow  of  Ethelred,  the  Saxon 
monarch  (1Q17),  on  the  condition  that  their 
children  should  succeed  to  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land. He  made  the  greatest  exertions  to  gain 
the  affections  of  his  En^sh  subjects,  to  whom 
his  Danish  origin  was  no  recommendation.    He 


accordingly  disbanded  his  Danish  army,  retain- 
ing only  a  body-guard.  He  endeavored  to 
blend  the  two  races  as  far  as  possible  and  to 
induce  them  to  live  in  harmony  with  each  other. 
He  erected  churches,  and  made  donations  to 
abbess  and  monasteries  on  ibe  scenes  of  former 
conflicts  and  massacres.  In  a  witenagcmote 
at  Winchester,  he  compiled  a  code  of  bws 
which  is  still  extant     In  this  code  he  denoimced 


with  him  on  these  occasions  an  En^ish  fleet, 
English  missionaries  and  English  artisans.  He 
promoted  three  Englishmen  to  the  newly-erected 
Dishoprics  of  Scania,  Zealand  and  Fionia.     In 


at  the  head  of  the  English  contingent,  l__ 
prised  the  Swedish  camp  and  dispersed  the 
enemy.  His  absence  from  Denmark,  and  the 
bestowal  of  so  many  dignities  in  Denmark  upon 
nis  En^ish  subjects,  made  him  unpopular  in 
that  kingdom.  To  aiqiease  this  discontent,  he 
left  behind  in  Denmark  his  son,  Hardicanute, 
then  aged  10  years,  under  the  guardianship  of 
his  brother-in-law,  Ulf  (1026).  In  this  year 
he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  He  was  well 
received  there  by  the  Pope,  John,  and  by  the 
Emperor,  Conrad  II,  who  gave  up  to  the  Danish 
King  all  the  country  north  of  the  river  Eider. 
From  the  Pope  he  obtained  privileges  for  tfa* 
English  school  established  in  Rome,  and  an 
abatement  of  the  sums  demanded  from  his 
archlHshops  for  the  palUum ;  and  from  the 
various  princes,  relief  for  all  English  and  Dan- 
ish pilgrims  and  merchants  from  all  illegal 
tolls  and  detentions  which  they  had  endured  on 
their  route  to  Rome.  He  returned  from  Rome 
to  Denmark.  In  1028  he  made  an  expeditiou 
into  Norway,  exjwlled  .Olave  and  restored  Haco 
who  iwore  allegiance  to  him.  In  \(S9  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  his  Danish  subjects 
proclaimed  Hardicanute  Idng  of  Denmark. 
Canute  immediately  returned  to  Denmark,  put 
down  the  revolt  and  executed  the  traitor,  Uli. 
In  1030  Canute  was  acknowledged  king  of  Nor- 
way, and  laid  claims  to  the  crown  of  Sweden. 
On  returning  again  to  England,  he  allowed  his 
son  Hardicanute  to  share  with  him  the  Danish 
crown.  His  reign  is  very  important  in  the  con- 
stitutional history  of  Denmark.  Canute  issued 
the  first  national  coinage  of  Denmark,  and  pub- 
lished the  first  written  code  of  Danish  law 
wherein  the  custom  of  private  vengeance  was 
prohibited.  He  raised  the  clergy  in  their  cor- 
porate capacity  to  a  separate  estate  of  the  realm, 
and  instituted  the  Thinglith  or  royal  guard  of 
3,000  men.  The  members  of  this  body  were 
all  men  of  eood  family  and  rich  enough  to 
equip  themselves  at  their  own  expense.  From 
them  sjirang  the  Danish  order  of  nobility:  tbey 
were  tried  only  by  their  peers  and  formed  witb 
the  king  the  highest  court  of  justice.  Cantite's 
last  compaign  was  against  Duncan,  king  of 
Scotland,  respecting  the  possession  or  Cumber- 
land, but  before  the  armies  could  engage  the 
two  kings  were  reconciled,  and  ancient  stipula- 
tions concerning  the  tenure  of  Cumberland  were 
renewed  Q033).  Canute  was  buried  at  Win- 
chester. By  Emma  he  had  two  children, 
namely,  Hardicanute  ot  Canute  the  Hardy  and 


Da 


,  Google 


CANVAS— CAHZONB 


fi89 


a  dausfater,  Gnnhilda,  married  to  Hcoiy,  the 
ion  of  Conrad  II,  of  Gennany,  Emperor.  By 
Alfgivc  he  left  two  sons,  Swcyn  and  Harold. 
To  Sweyn  was  pven  the  crown  of  Norway: 
Hardicanute  retained  that  of  Denmark,  and 
Harold,  sumamed  Harefoot,  took  possession  of 
that  of  England.  Canute  is  most  popularly 
loiown,  not  by  his  extended  rule  and  legislative 
enactments  but  bj;  the  familiar  story  of  the 
monarch,  tnc  courtiers  and  the  disobedient  sea. 
Consult  Larson,  'Canute  the  Great'  (New  York 
and  London  1912)  ;  Freeman^  'The  Norman 
Conquest'  (Vol.  I,  Oxford  1870)  ;  Green,  <The 
Conquest  oi  England'    (London  1883). 

CANVAS,  a  textile  fabric  made  of  the  fibres 
of  hemp;  or  any  strong,  firm  cloth,  whether  of 
hemp  or  flax.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  tents,  and 
for  the  sails  of  sailing  veuels,  for  which  its 
strength  makes  it  well  adapted.  Canvas  for 
sails  IS  made  from  18  to  24  inches  wide,  and 
numbered  0  to  8,  No.  0  being  the  thickest.  A 
bolt  is  39  to  40  /ards  long,  and  weighs  25  to  43 
pounds.  Varieties  of  it  are  also  used  as  the 
ground  of  ta^stry  work  and  of  oil  paintings. 
A  finer  description  is  used  for  many  common 
domestic  purposes,  as  for  towels,  tab)e-cloth>L 
etc.  The  canvas  used  by  artists  is  commonly  of 
linen,  varying  in  size  and  thickness,  stretched  on 
a  frame  or  "stretcher,"  and  made  tight  by 
"keys"  or  wedges  inserted  in  the  four  inside 
comers.  There  are  several  sizes  of  canvas 
which  are  generally  used  and  are  kept  stretched. 

CANVAS-BACK,  »  widely  distributed 
£resh-water  duck  (Aythya  valliineria) ,^  much 
sought  as  a  table  luxury,  as  its  flesh  is  con- 
sidered superior  to  that  of  all  other  ducks.  It 
is  about  22  inches  in  length  and  its  reddish' 
chestnut  head  and  neck  are  much  shaded  with 
dusky  hues ;  the  lower  neck,  breast  and  fore- 
part of  the  back,  with  the  nun^  and  tail-covert^ 
are  black ;  and  the  back  and  sides  gray,  covered 
with  hne  lines  and  dots,  so  that  the  plumage  re- 
sembles canvas.  By  reason  of  its  siminrity, 
this  duck  is  frequently  confounded  with  the 
red-bead  <q.v.).  'The  canvas-back  is  larger, 
its  head  darker,  and  its  bill  a  deep  black,  wnil6 
that  of  the  red-head  is  deep  blue,  or  a  slatish 
color.  The  shape  of  the  biD  of  the  canvas- 
back  is  wedged  and  long;  of  the  red-head 
moderately^  long  and  concave.  .  .  .  Tbev  are 
very  tenacious  of  life,  their  bump  of  stubborn- 
ness being  fully  developed,  and  they  will  dive 
long  distances,  and  prefer  death  by  any  other 
means  than  human  agency.  When  one  is 
crif^led  it  will  usually  look  around  for  an  in- 
stant, to  see  where  the  dai^er  lies,  then  dovm 
tt  goes,  and  if  rushes  or  cover  are  near,  it  is 
good'bye  to  that  duck, —  it  will  not  be  seen 
i^ain.  When  one  is  crippled  it  should  be  shot 
again,  and  at  once.*  The  food  of  the  canvas- 
bade  consists  chie6y  of  the  roots  of  wild  celery 
(Zoilera  valiisnena),  which  resembles  the  cul- 
avated  celery  in  appearance.  It  grows  densely 
in  the  shallow  parts  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and 
Susquehanna  River  abont  the  Great  Lakes  and 
in  me  Mississippi  Valley.  Few  canvas-backs 
are  found  east  of  the  Hudson  and  Delaware 
rivers.  It  is  almost  safe  to  say  that  where  the 
plant  grows  in  abundance,  the  canvas-back  is 
almost  sure  likewise  to  be  found;  consequently 
the  peculiarly  delicate  flavor  of  its  flesh,  and  the 
tiarket  value  of  this  duck,  increase  with  the 
amoont  of  celery  it  consumes,  as  otherwise  it  is 


hardly  distinguishable  from  the  red-head  in 
flavor.  The  canvas-back  breeds  north  of 
Dakota,  buildii^  its  nest  on  the  ground,  in  a 
marsh,  and  laymc  from  6  to  10  greenish-bufi 
eggs.  Consult  Elliot,  'Wild  Fowl  of  North 
America';  Job,    'Among  the  Wild  Fowl." 

CANYON,  kin'-yon,  a  valley  that  is  notably 
deep  in  proportion  to  its  width.  The  average 
idea  as  to  the  depth  of  canyons  is  much  exag- 
gerated, however.  Most  canyons  are  mudi 
wider  than  they  are  deep.  The  Grand  Canyon 
of  the  Colorado  is  as  much  as  10  miles  wide  at 
many  points,  and  averages  only  about  »  mile 
deep,  and  jret  it  is  one  of  the  most  stupendous 
chasms  in  the  world.  In  rare  cases  gorges  are 
dee[ier  than  they  are  wide,  but  this  is  the  ex- 
ception. Since  file  work  of  a  river  is  not  only 
to  cut  a  valley  but  to  carve  away  the  entire 
surrounding  region,  it  is  evident  that  canyons 
represent  a  youthful  stage  in  river  erosion,  he- 
fore  there  has  been  time  to  widen  the  valley. 
See  Gkano  Canton  of  Colorado. 

CANYON  DE  CHELLY  (Shay),  Arit,  a 
canyon  in  the  Navajo  Indian  Reservation  in 
the  northeastern  corner  of  the  State,  famous 
for  its  picturesque  walls  and  monuments  of  r^ 
sandstone.  Two  branch  canyons,  del  Muerto 
and  Monument  are  similar.  The  walls  are 
from  800  to  1.200  feet  high  and  while  mostly 
vertical,  present  many  erosion  forms.  The 
canyons  have  been  cut  by  creeks  rising  in 
Chuska  Mountains  on  or  near  the  Arizona-New 
Mexico  Slate  line.  The  rock  is  a  light  red 
massive,  crossbedded  sandstone  locally  devel- 
oped between  Shinarump  conglomerate  above 
and  Moenkopi  formation  below,  possibly  of 
Permian  age.  Some  notable  cliff  dwellings  re- 
main in  the  canyon  walls.  These  wonderful 
canyons  can  be  easily  visited  by  leaving  die 
Santa  Fi  Railroad  at  Gallup,  taking  automobile 
70  miles  to  Chinlee  and  there  obtaining  horses 
for  a  35-mile  round  trip.  The  canyon  was  dis- 
covered by  Doniphan  s  expedition  in  1847 
and  Simpson  who  visited  the  place  in  1850  ob- 
tained the  name  from  Sr.  Vigil,  secretary  of 
the  province  of  New  Spain.  It  is  believed  to 
be  a  Spanish  version  of  the  Navajo  term, 
Tse-yi,  meaning  'in  the  canyon." 

CANYON  DIABLO,  a  noted  canyon 
crossed  by  Santa  Ft  Railroad  in  eastern  Ari- 
zona. It  is  225  feet  deep,  with  steep,  step-like 
walls  of  the  limestone  which  constitutes  the 
adjoining  platform.  It  was  cut  by  a  small 
stream,  tributary  to  the  Little  Colorado  River, 
which  is  not  far  north. 

CANZONE,  kan-tsO'nS,  a  particular  variety 
of  lyric  poetry  of  Proven^il  ongin.  It  is  found 
in  me  Italian  poetry  of  the  13th  century.  At 
first  it  was  quite  irregular,  but  was  confined  by 
Petrarch  to  more  fixeaand  regular  forms.  Hence 
it  is  called  canzone  Petrarchesca ;  it  is  also 
called  canzone  Toscana,  because  it  originated 
in  Tuscany.  It  is  divided  into  several  stanzas, 
in  which  the  nature  and  disposition  of  the 
verses,  which  are  o£  II  and  7  syllables  and  the 
place  of  the  rhymes,  are  uniform.  The  can- 
I one-strophe  consists  of  two  parts,  the  opening 
one  being  distingtiished  by  Dante  as  the  fronle, 
the  closing  one  as  the  sirma,  and  these  parts 
are  connected  by  rhyme,  it  bdng  usual  to  make 
the  rhyme  of  the  last  line  of  the  frotite  identi- 
cal with  that  of  the  Arst  line  of  the  «>niMi.    In 


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1(40 


CANZOHBT—  CAOUTCHOUC 


other  respects,  the  canione  has  ^eat  liberty. 
The  canione  usually  concludes  with  a  stanza 
which  is  shorter  than  the  others,  and  is  called 
ripresa,  congedo,  comiato,  signifying  dismis- 
sion or  taking  leave.  There  are  different  kinds 
of  canzoni,  and  different  names  are  given  to 
the  different  parts.  The  canzone  Anacreontica 
is  divided  into  small  stanzas,  consisting  of 
short  verses,  with  a  regular  disposition  oi  the 
rhymes  through  all  the  stanzas.  Not  only  light, 
Ipleasing  sooks  of  love,  gaiety  and  mirth,  but 
poems  on  solemn  and  lofty  subjects,  and  of  an 
elevated  dithyrambic  strain,  are  included  under 
this  name.  The  latter  subjects,  however,  are 
better  adapted  to  the  canzone  Pindarica,  whidi 
was  first  introduced  in  the  16th  century  by 
Liim  Alamannt,  and  owes  its  perfection  chiefly 
to  Chiabrera.  It  is  distinguished  from  that  of 
Petrarch  by  a  bolder  fli^t,  loftier  ideas,  greater 
freedom  in  the  choice  and  disposition  of  the 
verses,  and  by  the  form  of  the  staoxai,  which  it 
borrowed  from  the  Greek  choms.  The  Pindaiic 
canzoni  are  divided  into  strophe^  uitistrophe 
and  epode,_  and  are  called  canzoni  alia  Greca. 
Those  divisions  are  sometimes  called  ballata, 
contraballata  and  stanza ;  or  volta,  rivolta  and 
stanza  i  the  Greek  names  are  the  most  common. 
Tliere  is  also  the  canzone  a'ballo,  an  old  Itahan 
poem,  originally  intended  to  be  sung  at  a  dance 
(ballo).  It  is  called  also  ballata.  It  is  not  em- 
ployed by  the  Italian  poets  later  than  the  16th 
century.  In  England,  the  canzone  was  intro- 
duced at  the  end  of  the  16th  centuiy  by  Williajn 
Drummond  of  Hawthomden,  who  has  left  some 
fine  examples.  In  Germany,  the  |>oets  of  the 
Romantic  period  imitated  it,  especially  A,  W. 
von  SchlegeL 

CANZONET.  kin-tse-n»',  CANZO- 
NETTA,  in  Italian  poetry  a  canzone  (q.v.) 
consisting  of  short  verses,  much  in  use  with 
the  poets  of  the  15th  century.  Rlnucdni,  and 
after  him  Giiabrera,  have  used  it  in  modem 
times,  and  given  It  more  grace.  Canzonets  are 
generally  expressive  of  tender  feelings.  In 
music,  canzonet  signifies  a  song,  shorter  and 
less  Maborate  than  the  aria  of  uie  oratorio  or 
opera. 

CAONABO,"  ka-o-nab&',  Indian' chief  of 
Hispaniola  (Haiti)  at  the  time  of  its  discovery 
by  Columbus:  d.  1496.  The  latter  built  a  fort 
which  he  called  La  Navidad,  and  in  which  he 
left,  when  sailing  for  Spain  early  in  1493,  a 
garrison  of  40  men.  Returning  before  the  end 
of  the  year,  he  found  that  Caonabfi  had  burned 
the  fort  and  killed  the  garrison.  According  to 
the  account  of  a  friendly  native,  the  Spaniards 
had  drawn  this  fate  upon  themselves  oy  their 
evil  conduct.  In  1494  the  Indians  in  great  num- 
bers attacked  the  Spaniards,  having  been  pro- 
voked by  the  misconduct  of  one  of  the  Heu- 
tenants  of  Columbus,  Pedro  Uargarite.  Co- 
lumbus overthrew  them,  first  at  Magdalena,  and 
later  (I49S)  on  the  plains  of  the  Vega  Real  — 
where,  tradition  has  it,  100,000  hostiles  were 
assembled.  Caonab£  meanwhile  threatened  the 
garrison  of  Saint  Thomas.     Alonio  de  Ojeda 


among  the  hostiles.  As  presents  he  took  gyves 
and  manacles  of  shining  metal ;  treacherously 
persuaded  the  Prince  to  show  himself  to  his 
subjects  wearing  these  novel  ornaments,  and 


even,  wUle  thus  adorned,  to  ride  Ojeda's  bone: 
then,  mounting  also,  he  dashed  throi^Ji  the, 
crowd  of  savages  and  carried  his  victim  into 
the  presence  of  Columbus.  He  was  sent  to 
Spain  for  trial  and  died  en  route. 

CAOUTCHOUC,  koo'choot.  an  elastit 
gum-like  substance,  obtained  from  the  juice  of 
certain  tropical  trees  and  shrubs,  and  commonly 
known  as  India-rubber  or  'rubber.*  The 
best  caoutchouc  comes  from  the  Pari  region, 
in  Brazil'  but  supplies  are  also  obtained  from 
Central  America  and  the  West  Indies,  from 
Africa  and  from  tropical  Asia,  especially  from 
Ceylon  and  Malaya.  The  details  of  collect- 
ing the  juice  and  preparing  it  for  market  vair 
somewhat  according  to  the  locality,  and  with 
the  nature  of  the  trees  or  shrubs  from  which 
the  juice  is  obtained.  In  the  Amazon  r^on, 
when  the  source  is  a  tree,  incisions  are  made 
in  the  bark  each  morning;,  and  the  milky  sap 
that  exudes  is  collected  m  little  tin  or  clay 
cups  that  are  secured  to  the  tree  for  the  pur- 
pose. At  the  end  of  about  10  hours  these  are 
emptied  into  larger  collecting  vessels,  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  following  da^  new  incisions 
are  made  in  each  tre^  some  eight  inches  be- 
low the  first  ones.  T&is  process  is  continued 
until  incisions  have  been  made  in  the  bark  from 
a  height  of  about  six  feet  down  to  Ae  ground 
The  poorest  quality  of  sap  is  obtained  from 
the  highest  wounds,  and  the  best  from  the  low- 
est ones.  To  evaporate  the  juice,  a  fire  is  first 
built  of  materials  that  yield  dense  volumes  of 
■moke.  A  workman  then  dips  a  wooden  paddle 
into  the  collected  sap,  after  which  he  holds  it 
in  the  smtdce  until  the  sap  solidifies  and  ac- 
quires a  slight  tinge  of  yellow.  He  then  dips 
Uie  paddle  into  die  sap  supply  agaiiL  repeats  the 
smoldi^  process,  and  so  proceeds  until  the 
paddle  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  the  dried  gum 
that  is  perhaps  an  inch  and  a  half  thick.  He 
then  shts  this  layer,  removes  it  from  the 
paddle^  hangs  it  up  to  dry,  and  starts  a  fresh 
evaporation. 

Pure  caoutchouc  from  Par&  is  li^t-colored 
below  die  surface,  but  superficially  it  is  dark- 
brown  from  oxidation.  It  has  a  specific  gravis 
of  about  0.92,  and  consists  chiefly  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen  in  the  proportion  of  about  87  per  cent 
of  ca^n  to  13  of  hydrogen.  Small  quantities 
of  oxygen  are  always  present,  however,  as  the 
best  of  the  Pari  product  contains  as  much  as 
one-half  of  1  per  cent  of  a  sort  of  resin  that 
contains  o^gen,  and  is  undoubtedly  produced 
by  the  oxidation  of  the  gum.  In  fact,  it  is 
known  that  caoutchouc  will  oxidize  slowly  in 
damp  air,  even  after  it  is  vulcanized,  and  par- 
ticularlv  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  hghL 
Caoutcnouc  consists,  apparently,  of  two  differ- 
ent kinds  of  gum,  one  of  which  is  fibrous,  while 
the  other  is  viscous^  thourii  the  two  are  chemi- 
cally identical.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  ether, 
turpentine,  chloroforln,  petroleum,  naphtha, 
benzin^  and  carbon  disulphide,  the  viscous  por- 
tion being  more  soluble  dian  the  fibrous  part 
At  250°  F.  caoutchouc  beeins  to  melt,  and  be- 
comes permanently  transformed  into  a  stidcy 
substance  which  retains  its  peculiar  consistency 
almost  indefinitely.  At  400'  F.  the  transforma- 
tion is  more  complete,  and  the  black,  adhesive 
mass  that  results  makes  an  excellent  lute  for 
sealing  glass  bottles  and  jars  if  it  is  tboroi^Mr 
incorporated  widi  50  per  cent  of  its  own  wd^it 


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CAP—CAPANEUS 


of  dry  slaked  lime.  By  areful  destructive 
distillation  caoutchouc  is  resolved  into  a  ntun- 
ber  of  hjrdrocarbon  oils  that  ate  of  interest  to 
the  chemist. 

As  early  as  1615  the  Spaniards  used  the 
crude  gum  *for  wanng  their  cloaks,  which  were 
made  of  canvas,  sq  as  to  malce  them  resist 
water.*  But  it  was  not  until  about  200  years 
later  that  caoutchouc  began  to  attract  general 


to  doth  by  the  aid  of  heat;  but  improved  meth- 
ods followed  the  discoveiy  of  solvents  for  the 
gum,  and  the  invention,  by  an  Englishman 
mmed  Thomas  Hancock  (about  1S20),  of  the 
•masticator,"  a  machine  by  which  the  caout- 
chouc is  thoroughly  worked  over  and  brou^t 
to  a  uniform  consistency.  But  the  greatest  step 
in  the  development  of  the  rubber  industry  was 
the  discovery  of  the  process  of  vttlcanizatioiij — 


a  discovery  that  appears  to  hare  been  made  in- 
dependently and  at  about  the  same  time  <184'*^ 
by  Charles  Goodyear,  of  New  Havco,  Con 


and  Thomas  Hancodc,  to  whom  referetice  hiu 
previously  been  made.  The  credit  of  priority 
belongs  to  Goodyear,  but  Hancock  did  a  great 
deal  to  make  the  discovery  a  commercial  suc- 
cess. Unvulcanized  caoutchouc  is  softened  by 
beat,  and  is  made  hard  and  inelastic  by  cola; 
but  upon  bein^  vulcanized  the  gum  becomes 
comparatively  insensible  to  ordinary  extremes 
of  temperature,  and  also  has  its  elasticity  ma- 
terially increased.  The  process  of  vulcanization 
depends  upon  the  fact  that  the  crude  rubber 
will  absorb  sulphur,  and  combine  with  it  at  a 
temperature  that  is  easily  attainable  without 
injury  to  the  product  The  details  of  the  vul- 
canization diBer  somewhat,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  article  that  is  being  manufactured. 
If  sheet  rubber  is  submerged  for  a  few  mo- 
ments in  melted  sulidiur  at  a  temperature  of 
250°  F.,  it  absorbs  about  one-tentb  of  its  weight 
of  that  element;  but  although  its  color  changes 
somewhat,  it  is  otherwise  apparently  unaltered. 
Upon  exposure  for  a  somewnat  longer  time  to 
a  temperature  of  285°  F.,  however,  true  com- 
bination of  the  sulphur  and  caoutchouc  ensues, 
and  the  gum  is  said  to  become  'vulcanized.'  It 
is  not  necessary  that  the  sulphur  should  be  ac- 
tually melted  in  order  that  the  sheet  rubber  may 
absorb  it,  for  sheets  that  are  laid  in  powdered 
sulphur  that  is  heated  nearly  to  its  melting- 
pomt  will  absorb  the  proper  amount  for  good 
.  vulcanization  in  the  course  of  a  tew  hours. 
Vulcanization  of  rubber  sheets  can  even  be 
brought  about  without  the  action  of  hea^  by 
dii^ng  the  sheets  for  a  few  seconds  in  a  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  sulphur  in  carbon  disttll^de. 
It  is  more  common,  however,  to  knead  the 
requisite  amount  of  sulphtrr  iSrecdy  hito  the 
caoutchouc  by  mechanical  means.  The  article 
to  be  manufactured  is  then  brou^t  into  shape 
by  the  action  of  pressure  and  moderate  heat 
(or  iu  Atiy  other  manner),  and  the  final  o^ua- 
bon  consists  in  heating  it  to  the  vulcanizing 
temperature  by  the  aid  of  a  steam  bath.  Chem- 
icaify  considered,  the  process  of  vulcanization 
appears  to  consist  in  the  substitution  of  one  or 
more  sulphur  atoms  for  a  portion  of  the  hydro- 
gen Qf_  the  hydrocarbons  of  which  the  caout- 
chouc is  composed.  For  many  years  chemists 
have  been  interested  in  synthetic  rubber  to  take 
the  place  of  natural  caoutchouc,  but  the  arti- 
ficial jrrodncl  has  not  yet  come  Info  extensive 
use.  See  India  Rub^  ;  Rubboi  MAWurAcruKE. 


manv  ages.  When  either  the  ra: 
troublesome  the  lappet  of  the  row 
over  the  head;  and  hence  all  de  ancient  statues 


appear  bareheaded,  excepting  sometimes  for  a 
wreath  or  the  like.  The  same  usage  prevailed 
among  the  Greeks,  to  whom,  at  least  during 
the  Heroic  Age,  caps  were  unknown.  The  sort 
of  caps  or  covers  of  the  head  in  use  among  the 
Romans  on  divers  occasions  were  the  pitra, 
piletu,  citcullut.  galertu  and  pailiotvm,  which 
are  often  contounded  by  ancient  as  well  as 
modern  writers.  The  general  use  of  caps  and 
hats  is  referred  to  in  the  year  1449.  The  first 
seen  in  Europe  were  used  at  the  entry  of 
Charles  VII  into  Rouen.  From  that  time  they 
began  to  take  die  place  of  chaperons  or  hoods. 
When  the  cap  was  of  velvet  they  called  it 
mortUr;  when  of  wool  simpiv  bonnet.  None 
but  kings,  princes  and  kmghts  were  allowed 
to  use  the  mortier.  The  cap  was  the  head- 
dress of  the  clergy  and  graduates.  Pasquin 
says  that  it  was  anciently  a  part  of  the  hood 
worn  by  the  people  of  the  robe;  the  skirts 
whereof  being  cut  off,  as  an  encumbrance,  left 


the  r 


r  for 


the  head;  which  cap,  being  afterward  assumed 
by  the  people,  those  of  the  gown  changed  it  for 
a  square  oncL  first  invented  by  a  Frenchman 
called  Patromlkt.  He  adds,  that  the  giving  of 
the  cap  to  the  students  in  the  university  was  to 
denote  that  they  had  acquired  full  liberty,  and 
were  no  longer  subject  to  the  rod  of  their 
aimeriors,  in  imitation  of  the  ancient  Romans, 
who  gave  a  pileits  to  their  slaves  in  the  cere- 
mony of  making  them  free :  whence  the  prov- 
erb vocare  servos  ad  pilnm:  hence,  also,  on 
medals,  the  cap  is  the  symbol  of  Liberty,  who 
is  represented  nolding  a  cap  in  the  right  hand 
by  the  point. 

Cap  of  Maintenance,  one  of  the  ornaments 
of  state  carried  before  th^  sovereigns  of  Eng- 
land on  the  occasion  of  their  coronation.  It  » 
also  applied  to  an  ornament  borne  before  the 
mayors  of  certain  cities  on  state  occasions,  and 
to  a  device  in  heraldry. 

In  ship-building  a  cap  is  a  sqilare  {Hece  of 
timber  having  two  holes  cut  through  it, —  one 
square,  to  fit  on  the  squared  or  tenon  head  of 
the  lower  mast;  the  other  roimd,  to  take  the 
heel  of  the  upper  mast.  Also  a  similar  con- 
trivance affixed  to  the  end  of  the  bowsprit, 
through  a  round  hole  in  which  the  jib-boom  is 
rigged;  and  a  covering  of  metal  or  tarred  can- 
vas to  protect  the  end  of  a  rope  from  fraying. 

In  mining  a  mass  of  unproductive  rock 
overlying  valuable  ore.  In  coal  mining,  the 
bluish  halo  of  ignited  gas  which  appears  above 
and  around  the  flame  of  a  safety-lamp  when  a 
dangerous  amount  of  fire-damp  is  present.  In 
physical  geography  a  similar  mass,  as  of  ice 
overlying  the  surface  of  a  country;  as,  the  ice- 
cap of  Greenland.  The  word  is  also  used  in 
carpentnf,  in  book-bin^ng,  in  maclunery  and 
in  omitfcoloKy  to  denote  coverings  for  protec- 
tion. The  term  as  lued  in  military  parlance  is 
percussion  cap,  a  small  copper  cup  containing 
fulminating  powder,  used  m  a  percussion  lock 
to  explode  gunpowder. 


CAPANEUS,     one    of     seven 
hen>es  who  warred  agaitut  Thebes, 
Jupiter. 


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CAP-A-PIB— CAPE  CATOCHE 


CAP.A-PIE,  kSp'a-pe'  (O.  Fr.  it  ea(  A 
pit;  Uod.  Fr.  dt  pitd  en  cap),  a  term  signify- 
ing from  head  to  foot,  and  used  with  reference 
to  a  complete  suit  of  annor  coverii^;  the  body 
of  a  knight  at  all  points;  aa,  'fie  was  armed 
cap-i-pie  for  the  encounter.' 

CAPE  ANN,  Mass.,  the  southeast  point  of 
the  town  of  Gloucester,  Mass.,  31  miles  from 
Boston,  the  northern  limit  of  Massachusetts 
Bay;  in  lat.  42'  Sff  N..  and  long.  70*  34'  W. 
The  whole  of  the  rocky  peninsula  forming  this 
part  of  Gloucester  is  also  called  Cape  Ann, 
.including  the  village  of  Squam  in  its  north- 
eastern part.  This  peninsula  is  a  headland  of 
syenite,  which  forms  low  hills,  over  the  sur- 
face of  which  the  rock  is  very  generally  ex- 
posed to  view.  It  projects  about  10  miles  into 
the  Atlantic  Oceaa  Valuable  quarries  of  syen- 
ite for  building  purposes  are  worked  most  con- 
veniently for  shipment.  The  place  is  much  ex- 
posed to  the  prevalent  northeast  storms;  but 
It  offers  a  small,  well-sheltered  harbor  among 
the  rocks,  where  coasting  vessels  often  take 
refuge.  There  are  on  the  shores  of  this  harbor 
two  fixed  li^is  about  165  feet  above  mean 
high  water,  and  visible  for  19  nautical  miles; 
there  is  also  a  10-inch  steam  fog  whistle.  The 
south  and  cast    shores  have   many 


CAPE  ANN  SBTTLBUBNT,  the  first 
within  the  limits  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  ter- 
ritory. In  1622  the  New  England  Company, 
to  push  the  settlement  of  its  grant  and  give  it 
some    value,    divided    the    land    in    several^ 


_    t  for  it  in  1634  to  Robert  Cu^hman  and 

Eoward  Winslow  of  the  Plymouth  colony. 
Th^  found  some  Elnglish  hunters  and  fishers 
who   had   been    there    since    the   year    before; 


amicably;  but  shortly  after  a  London  vessel 
which  had  taken  up  the  quarrel  of  the  firebrand. 
Rev.  John  Lyfortt  seized  the  Plymouth  men's 
fishing  stage.  Miles  Standish  came  up  from 
Plymouth  to  settle  the  trouble  by  force,  but 
against  his  wish  the  settlement  compromised 
the  matter  1^  the  crew  a^eeing  to  build  them 
another  stage.  In  1624  Winslow  s  company  sold 
the  site  of  Gloucester  to  the  "Dorchester  Ad- 
venturers," an  unincorporated  EJiglish  joint- 
stock  company  recently  formed.  These  had 
anticipated  the  bargain  by  sending  out  a  band 
of  settlers  the  fall  before,  with  live  stock,  im- 
plements, etCj,  and  they  made  Thomas  Gardner 
overseer.  The  attempt  was  unsuccessful,  and 
in  1625  the  Dorchester  company  engaged  Roger 
Conant,  then  at  Nantasket  with  Lyford,  to  be 
governor,  Lyford  to  be  minister.  Bui  the  next 
year  the  'Adventurers*  dissolved,  and  most  of 
the  settlers  went  home;  the  few  remaintnK  ones, 
however,  removed  to  "Nahumkeike*  (Naum- 
keag),  where  they  founded  Salem. 

CAPE  ARAGO,  or  OREOORY.  a  cape  on 
the  western  coast  of  Oregon,  on  the  south  of 
Coos  Bay  in  Coos  County.  Its  hothouse, 
which  is  on  a  small  island,  is  at  lat.  4r  a/  38^ 
N..  and  long.  124°  22*  11'  W.,  and  shows  a 
while,  flashing  light  84  feet  above  sea-level. 

CAPE  or  POINT  BARROW.  See  Bai- 
Bow,  Cape  «  Point. 


CAPS  BLANCO,  Afrka.  See  Bianco^ 
Cafe. 

CAPS  BLANCO,  Ore.,  a  cape  fonninK 
the  most  western  point  of  the  State,  situated  in 
lat.  «*  Sty  N.,  and  long.  124'  37*  W.  It  has  a 
lighthouse  with  a  white  fixed  li^t  256  feet 
above  sea-level. 

CAPE  BOEO,  b<i-a'6,  or  ULIBKO.  the 
ancient  Lilybmim  Promontorium,  a  cape,  on  the 
western  coast  of  SiciW,  one  mile  from  Marsala 
It  is  the  point  of  Sicily  nearest  to  ancient  Car- 
thage, and  at  an  early  period  became  an  import- 
ant naval  station.  The  naval  victory  of  the 
Romans  over  the  Cartha^nians,  whiai  put  an 
end  to  the  first  Punic  War,  was  gained  near 
this  point. 

CAPS  BOJADOR,  bdj-4-dor'.  See  Boja- 
Doi,  Cape. 

CAPE  BON,  or  RAS  ADDER,  a  hesdhmd 
of  Tunis,  on  the  Mediterranean,  fontiing  the 
norUierrimost  point  of  Africa,  in  laL  37*  6'  N. 
and  long.  11°  3'  E.,  and  a  few  miles  north  of 
the  town  of  Kalibia. 

CAPE  BRETON,  bret'iin,  Canada,  an 
island  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  separated 
from  Nova  Scotia,  to  which  province  it  be- 
longs, by  the  narrow  gut  or  strait  of  Canso; 
area  3,120  square  miles;  length  about  110  miles. 
It  is  of  veiy  irregular  shape,  the  Bras  d'Or,  an 
almost  landlocked  arm  of  tne  sea  (with  most 
picturesque  scenery),  penetrating  its  interior  in 
various  directions,  and  dividing  it  into  two 
peninsulas  connected  by  an  isthmus,  across 
which  a  canal  has  been  cut.  The  surface  b 
rather  rugged,  and  only  small  portions  are 
suited  for  agriculture;  but  it  possesses  mnch 
timber.  The  chief  towns  are  Sydney  and 
Arichat 

Hie  mineral  deposits  are  very  rich ;  iron  and 
copper  ore  is  abundant,  and  over  400  square 
miles  is  underlaid  with  seam  upon  seam  of  valu- 
able bituminous  coal.  The  Ddminion  Steel  Cor- 
poration had  in  1912  over  10,000  men  on  its 
pay  roll  in  and  about  the  mines  in  Cape  Breton 
discovered  W  John  Cabot  in  1497,  and  ori^nally 
part  of  the  French  possession  of  Acadia;  it  was 
captured  by  the  New  Englanders  in  1745,  retro- 
ceded  under  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la -Chapel le  in 
1748  and  became  a  British  possession  under  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763.  It  was  governed  as  a 
separate  province  from  1784  to  1820.  It  is 
divided  into  four  counties,  ftichmond,  Inver- 
ness, Victoria  and  Cape  Breton. 

CAPE  CANAVERAL,  a  ca^e  on  the  east- 
cm  coast  of  Florida,  in  laL  28°  a'  N.  and  long. 
80°  33'  W.  There  are  dangerous  shoals  at  this 
point,  and  navigation  is  protected  by  a  revolv- 
ing light  137  feet  above  sea-level  and  a  coast 
signal  station. 

CAPE  CANSO,  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Nova  Scotia,  at  the  southern  entrance  of  Cheda- 
bucto  Bay,  in  lat  45°  19.5'  N.  and  long.  60° 
55' W. 

CAPE  CARTHAGE,  a  headland  on  the 
northeast  coast  of  Tunis,  jutting  out  into  the 
Mediterranean.  Traces  of  the  ancient  ciw  of 
Carthage  are  found  on  it  to  the  north  of  the 
Tunis  lagoon. 

CAPE  CATOCHE,  ka-to'chl,  a  headland 
at  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the  peninsula 
of  Yucatan,  Centra)  Amerka,  in  lat  21°  34'  N. 


=v  Google 


CAPE  CHARLES —CAPB  FAKEWBLl. 


and  long.  86°  57'  W.  It  is  die  northeast  ex- 
tremity of  the  Mexican  state  of  Yucatan.  It 
was  here  that  the  Spaniards  first  landed  on  the 
Mexican  coast  in  1517. 

CAPE  CHARLES,  a  cape  at  the  northent 
entrance  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  forming  the 
southern  extremity  of  Nortliwnpton  County, 
Va..  in  lat.  37°  7'  N.  and  long.  75°  53'  W. 
Northeast  of  it,  on  Smith's  Island,  is  a  first- 
order  lighthouse  with  a  revolving  white  li^t, 
signaling  45"  every  minute  and  is  180  feet  above 
mean  high  water. 

CAPE  CITY.    See  Cape  May,  N.  J. 

CAPE  CLEAR,  a  headland  {orming  the 
southernmost  extremity  of  Ireland,  in  lat.  51° 
26'  N.  and  long.  9°  2ff  W.  It  is  on  an  island 
of  1,506  acres,  with  a  lighthouse  on  an  abrupt 
cliff  455  feet  hioji.  Fasinet  Rock,  with  a  light 
148  feet  above  high  water,  is  distant  three  and 
one-half  miles  to  the  southwest.  These  are 
generally  the  first  points  of  land  seen  by  trans- 
atlantic voyagers  eastward  bound. 

CAPS  COAST  CASTLE,  a  town  and  fort 
of  western  Africa  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  in 
the  British  colony  of  the  Gold  Coast,  in  laL 
5°  5'  N.  and  long.  1°  13'  W.  The  pUce  lies  in 
a  chasm,  and  is  defended  by  the  great  castle 
near  the  water's  edge,  and  by  three  small  forts 
on  the  hills  behind,  one  of  which  serves  as  a 
Hothouse  and  signal  station.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  3  few  houses  for  Europeans,  the  town 
consists  of  straggling  lines  of  mud  huts,  widi 
clusters  of  palm-trees  andao  occa^nal  tama- 
rind attached.  It  is  a  principal  mart  for  native 
trade.     It  is  connected  by  telegraph  with  Accra 


bulch  to  the  English  in  1665,  and  from  1672 
was  possessed  by  several  British  African  com- 
panies till  1843,  when  it  was  taken  over  by  the 
British  government.  Fop.,  mainly  Fantis  (1911) 
11,364. 

CAPE  COD,  a  cape  and  peninsula  on  the 
coast  of  Massachusetts,  on  the  south  side  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  forming  the  county  of 
Barnstable ;  lat.  of  the  cape  42°  3'  N  long.  70° 
15'  W.  The  peninsula  is  65  miles  in  length  and 
fiom  1  to  20  in  breadth,  and  is  in  the  form  of 
a  man's  arm,  bent  inward  both  at  the  elbow 
and  the  wrist.  Though  mostly  sandy  and  bar- 
ren, it  is  nevertheless  populous ;  and  the  inhab- 
itants derive  their  subsistence  chiefly  from  the 
sea.  The  best  harbor  on  the  peninsula  is  at 
Provincetown.  There  is  a  lighthouse  known  as 
the  Highland  Light,  on  the  northeast  shore,  and 
one  at  Race  Pomt  almost  directly  west  of  the 
former.  The  navigation  around  the  cape  is 
peculiarly  baffling  and  hazardous,  and  the  saving 
to  commerce  and  human  life  resulting  from 
the  short-cut  waterway  will  undoubtedly  be  very 
great.  A  proposition  to  cut  a  canal  from  Buz- 
zard's Bay  to  Barnstable  Bay  dates  from  the 
early  part  of  the  17th  century,  but  nothing  was 
actually  done  until  1878,  when  a  charter  was 
granted  by  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts,  a 
company  was  formed  and  work  begun.  A  new 
charter  was  granted  in  1906,  the  canal  was  be- 
gun in  1909  and  completed  in  1914.  The  Old 
Colony  division  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
&  Hartford  Railroad  extends  throu^  the 
peninsula.     The  cape  was  discovered  15  May 


1602  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  who  gave  it  its 
name  from  having  taken  a  great  guanti^  of 
codfish  near  it.     In  1620  the  Pilgnms  of  the  - 
Mayfiovier  made  a  temporary  landing  at  the 
site  now  occupied  by  Provincetown, 

CAPE  COLONNA.    See  Suniuu. 

CAPS  COMORIN,  kfim'o'rln,  the  most 
Eoudiem  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Deccan, 
British  India,  in  lat.  8*  S'  N.  and  long. 
77°  37*  E.  forming  a  circular,  low,  sandy 
point,  which  is  not  discernible  above  the  dis- 
tance of  12  to  16  miles  from  the  deck  of  a 
large  ship.  Ei^teen  miles  north  from  the  cape 
is  a  bold  summit  called  Comorin  Peak,  the  south- 
ern termination  of  the  western  Ghauts,  which 
has,  from  a  distance,  been  often  taken  for  the 
cape  itMlf.  Within  a  short  distance  of  the 
cape  lies  a  rocky  islet,  hifth  above  water;  and 
about  three  miles  from  this  islet  are  a  fort  and 
a  village,  a  few  fishermen's  houses,  a  church 
and  some  ancient  temples,  being  the  remains  of 
the  once  famous  town  of  Cape  Comorin. 

CAPE  DIAMOND,  Canada,  the  extremity 
of  an  abrupt  promontory  in  the  province  of 
Quebec  at  the  junction  of  the  Saint  Charles 
and  Saint  Lawrence  rivers.  On  the  promon- 
toiy  stands  the  citadel  of  Quebec,  and  on  the 
west  and  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  ramparts 
lie  the  Plains  of  Abraham.  It  rises  precipi- 
tously over  300  feet  from  the  river  level.  Here 
was'  gairted  in  1755  the  memorable  victory  bv 
the  English  under  Wolfe,  over  the  FrcncD 
imder  Montcalm. 

CAPE  DISAPPOINTMENT,  or  CAPE 
HANCOCK,  Wash.,  a  cape  et  the  north  side  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Cohunbia  River,  forming 
the  southwest  point  of  the  State  of  Washing- 
ton, in  laL  46'  16'  N.  and  long.  124°  3'  W. 
There  is  a  lighthouae  at  this  point  with  a 
flashing  lig^t  233  feet  above  sea-level. 

CAPE  DUCATO,  doo-ka'to,  the  southern 
extremity  of  Santa  Maura,  one  of  the  Ionian 
islands.  It  is  identical  with  the  ancient  protn- 
ontory  of  Leu  cadi  a,  comm'only  called  the 
Lovers  Leap,  or  Sappho's  Leap.  The  famous 
Greek  poetess,  according  to  an  ancient  tradi- 
tion, threw  herself  from  the  top  of  this  prom- 
ontory. It  lies  in  lat.  38°  34'  N.  and  long. 
20°  32'  E.  The  strong  currents  which  sweep 
around  the  cape  and  Uie  frequent  fierce  gales 
render  it  a  dread  t 


jecting  into  Casco  Bay,  between  Portland  hu- 
bor  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  in  lat.  43°  33'  N. 
and  long.  70°  11'  W.  The  coast  is  rocky,  made 
up  of  ledges  of  talcose  slate,  traversed  by  dikes 
of  trap.  There  are  two  lighthouses  on  the  . 
outer  point,  which  stand  300  yards  apart,  the 
lights  being  140  feet  above  the  sea. 

CAPE  DE  B8PICHBL  (probably  the  an- 
cient BarhatiMm  Pronumtorium),  a  cape  on 
the  western  coast  of  Porti^al,  121  mite  south- 
west of  Lisbon.  It  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea, 
and  is  crowned  by  a  small  chapel  and  a  Itght- 

CAPE  FAREWELL,  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Greenland,  at  the  eastern  entrance  to 
Ettvis  Strait.  A  strong  current  sets  around 
this  cape,  and  continues  north  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  strait.  On  account  of  the  ice  and 
the  current  the  cape  is  seldom  visited. 


=,  Google 


CAPE.  PABO  — CAPE  OF  OOOD  HOPS 


CAPE  PAKO,  fa'rfl,  the  northeast  txtitm- 
1^  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  known  to  the  an- 
cients as  Pelorns.  It  is  at  the  narrowest  part 
of  the  stnit  of  Messina,  opposite  the  rock  of 
Scylla  on  the  coast  of  Italy. 

CAPE  FEAR,  the  sonth  point  of  Smith's 
Island,  near  the  mouth  of  Cape  Fear  River, 
N.  C,  in  lat,  33°  3S'  N.  and  long.  TT  57'  W. 
About  one  mile  from  the  shore  stands  Bald 
-  Head  lighthouse.  Navigation  of  the  surround- 
ing waters  is  attended  by  many  dangers. 

CAPE  PEAK  RIVER,  a  river  of  North 
Carolina ;  navigable  for  steamboats  for  150 
miles  from  its  mouth  to  Fayetlevillc.  Its 
length,  including  one  of  the  head  branches,  is 
about  300  miles.  Formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Deep  South  and  Cape  Pear  rivers,  its 
course  is  generally  southeast  till  it  reaches  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  This  is  the  lareest  and  most 
important  river  which  Ues  wholly  within  the 
State.  Rice  growing  is  an  important  industiy 
along  its  lower  region, 

CAPE  FINISTERRE,  fln-Is-tir',  (Lat 
'  finis  terra,  land's  end),  the  westernmost  point  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Corunna,  extending 
southwest  into  the  Atlantic,  in  lat  42"  54'  N. 
and  bng.  9*  21'  W.  Several  naval  battles 
were  fought  off  this  cape,  of  which  the  most 
important  were  the  victories  of  the  English 
over  the  French,  3  May  1747  and  22  July  1805. 

CAPE  FLATTERY,  the  most  westerly 
point  of  the  State  of  Washington  and  of  the 
United  States,  excluding  Alaska,  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  in  lat. 
48°  23'  N.  and  long.  124°  44'  W.    On  the  island 


CAPE  FLORIDA,  the  southern  extremity 
of  Bisca^e  Key  off  the  southeast  coast  of 
Florida,  m  Dade  County,  at  the  north  entrance 
to  Bisca>iie  Bay,  in  lat.  25*  39"  N.  and  long.  80° 
9'  W.  "There  is  a  lighthouse  on  the  shoals  o^ 
posttc  this  point  It  has  a  fijced  red  beacon 
light. 

CAPE  FOULWEATHER,  a  cape  project- 
ing into  the  Faciiic  Ocean  from  the  coast  of 
Oregon,  in  lat.  44°  50'  N.  and  long.  124*  5'  W. 

CAPE  POX,  or  LALANDE'S  DOG,  a 

Kculiar  canine  animal  (Olocyon  lalandU),  dif- 
ring  from  other  dogs  principally  in  the  pos- 
session of  an  additional  molar  in  each  jaw. 
Other  characters  in  the  Structure  of  the  jaw 
and  dentition  suggest  that  Olocyoit  is  a  per- 
sistent creodont-like  form  which  has  developed 
from  a  primittve  arctoid  stock  in  a  direction 
curiously  parallel  to  that  of  the  true  dogs.  No 
■  other  mammal  outside  the  marsupial  order  ever 
has  four  molar  teeth  in  both  jaws,  and  this  may 
indicate  a  still  more  remote  marsupial  ances- 
try, liiis  wild  dog  is  generatlly  found  in  open 
countiy,  dwelling  among  small  busbei  in  pairs, 
exceedingly  shy,  and  not  gathering  into  packs. 
It  is  rather  smaller  than  a  fox  and  resembles 
a  fennec  in  having  enormous  ears  and  a  thick 


limbs  nearly  black. 

CAPE  FRIO,  fre'6  (Port.  Cabo  Frio,  "cold 
cape°),  a  promontory  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  in 
the  state  of  Rio  dc  Janeiro.  It  forms  the  ter- 
minus of  a  range  of  mountains  running  parallel 


to  the  coast,  and  consists  of  a  huge  oval  mass 
of  granite.    There  is  a  lighthouse  at  this  point 

CAPE  FROWARD,  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  continent  of  South  America,  lying  north- 
west of  Cape  Horn  in  lat  53'  53'  S.  and  long. 
71°  18'  W.  It  is  a  bold  promontory  of  da^ 
slaty  rock. 

CAPE  QASPfi.    See  Gasp! 

CAPE  DE  OAT  A,  gi't),  a  prcxnontory  of 
Spain,  on  the  coast  of  Granada,  150  miles  east 
of  Gibraltar,  24  miles  in  circuit  and  13  miles 
broad.     It  was  formerly  a  resort  of  Moorish 

CAPE  GIRARDEAU,  ie-rar-d5',  Ho.,  a 
dty  of  Cape  Girardeau  County,  on  the  Misss- 
sippi  River  and  on  the  Cape  Girardeau  and 
Northern  Railroad  and  the  Frisco  Lines,  150 
miles  southeast  of  Saint  Louis.  It  is  a  well- 
cultivated  region  and  has  a  large  commerce,  by 
river  and  railroad,  in  lumber,  fiour,  limestone 
and  mineral  paints.  There  are  also  manufac- 
tories of  Portland  cement,  shoes,  bentwood, 
bricks,  tobacco,  washtubs,  veneer,  threshing 
machines,  beer,  etc  The  United  States  census 
of  manufactures  for  1914  recorded  42  in- 
dustrial establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 1,397  persons,  of  whom  1,259  were 
wage  earners^  receiving  annually  $607,000 
in  wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated 
$3,074,000,  and  the  year's  production  was 
valued  at  $3,888,000;  of  this  $1,532,000  was 
the  value  added  by  manufacture.  The  no- 
table institutions  include  Saint  Vincent's 
College  and  Academy,  the  Sontheast  Mis- 
souri State  Norma!  School,  Saint  Francis 
Hospital  and  the  Loretto  Convent  The  gov- 
ernment is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected 
biennially,  and  a  dty  council.    Pop.  10;033. 

CAPE  OP  OOOD  HOPE,  a  province  in 
the  Union  of  South  AfricSL  formerly  Cape 
Colony,  is  situated  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
Africa,  washed  on  the  west,  south  and  east  by 
the  ocean  and  having  on  the  north  and  north- 
east the  German  territory  of  Great  Namaqua- 
land,  the  British  territory  of  Bechuanaland, 
Orange  Free  State  province,  Basutoland  and 
the  province  of  Natal.  A  considerable  portion 
of  tne  boundary  on  the  north  is  formed  by  the 
Orange  River.  The  colony  extends  about  450 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  600  from  east 
to  west;  the  coast  line  is  about  1,300  miles. 
The  area  is  276,000  square  miles.  The  prindpal 
indentations  of  the  coast  are  Saint  Helena, 
Saldanha^  Table,  False,  Walker,  Mossd,  Plet- 
tenberg,  Saint  Francis  and  Algoa  bays. 

In  the  interior  almost  every  variety  of  soil 
and  surface  is  found,  but  a  great  part  of  the 
colony  is  arid  and  uninviting  in  appearance. 
Several  ranges  of  mountains,  runniiw  nearly 
parallel  to  the  southern  coast,  divide  the  coun- 
try into  successive  terraces,  rising  as  they  re- 
cede into  the  interior,  between  which  lie  belts 
of  fertile  land,  or  vast  treeless  and  barren- 
looking  plains.  One  of  these,  called  the  Great 
Karoo,  IS  300  miles  long  and  100  broad,  and 
presents  a  desolate  appearance,  having  a  dry 
and  often  baked  soil,  with  small  shrubby  plants 
scattered  over  it.  Yet  these  plains  make  val- 
uable sheep-walks,  the  flocks  thriving  exceed- 
ingly well  upon  the  scanty  v^etadon ;  and  the 
soil,  where  water  can  be  obtained  by  collecting 
the  rain,  is  generally  very  fertile.    Large  rescr^ 


d=,  Google 


CAPS  OF  GOOD  HOPS 


S45 


TOirs  have  been  constructed  in  many  places,  and 
permanent  homesteads  established  where  for- 
merly flocks  could  only  be  nuintained  for  a 
month  or  six  weeks  at  a  time.  The  principal 
and  farthest  inland  mountain  terrace  averages 
6^000  or  7,000  feet  in  height,  and,  commenc- 
ing in  Namaqualand,  nms  eastward  under  the 
names  of  Roggeveld,  Nieuwveld,  SnecuwhcF' 
^en,  Stormbergen,  etc.,  to  the  northeast  fron- 
tier. The  cuMtiinatine  point  is  the  Compass 
Berg,  over  8,000  feet  high.  The  Table  Moun- 
tain at  Cape  Town  is  a  stupendous  mass  of 
naked  rock,  rising  almost  perpendicularly,  about 
3,S85  feet  in  hel^t.  The  colony  is  deficient  in 
nvers,  though  in  this  respect  the  eastern  half  is 
more  favored  than  the  western.  The  Orange 
River  is  the  largest  in  this  part  of  Africa,  but 
is  of  Kttle  or  no  use  for  navigation.  Others  are 
the  EJephants  or  Olifants  River,  flowing  into 
the  Atlantic:  the  Gauritx,  Gamtoos,  Great  Fish, 
Sunday  and  Great  KeL  emptying  themselves 
into  the  sea  on  the  south  and  souflieast. 

The  most  valuable  mineral  product  is  dia- 
monds ;  copper  ore  is  largely  exported,  coal  is 
mined,  and  iron  ore,  gold,  amethysts,  agates, 
etc.,  are  found.    The  bulk  of  the  diamonds  that 
come   into  the  markets  of   the  world  in  the 
roi^li  state  are  now  obtained  from  Cape  Col- 
ony.    The  great  mining  centre  is  Kimberley, 
in  the  far  north  of  the  colony,  about  10  miles 
from  the  Vaal  River,  and  near  the  frontier  of 
the  Orange  River  Colony.    So  far  as  is  known, 
the   first  of   the  South  African  diamonds  was 
casually  picked  up  in  1367,  and  soon  after  sev- 
eral others  were  founiL^  including  a  fine  large 
stone   known   as   the   "Star  of   South  Africa.* 
By  the  early  part  of  1S70  so  many  diamonds 
had  been  found  that  a  rush  of  people  to  the 
diamond  lUstrict  began  to  take  place,  and  the 
banks   of   the  Vaal  were   soon  covered  with 
thousands  of   diners.     At  first  the  precious 
stones  were  found  on  or  near  the  surface,  but 
subsequently  it  was  discovered  that  they  were 
to  be  found  deeper  down,  and  latterly  they  have 
been  obtained  many  huildreds  of  feet  below  the 
surface,   great   open  excavations   having  been 
made  at  tne  locaUties  where  th^  are  plentiful. 
The  richest  nunc  has  been  the  lumberley  mine, 
situated  in  the  centre  of  the  town  of  the  same 
naiii^    which   sprang   up   around    it.      For   the 
first  hundred  feet  in  depth  the  diamonds  were 
found    embedded  in  a  soft,   friable,  yellowish 
earth ;  below  that  the  soil  changed  to  a  slaty- 
blue  color,  and  was  of  a  firmer  consistency,  and 
the    diggers  then  thought  that  the  bottom  of 
the   mine  had  been  reached.     It  was  soon  dis' 
covered,  however,  that  the  blue  ground  yielded 
as  many  diamonds  as  the  yellow,  if  not  more, 
and   this  productivity  has  still  continued.     An- 
other famous  mine  is  the  De  Beers  mine.    Both 
these  mines  have  yielded  a  remarkable  number 
of   large  stones,  tnit  a  great  many  of  the  dia- 
monds   have  been  ■off-color,*  that  is,  yellow, 
spotted    or    otherwise    defective   in    water   or 
lustre.     One  of  the  finest  vet  found  in  South 
Africa    is   the    •Porter    Rhodes,*    a   beautiful 
stone  «reighing  150  carats,  and  valued  at  $300,' 
000.     One  much  larger,  a  yellow  stone,  weigh- 
ing 30Z  carats,  was  found  in  1884,  and  a  still 
larger,  weighing  428^  carats,  ^^^  found  in  the 
De    Beers  mine  in    1888.     The  largest  in  the 
world,    weighing  971    carats,   but   with  a   larp 
flaw,  ivas  found  in  the  Orange  Free  State  in 
1893.      Although  mining  operadons  have  been 

VOL,  S—3S 


carried  on  at  great  expense,  owii%  to  the  depths 
to  which  the  workings  have  been  sunk  (some 
600  feet  or  more),  the  profits  of  the  companies 
which  latterly  have  owned  the  mines  have  been 
enormous.  The  rough  work  has  been  done 
almost  entirely  by  the  native  Africans,  of 
whom  10^000  or  11,000  have  been  in  employment 
in  the  mmes  at  one  time.  Very  stringent  regu- 
lations have  liad  to  be  enforced  to  prevent 
theft  of  the  precious  stones,  and  also  illicit 
dealing  in  stones  unlawfully  acquired. 

The  climate  is  very  healthy  and  generally 
pleasant,  thou^  in  summer  the  heat  is  great  in 


of  the  dry  and  elevated  inland  distri< 
sidered  remarkably  suitable  for  persons  of  con- 
sumptive tendency,  and  many  have  been  at- 
tracted to  the  colony  on  this  account. 

Except  along  the  coast  line,  especially  the 
southeast  coast  district,  where  diere  are  exten- 
sive forests,  timber  is  scarce.  There  are  up- 
ward of  a  hundred  difierent  kinds  of  woooa. 
however;  many  of  them  extensively  employed 
for  such  purposes  as  house>buildin|;,  wagon- 
maldn^  and  furniture-  and  cabinet-work. 
With  irrigation,  trees  can  be  grown  anywhere 
The  aloe  and  the  myrtle  attain  a  great  sUe 

The  quadrupeds  of  the  province  comprise 
the  African  elephant,  still  found  in  the  forests 
of  the  south  coast  region ;  the  buffalo,  equally 
restricted  in  locaUty;  the  leopard,  jackal,  hyena, 
numerous  antelopes,  baboon,  aardvark,  etc 
Lions,  at  one  time  numerous,  are  not  now  to  be 
met  with  in  the  colony,  nor  is  the  giraffe.  The 
birds  include  vultures,  esfiles  and  other  Rap- 
lores  (tile  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the 
serpent-cater),  pelicans,  flamingoes,  and  most 
important  of  all,  the  ostrich,  now  bred  as  a  do- 
mestic aninul  for  the  sake  of  its  feathers,  those 
plucked  from  an  adult  bird  in  a  season  being 
sometimes  worth  from  $50  to  $90.  Other  na- 
tive animals  are  large  snakes,  the  venomous 
cobra  di  capelto  and  scorpion.  Along  the 
coast  whales  and  seals  abound,  and  salt-  and 
fresh-water  fish  are  plentiful. 

The  province  is  better  adapted  for  pasturage 
than  for  agriculture,  but  wheat,  maiie  and  other 
cereals  can  be  grown  almost  everywhere,  the 
only  drawback  to  their  cultivation  being  the 
want  of  moisture  in  certain  localities  and  in 
certain  seasons.  In  some  years  a  surplus  of 
grain  is  left  for  exportation ;  in  others  grain 
has  to  be  imported.  All  kinds  of  European 
vegetables  ana  pot-herbs,  and  all  the  fruits  of 
temperate  climates,  such  as  apples,  pears,  plums, 
peaches,  melons,  apricots,  walnuts,  almond& 
oranges,  limes,  etc,  thnve  excellently,  ana 
fruits,  dried  and  preserved,  are  exported.  The 
vine  is  cultivated  and  some  excellent  wines 
(notably  those  of  Coostantia)  are  made.  The 
colony  ts  said  to  be  particularly  well  suited  for 
grape-culture,  and  Uie  vines  produce  heavier 
crops  than  are  known  almost  anywhere  els& 
Viticulture,  it  is  believed,  is  yet  only  in  its  in- 
fancy, though  there  are  67,000,000  vine-stodcs. 
The  colonial  government  had  up  to  the  end  of 
1911  aHenate<f  140.000;000  acres. 

Sheep- raising  is  the  most  important  indtis- 
tty,  ana  wool  tne  chief  export  (although  sur- 
passed in  value  by  diamonds).  The  amount  of 
this  article  exported  to  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1913  was  9^813,330  pounds.  Most  attention  is 
now  devoted  to  the  breeding  o ' 


.Google 


CAPE  DE  GRI8NXZ— CAPS  UATTBRAS 


di«  conaequence  bdng  a  gnat  improvement  in 
the  wool.  Goats  are  also  bred,  both  the  na- 
tive and  the  Angora,  and  the  export  of  goati' 
wool  or  hair  to  Great  Britain  was  valued  at 
H600.000  (1913).  Cattle-breeding  is  carried  on 
to  some  extent,  especially  along  the  coasts  and 
in  the  eastern  and  northern  districts. 

There  are  no  manufactures  of  any  import- 
ance, and  consequently  the  imparts  consist 
largely  of  manufactured  goods,  chiefly  from 
Great  Britain.  The  exports  to  the  United 
Kingdom  (1913)  totaled  $47,00CyX)OO,  and  the 
Imports  (British  and  foreign)  to  nearly  $60^- 
000,000.  The  export  of  diamonds  in  the  same 
year  was  over  $60,00(^000.  This  industry  suf- 
fered great  disorganization  during  die  European 
War.  The  other  exports  of  importance  be- 
sides wool,  are  ostrich  feathers,  copper  ore, 
skins  and  hides.  There  arc  3,813  mllei  of  rail- 
way in  operation.  Lighthouses  have  been  built 
round  the  coast  and  harbor  works  constructed. 

The  coinage  is  that  of  Great  Britain,  as  are 
also  the  weights  and  measures,  except  that  for 
land,  the  morgetf=^.U6  acres  is  emploved. 

On  31  May  1910  the  colony,  under  tne  name 
of  the  province  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
was  merged  in  the  Union  of  South  Afnca 
(q.v,). 

The  European  population  consists  in  part  of 
English,  Scottish  and  Irish  settlers  and  thdf 
descendants,  but  the  majority  is  of  Dutch 
origin  (see  Boesb),  with  a  considerable  number 
of  German  origin.  The  colored  people  are 
chiefly  Hottentots,  Kaffirs,  Beclroanas,  Basatos, 
Gmiuas,  Malays  and  a  mixed  race,  the  off-, 
spring  of  black  women  and  white  fathers.  The 
laborers  are  chiefly  Hottentots  and  Kaffirs. 
The  prejudices  and  ill  feeling  once  subsisting 
between  the  different  nationalities  of  which  the 
|)opu1ation  is  made  up  are  now  fast  disappear- 
ttig.  Education  is  advancing,  thou^  it  is  not 
compulsory.  The  returns  show  a  steady  in- 
crease in  the  numbers  of  children  of  all  classe* 
receiving  instruction.  For  the  higher  education 
there  arc  seven  colleges,  besides  a  university 
(at  Cape  Town)  incorporated  in  1873.  The 
collets  have  each  a  staff  of  instructors  in 
classics,  mathematics,  science,  etc.,  but  the  nol- 
versity  is  merely  an  examining  and  degree- 
conferring  institution.  The  religious  bodies  in 
the  colony  with  the  greatest  number  of  adher- 
ents are  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  the 
Chutt^h  of  England,  the  Methodist  Indei>end- 
ents  and  Presbyterians,  in  the  order  here  given. 
There  is  no  Established  Church, 

The  chief  towns  of  the  colony  ranking  after 
Cape  Town  are  Port  Elizabeth  and  Kimberley 


Bartholomew  Diaz  in  1486^  and  irmnded  I^ 
Vasco  da  Gama  in  1497,  but  wss  first  colonitea 
by  the  Dutch  under  Van  Riebeek  in  16S2.  Re- 
ducing the  Hottentot  inhabitants  to  slavery,  or 
driving  them  beyond  the  mountains,  they  ex- 
tended the  Cape  settlement  over  a  pretty  large 
area.  But  the  colony  was  under  the  rule  of 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  and  owii^  to 
their  restrictive  regulations,  made  very  slow 
progress.  It  was  captured  by  the  British  in 
1795,  restored  at  the  Peace  of  Amiens  (1802), 
and  again  taken  in  1806^  Sir  David  Baira  being 
sent  at  the  head  of  an  expedition  to  take  pos- 
sossion  of  it,  and  so  prevent  it  from  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  French.    From  this  time 


it  has  remained  in  tbx  possession  of  the  British, 
to  whom  it  was  formally  bssigned  in  1815, 
along  with  Dutch  Guiana,  Holland  receiving  in 
return  i6,000,000.  It  now  began  to  advance  in 
prosperity,  but  the  progress  of  the  colony  was 
greatly  retarded  by  the  Kafhr  wars  of  1834, 
1846  and  1851-53.  SubiequenUy  the  area  of 
the  colony  was  greUly  enlarffed  by  the  s 


Griqualand  West  (1876) ;  Kaffraria  proper,  . 
the  Transkeian  districts  (Translcci  proper, 
(iriqnaland    East  and   Tembuland),    including 


early  the  whole  of  the  region  between  the  Kei 
and  the  Natal  border  (1875-30);  Pondoland 
(18H)),  and  part  of  Bechuanaland  (1915). 
Pop.  C19U)  2,564,965,  of  which  582^77  were 
Europeans.     See  South  AnucA,  Union  op. 

CAPE  DB  ORISNSZ.  grE-nl',  a  headland 
of  France  in  the  department  of  Pas-de- Calais, 
the  nearest  point  of  the  French  coast  to  Great 
Britain.    It  nas  a  revolving  light  195  feet  high. 

CAPE  GUARDAFUr,  gwar-di-foo-e*,  or 
OARDAFUI,  a  cape  on  the  east  coast  of 
Africa  in  Italian  Somaliland,  situated  in  lat. 
11°  SO'  N.  and  long.  51*  16^  E.  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Gulf  of  Aden. 

CAPE  DE  LA  HAGUE,  hag  (written 
also,  but  less  correctly.  La  Rogue),  a  headland 
of  Normandy,  France,  opposite  the  island  of 
Aldemey,  20  miles  northwest  of  Cherbourg,  and 
farming  the  northwestern  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  Cotentin,  in  the  English  Channel. 
It  is  often  confounded  with  Fort  La  Hogue  or 
La  Hougue,  on  the  opposite  side  of  Cotentin. 
Near  this  latter  promonton'  the  united  English 
and  Dutch  fleets  defeated  the  French,  19-24 
Uay  1692. 

CAPE  HAITIEN,  a-C-te'iii,  or  CAPE 
HAYTIKN,  Haiti,  a  town  on  the  north  coast 
of  the  island.  It  was  fonnerly  known  as  Cap 
Fran^ai^  Le  Cap  or  Guarico,  the  latter  being 
the  native  name.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor. 
The  town  is  welt  laid  out  and  has  the 
appearance  of  the  older  European  towns. 
Before  the  earthquake  in  1842  it  was 
known  as  'Little  Paris,*  but  as  most  of  the 
white  settlers  did  not  rebuild,  the  town  has  not 
recovered  since.  During  the  French  occupation, 
Capt  Haitien  was  the  capital  of  the  island.  It 
was  bombarded  bjr  the  Ei^ish  in  1865.  The 
commerce  is  very  important,  and  the  chief  ex- 
ports are  doifee,  logwood,  cacao,  hides  and 
noney.  In  1913  the  exports  from  Cape  Haitien 
amounted  to  $1,254,407 ;  in  1915  they  amounted 
to  only  $352,418,  the  shrinkage  being  due  to  the 
hampering  of  commercial  activity  ty  the  war 
in  Europe ;  the  imports  in  the  same  years 
amounted  to  $1,194,453  and  $560,881  respec- 
tively.   Pop,  about  30.000. 

CAPE  HATTERAS,  the  easternmost  point 


broad  bay  called  Pamlico  Sound.  South  of  the 
capes  of  the  Delaware,  no  land  stretches  so  far 
out  into  the  Atlantic  as  Cape  Hatteras.  The 
Gulf  Stream,  in  its  eastern  and  western  vibiv 
tions,  often  flows  within  20  miles  of  the  caK 
crowding  toward  the  shore  coasting  vessels 
bound  south.  The  difference  of  temperature 
between  the  hot  airs  of  the  Gulf  and  dw 
breeies  along  shoxe  and  ima  tbe  land  eaBender 


vGoogIc 


CAPS  HBNLOPEN  — CAPB  NBDDOCK 


fiir 


frequent  commotions  in  the  atmosphere  at  this 

flace  1  and  no  point  on  the  coast  is  more  noted 
ar  its  frequent  and  dangerons  storms.  A  light- 
house b  kept  a  little  over  a  mile  north  of  the 
outermost  CK»nt.  Also  about  three-quarters  of 
a  mile  souin  a  fixed  white  beacon  light  is  placed 
about  35  feet  above  sea-level. 

CAPK  HXNLOPBN,  a  cape  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Delaware  at  the  soura  side  of  the  «!• 
trance  of  Delaware  Bay,  in  lat.  38°  4^  N.,  and 
long.  75'  5'  W.  It  is  13  miles  south  of  Cape 
May,  on  the  opposing  New  Jersey  shore.  Ta« 
Cape  Henlopen  lipht,  126  feet  above  sea-level, 
is  a  &zed  white  lii^t. 

CAPE  HBNRY,  a  cape  on  die  court  of 
Vireinia  at  the  southern  entrance  of  Oiesft' 
peike  Bay  in  lat.  36°  56'  N.  and  lonff.  K"  1'  W^ 
opposite  Cape  Charles.  It  has  a  fixed  white 
li{^t  with  fixed  red  sector  between  south- sonttf 
east  and  southwest  by  west  157  feet  ^lore  the 
level  of  die  sea.  Cape  Henry  has  also  a  lif«- 
samng  station. 

CAPS  HORN,  the  southern  extremity  of 
an  island  of  the  same  teme,  fonainK  the  most 
southerly  point  of  South  America.  It  is  a  pr»^ 
dpitons  headland,  500  to  600  feet  high,  and  run- 
mng  far  into  the  sea.  Sailing  vessels  often  en- 
counter dangerous  tempests  in  passine  round 
the  Horn;  steamers  generally  pass  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan.  The  cape  was  first  doubled 
in  1616  by  the  navigator  Schouten,  a  native  of 
Hooni,  Holland,  whence  its  name.  It  is  sit- 
uated tn  lat.  55^  SP"  S.  and  long.  6r  16'  W. 
The  climate  is  perennially  Antarctic. 

CAPE  HUNTING-DOG,  a  wild  do^  of 
Africa  (Lyctton  pictiu),  which  ie  placed  in  a 
separate  genus  because  It  differs  from  all  other 
dogs  in  having  only  four  toes  on  each  lim)^  in 
lacking  one  pair  of  molars  in  the  upper  jaw  and 
in  certain  other  features.  It  resembles  a  hy- 
sena  in  form,  and  is  yellowish-gray,  with  irreg- 
ular, black  markings.  It  hunts  in  packs  and  is 
one  of  the  enemies  most  dreadea  by  all  the 
African  antelopes.  Since  the  decrease  of  this, 
its  natural  game,  it  has  played  havoc  with 
domestic  cattle  and  sheep,  ana  is  tdtled  off  by 
the  settlers  wherever  found.  It  is  fast  becom- 
'  ig  rare  Consult  Ingersoll,  'The  Manunals' 
New  York  1906). 

CAPE  ISLAND  CITT.  See  Cape  Mat, 
N.  ;. 

CAPB  JUBT,  Africa,  a  barren,  sandy  pro- 
jection into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  67  miles  due 
east  from  the  island  of  Fuerteventura  of  the 
Canary  group.  It  is  part  of  the  section  of  the 
western  Sahara  whicli  extends  alon^  the  At- 
lantic  Coast  between  the  Mogador  district  and 
Rio  de  Oro.  Water  is  very  scarce  on  the 
cape,  but  is  obtained  in  the  ravines  by  sinking 
wells.  The  interior  supports  great  numbers  of 
sheep  and  produces  large  crops  of  wheat,  bar- 
ley and  corn.  The  ocean  fisheries  at  this  point 
are  abundant,  and  most  of  the  catch  is  mar- 
keted in  the  Canary  Islands.  There  is  a  monthly 
steamship  service  between  Cape  Juhy  and  Santa 
Cruz  de  Tcneriffe,  A  wireless  station  was 
erected  on  the  cape  in  1916i  thus  estabHshing 
communication  with  the  large  station  on  Tene- 
riSe,  and  through  this,  with  the  Spanish  main- 
land. 

CAPK  LINGUETTA,  lln-gwet't*,  a  head- 
fauid   of  Janina,    Greece,  2,290  feet  nigh.     It 


T^^ 


forms  the  tenttinatiaa  of  the  Chimara,  or 
Acroceraunian  Mountains  and  bounds  the  east 
entrance  into  tlie  Adriatic  at  the  Strait  of 
Otranto. 

CAPB  LOOKOUT,  a  cape  situated  on  an 
island  off  the  southeast  coast  of  North  Carolina, 
in  lat.  34°  37'  N.  and  long.  76°  31'  W.  There 
is  a  lighthouse  with  fixed  while  light  at  a 
height  of  156  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  63  miles 
southwest  of  Cape  Hatteras  and  12  miles  south- 
east of  Beaufort 

CAPB  LOPATKA,  the  southern  extremity 
of  Kamchatka.  At  the  northern  part  of  the 
headland  is  a  mountain,  bearing  the  same  name, 
whence  the  land  gradually  slopes  and  narrow* 
until  it  terminates  in  a  low  and  barren  tongut 

CAPE  LOPEZ,  I6'p&th,  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa.  It  is  situated  in  lat.  0°  36'  S. 
and  long.  8°  44'  E. 

CAPE  HATAPAN,  ma-t^-pan',  a  promon- 
tory of  Greece,  forming  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Ae  Peloponnesus,  in  lat.  36°  23'  N.  and 
long.  22°  29*  E.  The  name  Tanamm,  or  Pro- 
moniorium  Tanarium,  was  applied  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  headland,  and  to  toe  small  penin- 
sula north  of  it,  connected  with  the  great  Tay- 


CAPB  MAY,  N.  }.,  a  dty  and  watering 

Elace  in  tht  southern  part  of  Cape  May  County, 
Bving  good  railroad  and  water  communica- 
tion. It  has  a  fine  beach  and  is  very  popular 
as  a  seaside  resort,  providing  accommodations 
in  hotels  and  boaroing-houses  for  guests  10 
times  exceeding  in  number  the  permanent  in^ 


habitants.  The  industries  include  fislunK,  c 
ning,  oyster  raising,  gold  beating  and^  s; 
washing.    Its  harbor  has  an  area  of  500  acres 


^-   average   depth   of   35    feet     It   is   the 

only  port  of  refuge  south  of  Sandy  Hook  on 
the  New  Jersev  coast  and  is  the  scene  of  many 
important  yachting  events.  The  government 
is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  for  three 
}rears,  and  a  city  council.  The  place  is  some- 
times called  Cape  Oty  or  Ope  Island  City. 
Pop.  3,000. 


miles  south  of  Philadelphia,  and  11  miles  north 
of  Cape  City,  or  Cape  May,  on  the  Atlantic 
Gty,  and  Pennsylvania  railroads.  Glass  blow- 
ing, fishing  and  agriculture  are  among  its  chief 
industries.  It  contains  two  churches  and  a 
penitentiary.    Pop.  1,300. 

CAPE  HAY  POINT,  the  southern  ex- 
tremity  of  New  Jersey,  at  the  northern  entrance 
to  Delaware  Bay,  situated  in  Cape  May  County, 
in  lat.  38°  56'  N.  and  long.  74°  ^  W.  It  has  a 
revolving  hght  about  160  feet  above  sea-leveL 

CAPB  MENDOCINO,  men-do-se'no,  the 
westernmost  point  of  the  coast  of  California, 
DTOjecting  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  lat.  40°  26' 
N.  and  long.  124°  25'  W.  It  has  a  very  high 
lighthouse,  422  feet  above  sea-level,  with  a 
flashing  light. 

CAPB  NBDDOCK,  Me.,  a  promontory 
35  miles  southwest  of  Portland,  with  a  light- 
bouse  on  Goat  Island  near  it,  containing  a 
fixed  light,  33  feet  above  the  sea. 


=v  Google 


CAPS  NOME— CAPE  TOWN 


CAPS  HOHS,  njtei,  a  cape  on  the  south 
coast  of  the  peninsular  projection  of  Alasla 
which  separates  Kotzebuc  Sound  on  the  north 
from  Bering  Sea  on  the  south.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  cape  is  a  remarlcably  rich  gold  mining 
region.  The  Nome  district  as  settled  centres 
about  the  lower  course  of  the  Snake  River, 
an  exceedingly  tortuous  stream  in  its  tundra 
course,  which  emerees  from  a  badly  degraded 
line  of  limestone,  slaty  and  schistose  mountain 
spurs,  generally  not  over  700  to  1,200  feet  ele- 
vation, but  backed  1^  loftier  granitic  heights, 
and  discharges  into  the  sea  at  a  position  13 
miles  west  of  Cape  Nome  oroper. 

The  first  discovery  of  gold  was  made  in 
September  1806^  but  it  was  not  until  July  1899 
that  the  beach  gold  was  discovered  In  the 
middle  of  October  following,  Name  City  had 
5,000  inhabiunts  all  living  in  tents  on  the  hith- 
erto barren  shore.  For  a  time  it  appeared  as 
if  this  region  would  rival  in  richness  the  fa- 
mous Klondike  district,  but  this  anticipation 
has  not  been  realized. 

CAPE  NORTH,  the  northeast  jpoint  of 
Cap«  Breton,  east  of  Saint  Lawrence  B^y,  pro- 
jecting into  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence. 

CAPE  NORTH,  northernmost  protnon- 
tory  of  Europe.    See  Ntnm  Cape. 

CAPE  NUN,  noon,  a  headland  on  the 
west  coast  of  Morocco,  extending  into  die  sea 
at  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  Atlas 
range,  in  lat-  28°  45'  N.  and  long..  11°  5'  W. 

CAPE  OKTEGAL,  Ar-ti-gal',  a  rugged 
promontory  forming  the  northern  extremity  of 
Spain,  Extending  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  in 
lat.  43°  45*  N.  and  long  7'  SS  W.  The  coast 
at  this  point  is  barren  and  rugged 

CAPS  PALHAS,  a  cape  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa,  siluated  in  the  southern  part 
of  Liberia,  m  lat.  4°  22*  N.  and  long.  7'  44'^W. 
in  1834  the  Maryland  colony  of  free  colored 
emigrants  settled  on  this  point. 

CAPE  PETREL,  or  CAPE  PIGEON,  & 
Urge  petrel  {Daptxon  capensii),  about  the  size 
of  a  pigeon,  exceedingly  numerous  about  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  Southern  Ocean.  Consult 
Milne- Edwards,  A,  in  'Annales  des  sciences 
naturelles'  for  1882. 

CAPE  PILLAR,  a  hirii  mass  of  rocks  ter- 
minating in  two  tower-shaped  cliffs  on  the 
northwest  coast  of  Desolation  Island,  at  the 
southwest  entrance  from  the  Pacific  Ocean 
into  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

CAPE  POGB,  a  cape  on  the  coast  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  lat,  41°  25'  N.  and  long.  70*  26' 
W.  It  is  the  extreme  northeast  point  of  the 
Martha's  Vineyard  Island  group.  It  has  a 
lighthouse  with  a  flashin);  white  and  red,  every 
third  flash  red,  light,  with  five  seconds  interval. 

CAPE  PRINCE  OF  WALES,  a  promon- 
tory on  Bering  Sea,  the  most  northwest  point 
of  North  America.  It  terminates  in  a  peaked 
mountain,  presenting  a  bold  face  to  the  seL 
and  is  a  dangerous  point  on  account  of  a  shoal 
which   stretches   to   the   northeast.     It  lies  op- 

g)site    East    Cape    on    the    coast    of    Siberia, 
ering  Strait  between  the  two  is  the  narrowest 
water  between  America  and  Asia, 


of  the  coast  make  navigation  hazardous.     _ 
British  government  maintains  a  li^t  here. 

CAPE  RIVER,  or  RIO  DE  SEGOVIA, 
known  also  as  Coco  or  Wanks,  a  river  of  Nica- 
ragua.  Central  America,  which  after  a  gen- 
erally northeast  course  of  nearly  300  rmles  en- 
ters the  Caribbean  Sea  at  Cape  Gracias  k  Dios. 
It  is  navigable  for  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  sea,  but  the  upper  part  of  its  course  is  ob- 
structed by  cataracts  and  shallows.  It  forms 
part  of  the  boundary  between  Honduras  and 
Nicaragua. 


CAPS  ROHAIN,  a  low  and  barren  point 
of  land,  with  a  li^thousc^  37  mites  nortoeast 
of  Charleston,  S.  r 


CAPS  SABLE,  the  name  of  two  capes  in 
North  America:  (1)  The  southernmost  point 
of  the  mainland  of  the  United  States  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  Florida,  in  lat  25'  8*  N.  and  long. 
81°  Vr^N.  (2)  A  point  at  the  southwest  ex- 
tremity of  Nova  Scotia,  in  lat.  43°  23'  N_  and 
long.  65'  37'  W. 

CAPE  SAINT  ROQUB,  ro'kS,  SAN 
ROQUB,  or  SAO  ROQUS,  a  cape  on  the 
east  coast  of  Brazil,  in  lat  5°  29*  S.  and  loag. 
35'  14'  W. 

CAPE  SAINT  VINCENT,  a  headland  at 
the  southwestern  extremity  of  Portugal,  in  lat 
37°  3*  N.  and  long,  8*  58'  W.  Off  tins  cape,  14 
Feb.  1797,  an  English  naval  force,  consisting 
of  IS  ships  of  the  line,  under  Admiral  Jervis, 
defeated  a  superior  Spanish  fleet  This  point 
was  known  to  the  ancients  as  PromonioHum 

CAPE  SAN  ANTONIO,  sin  an-t5'ne-5. 
the  name  of  two  capes:  (1)  A  high,  barren 
and  preciintous  headland,  on  the  coast  of  Va- 
lencia, Sfain,  opposite  the  island  of  Iviza.  On 
its  summit  are  a  convent,  a  watch  tower  and 
several  windmills.  (2)  A  lofty  and  nearly 
perpendicular  promonotoiy,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  in  the  province  of  Buenos 
Aires,  Argentina. 

CAPE  SAN  BLAS,  san  bla.  a  low  point 
of  land,  about  two  miles  long,  on  the  south 
coast  of  western  Florida,  in  Calhoun  County, 
123  miles  east-southeast  of  Pensacola.  It  lies 
between  San  Bias  Bay  and  Saint  Joseph's  Bay. 
It  has  a  revolving  light  98  feet  above  sea-levcL 

CAPE  SAN  LUCAS,  loo'kis.  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California 
Mexico,  in  lat.  22^  44'  N.  and  long.  109°  54'  W. 

CAPE  SPARTIVENTO,  the  andenl 
HercttUs  Promontoriitm.a  promontory  of  south- 
eastern Italy,  forming  the  aoutbeastern  extrem- 
iw  of  Calabria,  in  lat.  37°  57'  N.  and  long.  16° 
5'^E. 

CAPS  OP  STORMS.  See  Cape  op  Good 
Hope. 

CAPE  TINDARO,  tln-da'ro,  a  headland 
of  Sicily,  near  Falcone,  extending  into  the 
Gulf  of  Patti.  The  remains  of  the  andeot 
Tyndaris  are  in  its  neighborhood 

CAPE  TOWN,  Africa,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  the  UiuMi 
of  South  Africa  and  the  seat  of  the  legislature 
under  the  Union,  is  situated  In  die  midst  of 
stnildng  scenery,  rather  more  than  30  oules 
from  die  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  at  the  bead  of 


,  Google 


CAPE  TRAFALGAR — C  APBL 


Table  Bay,  which  opens  into  the  Atlantic  on 
the  northwest,  and  at  the  foot  of  Table  Moun- 
tain. It  was  founded  by  Johaiin  van  lUebeck 
in  1652,  on  behalf  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  It  is  regularly  laid  out  and  has 
some  good  streets,  with  well-built  business 
premises  and  other  buildings,  and  is  furnished 
with  most  of  the  institutions  and  conveniences 
of  a.  European  town  including  tramways). 
The  electric  lighting  ana  water  supply  are  m 
the  hands  of  tiac  corporation.  The  finest  edi- 
fice is  that  which  accommodates  the  legisla- 
ture,  a  hatidsome  structure  of  modem  erec- 
tion i  another  good  edifice  is  that  containing 
the  public  Ubrary  (40,000  volumes)  and  mu- 
seum built  in  the  Roman-Coriothisn  s^le.  The 
Standard  Bank  of  South  Africa  occupies  hand- 
some premises.  Other  buildings  are  the  gov- 
ernment house,  the  courts  and  government  of- 
fices, the  town  hous^  the  gallery  of  fine  arts, 
the  railway  station,  the  post-office,  the  exchange^ 
etc.  The  best  ecclesiastical  building  is  Uic 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  -  there  is  also  an 
English  Episcopal  cathedral  and  Dutch.  Pres- 

Sterian,  Lutheran,  Independent  and  Methodist 
urches.  There  is  a  well -equipped  college 
the  South  African  College,  which  trains  stu- 
dents for  the  degrees  of  the  Cape  University, 
which  is  merely  an  examining  body.  There  are 
beautiful  botanic  or  government  gardens  in  die 


brated  institution  supported  by  Imperial  funds. 
The  port  has  been  provided  with  an  extensive 
breakwater  inside  of  which  ships  can  safely 
ride  at  anchor  protected  from  the  northwest 
gale*;  and  Hiere  are  two  docks  16  acres  in 
area^  an  outer  harbor  of  62  acres,  a  large 
Sraviiw  dock,  etc.    The  net  tonnage  cleared  m 

1912  was  3,979,527  tons.  The  pofnilaticm  is  very 
mixed,  a  large  nirniber  consisting  of  colored 
people  of  negro  or  other  African  descent.    In 

1913  a  number  of  contiguous  municipalities 
were  incorporated  within  the  boundaries  of 
Cape  Town,  the  population  of  which  was  then 
composed  of  81,600  Europeans  and  73,623  col- 
ored persons  and  the  valuation  nearly  $110,- 

ooo,ooa 

CAPE  TRAFALGAR,  trit-^-mr.  or  tri- 
fil'^r,  a  headland  on  the  coast  of  (Sdiz,  Spain. 
It  IS  memorable  for  the  naval  battle  fought 
near  it,  2)  Oct.  1805,  between  the  English  under 
Nelson  and  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and 
Spain.  The  English  gained  a  complete  victory, 
though  with  the  loss  of  their  commander. 
It  was  known  to  (he  Romans  as  Promontorimm 
Junonis. 

CAFE  VERDE,  the  most  westerly  head- 
land of  Africa,  in  Senegal,  jutting  out  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  between  the  rivers  Gambia  and 
Senegal,  in  lat  14°  43'  N.  and  long.  17*  34'  W. 
It  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  navigator, 
Fernandez,  in  1445,  and  is  said  to  have  derived 
its  name  from  a  group  of  gigantic  baobab  trees 
adorning  its  summit  and  forming  a  green  patch 
on  the  white  coast. 

CAPE  VERDE  ISLANDS,  a  ^oup  of 
islands  west  of  Africa,  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
so  called  from  Cape  Verde,  opposite  to  which 
they  are  situated,  320  miles  west  of  Cape  Verde, 
ana  between  lat.  15°  and  18°  N.  ancl  between 
long.  22°  and  25'  W.  They  belong  to  Portugal 
As  to  their  number,  some  redcon  10,  others  14 


or  more,  by  giving  tibe  name  of  islands  to 
masses  which  are  only  rocks.  The  10  princiial 
islands  are  Sao  Thiago,  Fogo,  Brava,  Maio, 
Boa  vista,  Sio  Nicolao,  Santo  Ant5o,  Sao 
Vicente,  Santa  Luzia  and  Sal.  The  total  area 
of  the  group  is  1,516  square  miles.  They  are,  in 
general,  mountainous.  The  island  of  Fogo,  one 
of  the  group,  consists  of  one  single  mountain, 
a  volcano,  sometimes  active,  about  10,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Some  of  the  islands 
are  very  bare-  in  others  the  lower  hills  are  cov- 
ered with  a  iwautiful  verdure,  as  well  as  the 
valleys  between;  but  there  is  little  water,  ex- 
cept what  is  found  in  ponds  and  wells.  Long 
droughts   have  occurred,  sometimes   causing 

Ereat  loss  of  life.  The  climate  is  hot  and  tm- 
ealthy  in  most  of  the  islands.  The  soil  is,  for 
the  most  part,  not  very  fertile ;  nevertheless 
some  parts  produce  sugar,  coffee,  rice,  tobacco, 
maize,  etc,  with  bananas,  lemons,  oranges, 
citrons,  grates  and  other  fruits.  European  do- 
mestic animals  abound  and  thrive  well.  Marine 
tnrtles  are  plnitiful.  The  ports  of  the  ardii- 
pelago  were  visited  in  1913  by  1,696  merchant 
vessels  of  &,]36,784  tons,  besides  coasting  trade. 
In  1914  the  imports  were  valued  at  $2,306,610; 
the  exports  in  the  same  year  were  valued  at 
$332739.  The  total  population  amounted  to 
143,929  in  1912,  of  whom  4,799  were  while,  the 
rest  being  chiefiy  negroes.  The  chief  town  ii 
Praia  on  Sao  Thtago  (Santiago),  and  Porto 
Grande  on  Sio  Vicente  is  a  coaling  station  for 
steamers.  Salt  is  an  export  of  importance. 
Offee,  hides  and  physic-nuts  are  also  exported. 
There  is  a  resident  governor  at  Praia.  Consult 
Ellis,  'West  African  Islands'  (London  1885); 
Fea,  'Delle  Isole  del  Capo  Verde'  (Rome 
1899) ;  Lima,  'Rapport  sur  les  lies  du  C^p 
Vert*  (in  'Recueil  consulaire,'  Vol.  CX,  Brus- 
sels 1900). 

CAPS  WRATH,  a  pyramidal  promontoiy 
of  unrivaled  wildness  and  grandeur,  forming 
the  northwest  extremity  of  Scotland  and  run- 
ning out  into  the  Atlantic;  in  lat.  58°  38'  N.  and 
long.  4°  58*  5"  W.  It  presents  deep  fissures  and 
tall  pinnacles.  From  it  a  reef  of  rocks,  per- 
forated with  arches  and  caverns,  juts  out  into 
the  sea.  Off  the  cape  is  Stag  Rock,  a  pillar 
200  feet  high.  Cape  Wrath  is  525  feet  Ugh, 
and  there  is  a  li^tbouse  near  it,  400  feet  above 
the  sea,  visible  25  miles  off. 

CAPEFIGUE,  kap-feg,  Bapdste  Honort 
Raymond,  French  historian  and  journalist:  b. 
Marseilles  1802;  d.  Paris,  23  Dec.  1872.  He  en- 
tered tbc  field  of  journalism  and  contributed  li 


the  Foreign  Office,  holdinx  it  until  1S48.  He 
thus  had  access  to  various  documents  unknown 
or  closed  to  others.  He  was  a  prolific  writer, 
producing  about  100  volumes  of  history,  many 
being  biographies  of  famous  women.  They 
were  hastitr  written,  are  uncritical  and  tinged 
with  the  Bourbon  sympathies  of  the  author. 
His  most  important  contributions  to  historical 
science  are  Uie  'History  of  Philip  Augustus' 
(4  voh.,  1829)  ;  "History  of  the  Restoration 
and  of  the  Causes  that  Led  to  the  Fall  of  the 
Elder  Branch  of  the  House  of  Bourbon' 
(183]'33)  ;  <Histoire  de  la  reforme,  de  la  ligue, 
et  du   rigne  de  Henri  IV'    (8  vols..   1834-35). 

CAPBL,  Artbnr,  Lokd,  English  soldier;  b. 
about  1610;  d.  9  March  1649.    He  was  »»  of 


v  Google 


CAPBL  — CAPSN 


Sir  Henry  Capel;  was  raised  to  the  peerage  aa 
Lord  Capd,  of  Hadham,  by  Charles  1  in  1641. 
He  sat  for  Hertford  in  both  the  Short  Parlia- 
ment and  the  Long  Parliament,  and  took  sides 
with  the  popular  party  luider  Pym  in  demanding 
redress  of  various  grievances.  He  strongly  op- 
posed revolution,  however,  and  during  the  revo- 
lutionary war  he  fought  bravely  as  one  of  the 
royalist  generals  in  the  west  in  the  engagements 
at  Bristol,  Exeter  and  Taunton,  Having  been 
at  length  forced  to  surrender  at  Colchester  to 
Genera]  Fairfaji,  he  was  imprisoned  and,  after 
some  vicissitudes,  executed.  His  'Daily  Ob- 
servations or  Meditations^  was  published 
posthumously  with  a  memoir. 

CAPBL,  Arthur,  Viscount  Malden  and 
Earl  of  Essex,  English  statesman,  son  of  the 
preceding:  b.  January  1631;  d.  July  1663.  He 
fought  for  the  King  in  the  ciyil  war  and  on 
the  accession  of  Charles  II  was  appointed  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Hertfordshire.  In  1661  he  was 
created  Viscount  Maiden  and  Earl  of  E^sex 
and  appointed  Ambassador  to  Denmark  in  1670. 
He  served  as  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
1672-77,  and  was  for  a  few  months  in  1679 
head  of  the  treasury  commission.  He  opposed 
the  court  parhr  and  supported  the  Exclusion 
Bill.  Arrested  for  his  connection  with  the 
Monmouth  consjriracy  (1682)  he  was  sent  to 
die  Tower,  and  is  supposed  to  have  committed 
suicide  there. 

CAPBL,  ThomiB  John,  Monsignoh,  Eng- 
lish Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastic;  b.  London, 
28  Oct.  1836:  d  Sacramento,  CaL  24  Oct.  1911. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  I860. 
He  conducted  a  mission  for  English-speaking 
Catholics  at  Pau  1868-73,  and  was  given  the 
title  of  Monsignor  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  He  after- 
ward devoted  himself  to  education,  establish- 
ing a  Roman  Catholic  public  school  at  Ken- 
sington in  1873  and  auiieved  celebrity  a»  a 
Sreacher  and  proselytiier.  He  came  to  the 
^nited  States  in  1883,  and  after  a  lecture  tour 
settled  to  private  life  in  California.  He  is  the 
author  of  'The  Holy  Catfiolic  Church';  'Con- 
fession'; 'The  Name  Catholic';  'The  Pope 
the  Head  of  the  Church.'  He  is  the  original 
Monsignor  Catcsby  in  Disraeli's   'Lothair.' 

CAPEL,  or  CAPLK,  a  term  used  by 
miners  to  mdicate  the  wall  of  a  lode,  espe- 
cially in  a  tin  or  copper  mine.  It  is  generally 
of  quartr,  black  tourmalin  and  hornblende.  The 
capels  sometimes  contain  sufficient  metallic 
particles  to  make  it  worth  while  to  work  them. 
In  tficse  cases  th^  may  be  considered  as  form- 
ing part  of  the  lode.  The  word  *cab*  is  an 
equivalent  used  by  Cornish  miners.  In  the 
United  States,   "casing*  is  nearly  synonymous. 

CAPBLINS,  or  CAPBLLINB,  a  small 
piece  of  armor,  consisting  of  a  skull  cap  of 
iron,  worn  in  tne  Middle  Ages  by  light  armed 
men  such  as  archers. 

CAPBLL,  Edward,  English  Shakespearean 
scholar:  h.  Throston,  SuffoUc,  1713;  d.  London, 
24  Feb.  1781.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge; 
he  was  deputy  inspector  of  jrfays  after  1737 
and  devoted  his  life  to  the  study  of  Shakes- 
peare. He  transcribed  this  author's  plays  10 
times.  He  collated  the  quartos  and  the  first 
two  folios  with  greater  care  than  any  previous 
editor.  He  published  'Prolusions  or  Select 
Pieces  of  Ancient  Poetry*  <1760) ;  'Mr.  Wil- 


liam Shakcspceroi,  His  Comedies,  Histories, 
and  Tragedies'  (10  vols.,  1768);  'Notes  and 
Various  Readings  of  Shakespeare'  (1783); 
and  'The  School  of  Shakespeare.* 

CAPBLLA,  Mutianiu  Mineas  F^x, 
Latin  writer  probably  of  the  5th  century;  b. 
probably  in  Carthage,  Africa.  liis  extant  woik, 
'Satiricon,'  consists  of  nine  books,  the  first 
two  under  the  titlt^  *De  Nuptiis  Philologiac  et 
Mercurii,'  being  an  introductory  allegory, 
while  the  others  treat  of  grammar,  logic,  meta- 
physics, geometry,  arithmetic,  astronomy  and 
music  It  is  a  sort  of  encvdopafdia  and  was 
much  esteemed  in  the  Mid<ue  Ages.  His  state- 
ment of  the  heliocentric  system  of  astronomy 
in  the  ci^th  book  may  possiblv  have  given 
hints  to  Copernicus,  who  quotes  nim  occasion- 
ally. The  best  edition  is  that  of  Eyssenhardt 
(Leipzig  1886).  Consult  Teuffel,  'Geschichte 
der  romischen  Litteratur^  (6th  ed.,  Leipzig 
1911). 

CAPBLLA,  a  star  situated  in  the  constella- 
tion Auriga,  on  the  'Charioteers'  left  shoul- 
der. It  is  of  remarkable  brilliancy,  only  four 
stars  exceeding  it  in  that  respect.  Its  color  is 
nearly  that  of  solar  light.  It  is  one  of  Seccbi's 
solar  stars,  whose  spectra  closely  resemble  that 
of  the  sun,  being  ruled  with  dark  lines  due  to 
metallic  vapors.  Its  parallax,  determined  ty 
£]kin,  is  (r.08,  corresponding  to  a  distance 
nearly  26,000,000  times  the  distance  from  the 
earth  to  the  sun.  Its  lie^t  takes  about  40  years 
to  reach  us.  It  is  often  called  Capra.  In 
mytholoftr  Capella  was  Amalthea's  goat,  which 
suckled  Jupiter. 

CAPBLLINI,  ka-p£l'le'ne,  Giovaniii,  Ital- 
ian geologist  and  paleontologist:  b.  Spain.  13 


Aug.  1833.  He  studied  at  Pisa  and  trmveled 
widely.  In  1860  he  became  professor  at  Genoa, 
and  later  at  Bologna.    He  laa  emphasized  the 


importance  of  preibistoric  discoveries  which  re- 
lated archeology  to  palxontology  and  defended 
the  Darwinian  thmrv.  He  was  influential  in 
calling  the  International  Congress  of  Anthro- 
poltey  and  Prehistoric  Archaeology  in  1865. 
He  founded  in  Bok^^na  &  geolo^cal  musetun. 
His    publications    include    'Delfini    fossili    del 


and  'Armi  e  utensili  di  luetra  del  Bolognese' 
(1870). 

CAPBLLO,  ka-pel'ld,  Biwica.  Italian  ad- 
venturess: b.  Venice  1542;  d.  in  the  Castle 
Paggio  di  Capano,  U  Oct  1587.  In  1563  she 
doped  with  a  banker's  clerk  named  Pietro 
Buonaventuri,  who  put  himself  under  the  prtf- 
tection  of  Francesco  de  Medici  at  Florenet 
The  latter  made  Bianca  his  mistress  and  her 
husband  his  steward,  but  had  him  put  to  death 
in  1570,  and  after  the  death  of  his  wife,  Joanna 
of  Austria,  married  Bianca  in  1578.  She  and 
Francesco  are  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned 
by  his  brother  and  successor,    Cardinal  Per- 

CAPBN,  Elmer  Hewitt,  American  clergy- 
man  educator:  b.  Stougbton,  Mass.,  S  April 
1838;  d  Medford,  Mass.,  22  March  19C6.  He 
was  graduated  at  Tofts  College  in  1860,  and 
was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  legislature 
while  still  an  undergraudate,  1859.  After 
studying  at  the  Harvard  Law  School,  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1863  and  practised  at 


d=y  Google 


CAPJtM  — CAJWtS 


fiSl 


Stougbton  for  a  short  tiffle;  began  the  study  of 
tbeolosy.  was  ordained  paitor  of  the  Independ- 
ent Cnristian  Cburch  of  Gloucester  in  186S, 
held  p&storates  at  Saint  Paul,  Uinn.,  ana 
Provioencc,  K.  I.,  1865-75,  when  he  was  elected 
Itrcsident  of  TXifts  College,  a  position  he  held 
till  his  death.  His  administration  was  roost 
successful  in  cvny  way,  and  under  him  ihe 
institution  gicw  to  be  one  of  the  most  progres- 
sive of  American  coU^a.  His  collected  adi 
dresses  appeared,  entitled  'Occ^ional  Ad- 
dresses' 1x902).  Consult  Tombo,  A.,  <In 
Memoriam  E.  H.  Capen'   (New  Yort  1905). 

CAPEN,  Nahum,  American  historical 
writeri  b.  Canton,  Mass.,  I  April  1804;  d.  4 
Jan.  1886.  In  1825  he  began  business  in  Bos- 
ton as  a  publisher,  with  the  firm  of  Marsh, 
Ca^>ea  and  Lyon.  He  was  among  the  first  to 
ablate  the  matter  of  an  international  co^y- 
n^ht,  his  memorial  to  Congress  on  the  subject 
being  one  of  the  first  presented  to  that  body; 
a  letter  of  his,  printed  by  the  Senate,  led  to  die 
organization  of  the  census  bureau  at  Washing- 
ton and  as  postmaster  of  Boston  in  1857-61,  be 
established  the  custom  of  collecting  letters 
frotn  street  bo:xes.  He  contributed  to  the  press 
inany  articles  on  history  and  political  economy. 
He  edited  a  translation  of  the  *Works  of  Dr. 
Gall'  (6  vols.)  ;  the  <Annals  of  Phrenology'  (2 
vols.);  'The  Writing  of  Hon.  Levi  Wood- 
bury, LL.D.>  and  *The  Massacfausetts  State 
Records'  from  1647  to  1851  (5  vols.).  He  pub- 
lished 'The  RejtubUc  of  the  United  States' 
(1848);  'Reminiscence  of  John  G.  Spurtbeim 
and  George  Combe*  and  a  'Review  of  the 
Science  of  Phrenology'  (1881).  He  left  an 
unfinished  ^History  of  Democracy'  (Vol.  I, 
1874). 

CAPENA  PORTA.  See  Caupvh  Sceleia- 
Tua. 

CAPER-BUSH,  a  shrub  of  the  genus  Cap- 
parts  of  the  family  Cafparidacea.  The  genus 
mcludes  about  ISO  species  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
distributed  throughout  the  warmer  regions  oi 
the  earth.  Capers  are  picldes  made  by  pre- 
serving the  flower  buds  of  C.  ipinosa,  a  strag- 
gling, spiny  shrub  of  die  Mediterranean 
region. 

CAPERCAILZIE,  kip-ir-kall.  CAPBR- 
CAILLIE,  or  CAILZIE,  ka'li,  a  readily  do- 
mesticated, polygamous  grouse  (Tetrao  uro- 
galluj),  about  the  size  of  a  turkey,  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  pine-covered  mountains 
of  Europe.  Formerly  it  inhabited  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  where  it  was  known  as  'blackcock,* 
but  it  was  entirely  extirpated  toward  the  end 
of  the  18th  century.  It  has  since,  however,  in 
small  nvunbers,  been  restored  to  Scotland  by 
stock  imported  from  Scandinavia.  The  ground 
color  of  ibe  cock  is  muddy  black,  spotted  with 
gray  and  brown;  quill  feathers  dark  brown; 
tail  feathers  nearly  black;  a  glossy  dark  green 
cfaest;  whiush  bill  and  a  small  patch  of  naked 
slcin  above  the  eye,  which  is  scarlet.  The  feet 
are  feathered  to  the  toes.  The  hen  and  young 
are  dark  brown,  covered  with  freckles  of  a 
lighter  shade ;  neck  and  cheat  yellowish  chest- 
nut, and  the  feathers  of  the  under  part  usually 
edged  with  white.  It  feeds  chiefly  upon  berries, 
seeds,  insects  and  the  young  shoots  of  the  pine 
and  other  trees,  which  give  its  flesh  a  delicate 
turpentine  flavor.  They  are  hunted  with  the  aid 
of    dogs,   which  "tree^    them,   when  they  are 


easily  shot  In  dte  early  spring;  at  the  approach 
of  me  breeding  season,  the  cocks  meet  at  an 
accustomed  place  to  give  the  hens  the  benefit 
of  their  annual  *dances,"  at  which  assemblies 
the  hens  seem  to  choose  their  mates  by  the 
amount  of  plumage,  color,  daring  and  extraor- 
dinary gestures  which  each  displays.  _On  such 
occasions  the  cock  is  oblivious  to  all  else  save 
the  winning  of  his  mate,  and  may  easily  be 
approached  and  killed.  Tne  female  bird  builds 
her  nest  on  the  ground  among  the  pines,  gen- 
erally laying  from  6  to  12  eggs,  tew  of  which 
reach  matunty,  owing  to  the  carelessness  of  the 
mother.  They  are  spotted  red  or  yellowish 
brown,  and  are  over  two  inches  long.  The 
bird  IS  readily  domesticated  if  it  has  the 
range  of  a  space  containing  a  few  pine  trees. 
Consult  Lloyd,  "Game  Birds  of  Sweden  and 
Norway'  (London  1867)  ;  Morris,  'British 
(jame  Birds'  (ib.  1891);  Darwin,  'Descent  of 
Man'  (2d  ed,  lb.  1874);  Millais,  'The  Nat- 
ural History  of  British  (jame  Birds'  (London 
1909). 

CAPERN,  Edward,  English  minor  poet; 
b.  Tiverton,  Devonshire,  21  Jan.  1819;  d.  1894. 
He  was  loi^  in  the  mail  service  in  his  native 
county,  and  was  often  styled  The  Postman 
Poet.*  The  poet  Landor,  attracted  by  the  verse 
of  Capcrn,  procured  him  a  pension  from  the 
civil  list.  His  published  works  include  'Poems 
by  the  Biddeford  Rural  Postman'  (I8S6) ; 
'Ballads  and  SorHs':  'Wayside  Warbles': 
'Sun-gleams  and  Shadow  Pearls.'  His  verse 
is  mamly  descriptive  of  Devon  life  and  char- 
acter and  a  number  of  his  lyrics  were  set  to 
music  by  the  poet  himself. 

CAPERNAUM,  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine 
on  the  west  or  northwest  side  of  the  Sea  of 
Tiberias.  Tlus  place  is  famous  in  Christian 
history,  because  Jesus  often  visited  it  during 
the  time  of  his  ministry,  and  in  its  vicinity  he 
delivered  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  Nothing 
of  the  city  now  remains. 

CAPERS,  Elliion,  American  Protestant 
Episco^l  bisbap:  b.  (Charleston,  S.  C,  14  Oct 
1237;  ±  Columbia,  S.  C,  22  April  1908.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  South  Carolina  Military 
Academy  1857,  and  was  a  professor  there 
1S58-60.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army, 
was  successively  major,  lieutenant-colonel  ana 
brigadier-general,  and  received  several  severe 
wounds.  He  was  secretary  of  State  of  South 
Carolina  in  1867-68,  then  entered  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  ministry,  and  was  rector  of  Christ 
Church,  Greenville,  S.  C,  for  20  years,  and  at 
Columbia,  S.  C,  for  six  years  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  elevation  to  the  episcopate. 
He  was  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  diocesan 
board  of  missions  1879-93  and  deputy  to  the 
general  conventions  of  1880,  1883,  1886.  In 
1893  he  was  consecrated  seventh  bishop  of 
South  Carolina,  succeeding  Bishop  Howe. 

CAPERS,  WilUun,  American  Methodist 
%iscopaI  bishop:  b.  South  Carolina  1790;  d. 
1855.  He  was  educated  at  South  Carolraa  Col- 
lege, became  an  itinerant  preacher  and  minis- 
tered to  the  Indians  in  Georgia  from  1821  to 
1824.  He  was  presiding  elder  in  Charleston 
for  four  years  and  for  a  short  time  was  editor 
of  the  IVesleyan  Journal,  later  merged  in  the 
New  York  Ckrislian  Advocate.  In  1837  he 
founded  and  edited  the  Southern  Christian  Ad' 
vacate.     He  also  did  missioBary  work  among 


:,  Google 


CAPKRS  — CAPBT 


CAPERS,  the  unopeaed  Sower-buds  of  a 
low  shrub  {Cafparis  spinoia),  which  grows 
from  tlie  crevices  of  rocks  and  walls  and 
among  rubbish  in  the  southern  parts  of  France, 
in  Italv  and  the  Levant.  The  stems  of  the 
^per-Susb  are  trailing  and  two  or  three  feet 
long.  In  the  south  of  France  the  caper-bush  is 
very  common.  It.  grows  wild  upon  the  walls 
of  Rome,  Siena  and  Florence,  and,  when 
trained  against  a  wall,  flourishes  even  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Paris.  It  was  introduced  into 
Great  Britain  as  an  exOlic  as  early  as  1596, 
Modem  horticulturist!  are  of  opinion  that  with 
care  it  might  be  raised  in  the  open  air  in  Eng- 
land, but  this  has  never  been  accomplished  to 
any  practical  extent.  It  is  cultivated  on  a  lar^ 
scale  between  Marseilles  and  Toulon  and  m 
many  parts  of  Italy.  In  northern  United 
States  It  is  propagated  by  cuttings  in  green- 
houses, but  is  grown  from  seed  in  the  South- 
em  States.  In  the  early  part  of  summer  it  be- 
gins to  flower,  and  the  flowers  continue  suc- 
cessively to  appear  until  the  commencement  of 
winter.  The  buds  are  picked  every  morning 
before  the  petals  are  expanded;  and  as  they  are 
gathered  they  are  put  into  vinegar  and  salt. 
When  a  sufHcient  quantity  is  collected  they  are 
distributed,  according  to  their  size,  into  dif- 
ferent vessels,  again  put  into  vinegar,  and  then 
packed  up  for  sale  and  exportation.  The  small- 
est capers  are  the  dearest,  simply  from  Uie  rea- 
son that  the^  are  more  troublesome  to  gather. 
This  pickle  is  much  used  in  sauce  for  boiled 
mutton.  To  persons  -unaccustomed  to  it  tbe 
taste  of  capers  is  unpleasantiv  sharp  and  bitter, 
but  after  a  little  while  the  palate  becomes  recon- 
ciled to  it.  Tbe  flower-buds  of  the  marsh- 
marigold  (_Callko  paluitris)  and  the  seeds  of 
nasturtiums  are  frequently  pickled  and  eaten 
as  a  substitute  for  capers.  The  bark  of  the 
root  of  the  caper  cut  mto  slices  and  dried  in 
small  rolls  or  quills  is  sometimes  used  in  medi- 
cine as  a  diuretic  and  in  cases  of  obstruction 
of  the  liver.  The  caper-tree  (Capparis 
/amaicentii)   is  found  in  tropical  America. 


County,  Va.  (now  West  Virginia),  21  Nov. 
1810;  d.  Washington  D.  C.  26  July  1876.  After 
attending  school  in  Huntsvitle,  Ala.,  and  enter- 
ing the  University  of  Virginia,  he  went  to  Yalt 
where  be  was  graduated  in  1832,  and  studied 
law  at  Staunton,  Va.  He  was  a  director  of  the 
James  River  and  Kanawha  Canal,  and  served 
in  both  houses  of  the  Virginia  legislature,  his 
last  term  in  the  senate  being  in  1859-60.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Const  it  utional  Convention 
of  1861,  and  opposed  secession  until  die  hwin- 
ning  of  hostilities.  He  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
federate States  Senate  in  1863,  and  served  till 


ginia  in  the  United  States  Senate  for  tbe  full 
term  beginning  4  March  18?S,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committees  on  claims,  railroads  and 
the  revision  of  the  laws.  After  the  close  of 
the  war  Caperton  took  an  active  part  in  bring- 
ing the  coal,  timber  and  graring  lands  of  West 
Vir^nia  to  the  notice  of  distant  capitalists. 


CAPERTON,  WilUam  Banks,  American 
naval  oSKer:  b.  Spring  Hill,  T«nn.,  30  June 
18S5.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  Stales 
Naval  Academy  in  1875.  Through  the  various 
grades  of  the  service  he  rose  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  in  18S9,  He  has  bad  over  23  years 
of  sea  service  and  about  19  years  of  shore  and 
other  duty.  He  has  seen  service  in  every  sea, 
and  has  snown  that  he  is  one  of  the  great  men 
of  the  United  States  navy.  He  was  an  officer 
on  board  the  Marietta  when  she  accompanied 
the  Oregon  in  her  funous  race  from  the  Pacific 
to  the  Atlantic  to  take  jtart  in  the  fight  with 
Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  in  tbe  Spanish  War. 
Previous  to  that  be  was  one  of  the  young 
American  naval  officers  who  were  sent  to  Paris 
to  the  Exposition  there  in  1878,  He  \vas  at  one 
time  assigned  to  duty  with  the  coast  and  geo- 
detic survey  and  served  as  an  officer  aboard  tbe 
Vettiviut.  He  was  in  command  of  the  naval 
Station  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  supervisor  of  the 
second  naval  district  1913-14.  He  was  named 
rear-admiral  in  1913  and  was  assigned  to  tbe 
command  of  tbe  cruiser  squadron  of  tbe  At- 
lantic fleet  in  1915,  In  1914-15  he  was  in  the 
Caribbean  trying  to  brips  peace  to  the  war- 
torn  republics  of  Hayti  and  San  Domingo. 
When  it  was  time  to  nght  he  showed  that  be 
was  a  fighter,  and  he  has  been  equally  proficient 
in  diplomacy.  He  brought  tbe  most  turbulent 
of  the  revoluttonaiy  leaders  at  least  to  make 
believe  they  liked  peace.  In  July  1916  he  was 
promoted  to  admiral  *for  vuuable  and  satis- 
factory service  in  Hayti  and  San  Domingo  and 
bis  efhctent  record  as  a  hidi  executive  cSicer.* 
On  29  July  1916  be  took  command  of  the 
Pacific  fleet,  succeeding  Admiral  Winslow. 

CAPES,  Bernard,  English  novelist  Hb 
works  include  'The  Lake  of  Wine'  (1898); 
'The  Adventures  of  the  Comte  de  la  Muette' 
(1896)  ;  'Our  Lady  of  Darkness' ;  <At  a  Win- 
ter's Fire'  (1899);  'From  Door  to  Door' 
(1900);  'loan  Brotherhood*  (1900);  'Love 
Gipsy>    (1901)j    'A  Castle  in   Spain' 


Like 


.    .         V""'/,        "     i_«jini     111     ^JV"" 

(1903) ;  'A  }ay  of  Italy>  (1905)  ;  <A  Rogue's 
Tra«edy>  (1906)  ;  'The  House  of  Many  Voices* 
(1911);  'The  Story  of  Fifine*  (1914);  <The 
Fabulists'    (1915). 

CAPBT,  ki-pa,  or  fcip'3.  the  name  of  the 
French  race  of  kings,  which  has  given  118  sov- 
ereigns to  Europe,  namely,  36  kings  of  France, 
22  kings  of  Portikal,  11  of  Naples  and  Sicily, 
5  of  Spain,  3  of  HiJngary,  3  emperors  of  Con- 
stantinople,  3  kings  of  Navarre,  17  dukes  of 
Burgundy,  12  dukes  of  Brittany,  2  dukes  of 
Lorraine  and  4  dukes  of  Parma.  The  history 
of  this  royal  race  is,  at  tbe  same  time,  the  his- 
toty  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Frendi 
monarchy.  The  fate  of  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting countries  and  nations  in  Europe  is  con- 
nected with  the  name  of  Capet.  After  having 
been  deprived  of  four  thrones,  and  again  re- 
stored to  them,  this  family  stood  forth  as  the 
first  and  most  ancient  support  of  the  European 
principle  of  political  le^^ttmacy,  that  divine 
right,  which  in  this  bouse  commenced  with 
treason.  Its  origin  is  remarkable.  Pepin  the 
Short,  the  father  of  Charlemagne  and  mayor  of 
the  palace  under  the  Merovingian  dynasty,  had 
displaced  that  royal  house  and  usurped  the 
throne  of  the  ancient  kin^  of  the  Franks, 
After  a  space  of  235  years  his  own  descendants, 
the  (^ilovingian  monarchs,  e:g)erienced  a  sia- 


.Google 


CAPGRAVS — CAPIAS 


ilar  fate  Under  the  last  Carlovingians,  desti- 
tute alike  of  energy  and  wisdom,  Hugh  the 
Great,  Duke  of  France  (by  whidi  was  then 
understood  the  Isle  of  France),  Orleans  and 
Burgundy,  exercised  a  power  as  unlimited  as 
that  of  the  mayor  of  the  palace  under  the 
Herovif^ans.  On  the  death  of  Louis  V,  with- 
out children,  in  967  his  uncle,  CharJcs,  Duke  of 
Lower  Lorraine,  laid  claim  to  the  throne,  which 
the  Franks  had  sworn  to  preserve  to  the  family 
of  Charlemagne.  The  French  nobility,  dis- 
gusted at  the  German  leanings  of  the  Carlovin- 
gians, whose  domains  and  influence  lay  in  the 
eastern  provinces,  preferred  that  a  member  of 
their  own  class,  whose  possessions  were  situ- 
ated in  the  centre  of  the  country,  and  whose 
power  was  so  great  as  to  outrival  that  of  the 
old  dynasty,  should  rule  over  them,  and  ac- 
cordingly chose  as  their  king  Hugh,  son  of 
liugfa  the  Great,  Duke  of  France  and  Count 
of  Paris,  and  had  the  support  of  the  Church 
in  their  favor.  The  valiant  Charles  of  Lor- 
raine was  surprised  in  Laon  by  the  treachery 
of  a  bishop  and  made  prisoner.  He  died  soon. 
afterward  in  prison,  and  his  son,  Otho,  Duke  oP 
Lower  Lorraine,  died  in  1006.  Both  his 
younger  brothers  died  childless  in  Germany. 
Thus  the  race  of  Capet  was  left  in  possession 
of  the  throne  of  France.  According  to  some 
historians,  Ifugh  Capet  was  descended  from  a 
Saxon  family.  He  married  a  German  princess, 
Adelaide,  daughter  of  King  Henry  I  of  Ger- 
many fEhike  of  Saxony).  Hugh  was  crowned 
at  Rheims,  and  swore  to  preserve  to  the  nation, 
and  particularly  to  the  powerful  feudal  nobili^ 
and  clergy,  all  their  existing  privileges.  Hugh 
and  the  succeeding  monarchs,  till  Louis  VII, 
took  the  precaution  to  have  their  successors 
invested  with  the  royal  title  during  their  own 
lifetime.  Thus  Hugh  had  his  son,  Robert,' 
crowned  and  anointed  as  his  colleague  as  early 
as  1  Jan.  988.  He  abolished  by  law  the  partition 
of  the  hereditary  estates  among  the  sons  of  the 
kings  and  forbade  the  alienation  of  the  family 
domains.  The  daughters  of  the  kings  were 
endowed  from  that  time  with  money,  and  the 
appanage  which  was  given  to  the  princes  of  the 
Uood  returned  to  the  Crown  in  default  of  male 
heirs.  Both  these  principles  were  more  fully 
confirmed  by  later  laws.  Thus  Hugh  Capet 
^  uniting  his  hereditary  duchy,  consisting  of 
Paris,  Isle  of  France  and  Burgundy,  inalien- 
ably with  the  Crown,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  French  monarchy.  What  he 
had  begun  was   completed  In*  his  successors, 

tarticularly  in  the  times  of  me  Crusades,  and 
y  the  establishment  of  standing  armies.  On 
the  failure  of  the  direct  line  at  the  death  of 
Oiarles  IV  (1328)  the  French  throne  was  kept 
in  the  family  by  the  accession  of  the  indirect 
line  of  Valois  and  in  1SS9  by  that  of  Bourbon. 
Capet  being  thus  regarded  as  the  family  name 
of  the  kings  of  France,  Louis  XVI  was  ar- 
raigned before  the  National  Convention  under 
the  name  of  Louis  Capet, 

CAPGRAVK  John,  English  historian:  b. 
Lynn,  Norfolk,  1393;  d.  there  1464.  The  most 
of  his  life  was  passed  in  the  Augustinian  friary 
of  his  native  piace.  He  was  provincial  of  the 
order  of  Austin  Friars  in  Figland,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  day.  He 
wrote  in  Latin  numerous  commentaries,  ser- 
mons and  lives  of  the  saints.  His  most  importr 
ant  work  was  his  'Chronicle  of  En^and,'  in 


English,  extending  from  the  creation  to  the 
year  1417.  Other  works  were  a  'Liber  de 
IlluBtribus  Hcnridi'  and  a  *Life  of  Saint 
Katherine.'  Many  of  bis  works  are  tost,  others 
have  never  ^et  been  printed.  His  'Chronicle' 
and  his  'Liber  de  lllustribus  Henricis'  have 
been  edited  by  F.  C  Hingeston  and  printed  in 
the  Rolls  senes  (London  1858). 

CAPHTOR,  the  country  in  which  the  Phil- 
istines originated  mentioned  in  Deut.  ii,  23; 
Jer.  xlvii,  4,  and  Amos  ix,  7.  Until  recently 
the  location  of  Caphtor  was  not  certain;  it  had 
been  variously  identified  with  Cappadocia,  Cy- 
prus, Crete  and  Cilicia.  It  is  now  practically 
certain  that  it  was  Crete  on  account  of  the 
frequent, connection  of  the  Philistines  with  the 
Cherethifes  (or  Cretans).  Consult  Hall,  'Kef- 
tin  and  the  Peoples  of  the  Sea'  (in  Annual  of 
the  British  School  Vol  VIII,  pp.  lS7ff.  and  cf. 
Vol.  X,  p.  154,  Vol  XIV,  p.  2S4) ;  MuUer. 
W.  M.,  in  'Mitteilungen  der  vorderasiatischen 
Gesellschaft>  (1900),  and  Meyer,  Ed..  <Ge- 
schichte  des  Altertums,  (I,  2,  pp.  798S.;  3d  ed., 
1913). 

CAPIAS,  kip'«-6s  Cthat  tou  take»),  a  writ 
or  process  in  a  civil  action  whereby  die  sheriff 
is  ordered  to  arrest  the  boc^  of  the  defendant. 
The  writ  so  framed  as  to  call  for  the  arrest  of 
the  defendant  before  judfpnent,  in  order  to 
compel  hhn  to  answer  a  suit,  b  called  a  capias 
ad  rttpondendwn;  if  after  the  judgment,  to 
compel  him  to  satisfy  the  judgment,  it  is  called 
a  capias  ad  satisfaciendum,  commonly  abbrevi- 
ated CO.  sa.  In  case  of  injuries  without  force, 
the  civil  law,  and  originally  the  common  law, 
did  not  authorize  the  arrest  of  the  defendant 
before  judgment,  that  is,  the  arrest  to  answer; 
and  upon  feudal  principles,  says  Sir  William 
Blackstone  (3  Com.  281),  "^the  person  of  a 
feudatory  was  not  liable  to  be  attached  for 
injuries  merely  civil,  lest  Aereby  the  lord 
should  be  deprived  of  his  services."  The  first 
writ  of  capias  ad  respondendum  was  given  by 
act  of  Parliament  in  1267,  52  Hen.  Ill  c.  23,  g  1, 
which  provided  that  "if  bailiffs,  which  ought  to 
make  account  to  their  lords,  do  withdraw 
themselves,  and  have  no  lands  nor  tenements 
whereby  they  may  be  restrained,  they  shall  be 
attached  by  their  bodies,  so  that  the  sberifif  shall 
cause  diem  to  come  to  make  their  account* 
This  act  applied  to  a  particular  description  of 
receivers,  and  supposed  them  not  only  to  be 
debtors,  but  also  to  have  in  their  own  hands 
the  evidence  of  the  amount  of  the  debt  the 
production  of  which  was  one  object  of  the 
process.  The  statute  of  13  Edw.  I,  c.  11,  passed 
in  1285,  18  years  after  the  former,  extends  this 
process  to  'all  manner  of  receivers  bound  to 
yield  account,'  and  provides  'if  they  be  found 
in  arrearages  upon  this  account,  their  bodies 
shall  be  arrested,  and,  by  the  testimony  of  the 
auditors,  shall  be  sent  into  the  next  jail,  and 
be  imprisoned  in  irons  under  safe  custody,  and 
remain  in  prison  at  their  own  cost  until  they 
have  satisfied  their  master  (the  creditor)  iMoy 
of  their  arrearages."  It  would  appear  that  the 
practice  of  arresting  on  mesne  process,  that  is 
before  judgment,  to  answer  in  civil  suits,  grew 
out  of  these  statutes ;  for  the  subsequent  stat- 
utes of  25  Edw.  Ill,  c.  17  (1350),  ;>roviding 
that  'such  process  shall  be  made  in  wnt  of  debt, 
detinue  of  chattels  and  taking  of  beasts,  by  writ 
of  capias,  as  is  used  in  writ  of  account' ;  and 
of  21  Hen.  VII.  c  9   (1503);  evidently  feai 


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CAPILLARIES — CAPILLARITY 


reference  to  an  arrest  to  answer.  Formerly,  a 
writ  upon  which  a  suit  was  commenced  was 
either  a  capias,  distress  or  sununons;  either  the 
person  of  the  defendant  was  seiiet^  and  (un- 
less he  was  bailed)  imprisoned  until  the  trial, 
or  his  goods  and  lands  were  seized  as  a  guar- 
antee of  his  appearance  to  answer;  and  more 
often,  in  modem  times,  to  obtain  a  lien  to 
secure  satisfaction  of  the  judsment;  or  he  was 
only  summoned,  that  is,  mereh'  had  notice  that 
a  suit  had  been  commenced  before  such  a  court, 
by  such  a  plaintiff,  and  was  to  be  heard  at  such 
a  Ume.  The  commcnceinent  of  an  action  by 
summons  is  now  the  usual  course  of  procedure; 
recent  legislation,  and  especially  the  practical 
abolition  of  imorisonment  for  debt,  having 
greatly  restricted  the  use  of  writs  of  capias  oi 
any  kind.  By  the  Debtors'  Act.  1869  (32  and 
33  Vict.  c.  62),  the  writ  of  capias  ad  satisfacien- 
dum is  abolished,  except  in  cases  in  which  the 
defendant  can  pay,  but  will  not.  The  same  act 
provides  that  when  a  plaintiff  has  good  cause 
of  action  against  a  defendant  to  the  amount  of 
£50  or  upward,  and  the  defendant  is  about  to 
quit  England,  and  the  absence  of  the  defendant 
from  England  will  materially  prejudice  the 
plaintiff  in  the  prosecution  of  nis  action,  a 
judge  may  order  the  defendant  to  be  arrested 
nnless  or  until  security  be  found.  A  supple- 
mentary or  second  wnt,  issued  when  an  ordi- 
nary capias  has  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
sheriff  and  has  been  returned  with  the  endorse- 
ment that  the  defendant  could  not  be  found, 
is  called  a  teslatttm  capias.  See  Akbest;  At- 
tachmknt;  Execution. 

CAPILLARIES,  the  extremely  minute 
blood  vessels  that  make  the  connection  between 
the  arteries  and  the  veins.  They  are  extremely 
abundant,  being  present  in  practically  all  parts 
of  the  body  and  in  enormous  numbers.  It  is 
by  means  of  the  capillaries  that  most  of  the  in- 
terchange of  nutrition  takes  place  in  the  various 
tissues  of  the  body.  The  arteries  bring  the 
fresh  oxygenated  blood  to  the  parts,  to  which 
it  is  distributed  by  the  rich  network  of  capil- 
laries, through  the  walls  of  which  the  waste 
products  pass  and  are  carried  on  by  the  blood 
pressure  into  the  veins,  to  be  eluninated  by 
some  one  of  the  large  excretory  organs,  the 
liver,  etc.,  or  carried  to  the  lungs  to  be  thus 
modified  or  cast  oS.  The  arrangement,  width 
and  capacity  of  the  capillaries  varies  in  every 
tissue  of  the  human  body.  In  general  they  are 
arranged  as  a  close  network  ai>out  the  parts  to 
which  they  are  distributed,  and  in  wiclth  they 
vary  from  one  two-thousandths  to  one  two- 
hundredths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are 
largest  in  the  marrow  of  bone  and  smallest  in 
the  brain.  In  muscular  tissue  they  are  generally 
parallel  one  to  another,  but  in  numerous  cases, 
as  around  fat  cells,  they  are  arranged  spherically 
and  in  the  intestines  they  form  loops.  Sec 
Arteries  ;  Blood,  CiRcin^TioN  of. 

CAPILLARITY.  The  subject  of  capillarity 
takes  its  name  from  the  circomstance  that  it 
was  first  studied  in  connection  with  the  rise  of 
liquids  in  tubes  havmg  a  bore  so  fine  as  to  be 
comparable  in  diameter  with  a  hair  (capillus) 
When  one  end  of  such  a  lube  is  immersed  ik 
water,  the  water  rises  in  the  tube  above  the 
genera)  level  of  the  surface  outside  it,  in  a 
way  which  is  not  in  accord  with  the  general 
Ikw  of  hydrostatics,  that  a  liquid  will  stand  at 


solid  bodies,  assione  shapes  and  positions 
which  are  equally  at  variance  with  the  laws  of 
hydrostatics.  All  such  cases  are  now  treated  as 
beloDgiBg  to  the  general  subject  of  capillarity. 
Examples  of  capillary  actions  are  the  soaking 
up  of  water  by  a  sponge ;  the  penetration  oi.  var- 
msh  into  wood:  the  rising  of  oil  in  a  lamp  wick; 
the  clinging  ol  ink  to  a  properly  nibbed  pen; 
the  running  of(  of  the  ink  from  pen  to  paper; 
the  soaking  up  of  the  superfluous  ink  in  blot- 
ting paper;  the  falling  of  drops  of  uniform  »ze 
from  the  lip  of  a  bottle  or  from  a  medicine 
dropper;  the  rounding  of  drops  of  melted  lead 
into  pellets  of  shot  as  they  fall  in  a  shot-tower. 
When  we  consider  such  examples  as  these, 
it  becomes  clear  that  they  are  to  be  explained 


-       -    ervli __. 

t  thing  definitely  known  is  that  they  are  very 

great  when  the  parts  of  the  body  or  bodies  be- 
tween which  they  are  exerted  are  so  near  to- 
gether that  they  are  said  to  be  in  contact,  and 
fall  off  rapidly  in  magnitude  as  the  parts  are 
separated,  so  as  to  become  inappreciable  when 
the  distance  between  (he  parts  becomes  discern- 
ible. It  is  customary  to  think  of  these  forces  as 
exerted  between  the  molecules  of  matter,  and  so 
to  call  them  molecular  forces.  The  very  small 
distance  within  which  the  action  of  a  molecule 
on  its  neighbors  is  appreciable  is  called  the 
range  of  molecular  action. 

By  reflection  upon  the  effects  of  such  molec- 
ular forces  acting  in  a  liquid,  Younf;  (1SQ4) 
was  led  to  assume  that  a  tension  exists  in  a  thin 
layer  of  molecules  at  the  surface  of  a  liquid, 
comparable  in  general  to  the  tension  in  a 
stretched  membrane.  The  magnitude  of  this 
surface  tension  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
liquid,  or,  more  exactly,  upon  the  nature  of  the 
two  media,  of  whatever  sort  they  may  be,  sep- 


are  always  great  in  Comparison  with 
the  range  of  molecular  action  or  tne  thiclmcss 
of  the  surface  layer.  Young  added  to  this  hy- 
pothesis the  observation  that  the  angle  of  con- 
tact between  a  liquid  surface  and  a  solid  is 
always  the  same  for  the  same  pair  of  substances. 
The  angle  of  contact  is  generally  measured,  at 
the  line  of  contact,  between  the  external  normals 
to  the  solid  and  the  liquid  surfaces.  In  the  case 
of  ipercury  and  glass,  which  Young  particu- 


evanescent.  or  equal   to  zero.     Young  assumed 
that  the  like  is  true  for  allcontacts  of  liquids 


used  to  explain  alt  the  forms  of  liquid  surfaces. 
"Mi'or  example,  let  us  consider  the  rise  of  water  :n 
a  glass  tube.  The  water  wets  the  inner  wall  of 
the  tube,  and  so  meets  it  everywhere  in  the  cir- 
cle of  contact  at  an  angle  equal  to  lero.  Owing 
to  this,  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  tube  will 


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CAPILLAUTY. 


b«  concave  upwud.  In  a  tube  of  vfry  small 
bore,  it  will  b«  approximately  hemisiMiericaL 
The  tension  strives  to  atraightm  out  the  sur- 
face, and  since  the  cMitact  condition  prevents  its 
doing  this,  it  lifts  a  column  of  water  up  tho 
tube,  to  a  point  such  chat  the  weight  of  Che 
uplifted  column  is  sustained  by  the  upward  force 
due  to  the  tension,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
curvature  of  the  surface  is  consistent  with  the 
contact  condition. 

When  the  column  is  stationary,  the  tension 
in  the  surface  can  be  considered  as  acting  ver- 
cicalty  upward  at  all  points  in  the  circle  of  con- 
tact  of  the  surface  with  the  wall  of  the  tube, 
Representing  by  T  Che  tension  in  the  surface,  or 
the  force  acttnc  in  the  surface  across  a  line  of 
unit  length,  and  by  r  the  radius  of  the  tube,  w« 
have  the  expression  ZnrT'  for  the  upward  force 
acting  on  tne  column.  Representing  by  p  the 
density  of  water,  by  0  the  acceleration  of  gr^v 
iiy,  and  by  h  the  heignt  of  the  column  above  the 
general  level  of  the  water  surface  outside  the 
tube,  we  have  Che  expression  pp^r'h  for  the 
weight  of  the  column.  Setting  we  two  forces 
equal,  we  obtain  ZT'^pgrh,  and  conclude  that 
the  height  of  the  coltunu  is  inversely  as  the 
radius  of  the  tube.  This  law  was  made  known 
by  the  experiments  of  Jurin  (1718),  and  is  gen- 
erally known  as  Jurin's  law. 

By  a  slight  extension  of  Young's  com:e_ption 
□f  surface  tension,  we  may  deduce  from  it  the 
constancy  of  the  contact  an^e.  We  need  only 
to  suppose  that  a  tension  exists,  in  any  surface 
separating  two  substances,  which  has  a  particu- 
lar value  for  each  pair  of  substances.  Consider 
then  three  fluids  in  contact  along  a  line.  It  is 
evident  that  the  line  of  contact  will  be  at  rest 
when  the  angles  made  with  each  other,  at  that 
line,  by  the  three  surfaces  in  which  the  fluids 
meet  in  pairs,  are  such  that  the  tensions  in  the 
three  surfaces  are  in  equilibrium.  These  angles 
are  therefore  obtained  by  constructing  the  tr^ 
angle  of  forces,  with  the  three  tensions  as  sides, 
and  they  are  constant,  for  the  three  substances. 

We  may  consider  more  particularly  the  spc- 
cial  case  in  which  one  of  the  three  substances  is 
a  solid.  Suppose,  for  convenience  in  slalement. 
that  the  three  substances  are  a  liquid,  air  and 
a  solid.  Represent  by  Ta,  Ta  and  Tb  the  ten- 
sions in  the  surfaces  separating  the  liquid  from 
air,  the  liquid  from  the  solid,  and  air  from  the 
solid,  respectively.  Denote  the  angle  of  contact 
of  the  liquid-air  surface  with  the  solid  by  # . 
The  line  of  contact  will  be  at  rest  when  the  sum 
of  all  the  tensions  or  components  of  tension  in 
the  plane  of  the  solid  is  equal  to  iqro,  or  when 

rufwf+ru— r»— 0. 

The  an^e  of  contact  is  therefore  given  by 


cosf^— 


~Tu 


nt.  It  is  acute  or  obtuse,  accord- 
ing as  Ta  is  greater  or  less  than  Ta.  In  the 
case  of  mercury  and  glass,   Ta  is  the   greater, 

and  t  is  obtuse.  In  tne  case  of  most  liquids 
and  glass,  the  tension  corresponding  to  Ta  is 
the  greater,  and  t  is  acnte.  When  7b  equals  or 
exceeds  Ta  +  To,  the  angle  p  becomes  evanes- 

Almosl  contemporaneously  with  Young,  La- 
place (1805>  formally  applied  the  hypothesis  of 
molecular  forces  to  the  study  of  the  forms  of 
liquid  surfaces.    He  considered  the  pressure  at 


the  end  of  a  liquid  fiUment,  beginning  in  the 
surface  and  drawn  normal  to  it,  and  terminating 
in  the  interior  of  Che  liquid.  He  proved  Chat  it 
may  be  expressed  by  the  sum  of  two  pressures. 
One  of  these,  called  the  molecular  pressure,  is 
very  great,  and  is  constant  at  all  points  of  the 
liquid  that  are  not  in  the  surface  layer.  This 
pressure  is  eliminated  from  all  equations  of 
equilibrium  of  liquids,  and  plays  no  part  in 
determlung  the  forms  of  liquid  surfaces.  The 
other  pressure  depends  upon  the  sh^e  of  the 
liquid  surface,  and  is  given  by   the   formula 

in  which  H  is  a  constant,  and  R 


\2  R^R'}' 


and  R"  the  two  principal  radii  of  curvature  of 
the  surface.  This  pressure,  at  any  point  under  the 
surface  layer,  is  in  equilibrium  with  the  hydro- 
static pressure  at  that  poinL  Under  a  flat  sur- 
face, and  therefore  under  the  level  surface  of  a 
large  expanse  of  hquid,  the  radii  of  curvature 
are  infimte  and  this  j>ressure  vanishes.  If  h  is 
the  bctf^t  of  a  point  in  the  curved  surface 
above  the  general  level,  we  then  have  for 
H   /\  i\ 

equilibriimi  the  condition  —  I  —  H 1^  Pt  k, 

2  \R  Rf 
This  relation  may  be  deduced  from  Young's 
hypothesis  of  surface  tension,  and  it  is  found 
that  Laplace's  constant  H  is  equal  to  2T.  Aa 
an  example  of  the  use  of  this  equation,  consider 
again  the  rise  of  water  in  a  tube.  The  surface 
in  the  tube,  if  its  bore  is  smalt  enou^ 
may  be  considered  a  hemisiAere,  and  therefore 
R^R'-^r,  the  radius  of  the  tube.  Accordingly 
we  have  H^=pgTh,  as  we  obtained  before  by 
Young's  method. 

Laplace's  theory  did  noC  suffice  to  demon- 
strate the  constant  of  the  contact-angle,  and 
1-aplace  was  forced  to  assume  it  as  a  fact  of 
observation. 

A  more  profound  and  successful  application 
of  the  hypothesis  of  molecular  forces  to  the 
problem  of  capillarity  was  made  by  Gauss 
(1829).  He  showed,  by  means  of  the  principle 
of  virtual  work,  that  a  system  of  substances  in 
cmitact  possesses  a  certain  amount  of  potential 
energy,  arising  from  the  molecular  forces.  For 
each  pair  of  substances  Che  energy  is  propor~ 
tional  to  Che  extent  of  surface  separating  them, 
and  the  factor  of  proportion  is  a  characteristic 
constant  for  the  two  substances.  This  constant 
is  called  the  surface  energy.  The  existence  of 
such  a  surface  energy  may  readily  be  deduced 
from  the  hypothesis  of  molecular  forces.  Con- 
sider, for  example,  a  mass  of  liquid  surrounded 
by  another  liqiud  of  the  same  specific  gravity. 
If  its  surface  is  enlarged,  it  can  only  be  by  the 
movement  of  some  of  its  parts  out  of  its  in- 
terior Into  Che  surface  layer,  and  it  is  evident 
that,  as  they  move  out  through  the  layer,  work 
b  done  against  the  molecular  forces,  which  will 
be  proportional,  generally,  to  the  area  by  which 
thq  surface  is  increased.  The  liquid  acquires 
potential  energy  equal  to  the  work  done  m  in- 
creasing its  surface.  As  the  potential  energy  of 
a  system  in  equilibritun  is  always  a  minimum^ 
the  condition  of  equilibrium  of  such  a  mass  ot 
liquid  is,  therefore,  that  the  area  of  its  surface 
shall  be  a  minimum.  If  the  liquid  is  entirely 
free,  its  surface  will  be  spherical.  If  it  is  aah- 
ject  to  conditions,  so  that  portions  of  the  sur- 
face are  limited  by  certain  fixed  boundary  linea, 
it  may  be  proved  Chat  the  forms  of  the  varioua 


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CAPILLARITY 


pordoRs  of  the  surface,  which  will  make  th« 
surface  energy  a  minimuni,  are  such  that  the 
sum  of  the  reciprocals  of  the  principal  radii  of 
curvature  is  the  same  for  all  parts  of  all  the 
surfaces.  We  are  thus  led  to  the  same  rule  for 
the  form  of  a  liquid  surface  as  that  reached  by 
Laplace. 

It  may  be  shown  that  the  constants  denoting 
the  surface  energy  and  the  surface  tension  are 
the  same.  To  do  this,  consider  a  film  of  liquid 
bounded  by  the  sides  of  a  rectangle,  one  of 
which  can  be  moved  so  as  to  increase  or  dimin- 
ish the  area  of  the  film.  Since  both  faces  of  the 
film  act  alike,  we  need  consider  onl^  one  of 
them.  The  force  applied  b^  the  tension  T  in 
the  film  to  the  movable  side,  the  len^  of 
which  is  represented  by  s,  is  Ti;  and  if  the 
movable  side  moves  in  toward  the  opposite  side 
through  the  distance  r,  the  work  done  by  the 
surface  tension  is  Tir.  This  is,  therefore,  the 
measure  of  the  change  in  the  energy  oi  the 
film,  and  since  sr  is  the  change  of  area,  T  equals 
the  energy  per  unit  of  area,  or  the  surface 


"K, 


___e  method  of  Gauss  furnishes  a  proof  that 
the  contact-angle  should  be  constant.  If  we 
consider  that  the  potential  energy  of  the  system 
is  a  minimum,  when  the  surface  tensions  which 
arise  from  tne  surface  energies  are  in  equi- 
librium, this  may  be  proved  in  the  way  already 
indicated;  or  a  direct  proof  may  be  given. 

The  argument  by  which  these  conclusions 
have  been  reached  fails  if  we  lake  into  consid- 
eration the  heal  that  must  be  introduced  into  the 
surface  film  to  keep  it  at  constant  temperature 
during  its  enlargement  When  this  heat  is  taken 
into  account  it  appears  that  the  surface  energy 
differs  from  the  surface  tension  by  a  quantity 
equal  to  the  product  of  the  absolute  temperature, 
and  the  rate  at  which  the  suriace  tension 
changes  with  the  temperature.  In  all  known 
cases  the  surface  tension  decreases  as  the  tem- 
perature rises  and  the  surface  energy  is  greater 
than  the  surface  tension.  The  surface  tension, 
while  not  equal  exactly  to  the  total  surface 
energy,  is  equal  to  the  so-called  free  energy  of 
the  surface.  Since  equilibrium  depends  on  the 
free  energy  having  a  minimum  value,  the  test 
of  equilibrium  based  on  the  condition  that  the 
area  of  the  liquid  surface  shall  be  a  minimum, 
consistent  with  the  boundary  conditions,  is  not 
impaired  by  this  modified  statement. 

A  very  interesting  set  of  verifications  of  the 
theories  of  capillarity  was  devised  by  Plateau. 
In  order  to  be  able  to  examine  a  liquid  taking 
shape  under  its  surface  tension  only,  he  pre- 
pared a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water  having 
the  same  density  as  olive  oil,  in  which  the  Ml 
could  be  suspended.  A  mass  of  oil.  freelv  float- 
ing in  this  mixture,  assumed  a  simerical  form. 
This  form  is  manifestly  that  which  would  be 
produced  by  a  tension  acting  uniformly  in  all 
parts  of  the  surface;  it  is  also  that  for  which 


2    \r        Rf 


Oie  internal  pressure  represented  by— 
2 
is  the  same  everywhere ;  and  also  that  for  which 
the  surface,  and  consequently  the  potential 
enerey,  is  a  minimum.  When  the  oil  was  sus- 
pended in  a  wire  frame,  it  assumed  various 
forms,  depending  on  the  shape  of  the  frame  and 
the  quantity  of  oil,  which  were  always  such  that 
the  mtemal  pressure,  determined  by  Laplace's 
equation,  was  the  same  everywhere. 


A  similar  set  of  verifications  was  aflorded 
t^  the  use  of  films  of  soapy  water.  Such  films 
are  so  thin  and  light  that  their  weight  hardly 
distorts  them  at  all,  and  the  positions  they  as- 
sume are  due  almost  solely  to  the  surface  ten- 
sion. Such  a  film,  blown  into  a  bubble,  is 
spherical.  When  formed  on  a  wire  frame  lying 
in  a  ^lane,  the  film  is  a  plane.  When  the  frame 
is  twisted  out  of  the  plane,  the  surface  of  the 
film  is  the  least  that  can  be  constructed  with 
the  edges  of  the  frame  as  a  boundary.  It  is  one 
of  the  so-called  minimal  or  ruled  surfaces. 
Various  films  of  this  sort  were  examined  by 
Plateau,  and  found  to  fulfil  the  geometrical 
conditions  of  the  minimal  surface. 

Observers  have  ordinarily  tested  .the  theory 
by  determining,  from  Laplace's  equation,  the 
various  forms  and  dimensions  of  liquid  sur- 
faces, subject  to  various  boundary  conditions, 
and  comparing  the  actual  forms  obtained  by 
experiment  with  those  deduced  from  the  theory. 
For  example,  rough  observations  show  that  for 
any  one  liquid  that  wets  glass,  the  heists  to 
which  it  nses  in  various  capillary  tubes  are 
inversely  as  the  radii  of  the  tubes,  as  the  ele- 
mentary theory  declares  they  should  be.  More 
refined  observations  show  that  this  statement 
is  not  strictly  accurate,  and  a  more  complete 
theory  leads  to  certain  corrections  of  the  state- 
ment, to  which  the  better  observations  conform. 
In  a  similar  way,  the  rise  of  a  liquid  between 
parsllel  plates,  the  forms  of  large  drops  of 
mercury  on  a  horizontal  plate,  or  of  large 
bubbles  of  air  in   a  liquid  under  a  horizontal 

flate,  the  force  needed  to  lift  a  horizontal  plate 
rom  the  surface  of  a  liquid  which  wets  it,  the 
maximum  pressure  exerted  in  a  small  bubble 
as  it  is  enlarging  in  a  liquid  at  the  end  of  a 
tube,  have  all  oeen  used  as  means  of  testing  the 
theory.  Generally  the  observations  are  used  in 
the  appropriate  formula  to  obtain  a  value  for 
the   surface   tension    T,  or   for  the    constant 


a"=- 


(Called  Poi 


1  constant)    and    the 


verification  of  the  theory  is  found  in  the  fact 
(hat  the  values  of  these  quantities  obtained  by 
different  methods  are  in  good  agreement  with 
one  another. 

The  determination  of  the  surface  tension  is 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  many  of  the  formu- 
lae containing  it  involve  the  contact-angle  also. 
In  such  cases  the  contact-angle  may  be  deter- 
mined by  an  independent  observation,  as  was 
done  by  Young  in  the  case  of  mercury  in  con- 
tact with  glass ;  but  in  most  cases  the  liquids 
examined  wet,  or  seem  to  wet,  the  solid  walls, 
and  it  is  then  assumed  that  the  contact-angle  is 
evanescent  or  zero.  The  results  obtained  on  this 
assumption  may  be  compared  with  those  ob- 
tained by  methods  in  which  the  contact-angle 
is  not  involved,  to  test  the  validity  of  tlie  as- 
sumption, and  if  it  is  found  in  error,  to  deter- 
mine the  magnitude  of  the  contact- angle. 

It  is  of  interest  to  consider  some  examples 
of  the  constants  of  capillarity.  The  units  com- 
monly employed  are  not  those  of  the  absolute 
c.  g.  s.  system.  It  has  been  found  more  con- 
venient to  use  the  millimetre  as  the  unit  of 
length,  and  the  w«ight  of  a  milligram  as  the 
unit  of  force.  Poisson's  constant  a",  being  al- 
ways determined,  as  in  the  example  given  of 
rtie  rise  of  a  liquid  in  a  tube,  by  the  product  of 
two  lengths,  is  a  number  of  sqoare  millimetres. 
The  surface  tension  T,  or  the  force  which  ads 


d  by  Google 


CAPILLARITY 


across  a  unit  of  length  in  th«  surface,  is  ex- 
pressed in  miltt^ram  weights  per  millimetre. 
In  these  units  Poisson's  consiani  for  mercuiy  is 
about  6.7S,  and  the  surface  tension  45.7.  For 
water  at  20'  C.  we  may  take  a"—  15,0  and 
T^7.S-,  for  chloroform  at  23°  C,  d"  — 3,7. 
7'=273;  for  refined  petroleum  at  22°  C, 
«?-'5.75,  T-"2M.  These  numbers  are  simply 
*  cited  as  examples  of  the  magnitude  of  the  two 
constants  in  typical  cases.  Their  exact  deter- 
mination is  beset  with  such  difficulties  that  it  ia 
doubtful  whether  any  results  have  been  obtained 
wliich  can  be  accepted  as  definitive. 

The  constant  contact-angle  of  mercury  with 
c^ass  is  abcMJt  135°,  or  a  little  larger.  Most 
uquids  wet  glass,  and  their  contact-angles  are 
assumed  to  be  0°.  Evidence  has  been  adduced 
to  show  that  in  some  cases,  with  water  or  pe- 
troleum, for  example,  the  contact-angle  with 
glass  is  not  0°,  but  has  a  fimte,  thou^  not  a 
large,  value.  This  question  is  not  yet  definitely 
settled 

The  principal  difficulty  in  determining  the 
constants  of  capillarity  with  accuracy  lies  in 
the  effect  of  impurities  on  the  surface  tension. 
This  is  especially  felt  with  the  liquids  which 
have  high  surface  tension,  like  mercury  or 
water.  The  least  trace  of  oil  or  grease  will 
spread  out  over  a  water  surface  in  a  thiu  film, 
and  alter  its  surface  tension  very  considerably. 
It  is  verv  difficult  to  get  the  vessels  clean,  whidi 
arc  used  in  the  experiments,  and  much  more 
difficult  to  keep  them  clean,  so  that  the  con- 
slants  obtained  for  any  liijuid  are  always  open 
to  a  certain  degree  of  suspicion.  Impurities  dis- 
solved in  the  liquid  afiect  the  surface  tension 
also,  though  not  to  so  great  a  degree  as  those 
which  spread  over  its  surface. 

The  surface  tensions,  of  all  liquids  whicJi 
have  been  tested,  become  less  as  the  temperature 
rises.    It  has  been  shown  to  be  a _  consequence 


pendent  of  the  extent  of  its  Surface,  the  . 
by  which  the  surface  tension  changes  is  pro- 
portional to  the  change  in  the  absolute  tem- 
perature. Most  of  tne  older  measurements 
of  tiie  temijerature  coefficients  do  not  confirm 
this  conclusion,  but  the  observations  of  Knijip 
on  water  and  of  Feustel  on  various  organic 
liquids  are  in  agreement  with  it. 

The  magnitudes  of  the  constants  of  capil- 
larity maniiestly  depend  on  the  magnitudes  of 
the  forces  between  molecules  and  on  the  range 
of  molecular  action.  The  theory  of  van  der 
Waals  leads  to  an  estimate  of  the  molecular 
pressure  within  a  liquid,  the  values  obtained  for 
it  ranging  from  1,430  atmospheres  in  the  case 
of  ether  to  10,700  atmospheres  in  the  case  of 
water.  The  same  theory  indicates  that  the 
range  of  molecular  action  is  proportional  to  the 
linear  dimensions  of  the  molecule,  and  is  of 
about  the  same  magnitude  as  the  radius  of  the 
molecule.  By  the  help  of  a  modified  form  of 
this  theory,  Eotvos  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  rate  of  variation  with  the  temperature  of  the 
product  of  the  surface  tension  and  the  two- 
thirds  power  of  the  molecular  volume  should 
be  constant,  and  the  same  for  ail  licjuids,  within 
a  certain  temperature  range,  if  their  molecules 
are  single,  and  not  double  or  compound.  Ob- 
servation shows  that  this  law  holds  true  for 
many  liquids,  and  in  cases  in  which  it  fails, 
there  are  often  other  reasons  to  support  the 


conclusion  that  the  molecules  of  the  liquid  are 
compound. 

Before  closiiw,  we  mav  consider  a  few  ex- 
amples of  the  etiects  produced  by  surface  ten- 
sion. 

When  waves  are  set  up  on  the  surface  of 
water,  they  are  transmitted  across  the  surface 
at  a  rate  which  depends  on  the  hydrostatic  pres- 
sure and  on  the  surface  tension.  The  surface 
tension  is  practically  the  only  agent  in  transmit- 
ting the  waves  when  they  are  very  short.  Such 
waves  may  be  set  up  by  the  use  of  a  vibrating 
tuning  fork,  and  the  measurement  of  their 
lengths  furnishes  a  means  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  value  of  the  surface  tension.  The 
ripples  set  up  on  the  smooth  surface  of  a  pond 
by  a  breath  of  air,  or  which  proceed  in  front 
of  a  slowly  moving  boat,  are  largely  due  to  sur- 
face tension. 

When  a  glass  tumbler  is  partly  filled  with 
watet^he  surface  tension  draws  the  water  up 
the  sides.  As  more  water  is  carefully  poured 
in,  the  line  of  contact  rises  until  it  reaches 
the  edge  of  the  glass.  It  often  happens  that  the 
line  ot  contact  is  checked  at  the  edge,  so  that 
the  water  does  not  run  out  over  the  top  of  the 
glass.  In  this  case  the  glass  can  be  filled  above 
the  level  of  its  edge,  and  the  water  will  stand 
in  it  under  a  surface  that  is  convex  upward, 
the  surface  tension  in  which  keeps  the  y 
from   r" — ■ —  — ' 


will  float  there.    It  lies   i..   _    

trough  formed  in  the  water  surface.  The  water 
cannot  wet  the  needle,  because  of  its  coating 
of  oil,  and  so  the  needle  is  supported  by  the 
uplift  dne  to  the  surface  tension  acting  in  the 
concave  surface  iii  which  the  needle  rests.  In 
a  way  generally  similar,  the  insects  which  run 
over  the  surface  of  water  are  supported  in  little 
hollows  in  the  water  surface.  Their  feet  are 
not  wetted  by  the  water. 

When  two  li^t  bodies,  floating  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  liquid,  are  moved  toward  each  other 
until  the  curved  parts  of  the  liquid  surface  near 
them  intersect,  they  seem  to  exert  forces  on 
each  other.  If  they  are  both  wetted  by  the 
liquid,  or  are  both  not  welted  by  it,  they  move 
together  and  adhere  to  each  other.  If  one  of 
them  is  wetted  by  the  liquid  and  the  other  not, 
they  move  apart.  If  water  is  run  in  between 
two  parallel  sheets  of  plate  glass,  they  are 
drawn  closely  together  and  adhere  very  strongly 
to  each  other.  These  actions  are  ascribed  to 
differences  in  the  pressures  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  bodies.  In  case  the  bodies  are  wetted 
by  the  liquid,  the  pressure  in  the  region  between 
them,  in  the  elevated  portion  of  the  liqi^ 
under  its  concave  surface,  is  less  than  the  pres- 
sure on  their  outer  sides  and  they  are  pushed 
together.  This  action  takes  place  even  in  a 
vacuum,  in  which  case  the  pressure  under  the 
concave  surface  is  a  negative  pressure  or  ten- 
sion. In  case  the  bodies  are  not  wetted  by  the 
liquid  the  liquid  is  depressed  between  them, 
and  the  pressure  inward  on  their  outer  sides 
ia  greater  than  that  acting  outward,  and  they 
are  pushed  together.    A  curious    efiect,    fn- 


[ig 


v  Google 


CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION— CAPITAL 


dieted  by  Laplace  from  die  theory  of  cMillarity, 
and  venfied  by  experiment,  is  exhibited  by  two 
bodies,  one  of  which  is  wetted  by  the  liquid  and 
the  other  not  These  bodies,  as  the  distance 
between  them  is  diminished,  at  first  appear  to 
repel  each  other^  but  as  the  distance  is  re- 
duced the  repulsion  changes  to  an  attraction 
and  the  bodies  come  together. 

If  a  small  lump  of  camphor  is  dropped  on 
clean  water,  it  begins  b>  move  about  over  the 
surface  in  an  irregular  way,  and  continues  to 
do  so,  generally  for  some  time.  These  moticHis 
are  explained  by  noticing  that  one  part  of  the 
lump  of  camphor  dissolves  more  Ireelir  than 
the  rest,  and  so,  near  it,  the  surface  tension  of 
the  water  surface  is  lowered  below  that  near 
the  other  parts  of  the  lump.  The  camphor  is 
aecordingljt  drawn  toward  uat  part  of  uie  sur- 
face in  which  the  tension  is  greatest 

If  a  thread  of  water  is  at  rest  in  a  horiion- 
tal  caftillary  tube,  and  one  of  its  two  end  sur- 
faces IS  touched  by  a  wire  that  has  been  dipoed 
in  turpentine  or  benzine,  the  tension  at  that 
end  will  be  diminished,  and  the  greater  tension 
of  the  other  end  will  draw  the  water  along  the 
tube.  This  effect  is  taken  advantage  of  in 
cleaning  off  grease  spots  from  cloth.  The  sur- 
face tension  of  benzine  is  very  low,  and  when 
benzine  is  amilied  In  a  gradually  narrowing 
ring  around  the  spot  of  grease,  the  grease  is 
drawn  in  toward  the  centre  of  the  ring,  and  if 
the  cloth  is  laid  on  a  piece  of  blotting  paper, 
the  grease  will  be  taken  up  hy  it.  Thia  action 
is  promoted  if  a  hot  iron  is  applied  to  the 
other  side  of  the  cloth,  for  the  heat  lessens  the 
tension  in  the  ends  of  the  pores  nearest  the 
iron,  and  the  greater  tensioii  at  the  other  ends 


draws  the  grease  into  the  blotting  paper.  Con- 
sult Boys,  'Soap  Bubbles,  and  How  '-  "' — 
™       •    (kcw   Yo 


I  Bubbles,  and  How  to  Blow 
Them'  (New  York  1900;  new  ed.,  London 
1912) ;  Lorl  Rayldgh,  ^Collected  Scientific 
Papers'   (1901). 

W1U.1AU  FKancig  Maci^ 
Profestor  of  Pkynes,  Prmctlon  Univerttty, 

CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION.  See  Caf^ 
iLLARrrY. 

CAPILUPI,  ka-pr-hx>-pl,  CamiUo.  Italian 
poet:  b.  Mantua  1504;  d.  IS48.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  work  issued  in  1572  entitled  'The 
.Stratagem  of  Charles  IX  against  the  Huoue- 
nots,'  in  which  the  massacre  of  Saint  Barthol- 
omew was  justified,  and  which  made  the 
action  appear  premeditated.  Cardinal  Lorraine, 
who  at  the  tune  was  attending  the  Pope  in 
Rome,  endeavored  to  suppress  the  book  from 
motives  of  policy. 

CAPISTRANO,  ka-pe-stri'nO,  Giovanni 
di,  or  CAPISTRANU8,  JobannM,  Saint, 
Italian  monk:  b.  Capistrano,  a  small  Neajiolitan 
town  of  the  Abruui,  24  June  1386;  d.  Illock 
Slavonia,  23  Oct  145&  He  at  first  studied 
law,  but  in  his  SOth  year,  impelled  by  a  vision, 
entered  the   Franciscan  order,  and  was  .  soon 


sects  in  Italy.  The  Popes  Martin  V,  Eugene 
IV  and  Felix  V,  often  employed  him  as  legate 
and  inquisitor  in  suppressing  the  sect  of  the 
Fraticeni,  which  had  spread  widely  over  Naples 
and  the  Papal  States.    Jn  1444  he  became  vicar- 

S-ncrat  of  the  strict  order  of  Franciscans  called 
bservantB,  and  in  14S0  proceeded  as  legate  to 
Germany  with  a  view  to  suppress  the  Hussites, 


and  rouse  the  Geztrans  to  a  crusade  against  the 
Turics.  Although  he  was  successful  in  his  op- 
position to  the  Hussites  in  Moravia,  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  Bohemia  by  George  Podiebrad. 
His  fanaticism  often  led  him  into  many  acts 
of  cruelty,  one  of  the  worst  being  the  racking 
and  bummg  of  40  Jews  in  Breslau,  on  the 
charge  of  profaning  the  Host  His  harangues 
in  favor  of  a  crusade  against  the  Turks  failing 
to  make  mu^  impression  on  the  German 
princes  he  resolved  to  ti7  their  effect  on  the 
po^nlace,  and  easily  persuaded  great  numbers 
to  join  him  in  mardiing  against  the  Turks,  who 
were  advancing  under  Mohammed  II,  and  had 
closely  invested  Belgrade,  the  key  of  Hungary, 

«.:*u   ....  .......  ^c   icnnm a«  «l.-  :-.i.: 


with  an  army  of  150,000  men.  At  the  instiga- 
tion of  Capistranus,  John  Corvinus  Huni^des 
furnished  a  force  of  60,000,  destroyed  die  Turk- 


ic fleet  on  the  Danube,  and  threw  into  Bel- 
grade sticcors  both  of  men  and  provisions.  C^ 
this  expedition  Capistranus  in  person  com- 
manded the  left  wing  of  the  par^,  forced  his 
way  into'  Belgrade,  repulsed  a  general  assault 
by  the  TuritL  and  on  6  Aug.  1456,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Hunnyades,  signally  defeated  the 
whole  Turkish  host.  His  exertions,  and  the 
pestilential  atmosphere  caused  by  the  dead  bod- 


lyinc  unburied  around  Belgiade,  laid  him 
on  a  sidc-bed,  and  he  died  in  the  same  year  in 
the  Franciscan  monastery  at  lUock.  He  was 
beatified  in  1E0O  and  canonized  in  1724  by  Bene- 
dict XIII.  He  was  the  audior  of  'Speculum 
Conscientix.'  Consult  Jacol^  *  Johannes  von 
Capistrano'    (2  vols.,  BresUu  1903-06). 

CAPISUCCHI,  ka-pe-sookTte,  or  CAPI- 
ZUCCA,  Blago,  or  Biaaio,  Marquis  cv  Mom- 
TERIO,  Italian  genera] ;  b.  Rome  about  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century;  d.  Florence  1613.  He  was 
in  the  service  of  Spain  in  the  Low  Countries, 
under  the  Duke  of  Parma^  in  15S4,  afterward  be- 
coming lieutenant-general  and  commander  of 
the  army  of  Ferdinand  I  dc  Medici,  Duke  of 
Tuscany.  He  fought  the  French  Protestants 
in  the  rdgn  of  Charles  IX,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  Clain,  near  Poitiers,  in  IS69. 

CAPISUCCHI,  Paolo,  Italian  ecclesiastic: 
h  Rome  1479  d.  there  1539.  Having  become 
bishop  of  Neocastro  he  was  summonea  to  Rome 
b^  Clement  VII,  who  referred  to  him  the  ques- 
tion of  a  divorce  between  Henn  VIII  of  Flng- 
land  and  Queen  Catherine.  In  this  matter 
Capisucchi  made  a  report  against  Henry  in  1534. 

CAPITAL.  Capital  as  a  factor  in  the  mod- 
em economic  system  is  wealth,  other  than  land, 
which  is  used  by  its  owner  to  secure  an  income 
rather  than  for  direct  enjoyment  Land  as  a 
natural  agent  is  usually  treated  in  a  class  by 
itself,  and  is  distinguished  from  products  of 
human  industry  and  enterprise.  These  products 
are  subdivided,  according  to  the  uses  to  which 
they  are  put,  info  producers'  goods  and  con- 
sumers' goods.  Producers'  goods  include  all 
tools,  machines,  buildings  ana  appliances  which 
are  used  in  production  while  consumers'  soods 
include  only  such  j;ooas  as  are  used  for  direct 
enjovment.  Capital  includes  all  producers' 
goods,  and  some  consumers'  goods.  It  includes 
all  producers'  goods  since  they  are  not  used 
for  direct  consumption  or  enjoyment,  but  rather 
for  the  purpose  ot  securing  odier  goods.  The 
term  capital,  however,  is  usually  made  to  in- 
clude, in  addition  to  producers'  goods,  sudi 
also  as  are  tised  by    their 


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a  consumer's  goods  from  the  standpoint  of  so- 
ciety, but  it  ii  capital  to  its  owner,  since-  lie  getj 
no  consumer's  enjoyment  from  it.  He  keeps 
it  for  the  income  which  it  brings  him.  A 
dwelling-house  is  likewise  a  consumer's  goods, 
but  if  It  is  rented,  it  is  capital  to  its  owner. 
Some  writers  have  accordingly  spoken  of  two 
kinds  of  capital,  first,  social  or  productive  capi' 
tal,  and  seconcL  private  or  acquisitive  ca;»tal. 
Social  or  productive  capital  is  synonymous 
vrith  producers'  goods,  while  pnvate  or  acnuisi' 
tlv«  capital  includes  such  consumers'  goods  as 
are  let,  rented  or  hired  by  their  owners  to  other 
people. 

Capital  is  sometimes  thou^t  of  not  as  a 
class  of  goods  but  as  a  fund  of  value.  There 
are  two  reasons  which  lead  to  this  way  of 
thinking.  In  the  first  place,  however  capital 
RH^  have  orieinated  historically,  the  charac- 
tenstic  method  through  which  one  comes  into 
possession  of  it  nowadays  is  that  of  purchase 
and  the  means  of  purchasing  is  money.  What- 
ever the  form  of  capital  which  one  ukimaiely 
possesses,  it  is  almost  certain  to  be  in  the  form 
of  money  at  one  time  or  another.  It  is,  of 
course,  a  mistake  to  say  that  cajiital  is  moner, 
A  work-horse  is  a  form  of  capital^  but  capital 
is  not  work-horses,  neither  is  capital  mon^, 
though  money  is  a  form  of  capital  Uoney 
may  be  used  as  a  tool  or  a  means  of  accom- 
plJMiing  more  than  could  be  accomplished  with~ 
out  it.  After  one  comes  into  the  possession  of 
money,  he  then  has  the  power  of  exchanging 
it  for  consumers'  goods  or  for  sources  of  in- 
come as  be  may  choose.  If  he  decides  to  pur- 
diase  sources  of  income,  he  is  said  to  invest  bis 
capital.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  is  merely  ct- 
changnng  one  form  of  capital  for  anodier. 
This  habit  of  speaking  as  though  one  had  in- 
vested capital  when  one  had  merely  invested 
money,  has  led  naturally  to  the  idea  that  capi' 
tal  is  money. 

Another  reason  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
caintal,  like  all  wealth,  is  measured  in  terms  of 
money,  and  its  quantity  so  expressed.  There 
is  no  good  way  of  saying  how  much  cai«tal 
iMie  possesses  except  bv  stating  it  in  terms  of 
money.  If  any  business  man  were  to  state  how 
much  caiMtal  he  used  in  his  business,  he  would 
be  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  saying  so  many 
dollars  or  so  many  dollars'  worth.  However, 
he  is  not  likely  to  labor  under  the  delusion  that 
capital  is  money.  If  he  were  to  state  in  what 
his  capital  consists,  he  would  not,  unless  he 
were  a  money  lender  pure  and  simple,  say  that 
it  consisted  of  money.  He  would  give  an  in- 
ventory of  his  productive  property,  or  of  the 
property  which  ne  used  in  his  business. 

Others  who  reject  the  idea  that  capital  is 
money  still  hold  to  the  idea  that  it  is  a  fund  of 
value.  The  distinction  is  made  between  capi- 
tal and  capital  f^ods,  capital  being  the  fund  of 
value  and  capital  goods  being  the  goods  in 
il^ch  that  fund  is  embodied.  No  great  harm 
can  come  from  this  use  of  words  so  long  as 
ih^  arr  properly  understood,  but  they  are  not 
ilnctly  accurate  and  may  lead  to  confusion. 
"Tba  value  of  the  goods  is  not  capital,  the  goods 
mrt  capital.  Value  is  the  important  quality 
which  they  all  possess  in  common,  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  the  only  quality  in  terms  of  which 
their   quantity   can    be    slated.     Money    is    the 


e  capital  is  to  aid 


value  which  makes  the  land  productive;  it  is  its 
productivity  or  its  usefulness  in  production 
which  gives  it  its  value.    Sitnilarly  it  is  the 

froductivity  of  any  piece  of  capital,  or  its  use* 
ulness  in  production,  which  gives  it  its  value. 
In  the  case  of  that  special  kind  of  caiutal 
known  as  money,  and  m  this  case  alone,  its 
productivity,  or  its  ability  to  aid  in  production, 
depends  upon  its  value  or  its  purchasing  power. 
In  all  the  other  cases,  it  is  (he  various  tools, 
machines^  builiUngs  and  other  bits  of  equip- 
*"""■  which  perform  the  function  of  aiding  ir 


production.  They  derive  their  value  from  the 
fact  that  they  perform  that  function.  It  is  not 
the  value  which  performs  the  function. 


Capital  is  the  combined  result  of  labor  per- 
formed in  the  making  of  the  thing^  which  con- 
stitute it,  and  of  the  waiting  which  is  neces- 
sary to  the  performance  of  work  long  in  ad- 
vance of  the  maturing  of  a  consumable  product 
The  labor  and  the  waiting  may  bofh  oe  per- 
formed by  the  same  person,  or  by  different 
persons.  They  are  performed  by  the  same  per- 
son when  a  roan,  say  a  farmer,  makes  his  own 
plow,  and  then  waits  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
plow  for  the  benefits  in  the  form  of  income  or 
the  products  of  the  plow.  They  arc  performed 
by  different  men'  when  the  farmer  buys  the 
plow  from  a  blacksmith,  paying  him  cash.  "The 
blacksmith  performed  the  labor  of  making  it, 
but  does  not  have  to  wait  for  its  benefits, 
since  he  is  already  paid  for  his  work.  The 
farmer  does  the  waiting,  having  surrendered 
present  cash  long  before  he  receives  the  benefits 
in  the  form  of  larger  crops  year  after  year, 
from  its  possession.  At  the  present  time,  in 
our  highly  complicated  industnal  system,  with 
its  increase  of  specialization,  the  working  and 
the  waiting  are  generally  performed  by  differ- 
ent persons.  Even  the  case  of  the  plow  made 
try  a  blacksmith  and  sold  to  a  farmer,  while  a 
real  case,  is  exceedingly  simple  as  compared 
with  the  average  process  of  capitalistic  accu- 
mulation. A  modern  plow  factory  is  usii^ 
macfaineiy  and  equipment,  that  is,  capital,  whi<£ 
was  made  in  other  factories,  and  these,  in  turn, 
are  using  other  capital  made  ih  still  other  fac- 
tories, and  so  on  back  to  the  mines,  and  there 
machinery  is  used  which  also  can  be  traced 
back  to  other  factories  and  other  mines.  But 
in  all  this  complex  system,  those  who  labor 
will  generally  be  paid  wages  as  they  go  aloi^, 
while  others  will  do  the  investing,  which  means 
that  they  must  spend  considerable  money  is 
advance  and  get  it  back  with  an  increase  over 
a  period  of  years.  Thus  the  two  functioni 
of  the  laborer  and  the  capitalist,  or  of  -labor 
and  capital  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  ave 
pretty  sharply  separated 

Capital  has  eristed,  of  course^  as  long  as 
tools  and  equipment  have  existed,  but  this 
separation  of  the  two  functions  has  becomd 
general  only  since  the  rise  of  machine  pro- 
duction. Before  that  time,  the  function  of  the 
capitalist  was  not  important  enough  to  create 


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CAt-ITAL  — CAt:  !'A1,  PUNISHMENT 


Digit  zed  sy  Google 


,  Googk 


CAPITAL— CAPITAL  PUNISHHBHT 


an  opportunity  for  many  men.  Not  enough 
capital  was  needed  in  the  more  primitive  forms 
Ot  induBtry  which  preceded  the  present  to 
enable  any  lar^e  number  of  men  to  Uve  on  its 
earnings.  It  is  this  fact  which  is  probably 
meant  when  it  is  erroneously  Stated  that  capi- 
tal in  the  modern  sense  came  into  existence 
with  the  rise  of  the  factory  system.  Capital 
in  the  modern  sense  does  not  tUffer,  except  in 
its  greater  quantity  and  in  the  greater  oppor- 
tunity it  gives  to  me  capitalist,  from  capital  in 
any  other  sense.  See  Income;  National 
Wealth. 

Thou  AS  N.   Cakveb, 
Proftsior  of  Politieal  Economy,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. 

CAPITAL,  M  architecture,  the  uppermost 
member  of  a  column,  that  is  to  say,  a  separate 
piece  of  stone  set  upon  the  shaft  and  supporting 
an  epistyle  or  the  abutment  of  an  arch  —  in 
short  the  mass  of  the  bmlding  which  is  imposed 
upon  the  column, 

A  column  must  always  have  a  shaft  and  a 
capital ;  without  theae  features  it  would  be  a 
post,  perhaps  a  pillar  or  a  pier,  but  would  have 
no  architectural  character.  The  capital,  more- 
over, has  generady  received  the  most  elaborate 
decorative  treatment  of  the  whole  composition. 
Thus  in  Egypt  while  the  shaft  might  be  cylin- 
drical or  Conical,  the  capital  would  spread  out 
immediately  in  curves  either  concave  or  convex, 
and  would  be  carved  and  painted.  It  is  even 
practicable  to  divide  Egyptian  columns  into 
lour  orders  by  their  capitals,  which  spread  in 
different  ways,  and  are  ornamented  in  differ- 
ent sculpture  more  nr  less  imitative  of  nature. 
The  idea  of  the  spread  given  to  the  capital  is, 
of  course,  that  in  this  way  the  superstructure  is 
taken  more  easily,  as  it  is  always  and  of  neces- 
sity much  larger  horizontally  than  the  column 
itself. 

The  stone  uprights  left  in  rock-cut  temples 
in  India  and  calleiTordinarily  pillars,  because  of 
their  varied  forms  — octagonal,  square  and  the 
like  —  are  still  divided  into  shaft  and  capital, 
though  the  forms  of  these  are  entirely  remote 
from  Egyptian  or  later  European  examijles. 
Thus,  some  capitals  consist  of  a  mere  enrich- 
ment of  the  uppermost  band  of  the  shaft  and  a 
superincumbent  block  very  elaborately  carved. 
In  some  cases  this  upper  block  gives  off  corbels 
and  consoles  which  help  to  carry  the  roof  by 
their  greater  spread 

The  capitals  which  have  excited  the  most  in- 
terest among  European  students  of  art  are 
those  of  the  three  Greek  orders  and  of  the  five 
Renaissance  orders  which  were  deduced  from 
the  first  three.  The  capital  of  the  Grecian 
Doric  is  a  reversal  cone  rounded  off  at  top  and 
carrying  a  square  plinth  or  die ;  this  plain 
eckinut  was  richly  painted  in  bri^t  colors. 
The  capital  of  the  Ionic  order  b  a  curious  de- 
vice consisting  of  scrolls  or  volutes,  two  on 
each  of  the  two  opposite  sides,  so  that  this 
capital,  almost  alone,  has  not  the  same  appear- 
ance from  every  point  of  view.  The  capital  of 
the  Corinthian  order  is  a  circular  bell,  sur- 
rounded by  acanthus  leaves  and  having  at  each 
comer  a  couple  of  projecting  scrolls  not  un- 
like those  of  the  Ionic  order  but  smalt.  This 
Corinthian  order  received  manv  modifications 
in  ancient  Roman  practice,  ann  one  of  these 
was  erected  fay  the  Renaissance  men    into    a 


separate  order,  the  so-called  Compodte.  From 
the  Grecian  Doric  the  Roman  Doric  took 
shape,  and  this  was  used  by  the  Renaissance 
men,  while  a  still  simfder  order  was  made  from 
it  and  called  the  Tuscan.  The  capitals  of  these 
two  orders  are  very  thin  and  low  in  vertical 
measurement,  and  consist  of  moldings  running 
round  the  continuation  of  the  shaft,  and  either 
plain  or  sh^tly  carved  into  the  simplest  of  the 
egg  and  dart  moldings  or  the  like. 

In  mediaeval  architecture,  both  Romanesque 
and  Gothic,  the  capitals  are  almost  infinitely 
varied.  The  strong  tendencv  of  the  time  to- 
ward elaborate  carving  maoe  this  block  of 
stone,  from  5  to  20  feet  above  Ae  aisles  and 
in  a  prominent  place,  a  most  temptii^ 
vehicle  for  sculpture,  and  the  abandonment  of 
the  classical  orders  left  every  artist  free  to 
design  his  own  system  of  leafage,  animal  forms 
and  the  like.  In  this  way  medueval  capitals  are 
often  of  extraordinary  beauty ;  but  no  a'  inpt 
has  been  made  to  classify  them  except  l  Iicy 
form  part  of  a  style.    See  Coluun. 

Russell  STira^ia. 

CAPITAL  (Das  Kapital),  a  noted  work  by 
Karl  Marx,  published  in  1867;  English  trans- 
lation edited  by  Fred  Engels,  1887;  a  book  of 
the  first  importance,  by  the  founder  of  interna- 
tional socialism.  The  conservative  aspect  of 
Marx's  teaching  is  in  the  fact  that  he  honestly 


actually  is;  and  that  he  does  not  think  out  and 
urge  his  own  ideal  program  of  social  reform, 
but  strives  to  understand  and  to  make  under- 
stood what  must  inevitably  take  place. 

CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT  (Latin  caput. 
'the  head' ;  hence  capitalis,  "pertaining  to  or 
affecting  the  head';  hence  "affecting  the  life*), 
the  punishment  of  death.  The  questions  most 
commonly  discussed  by  philosophers  and  jurists 
tmder  this  head  are:  (l)  As  to  the  right  of 
governments  to  inflict  the  punishment  of  death ; 
^2^  as  to  the  expediency  of  such  punishment; 


(3>  s 


)  the  c 


be  most  properly  con&ied  and  limited;   (4)   as 
to  the  manner  in  which  it  should  be  inflicted. 

I.  As  to  the  right  of  inflicting  the  punish- 
ment of  death.  This  has  been  doubted  by  some 
distinguished  persons  and  the  doutd  is  often 
the  accompaniment  of  a  highly  cultivated  mind, 
inclined  to  the  indulgence  of  a  romantic  sensi- 
UUty,  and  beUeving  in  hiunan  perfectibility. 
One  of  the  first  men  of  prominence  to  advocate 
the  abolition  of  capital  punishment  was  Robes- 
pierre, the  French  revolutionist,  who  not 
only  wrote  many  pamphlets  against  it,  but  re- 
signed his  position  as  cruninal  judge  of  Arra^ 
to  avoid  pronouncing  a  death  sentence.  The 
right  of  society  to  punish  offenses  against  its 
safety  and  ^;ood  order  will  scarcely  be  doubted 
by  any  considerate  person.  In  a  slate  of  nature 
individuals  have  a  right  to  guard  themselves 
from  injury,  and  to  repel  all  aggressions  by  a 
force  or  precaution  adttiuate  to  the  object 
This  results  from  the  right  of  self-preservation. 
If  a  person  attempts  to  take  away  my  life,  1 
have,  doubtless,  a  right  to  protect  myself 
against  the  attempt  by  all  reasonable  means. 
If  I  cannot  secure  myself  but  by  taldng  the 
life  of  the  assailant,  I  have  a  right  to  take 
it  It  would  otherwise  follow  that  1  must  sub- 
mit to  a  wrong,  and  lose  n^  life  rather  than 


Cig 


v  Google 


d=,  Google 


Digil  zed  =,  Google 


4laogli' 


Digitized  =,  Google 


r.l  1»-  WiTll   CAI'I'I 


,  Google 


d=,  Google 


I'll  lo  WirH  CAl'l! 


,  Google 


d=,  Google 


PIERS  WITH  CAPITALS  Digitized  6y  GoOglC 


d=,  Google 


Capital  pukiSHMSNT 


preserve  i 
It    It  can 


t  by  the  means  adeauate  to  naintatn 

It  cannot,  tfaen,  be  denied,  that  in  a  state 
of  nature  men  may  repel  force  by  force,  and 
may  even  justiy  take  away  life,  if  necessary, 
to  preserve  their  own.  When^  men  enter  so- 
ciety, the  right  to  protect  themselves  from  in- 
jury and  to  redress  wrongs  is  transferred  gen- 
erally from  the  individuals  to  the  community. 
We  sajr  that  it  is  generally  so,  because  it  must 
be  obvious  that  in  many  cases  the  natural  right 
of  self-deffinae  must  remain.  If  a  robber  at- 
tacks one  on  the  highway,  or  attempts  to  mur- 
der him,  it  is  clear  that  he  has  a  right  to  rei>el 
tiie  assault,  and  to  take  the  life  of  the  assail- 
ant if  necessary  for  his  safeti^  since  society  in 
such  a  case  could  not  afford  Kim  any  adequate 
and  prompt  protection.  The  necessi^  of  instant 
relief,  and  of  instant  application  of  force,  justi- 
fies the  act,  and  is  recognized  in  all  civilized 
communities.  When  the  right  of  society  is 
once  admitted  to  punish  for  offenses,  it  seems 
diflkuU  to  assign  any  limits  to  the  exercise  of 
that  tight,  short  of  what  the  exigencies  of  so- 
ciety require.  If  a  state  has  a  ri^t  to  pro- 
tect itself  and  its  citiiens  in  the  enjoyment  of 
its  privileges  and  its  peace,  it  must  have  a  n^t 
to  ai^ly  means  adequate  to  this  object,  "nie 
object  of  human  punishments  is,  or  may  be, 
threefold:  (1)  To  reform  the  offender  (2)  to 
deter  others  from  offending;  and  (3)  to  secure 
tlie  safety  of  the  commumtj^,  by  oepriving  the 
offender  of  the  power  of  doing  mischief.  The 
first  consideration  has  only  ktelv  entered  into 
human  legislation,  because  of  tae  inadequacy 
of  our  means  to  produce  great  moral  resafts  ^ 
the  infliction  of  punishment.  The  two  latter 
considerations  enter  largely  into  the  dteory  and 
practice  of  legislation.  Who  is  to  be  the  judge 
in  such  cases  F  what  is  the  adequate  punishment 
for  any  offense?  Certainly  punishments  ought 
not  to  be  inflicted  which  are  uiterlv  dispro- 
portionate to  the  offense,  and  beyond  the  exi- 
^ncies  of  society.  No  government  has  a  right 
'to  punish  cruelty  and  wantonly  and  from  mere 
revenge ;  but  still,  the  discretion  must  be  vested 
somewhere,  to  say  what  shall  be  the  degree  of 
punishment  to  be  assigned  to  a  particular 
offense.  That  discretion  must  be,  from  its 
nature,  justly  a  part  of  the  legislative  power, 
and  to  be  exercised  according  to  the  actual  state 
of  society.  It  may, —  nay,  it  must, —  be  differ- 
ently exercised  in  different  ages  and  in  differ- 
ent countries ;   for  the  same  punidiment  which 


wholly  fail  of  the  effect  If  mdd  punishments 
fail  of  effect,  more  severe  ones  must  be  re. 
sorted  to  if  the  offense  be  of  a  nature  which 
affects  society  m  its  vital  principles,  or  safety, 
or  interests.  The  very  frequency  of  a  crime 
must  often  furnish  a  very  strong  ground  for 
severe  punishment,  not  only  as  it  furnishes 
proof  that  the  present  punishment  is  insufficient 
to  deter  men  from  committing  it,  but  from  the 
increased  necessity  of  protecting  society  against 
dangerous  crimes.  But  it  is  often  said  that  lite 
is  the  gift  of  God,  and  therefore  it  cannot  justly 
be  taken  away,  either  by  the  party  himself  or 
another.  If  he  cannot  take  it  away,  he  cannot 
confer  that  power  on  others.  But  the  fallacy 
of  Ibis  argument  is  obvious.  Life  is  no  more 
the  gift  of  God  than  other  personal  endow- 
meats  or  rights.    A  man  has,  by  the  gift  of 


861 

God,  a  right  to  personal  liberty  and  locomo- 
tion, as  well  as  to  life;  to  eat  and  drink  and 
breathe  at  large,  as  well  as  to  exist,  vet  no  one 
doubts  that,  by  way  of  punishment,  he  may  be 
confined  in  a  solitary  cell ;  that  he  may  be  per- 
petually imprisoned  or  deprived  of  free  air,  or 
compelled  to  live  on  bread  and  water.  In 
short,  no  one  doubts  that  he  may  be  restrained 
in  the  exercise  of  any  privileges  or  natural 
rights  short  of  taking  his  life.  Yet  the  reason- 
ing, if  worth  anything,  extends  to  all  these 
cases  in  an  equal- de^ee.  If,  by  his  crimes,  a 
man  may  justly  forfeit  his  personal  rights,  why 
not  his  life?  But  we  have  seen  that  it  is  not 
true,  even  in  a  state  of  nature,  that  a  man's 
life  may  not  be  taken  away  by  another  if  the 
necessity  of  the  case  requires  it  Why,  then, 
may  not  society  do  the  same  if  its  own  safety 
trquires  it?  Is  the  safety  of  one  person  more 
important  than  the  safety  of  the  whole  com- 
muftity?  Then,  again  as  to  a  man's  inability 
to  confer  on  others  a  right  which  he  does  not 
lumself  possess.    Suppose  it  is  so;  the  conse- 

?uence  which  is  deduced  from  this  does  not,  in 
act,  arise.  Blackstone,  indeed,  seems  to  de- 
duce ttie  right  of  society  to  punish  capital 
offenses  in  certain  cases  (that  is,  in  cases  of 
mala  firohibila  and  not  mala  in  se)  from  the 
consent  of  the  offenders.  The  Marquis  Bee- 
caria,  on  the  other  hand,  denies  that  any  such 
consent  can  confer  the  right,  and  therefore 
objects  to  its  existence.  But  the  notion  of 
consent  is,  in  nearly  alt  cases,  a  mere  theory, 
having  no  foundation  in  fact.  If  a  foreigner 
comes  into  a  countr]^  and  commits  a  crime  af 
his  first  entrance,  it  is  a  very  forced  construc- 
tion to  say  that  he  consents  to  be  bound  by  its 
laws.  If  a  pirate  commits  piracy,  it  is  absurd 
to  say  that  he  consents  to  the  ri^t  of  all 
nations  to  punish  him  for  it.  The  true  and 
rational  ground  on  which  the  right  rests'  is  not 
the  consent  of  the  offender,  but  the  right  of 
every  society  to  protect  its  own  peace,  interests, 
property  and  institutions,  and  the  utter  want  of 
any  ri^t  in  other  persons  to  disturb  or  destroy 
or  subtract  them.  The  right  flows,  not  from 
consent,  but  from  the  le^timate  institution  of 
society.  If  men  have  a  right  to  form  a  society 
for  mutual  benefit  and  securihr  they  have  k 
right  to  punish  other  persons  who  would  over- 
throw it  There  are  many  cases  where  a  state 
authorizes  ^life  to  be  taken  away,  the  lawfulness 
of  which  is  not  doubted.  No  reasonable  man 
doubts  the  rii^t  of  a  nation,  in  a  just  war,  espe- 
cially of  self-defense,  to  repel  force  by  force 
and  to  take  away  the  lives  of  its  enemies.  And 
the  right  b  not  confined  to  repelling  present 
force,  but  it  extends  to  precautionary  measures 
which  are  necessatv  for  the  ultimate  safety  of 
the  nation.  In  such  a  war  a  nation  ma^  jusllx 
insist  upon  the  sacrifice  of  the  Uves  of  its  owti 
citizens,  however  innocent,  for  the  purpose  of 
ensuring  its  own  safety.  Accordingly  we  find 
that  all  nations  enroll  militia  and  employ  troops 
for  war,  and  require  them  to  hazard  their  lives 
for  the  preservation  of  the  state.  In  these 
cases  life  is  freely  sacrificed  by  the  nation;  and 
the  laws  macted  for  such  purposes  are  deemed 
just  exercises  of  power.  If  so,  why  may  not 
life  be  taken  away  by  way  of  punishment  if  the 
safety  of  society  requires  it?  If  a  nation  may 
authorize,  in  war,  the  destruction  of  thousands, 
why  may  it  not  authorize  the  destruction  of  a 
single    life,    if    self-preservation    reqtures   it? 


[I  git  zed 


V  Google 


m 


CA^EfAt  PUKlfiUHBHT 


TJne  mistake,  however,  is  la  suppoting  tlvat-lifa 
cwuiQt  be  taken  away  without  the  consent  of 
the  party.  If  the  foregoing  reasoning  be  cor- 
rect, ^uch  consent  is  neiuier  supposed  nor 
necessary.  In  truth,  the  supposition  of  an 
original  compact  between  al]  the  persons  who 
are  subject  to  the  regulations  of  a  society,  by 
their  owa  free  consent,  as  the  necessary  and 
proper  basis  on  which  all  the  rights  of  such 
society  defend,  is. at  best  a  gratuitous  supposi- 
tion, and  It  sotoetimes  leads  to  very  incorrect 
results.  It  may  be  added  that  the  Scriptures 
most  clearly  recognize  and  justify  the  inoicttoa 
^f  capital  punishments  in  certain  cases. 
-  2^  As  to  the  expediency  of  capital  punish- 
ment This  o^ens  a  wide  field  for  discussioo. 
Some  able  men  who  do  not  doubt  the  righi  do 
still  deny  the  expediency  of  inflicting  it.  It  may 
be  admitted  that  a  wise  legislature  ought  to  b« 
slow  in  aMxlng  such  a  punishment  to  any  but 
very  enormous  and  dangerous  crimes.  ^he 
frequency  of  a  crime  is  not  of  itself  a  sufficient 
reason  for  resorting  to  such  a  punishment.  It 
should  be  a  crime  of  srcat  atrocity  and  danger 
lo  socien-,  and  one  wnieh  cannot  otherwise  be 
effectually  guarded  against.  In  affixing  punish- 
ments to  any  otfcnse,  we  should  consiaer  what 
are  the  objects  and  ends  of  punishment,  It  is 
cleat  that  capita!  punishment  can  have  no  effect 
in  reforming  the  offender  himself.  It  may 
have,  and  ordinarily  docs  have,_  the  effect  oE 
deterring  others  from  committing,  a  like 
offense;  but  still,  human  experience  shows  that 
even  this  punishment,  when  inflicted  for  small 
offenses,  which  are  easily  perpetrated,  and  to 
which  there  is  great  temptation,  does  not  always 
ojterate  as  an  effectual  terror.  Men  are  some- 
tunes  hardened  by  the  frequent  spectacles  of 
capital  punishments  and  grow  indifferent  to 
them.  Familiarity  deprives  them  of  their 
horror.  The  bloodiest  codes  are  not  those  which 
have  most  effectually  suppressed  offenses.  Be- 
sides, public  opinion  has  great  weight  in  pro- 
ducing the  acquittal  or  condemnation  of 
offenders.  If  a  punishment  be  grossly  dispro- 
'   to  the  offense,  if  it  shock  human 


punishment;  so  that,  as  far  as  certainty  of  pun- 
ishment operates  to  deter  from  crimes,  the  ob- 
ject of  ttie  legislature  is  often  thus  defeated. 
It  may  be  added  ttiat  a  reasonable  doubt  may 
fairly  be  entertained  whether  any  society  can 
lawfully  exercise  the  power  of  punishing  be- 
yond what  the  just  exigencies  of  that  society 
require.  On  the  other  hani  a  total  abolition 
9f  capital  punishments  would,  in  some  cases  at 
least,  expose  society  to  the  risk  of  deep  and 
vital  injuries.  A  man  who  has_  committed 
.  murder  deliberately  has  proved  himself  unfit 
for  society  and  regardless  of  all  the  duties 
which  belong  to  it  The  safety  of  society  is 
most  effectually  guarded  by  cutting  him  off 
from  the  power  of  doing  further  mischief.  If 
his  life  be  not  taken  away,  the  only  other 
means  left  are  confinement  for  life  or  trans- 
portation and  exile  for  life.  Neither  of  these 
IS  a  perfect  security  against  the  commission  of 
other  crimes,  and  may  not  always  be  within  the 
power  of  a  nation  without  great  inconveniien(;p 
and  great  expense  to  itself.  It  is  true  that  the 
latter  puitismnents  leave  open  the  chance  of 
reform  to  the  offender,  which  is  indeed  but 
too  often  a  mere  delusion;  but,  on  the  other 


band*  ibey  grtatly  diminish  the  influence  of 

another  salutary  principle,  the  deterring  of 
others  from  committing  like  crimes.  It  seems 
to  us  therefore  that  it  is  difBcult  to  maintam 
the  proposition  tliat  capital  punishments  are  at 
^  times  and  under  all  considerations  inex- 
pedient It  may  rather  be  afiirmed  that  in  some 
.......  ■  ■       ,  the 

however,  entirely  abolished  capital  pun- 
ishment, as  is  the  case  in  Holland,  Rumania, 
Portugal,  a  certain  number  of  the  Swiss  can- 
tons, and  some  States  of  the  American  Union, 
including  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Maine,  Rhode 
Island  and  Kansas.  It  was  entirely  abolished 
in  Switzerland  in  1874,  but  a  few  years  after, 
owing  to  the  increase  of  murders,  it  was  agiun 
made  pennissible.  It  was  also  for  a  time  done 
away  with  in  Austria  and  in  one  or  two  of  the 
States  of  this  country,  while  in  Russia  it  was 
abolished  in  17S(\  onb"  to  be  revived  for  politi- 
cal offenses  when  the  Revolutionary  agitators 
became  numerous.  It  was  again  aboUuied  in 
1917  by  the  Revolutionary  government 

3.  As  to  the  crimes  to  which  capital  pun- 
ishments may  most  properly  be  limited.  From 
what  has  been  already  said  it  is  plain  that  thi: 
must  d^end  upon  the  particular  circumstances 
of  every  age  and  nation;  and  much  must  be 
left  to  the  exercise  of  a  sound  discretion  on 
the  part  of  the  legislature.  As  a  general  rule 
humanity  forbids  such  punishments  to  be  ap- 
plied to  any  but  crimes  of  very  great  enormity 
and  danger  to  individuals  or  the  state.  If  anv 
crimes  can  he  efieclually  suppressed  by  mod- 
erate means,  these  ought  certainly  to  be  first 
resorted  to.  The  experience,  however,  of  most 
nations,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  nature  and 
extent  of  their  criminal  l^slation,  seems  to 
disprove  the  opinion  so  often  indulged  by  phi- 
lanthropists that  capital  punishments  are  wholly 
unnecessary.  The  codes  of  moat  dvilized  na- 
tions used  to  abound  with  capital  punishments. 
That  of  Great  Brilain  long  continued  lo  be  very 
sanctuary.  Blackstonc,  in  his  'Commentaries,' 
admits  that  in  his  time  not  less  than  160  crimes 
were,  by  the  English  law,  punishable  with  death. 
Forgery  was  one  of  these  up  to  the  reign  of 
William  IV.  The  only  crimes  for  whidi  capital 
punishment  may  now  be  inflicted,  according  to 
the  law  of  England,  are  high  treason  and  mur- 
der. The  law  in  Scotland  is  subslandally  the 
same,  a  sentence  of  capital  punishment  now 
being  competent  only  ia  cases  of  treason,  mur- 
der and  attempts  to  murder  in  certain  cases. 
By  United  States  statutes  nine  crimes  are  so 
punishable,    including   treason,    murder,   ars(ML 


glary,  rape  and  s - 

enormity  and  of  a  kindred  character,  i1 
tremely  questionable  whether  there  can  uc  "i- 
cessitjF  or  expedient  in  applying  so  great  a 
seventy.  Beccaria,  with  hb' characteristic  hu- 
manity and  sagacity,  has  strongly  urged  that  the 
certainly  of  ^unisninent  is  more  important  to 
detbr  from  crimes  than  the  severity  of  it 

4.  As  to  the  manner  of  inflicting  the  ))unish- 
ment  of  death.  This  has  been  difTcrent  in  dif- 
ferent countries,  and  in  different  stages  o!  dvi- 
tization  in  the  same  co tin  tries.  Barbavtmi 
nations  are   generally  inclined   to   severe   vA 


Digitized 


6,  Google 


CAPITAL  PUHI8HMKHT 


vindictive  puidshments ;  aad,  where  they  punish 
.with  deadi,  to  ag^^vale  it  by  prolonging  the 
sufferings  of  the  victim  with  mgenions  devices 
in  cmelty.  And  even  in  civilized  countries,  in 
cases  of  a  political  nature  or  of  vety  great 
atrocity,  the  punishment  has  been  someomes  in- 
flicted with  many  horrible  aocompanimentB. 
Tearing  the  criminal  to  pieces,  ^ercing  his 
breast  with  a  pcnnted  pole;  pinchu^  to  death 
with  red-hot  pincers;  atarvioft  to  death;  break- 
ing his  fimbs  upon  the  wheel ;  pressing  to  deaA 
in  a  slow  and  lingering. manner;  burning  at  the 
stake;  cmcifixian;  sawtne  to  pieces;  quartering 
alive;  expostire  to  wild  beasts;  and  other  sav- 
age jjuni^mients,  have  been  sometitties  resorted 
r  the  purposes  of  vei^^ 

^__   orpublic   terror.     Comp: 

the  infliction  of  death  by  drowr___      _ „ — „, 

poisoning,  blee<En{^  beheading,  snooting  or 
hanging  is  a  moderate  punishment.  In  modern 
times  public  opinion  is  strongly  disposed  to  dis- 
countenance die   punishment   of   death   by  any 

'  but  simple  means;  and  the  inflictian  of  torture 
Is  almost  universally  reprobated.  Even  in  gov- 
ernments where  it  is  still  countenanced  by  the 

.  laws  it  is  rarely  resorted  to ;  and  the  sentence 
b  remitted,  by  the  policy  of  the  government, 
beyond  die  simple  infliction  of  death.  In  Prus- 
sia, where  atrocious  criminals  were  required  by 
the  penal  code  to  be  broken  upon  the  wheel,  the 
King  latterly  used  always  to  issue  an  order  to 
the  executioner  to  strangle  the  criminal  (which 
was  done  by  a  small  cord  not  easily  seen)  before 
his  limbs  were  broken.  So  in  the  same  country, 
where  robbery  attended  with  destruction  of  life 
was  punishedby  bumingalive,  the  faggots  were 
so  arranged  as  to  form  a  kind  of  cell  in  which 
the  criminal  was  suffocated  by  the  fumes  of  sul- 
phur, or  other  means,  before  the  flame  coutd 
reach  him.  Not  only  is  torture  now  abolished 
by  dviliied  nations,  but  even  the  infliction  of 
capital  punishment  in  public  has  beenigiven  np 
|w  most  of  diem.  In  England,  in  hi^  treason, 
the  criminal  is  sentenced  to  be  drawn  to  the 
gallows,  to  be  hanged  by  the  neck  until  h«  be 
dead  to  have  his  head  cut  ofF,  and  his  body 
diviaed  into  four  parts,  and  these  to  be  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Crown.  But,  generally,  all  the 
punishment  is  remitted  by  the  Crown,  except 
the  hanging  and  beheading,  and  these  too  may 
be  altogether  remitted  according  to  drcinn- 
stances.  In  other  cases  the  pnnishment  is  now 
simply  by  hanging,  or,  in  the  military  and  naval 
service,  by  shooting.     In  France  formerly  the 

Sunishment  of  death  was  often  inflicted  by 
reaking  the  criminal  on  the  wheel.  The  usual 
punishment  now  is  beheading  by  the  guillotine. 
In  1B53  a  kind  of  guillotine  {FaUschwert)  was 
introduced  into  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  it 
bas  since  been  adopted  as  the  means  of  execu- 
tion in  several  other  German  slates.    In  Aus- 


but  the  usual  punishment  is  beheading  witii  a 
heavy  axe,  the  criminal's  head  being  first  tied 
to  a  block.  In  one  or  two  German  states  execu- 
tion by  the  sword  still  exists.  It  should  be 
remarked,  however,  that  in  Germany  hanging 
'has  always  been  deemed  the  most  infamous  sort 
of  punishment;  and  the  sentence  has  often  been 
commuted  for  beheading  by  the  sword  as  a 
milder  or  less  dishonorable  mode  of  punishment. 
In  the  United  States  of  America  hanging  is 
the  Almost  universal  mode  of  capital  pmush- 


ment,  though  electrocution  has  been  adopted  In 
New  York  and  Massachusetts,  and  several  other 
States.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  Sutes 
contains  a  provision  aj^inst  'cruel  and  tmusual 
punishments.*  In  Chma  decapitation  by  the 
sword  is  the  usual  form  ;  murderers  are  cut  to 
pieces;  robbers  not.  In  Russia  the  franishment 
of  death  was  until  1917  frequently  inflicted  by 
'  the  knduC  In  Turkey  stranding  and  sewing 
the  criminal  np  in  a  bag,  and  throwing  him 
into  the  sea,  are  common  modes  of  punishmenL 
In  llie  Roman  code  many  severe  and  cruel 
ptmishnKnts  were  prescribed.  During  the 
favored  times  of  the  republic  many  of  these 
were  abolished  or  mitigated.  But  again,  under 
the  emperors,  they  were  revived  with  full 
severity.  In  the  ancient  Grecian  states  the 
modes  of  pnnisfament  were  also  severe  and  often 
cruel.  The  ancient  Greek  mode  of  capital  pun* 
ishment  by  taking  poison  at  such  hour  as  the 
condemned  party  should  choose,  seems  never  to 
have  been  in  use  among  any  Christian  people. 

Whedier  execution  ought  to  be  public  or 
private  has  been  a  question  much  discussed^  and 
one  upon  which  a  great  diversity  of  omnion 
exists  among  intelligent  statesmen.  On  the  one 
band,  it  is  said  that  public  spectacles  of  ^is 
sort  nave  a  tendency  to  brutalize  and  harden  the 
people,  or  to  make  them  indifFerent  to  the 
punishment;  and  the  courage  and  firmness  with 
which  the  criminal  often  meets  death  have  a 
tendency  to  awaken  feelings  o£  sympathy,  and 
even  of  admiration,  and  to  take  away  much  of 
the  horror  of  the  offense  as  well  as  of  the 
punishment.  On  die  other  hand  it  is  said  that 
the  great  influence  of  punishment  in  deterring 
others  from  the  like  oSense  cannot  be  obtained 
in  any  other  way.  It  is  the  only  means  to  bring 
home  to  the  mass  of  the  people  a  salutary  dread 
and  warning;  and  it  is  a  public  admonition  of 
thb  certainty  of  punishment  following  upon 
crime.  It  is  also  added  that  all  punishments 
ought  to  be  subjected  to  the  public  scrutiny,  so 
that  it  may  be  known  that  all  the  law  requires, 
and  no  more,  has  been  done.  Since  1868  the 
law  of  the  United  Kingdom  has  required  all 
executions  to  take  place  privately  within  the 
prison  walls,  and  this  system  seems  to  have 
^ven  general  satisfaction.  The  same  method 
is  also  practised  in  various  other  countries.  In 
1870  a  similar  measure  was  proposed  in  the 
French  Assembly,  but  the  war  prevented  it 
being  passed  and  it  is  not  yet  law. 

In  England,  the  court  before  which  the  trial 
is  held  aedares  the  sentence  ^nd  directs  the 
execution  of  iL  In  the  courts  of  the  United 
States  there  is  a  like  authori^;  but  in  the  laws 
of  many  of  the  States  there  is  a  provision  that 
the  execution  shall  not  take  place  except  hy  a 
warrant  from  the  governor,  or  other  executive 
authority.  In  cases  of  murder  and  other  atro- 
cious crimes  the  punishment  in  England  is 
usually  inflicted  at  a  very  short  interval  after 
the  sentence.  In  America  there  is  usually  al- 
lowed a  very  considerable  interval,  varying  from 
one  month  to  six  months.  In  Great  Britain 
appeal  is  allowed,  on  a  point  of  law,  and  on  a 
question  of  fact,  if  the  judge  certifies  the  ca^e 
as  fit  for  appeal,  or  the  Court  of  Criminal  Ap- 
peal grants  leave  to  appeal.  On  conviction  the 
judge  can  reserve  a  question  of  law,  but  not  of 
fact,  for  the  Court  of  Criminal  Appeal,  which 
can  reverse  or  affirm  the  judgment.  The  only 
Other   method    of    securing    a .  revtsifur^of    a 


Lioogic 


CAPITALS  —  CAPITOL 


s  by  the  Royal  Prerogadve,  exercised 

on  the  advice  of  the  Home  Secretary.  In  the 
United  States  there  is  considerable  latitude  of 
appeal.  In  France  there  may  be  a  review  in 
the  Court  of  Cassation.  In  Germany  there  is, 
in  criminal  as  in  civil  cases,  a-  right  of  appeal ; 
hence,  in  that  country>  few  innocent  persons 
have  suffered  capitally  since  the  16th  century. 
Capital  punishment  cannot  be  inflicted,  by  the 
general  humanity  of  the  laws  of  modem  nations, 
upon  persons  who  are  insane  or  who  are 
pregnant,  until  the  latter  are  delivered  and 
the  former  become  sane.  It  is  aaid  that 
Frederick  the  Great  required  all  judgments  of 
fais  courts  condemning  persons  to  death  to  be 
written  on  blue  paper;  thus  he  was  constantly 
reminded  of  them  as  they  lay  on  his  table 
among  other  jupers,  from  which  they  were 
readily  dislin^isoed.  He  usually  took  a  long 
time  to  consider  such  cases,  and  thus  set  an 
excellent  example  to  sovereigns  of  their  duty. 
Consult  Curtis,  N.  M  'Capital  Crimes'  (New 
York  1894);  Actes  du  8me  Congris  ptaiten- 
tiaire  international  (1910). 

CAPITALS  (majuscula),  the  large  letters 
used  in  writitig  and  printing  most  commonly  as 
the  initial  letters  of  certain  words,  or  of  all 
words  in  certain  positions,  and  distinguished 
from  the  small  letters  (mitiusatla) .  As  among 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  so  also  in  the 
early  part  of  the  Middle  A^es,  all  books  were 
written  without  any  distinction  in  the  kind  of 
letters  used:  but  ^dually  the  practice  became 
common  of  bc^nmng  a  book,  subsequenttv,  also, 
the  chief  divisions  and  sections  of  a  boot,  widi 
a  large  capital  letter,  usually  illuminated  and 
otherwise  richly  ornamented.  In  legal  or  state 
documents  of  the  13th  century  capital  lctters_are 
found  dispersed  over  the  text  as  the  initial 
letters  of  proper  names,  and  of  the  names  of 
the  Deity,  and  in  the  next  century  the  same 
usage  was  followed  in  ordinary  manuscripts. 
The  practice  with  regard  to  the  use  of  capitals 
varies  in  different  countries.  Sentences  and 
proper  names  begin  almost  universally  with 
capitals,  but  there  are  several  other  cases  in 
which  the  usage  is  not  so  general.  In  English 
there  cannot  be  said  to  be  any  invariable  rule 
regulating  thdr  use.  The  first  personal  pro- 
noun is  always  written  and  printed  with  a  capi- 
tal letter,  and  it  is  common  aUo  to  begin  titles 
and  the  names  of  well-known  public  bodies, 
,  institutions,  etc.,  with  capitals.  For- 
■      begin  all 


Still  the  rule  in  (^rman.  The  Germans  also  be- 
gin all  titles  and  pronouns  of  address  with  capi- 
tals, but  not  the  first  personal  pronoun.  One 
point  in  whidi  the  English  practice  differs  from 
that  of  Germany,  France,  Ital^  and  other  con- 
tinental  countries,  is  in  beginning  adjectives 
derived  from  proper  names,  such  as  Spanish, 
Italian,  etc,  like  proper  names  themselves,  with 
capitals,  such  adjectives  being  printed  in  other 
countries  entirely  with  small  letters.  See  Al- 
phabet; Wbitinc,  and  consult  Pron,  'Uanuel 
de  paliographie  latine>  (3d  ed..  Paris  1910); 
Thompson,  E.  M.,  'Greek  and  Latin  Pala»g- 
■raphy*  (Oxford  1912). 

CAPITANIS,    kSp-I-ta'nis.      See    Aiika- 

TO[£S. 


Thus  a  capitation  tax  is  a  tax  itiipoted  iipon  all 
the  members  of  a  stat^  each  of  whom  has  to 
pay  his  share,  and  is  distinguished  from  taxes 
Upon  merchandise,  etc.  A  capita tion-^rant  is  a 
grant  given  to  a  number  of  persons,  a  certain 
amount  being  allowed  for  every  individual 
among  the  number.  Class  capitation  taxes, 
when  differentiated  according  to  fortune,  be- 
come income  taxes.  In  France  of  pre-revolu- 
tionary  days  graduated  capitation  taxes  were 
levied  and  were  intended  to  reach  all  classes. 
The  privileged  classes,  however,  succeeded  by 
various  means  in  evading  tdther  wholly  or  in 
part  these  taxes  and  die  unequal  burden  thus 
thrown  on  the  great  unprivileged  class  was  one 
of  the  fundamental  causes  of  the  Revolution. 

CAPITO,  ca'p§-to,  or  KOPFBL.  WoM- 
KUig  Fabrldoa,  Alsatun  reformer:  b.  Haee- 
nau  1478 ;  d.  Strassburg,  November  1^1. 
Entering  the  Benedictine  order,  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Basel,  where  he  showed 
in  his  lectures  a  tendency  to  shake  off  the  tram- 
mels of  the  scholastic  writers.  In  1523  he  was 
made  provost  of  Saint  Thomas,  Strassbuiv.  He 
approved  of  Luther's  action,  but  nevertheless 
in  1SI9  entered  the  service  of  Albert  of  Maiiu; 
and  it  was  not  till  some  years  later  that  he 
finally  declared  for  the  Reformation.  He  then 
entered  xealously  into  its  work,  shared  with 
Bucer  the  composition  of  the  Confessio  Tetra- 
politana,  and  took  part  in  the  Synod  of  Bern 
in  IS32.  His  earnest  work  for  Christian  unity 
caused  him  to  be  viewed  with  suspicion  by  the 
narrower-minded  among  the  Reformers.  Con- 
sult Baum,  'Capito  und  Bucer*  (Elberfeld 
1860). 


CAPITOL,  n 


number    of    persons   individually. 


Campidoglio,  the  dtadel  of 
ancicm  Komc,  stanoing  on  the  (^pitoline  Hill, 
the  smallest  of  the  seven  hills  of  Rome,  an- 
ciently called  the  Saturnine  and  the  Tarpeian 
Rock.  It  was  planned  and  said  to  have  been 
begun  by  Tarqumius  Priscus,  but  not  completed 
till  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings.  At  the 
time  of  the  dvil  commotions  under  Sulla  it  was 
burned  down,  and  rebuilt  by  the  Senate.  It 
^ain  suffered  the  same  fate  twice,  and  was 
restored  b^  Vespasian  and  Domitian.  The  lat- 
ter caused  it  to  be  built  with  great  splendor,  and 
instituted  there  the  Capitoline  games.  Diotiy- 
sius  says  the  temple,  with  the  exterior  pillars, 
was  200  feet  lone  and  185  broad.  The  whole 
building  consisted  of  three  temples,  which  were 
dedicated  to  Jupiter,  Juno  and  Minerva,  and 
separated  from  one  another  by  walls.  In  tbe 
wide  portico  triumphal  banquets  were  given  to 
die  peofde.  The  statue  of  Jupiter,  in  the  capi- 
toL  represented  him  sitting  on  a  throne  of 
ivory  and  gold,  and  consisted  in  the  earliest 
times  of  day  painted  red.  Under  Trajan,  it 
was  formed  of  gold.  The  roof  of  the  temple 
was  made  of  bronie;  it  was  gilded  by  Qninttu 
C^tulus.  The  doors  were  of  the  same  metal. 
Splendor  and  expense  were  lavished  upon  tbe 
whole  edifice.  On  the  pediment  stood  a 
chariot,  drawn  by  four  horses,  at  first  of  day, 
and  afterward  of  gilded  brass.  The  temple 
itself  contained  an  immense  quantity  of  me 
most  magnificent  presents.  The  most  important 
papers  were  preserved  in  it.  The  Capitoline 
Hill  consists  of  three  parts,  namely,  the  norlJl- 
em  summit,  now  occujMed  by  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  in  Aracceli;  the  southern  summit, 
crowned  by  the  Patuso  CafEarelU,  osually  oc- 


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CAHTOL  AT  WASHIHQTOH 


cmued  by  tlie  Gennui  ambassador;  and  thft 
depression  between  these,  in  which  is  now  the 
Piazza  del  Campidoglio.  The  above  church, 
which  is  approached  from  the  northwest  by  a 
lofty  flight  of  steps,  is  of  great  antiquity.  In 
1888  the  Franciscan  monasteiT  which  was  con> 
nected  with  it  was  replaced  Sy  a  large  monu- 
ment of  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  The_  Piaua  del 
Campidoglio  was  designed  by  Michelangelo. ' 
In  its  centre  b  a  fine  tMuestrian  bronze  statue 
of  Marcns  Aurelins.  On  the  southeast  side 
there  is  the  Palazzo  del  Senatore,  with  a  fine 
fli^t  of  steps  erected  by  Michelangelo.  The 
Palace  of  the  G)nservaiori  occupies  the  south- 
west  side  of  the  square,  and  contains  valuable 
collections  in  art  and  antiauities.    Directly  op- 


now  called  Monte  Caprino,  and  on  it,  beside  th« 
Palazzo  CaSarelli  already  mentioned,  stands  a 
hospital  and  a  German  arctueological  institute. 
(Sec  Rome).  Consult  Platner,*  Topography  and 
Uonuments  of  Ancient  Rome,'  pp.  291-i306, 
New  York  1911.  Besides  the  edifice  in  Wash- 
ington where  Congress  assembles,  the  state- 
houses  in  States  of  the  Union  are  officially 
called  Capitols.  Of  these  the  most  noteworthy 
are  those  at  Albany,  Hartford,  Providence, 
Austin,  Jefferson  Ci^  and  Saint  Paul. 

CAPITOL  AT  WASHiNOTOH,  The. 
After  the  national  c^tal  had  been  located  no 
Che  Potomac  in  1789,  Washington  and  Uaj.  P. 
C.  L'Elnfant  selected  sites  for  the  public 
buildings.  On  tiie  first  map  (1791),  the  'Ccm- 
gress  House*  is  situated  as  now,  on  a  low  bill 
commanding  the  best  view  in  WashingttHL  with 
12  broad  sireets  radiating  from  it,  so  diat  it 
doses  the  vista  of  eveiy  main  avenue.  On  the 
decision  ot  a  bo^rd  of  three  commissioners,  with 
Washington  and  JeSerson,  the  plans  of  the  capU 
tol  and  the  President's  house  were  ^ven  out  in 
1792  to  public  competition,  for  a  prize  of  $S00 
or  a  medal  of  that  value,  at  the  winner's  option. 
For  the  President's  house  James  Hoban's  plant 
were  accepted  at  once,  and  he  was  made  supet^ 
intendent  of  its  erection.  For  the  cafHtol  none 
were  satisfactory^  but  the  three  foremost  com- 
petitors were  given  another  trial,  and  one^ 
Stephen  Haltet,  a  French  artist  living  in  Phila- 
delphia, was  employed  at  a  salary  and  indetn* 
ntty  to  revise  hia  plans  under  the  commisMOO- 
ers'  criticism.  Bnt  later  in  the  vear  Dr.  William 
Thornton  of  Tortota  Island,  W.  I-  submitted 
plans  whose  •grandeur,  sim^icity.  beauty  and 
convenience  forced  the  committee  to  accept 
them.  They  were  too  grand  for  the  commis- 
sioners' ideas  of  national  needs  or  resources 
at  the  time,  however,  and  specified  too  costly 
materials.  Thornton  wished  marble  and 
mahogany  and  the  best  of  construction,  and  un* 
der  a  hitter  assault  from  several  oi  his  re- 
jected competitors,  headed  by  Hallet,  whom  die 
commissioners  had  joined  with  Thornton  in  a 
revising  board,  he  was  forced  to  reduce  its  scale 
and  material  greatly.  Their  lugK^ted  modifica- 
tions of  Us  general  plan  were,  however,  dism- 
proved.  These  plans  were  for  what  is  now  the 
central  portion  of  the  capitol. 

Wort  was  begun  about  1  .  Aiqcust.  The 
comer-stone  was  laid  18  September  in  the 
southeast  comer  of  the  old  north  wing,  now 
the  Supreme  Court  section,  with  imposing  cere- 
monies. Masonic  rites  and  orocession,  and  a 
barbecue;     Hoben    was    maoe    superintendent. 


and  Hallet  his  assistant;  hut  Hoban  gave  his 
whole  time  to  the  White  House,  as  the  Presi- 
dent's house  came  to  be  called,  and  Hallet  was 
the  real  manager.  He  proceeded  to  change 
Thornton's  plans  and  speofications  at  will,  was 
repeatedly  censured  for  it  and  at  last  ordered 
to  stop  it  He  resigned,  but  refused  to  give  up 
the  drawings ;  the  commissioners  at  last  secured 
them  and  discharged  him,  15  Nov.  1794.  Thorn- 
ton, now  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  was  asked  by  Washington  to 
obliterate  Hallet's  changes  as  injurious,  aiid  did 
ID.  Hoban  now  acted  as  superintendent  until 
George  Hadfield,  an  English  architect,  was  en- 
eagea  to  succeed  Hallet,  on  Jonathan  Trum- 
bull's  recommendation  of  him  as  a  modest  man 
and  good  artist  He  outdid  Hallet;  spent  his 
whole  energy  in  fighting  Thornton  and  Hoban 
(who  always  worked  in  harmony),  and  after  re- 
peated  resisnadons  and  reconsideratioiu,  was 
discharaed  lor  practical  incompetence  10  May 
1798.  Hoban  again  took  charge.  On  17  Nov. 
1800  the  second  session  of  the  sixth  Caagtem 
met  in  the  north  win^  of  the  building.  Much 
of  this  early  coast  ruction  was  of  wood  or  poor 
material.     This  was  on  account  of  haste,  the 


years  later  more  durable  material  was  substi- 
tuted. The  commissionership  was  abolished 
May  1802,  and  Thornton  and  Hoban  ceased 
direct  superintendence,  though  often  called  in 
consultation.  At  this  time  the  north  wing  was 
complete,  the  foundation  of  the  central  rotunda 
and  dome  in  place  and  the  basement  story  of 
the  south  wing  partly  done.  These  are  still  as 
Thornton  planned  them. 

On  6  March  1803  Jefferson  appointed  Benja- 
min H,  Latrobe  (qv.)  "surv^or  of  public 
buildings*  He  at  once  be^n,  like  the  others, 
to  besiege  the  President  With  the  bitterest  as- 
saults on  Thornton's  designs,  and  when  the  for- 
mer declined  to  interfere;  ajmealed  to  Congress.  ■ 
Thornton,  however,  now  in  cnarge  of  the  patent 
office,  though  he  defended  himself  with  energy, 
made  no  further  attempt  to  prevent  the  altera- 
tion of  his  plans,  and  Latrobe  made  many 
serious  changes,  some  of  them  since  judged 
harmful  to  beauty  and  utility.  Thus,  the  Repre- 
sentatives' hall  was  changed  from  a  graceful 
elUpae  to  a  square  with  semi-drcular  ends;  a 
bad  echo  gave  troable  for  many  years,  caused  by 
the  citanges.  The  number  ana  siie  of  entrances 
to  the  rotunda  were  curtailed,  the  ^lendid  open 
staircases,  cut  down  and  placed  in  obscurity, 
were  difficult  for  strangers  to  find;  and  the 
grand  semi-circular  western  portico  was  abol- 
ished. The  principal  entrance  was  also  chan^nt 
from  the  west  front,  facing  the  White  House, 
to  the  eastern  side.  Latrobe  was  constantly  in 
hot  water  with  both  Jefferson  and  Congress,  and 
published  a  pamphlet  against  them  in  1806;  but 
till  1811  had  pretty  much  his  own  way.  When 
the  War  of  1612  broke  out,  the  capitol  consisted 
of  the  north  and  south  wings,  connected  by  a 
corridor  of  rongh  boards  over  the  central  fotm- 
dations..  On  24  An^.  1814  the  British  burnt  it 
as  far  as  possible,  piling  the  fnmiture  and  plat- 
forms in  the  rooms  with  rocket  stuff  and  ignit- 
ing them;  the  interior  was  dreadfully  damaged, 
but  the  outside  walls  remained,  also  the  inside 
brickwork  and  some  stone.  A  strong  movement 
arose  for  removing  the  capital  elsewhere;  bnt 
the  same  considerations  prevstled  against  tl 


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CAPITOUHB  GAHBS— CAPITULARY 


later.  In  fear  of  such  a  result,  howGvei,  Ibe 
local  interests  fonned  the  'Caintol  Hold  Com- 
pttay,*  and  erected  a  building  for  government 
occupancy  till  the  repairs  on  the  capitol  were 
fiflished.  It  was  occupied  181S-19,  and  was 
afterward  known  as  the  "Old  Capitol,*  and  used 
in  the  Civil  War  as  a  military  prison.  In  the 
reconstruction   the    House   wing  was  entirely 

Near  the  end  of  1817  Latrobe  became  em- 
broiled with  a  new  commissioner  of  the  Federal 
bnilding,  Samuel  Lane,  and  resigned     In  his 

Stace  was  appointed  Charles  Bulfincb  (q-v.), 
rom  1  Jan.  1818;  he  remaitied  supervising 
architect  tor  the  next  decade.  In  the  winter  oi 
1819-20  Congress  took  its  seat  in  the  new  hall. 
The  centre  was  pushed  forward  to  completion, 
and  on  10  Dec  1824,  the  entire  interior  was 
finished.  In  1625  a  public  competition  was  held 
for  the  figures  on  the  pediment  of  the  eastern 
portico.  From  1826  on,  Bulfincb  was  employed 
on  special  detail,  and  the  landscape  gardening 
and  work  on  the  grounds,  which  were  of  his  de- 
signing. The  capito!  was  set  in  a  park  of  22^ 
acres,  encircled  by  an  iron  railing  somewhat 


and  live  pedestrian  entrances.  On  2  March  18^ 
the  position  of  architect  of  the  capitol  was  abol- 
ished; but  Bulfinch  remained  in  employment  till 
the  end  of  June  1829,  when  Jackson  dismissed 
him.  He  designed  and  planned  the  modem 
form  of  the  then  wesf  extremitv  of  the  build' 
ing,  the  Senate  galleries  and  lue  terraces  on 
the  east;  and  made  the  dome  higher  than  in 
Thornton's  plan.  Ajnong  others  who  should 
have  great  credit  for  the  beauty  of  the  capital 
are  Peter  Lenox,  clerk  of  works  under  Latrobe; 
George  Blagdcn,  superintendent  of  stone- 
cutters; and  Giovanni  Andrei,  an  Italian,  super- 
intendent of  carvers.  That  so  beautiful  and 
harmonious  a  structure  should  have  emerged 
,  from  the  contentions  of  so  many  different  minds 
is  due  partly  to  the  really  great  ability  of,  the 
three  chief  arclutects,  Thornton,  Latrobe  and 
BulEnch,  and  partly  to  the  determination  of  suc- 
cessive Presidents  that  the  changes  should  har- 
monize with  the  original  design.  Latrobe's  ma- 
terial external  alterations  of  Thornton's  plan 
have  been  mentioned;  Bulfinch  designed  the 
western  central  portico  as  it  now  stands. 

From  1829  to  1836  there  was  no  architect  of 
the  capitoL  On  6  June  1836.  Jackson  appointed 
as  Federal  architect  Robert  Mills  (q.v.),  who 
had  studied  under  Latrobe;  and  he  held  the 
place  till  IS51.  Thomas  U.  Walter  (q.v.)  then 
tx>ok  the  post,  having  drawn  the  plans  for  the 
two  modern  vrings  that  extended  the  original 
capitoL  which  the  government  needs  had  out- 
grown, into  the  modern  one.  The  corner-stone 
of  the  extension  was  laid  by  President  Fillmor^ 
4  July  1851;  the  new  Representatives'  hall  was 
occupied  in  1857 ;  the  Senate  hall  in  1859.  The 
great  lengthening  of  the  (fimensionj  required  a 
correspondent  heightening  of  the  dome;  and 
Mr.  Walter  designed  a  new  one,  which  was  con- 
stmcted  daring  the  Civil  War,  and  completed  at 
the  close  of  1863,  the  statue  of  Freedom  being 
then  lifted  into  place.  Mr,  Walter,  however, 
had  foreseen  a  future  need  of  still  further  ex- 
tension, and  had  drawn  plans  for  it  while  the 
other  work  was  going  on.  Congress  in  the 
spring  of  1903  authonxed  their  execution,  at 
an  expenditure  of  $2,500^)0  and  three  yean' 


tiitie,  under  the  siverviuon  of  the  Federal 
architect,  Mr.  Woods.  As  now  completed  the 
capitol  cost  over  $16,000,000.  it  covers  an 
area  of  about  four  acres  standing  amid  beauti- 
ful park  grounds  of  nearly  50  acre^  adorned 
with  fountains  and  classic  statuary.  The  build- 
ing is  7S0  feet  long;  from  121  to  140  feet  deep 
and  rises  to  a  total  height  of  285>4  feet  from 
the  base  of  the  capitol  to  the  top  of  the  final 
figure  of  Freedom,  19^  feet  high,  on  the  dome. 
Massive  cast  bronie  doors,  deleting  events 
famous  in  the  mition's  hbtoiy,  grace  the  three 
main  entrances  on  the  east  front— to  the  Ro- 
ttoda,  the  Senate  and  the  House.  In  the 
Rotunda  tmder  the  dome  arc  many  priceless 
historical  paintiDBs,  and  in  Statuary  Hall  is 
an  assemblage  oi  portrait  statues,  gifts  from 
varioiis  states.  The  Supreme  Court  occupies 
a  room  in  the  Central  building;  the  Senate 
chamber  is  in  the  north  wing;  the  House  of 
Representatives  in  the  south. 

CAPITOLINS  GAHBS,  games  held  m 
ancient  Rome  in  celebration  of  the  deliverance 
of  the  city  from  the  Gauls,  and  in  honor  of 
Jupiter  Capitohnus,  to  whom  the  Romans  as- 
cribe the  salvation  of  the  capitol  in  the  hour 
of  danger.  They  were  instituted  387  b.c^  on 
ihotion  of  Camillus^  after  the  departure  of  the 
Gauls.  They  were  in  charge  of  the  guild  of  the 
CafMtolini,  whose  memhers  were  chosen  from 
those  who  lived  on  the  capitoL  In  later  times 
it  s,ppein  they  were  discontinued.  In  86  /lb., 
Domitian  instituted  Capitoline  games,  which 
were  held  every  four  years  down  to  a  late 
period  of  the  ampirei. 

CAPITOLINUS,  Jnlins,  Roman  historian, 
who  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century, 
and  wrote  the  lives  of  the  emperors  —  An- 
toninus Pius,  M.  Aurelius,  L,  Verus,  Pertinai, 
Albinus,  Madnus,  the  Maximini,  the  Gordiani, 
Balbinus  and  Pupienus.  He  is  one  of  the 
writers  of  the  'Historia  Augusta,*  in  the  edi- 
tions of  which  his  works  are  to  be  found. 

CAPITULAKY,  (Ut.  ca^ttuJo,  ■chapters*), 
a  writing  divided  into  beads  or  chapters,^  cs- 
{ledally  a  law  or  legal  enactment  so  divided 
mto  heads.  Laws  known  by  this  designation 
were  promulgated  by  Quldcbert,  Clolbaire,  Car- 
loman  and  Pepin,  kings  of  France;  but  no 
sovereign  seems  to  have  put  forth  so  many  of 
them  as  the  Emperor  Charlemagne,  who  appears 
to  have  wished  to  effect,  in  a  certain  degree,  a 
uniformity  of  law  throu^out  his  extensive 
dominions.  With  this  view  it  is  suM>osed  he 
added  to  the  existing  codes  of  feudal  laws 
aisny  other  laws,  divided  or  arranged  under 
small  cbaplets  or  heads,  sometimes  to  explain, 
sometimes  to  amend,  and  sometimes  to  reconcile 
or  remove  the  differences  between  diem.  These 
were  generally  promulgated  in  public  assemblies 
composed  of  the  sovereign  and  the  chief  men 
of  (he  nation,  both  ecclesiastical  and  secular. 
They  regulated  equally  the  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral administration  of  the  kingdom ;  and  the 
execution  of  them  was  entrusted  to  the  Ushops, 
the  courts  and  the  missi  regit,  officers  so  called 
because  ihey  were  sent  by  the  French  kings 
of  the  first  and  second  race  to  dispense  law 
and  justice  in'  the  provinces.  Manv  cojiies  of 
these  capitularies  were  made,  one  of  which  was 
generally  preserved  in  the  royal  archives.  The 
authority  of  the  capitularies  was  verv  extensive. 
It  preyalW  in  every  kingdom  under  the  do- 

Dpt  zed  =v  Google 


CAPITVSATION  -<-  CAPlTUhATIOHS 


mMoB  of  the  Franks,  and  4'aa  sbbmittcd'to  in 
many  parts  of  Italy  tuid  G«rmaiij'.  The  earliest 
collection  of  the  capittilaries  is  tliai  of  Ansigise, 
abbot  of  Fontenclle.  It  was  axlopted  by  Louii 
the  Deboonau-e  and  Charles  the  Bald,  and  was 
publicly  approved  of  in  many  councils  of  France 
and  G«nnany.  But  as  Ansigise  bad  omitted 
many  capitularies  In  liis  collection,  Benedict, 
the  Levite  or  deacon  of  the  church  of  Menti, 
added  three  books  to  them  (before  858),  Eadi 
of  the  collections  was  considered  to  be  au~ 
thentic,  and  of  course  was  appealed  to  as  law. 
Subsequent  additions  have  been  made  to  them. 
The  best  editions  of  them  are  those  of  Baluze, 
'Capitularia  Regum  Francorum'  (2  vols.,  Paris 
1677),  Walter,  'Corpus  Juris  Germanici  An- 
■  .    ,-       .      T.-_,^  ,o^.)_  an<:__:  7__ 

Vols.  I  and  II,  Hanover  1835-3;""  TTie  best 
of  all  is  Boretius,  'Uoa.  Genu.  Hist.  Legum 
Sectio  IP  (Vols.  I  and  IL  Hanover  188i^). 
The  cajntularics  rcmainea  in  force  in  Italy 
longer  than  in  Germany,  and  in  France  longer 
than  in  Italy.  The  inctrrsions  of  the  Norman^ 
the  intestine  confusion  and  weakness  of  the 
government  under  the  successors  of  Charle- 
magne, and  above  all  the  publication  of  the  epit- 
ome of  canon  law  termed  the  Decretum  of 
Gratian,  about  the  year  1150,  which  totally 
superseded  them  in  all  religious  coni 
an  end  to  their  authority  in  France. 

CAPITULATION  <'a  writiDg  drawn  up 
in  heads*),  in  military  language,  die  act  of  tvx- 
renderin^  to  an  enemy  upon  sdpulaled  terms, 
in  opposition  to  a  surrender  at  discretion.  The 
word  is  alto  used  to  dcaigaale  the  instmment 
containing  the  tetma.  The  jwoposition  to  enter 
ioto  such  a  compact  may  origuate  either  with 
the  commander  of  the  successful  or  of  the  de- 
feated party.  Based  oa  the  terms  proposed  by 
either,  the  conditions  are  agreed  upon,  being 
modified  by  the  relative  strength  of  the 
belligerents.  Consult  Article  XXXV  of  the 
Second  Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague  (1907). 

In  the  15tb  century  capitulations,  as  they 
were  called,  were  presented  by  the  ecdesiaatical 
establishments  in  Germany  to  their  newly-choiea 
abbots  and  bishops,  who  were  obliged  to  swear 
to  observe  them  as  laws  and  conditions  for  their 
future  rule.  The  ecclesiastical  electors  ob- 
tained, after  the  fall  of  the  Hohenitaufen 
family,  certain  advantageous  promise*  from  the 
new  emperors,  which  were  Colled  capitulations. 
When  Qiarles  V  was  proposed  as. emperor,  and 
it  was  apprehended,  on  account  of  his  foreign 
education,  that  he  would  disregard  the  German 
constitution,  he  was  obliged  to  make  oath  that 
he  would  not  reside  wiuout  the  German  em- 
"■       '  I  the 

,.-^  — election  t 

nlation.'  Such  a  WaUcapitulalii 
ward  presented  to  every  new  emMTor  as  a  fun- 
damental law  of  the  empire.  In  this  way  the 
authority  of  the  German  emperors  was  con- 
stantly more  and  more  dimimshed,  so  that  at 
last  it  became  merely  nominal,  since  the  elec- 
tors, at  the  choice  t>f  every  new  emperor,  made 
some  new  infringement  on  the  imperial  privi- 
leges. The  WahUapitulalionen  were  acknowl- 
coged  bargains,  certainty  unique  in  history. 

CAPITULATIONS,  TtirU^,  the  decrees 
govenriug  the  privilMcs  and  powers  of  Ea- 
ropeans  resident  on  Turkish  soil,  so  called  ap- 


patmtly  for  the  rriuon  that  thty  were  (Uvide4 
into  articles  or  chapters.  After  1453  suoh 
privileges  were  frequently  granted  by  the 
sultans;  they  wne  personal  grants,  however 
and  valid  only  for  the  life  of  the  grantor. 
Hence  they  were  renewed,  often  with  modificai 
tions,  bjr  each  new  sultan.  So  we  find  many 
capitulations  made  with  France,  Enf;land  ana 
other  states.  The  earliest  of  the  capitulationg( 
to  which  reference  is  often  made  for  precedent 
dates  from  1535  and  was  granted  to  Francis  I 
of  France.  It  was  more  specific  and  formal 
than  any  preceding  grant  of  the  kind  and  re-f 
mained  in  force  for  over  350  years.  By  it  the 
French  were  permitted  to  travel  and  to  trade 
according  to  tneir  own  customs  and  usages;  it 
granted  them  .freedom  from  all  imposts  except 
customs  duties^  also  libertjr  in  matters  of  re-. 
Ugion,  inviolability  of  domicile  and  the  extra- 
territorial  jurisdiction  of  consuls.  Even  if  they 
committed  a  crime,  they  were  to  be  arrested  by 
an  Ottoman  ofKcial  only  in  the  presence  of  a 
consular    or    diplomatic    officer    of    their   i 


of  a  Frendi  subject,  were  compelled  to  per- 
form such  service.  The  French  had  the  full 
right  of  making  wills.  If  they  died  intestate  in 
Turkey,  their  own  consul  must  take  ^possession 
of  their  estate  and  liquidate  or  administer  it  for 
their  heirs.  Soon  after  this  grant  to  France 
other  nations  of  the  Occident  sou^t  similar 
privileges.  In  1583  Queen  Elisabeth  after  four 
years  of  effort  succeeded  in  establishing  rela- 
tions of  this  nature  with  the  Sultan.  This 
capituladon  was  afterward  many  times  renewed. 
The  Netherlands  received  a  capitulation  in  1609, 
and  Austria  in  1615. 

In  1673  a  new  power  was  granted  to  France, 
namely,  the  exclusive  right  oT  protecting  under 
her  flag  the  subjects  of  sovereigns  who  had 
received  no  capitulations.  This  gave  France 
prestige  in  Europe  by  placing  several  Dowers 
under  obli^tion  to  her.  But  in  1675  Ejigland 
succeeded  in  gaining  a  right  to  the  protecdon  of 
other  nations  jointly  with  France,  so  that  some 
States  had  the  o^don  of  English  or  French  pro- 
tection. Austna  in  1718  got  permission  for 
Genoa  and  Leghorn  to  use  her  flag. 

No  concession  made  in  the  capitulations  to 
foreign  powers  led  to  greater  abuses  than  this 
grant  of  the  right  to  protect  the  citizens  of 
sovereigns  or  states  without  capitulations.  The 
French  and  English  sold  to  native  Greeks  and 
Armenians  the  privilege  of  protection  by  a 
document  which  exempted  them  from  paying 
duties  on  goods  imported.  Many  of  these  be- 
came rich  through  this  advantage,  and  were  per- 
mitted to  make  a  transfer  of  tneir  privilege  for 
a  consideration.  Ambassadors  became  rich 
through  the  traffic ;  one  of  the  French  ministers, 
it  is  stated  in  an  official  report,  received  more 
than  400,000  francs  from  this  source,  and  the 
English  Ambassador  is  said  to  have  received 
from  £2,000  to  £3,000  as  his  share.  Russia  and 
Austria  abused  this  right  of  protection  for 
political  ends.  Rivals  in  seeking  influence  in 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  in  1780-8^  their  con- 
suls competed  with  each  other  in  granting 
patents  of  protection  to  the  natives.  By  1800 
Austria  had  by  diis  process  more  than  200,000 
subjects  in  Moldavia  and  60,000  In  Wallachia. 
These  latter  were  later  givoi  to  Rus^a.  In 
1806  in  order  to  embarrass  Russia  Napolecoi 


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C  APIZ — C  APNOH  AHCT 


put  an  end  to  the  abuse  and  Turkey  succeeded 
in  persuading  most  of  the  foreign  powers  to 
follow  his  example.  But  this  did  not  prevent 
many  of  the  great  Powers,  through  their  con- 
suls, taking  large  numbers  of  Turkish  rajahs 
under  their  protection  under  one  pretext  or 
another.  Many  of  these  formed  lawless  crowds 
claiming  exemption  from  police  supervision. 
Many  were  men  of  wealth  whose  acts  led  to 
frequent  diplomatic  difHcullies.  We  need  not 
wander,  then,  that  in  1869  the  Sultan  issued  an 
irade  forbidding  the  naturalization  of  his  sub- 
jects  under  a  foreign  government  unless  they  had 
previously  obtained  nis  consent  All  treaties 
since  1800  between  Turkey  and  European 
powers  are  based  on  the  capitulations,  notably 
that  of  1740.  Down  to  the  19th  century  foreign- 
ers could  not  hold  real  property  except  under 
borrowed  names.  Since  1867  they  have  been 
allowed  lo  hold  it.  After  1868  the  inviolability 
of  the  domicile  of  a  foreigner  was  limited  to 
residences  within  nine  hours'  journey  of  a 
consular  post.  Questions  of  real  property  were 
determined  by  an  Ottoman  court'  Religious 
freedom  was  confirmed  in  all  treaties. 

Turkey  made  repeated  efforts  to  annul  the 
capitulations.  She  attempted  to  do  so  at  the 
Paris  Congress  of  1856.  and  again  in  1862.  But 
the  Powers  were  unwilling  to  accede  to  ber 
request  Germany  renounced  the  capitulations 
m  1891,  but  under  the  most  favored  nation 
clause  in  her  treaties  she  still  enjoys  the  same 
privileges  as  formerly.  All  the  Powers  except 
the  United  States  had  been  gradually  yielding 
on  the  point  of  extraterritorial  jurisdiction, 
though  the  consul  of  one  accused  of  crime 
attended  the  trial,  and  if  there  was  a  denial  of 
justice  imminent,  the  case  was  made  one  for 
diplomatic  intervention.  America's  insistence 
often  led  to  a  miscarriage  of  jusdce  because 
the  Ottoman  government  refused  to  furnish 
witnesses,  and  permitted  the  culprit  to  escape. 
Another  fruitful  source  of  trouble  was  in  re- 
spect to  Armenians,  who  take  out  naturalization 
papers  in  America  and  return  home  as  Ameri- 
can citizens.  The  Sultan  has  not  recognized 
such  naturalization  since  1869,  linless  it  has  been 
made  with  his  consent  England  has  side- 
stepped this  difficulty  by  stating  on  the  pass- 
Krts  of  Turkish  subjects  naturalized  in  Great 
itain  that  such  passports  are  not  valid  on  the 
return  of  the  bearer  to  Turkey. 

The  Young  Turks  after  their  advent  to 
power  repeatedly  denounced  the  capitulations 
and  on  11  Nov.  1914  the  Ottoman  government 
announced  their  abolishment  However,  until  the 
Western  Powers  are  satisfied  that  the  judicial 
system  in  Turkey  has  undergone  reform  suffi- 
cient to  ensure  an  impartial  administration  of 
justice,  it  is  not  likely  that  the  Porte  will  be 
permitted    to    ignore    these    agreements    alto- 

S ether.  See  Ext«atemitowality  and  consult 
loore,  John  Baasett,  'Digest  of  International 
Law>  (1906)  ;  Ai^l.  J.  B.,  'Turkish  Capitula- 
tions' (in  AmencaH  Historical  Review,  Vol. 
VI,  1901);  McLaughlin,  A.  C,  and  Hart;  A.  B.. 
'Cyclopedia  of  American  Government*  (Vol. 
I,  New  York  1914). 

CAPIZ,  ka  p«th',  Philipppines,  capital  of  tiie 
province  of  Capiz,  situated  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  island  of  Panay,  four  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Panay  or  Capii  River.  The  river 
Is  navigable  to  the  aty,  and  there  it  also  an 


town  with  Iloilo  and  Miagao.    Pop. 

18.525. 

CAPLIH,  or  CAPKLIN,  a  small  savory 
smelt  (Maiiohit  vithsus"),  found  in  large  num- 
bers on  the  Arctic  Coast  as  far  south  as  Cape 
Cod.  The  inhabitants  of  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador  catch  it  in  large  quantities  at  certain 
seasons,  and  many  are  dried  and  exported  to 
Great  Britain.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  very 
great  numbers  in  the  sand  along  the  Arctic 
shores,  are  then  washed  ashore  by  the  waves, 
where  they  batch,  the  fry  being  washed  back 
into  the  sea.  Adults  are  also  washed  ashore 
in  ^at  numbers  and  perish.  In  Greenland 
fossil  caplin  have  been  uncovered,  enclosed  in 
clay  nodules  of  recent  shales. 

CAPHANY  Y  DE  MONTPALAU,  kap- 
ma-ne  e  m&nt-pa-lau',  Antonio  de,  Spanish 
critic  and  historian:  b.  Barcelona,  24  Nov.  1742; 
d.  Cadiz,  14  Nov.  1813.  He  served  in  the  wars 
■with  Portugal  in  1762,  left  the  army  in  1770 
and  joined  Olavide  in  his  scheme  for  colonizing 
and  cultivating  the  Sierra  Morena.  This  en- 
terprise terminated  disastrously,  and  Capmany 
removed  to  Madrid,  where  he  was  chosen  sec- 
retary of  the  Ro^  Historical  Academy  of 
Spain  in  1790.  and  filled  several  offices  in  the 
gift  of  the  government  He  traveled  in  Italy, 
Germany,  France  and  England.  When  the 
French  entered  Madrid  in  1806  he  8  ed  to  Se- 
ville, arriving  there  destitute  and  in  rus.  He 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Cortes  of  Ckdit,  in 
which  capacity  he  made  himself  conspicuous  by 
his  patriotism  and  active  opposition  to  the  new 
rulers.  His  works,  which  enjoy  a  high  reputa- 
tion in  Spain,  are  numerous-  amonfi  them  are 
'Memorias  Iust6ricas  sobre  la  manna,  comer- 
do  y  artes  de  la  antigua  dudad  de  Barcelona* 
(4  vols.,  1779-92)  j  'Cuestiones  criticas  sobre 
varios  puntos  de  historia,  economica,  poliuca  j 
militar'  (1S07);  'Teator  historico-critKO  dc  la 
elocuenda  espai\ola'  (5  vols.,  1786-94);  'Die- 
cionario  Frances-Espafiol*  (1805);  *C6digo  de 
las  costilmbres  maHumas  de  Barcelona'  (2  vols, 
1791).  Of  tiiese,  the  *Memorias,>  the  »Cuei- 
tiones*  and  the  <C6digo*  contain  valuable  de- 
tails on  the  commerce,  industry  and  maritime 
laws  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  is  equally  famed 
for  bis  philological  worlcs,  the  chief  of  which 
are  'Discunos  analiticos  sobre  la  formadon  j 
perfecd6n  de  las  lenguas,  y  sobre  la  osteUana 
en  particular'  (1776)  and  'Filosofia  de  la  elo- 
cuenda' (1776;  London  1812;  Geiona  1826). 
The  purity  of  lus  language  led  the  Real  Acade- 
mia  EspaBola  to  include  his  name  in  the  <Cati- 
logo  de  Autoridades  del  Idioma.*  Consult 
Sempere  y  Guarinos,  'Ensayo  de  una  bibltoteca 
espafiola*   (6  vols.,  Madrid  1785-«9). 


ancients.  They  used  to  bum  vervain  or  some 
other  sacred  plant,  and  observe  the  form  and 
direction  whidi  the  smoke  took  in  escaping,  and 
from  these  circumstances  they  drew  their 
auguries.  Sometimes  tbe  smoke  of  sacrifices 
was  observed  instead  of  that  of  vervain.  When 
this  smoke  was  thin  and  transparent  and 
ascended  in  a  straight  column,  it  was  considend 
a  good  omen;  i£,  on  tbe  contrary,  it  was  didt 


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CAPO  DISTKIA  — CAl»PADOCIA 


and  opaque,  the  omen  was  bad.  Another  method 
of  acquiring  a  knowledire  of  the  future  by  cap- 
nomancy  was  to  throw  the  seeds  of  jasmine  — 


pom 


:  die 


CAPO  D'ISTRIA,  Austria  (the  andent 
MaiD/k,  later  Justinopolis),  seaport  on  the  Gulf 
of  Trieste,  nine  miles  south  of  Trieste,  in  the 
crownland  of  Istria.  It  is  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  causeway  rather  more  than  half 
a  mile  Ions.  It  is  defended  by  an  old  fort  now 
going  to  decay.  It  contains  a  cathedral,  a  lofty 
edifice,  faced  m  the  Venetian  style  with  marble, 
and  containing  some  line  paintings,  sculptures 
and  arabesques.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and 
has  six  monasteries  and  two  nunneries,  a  gym- 
nasium, several  hospitals  and  a  penitentiary, 
There  are  manufactories  of  soap,  candles, 
leather  and  sea-salt;  and  there  is  also  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  wines,  oil  and  fish.  After  the 
lOtb  century  Capo  d'Istria  belonged,  alternate^, 
to  the  VenetiaDS  and  Genoese,  till  finally,  in 
147&  it  succeeded  in  maldng  itself  independent 
of  the  latter  with  the  aid  of  the  former.  Capo 
d'Istria  now  became  the  c^tal  of  Istria,  and 
along  with  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Aus- 
tria m  181S.    Pop.   11,765   (largely  Italian). 

CAPO  DISTRIAS,  ka-pS-des'-tre-fls,  or 
CAPO  D'ISTRIA,  loanneg  AntonioB,  Coitnt, 
Greek  statesman:  b.  Corfu,  11  Feb.  1776;  d. 
Nauplia,  9  Oct.  1831.  His  faintly  had  been 
settled  in  Corfu  since  1373,  but  originally  came 
from  the  Illyrian  town  ot  Capo  alstria.  He 
devoted  himself  to  political  life,  and  in  1809, 
after  holding  a  high  place  in  the  Ionian  Islands, 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  Russia.  Here 
his  policy  tended  to  the  separation  of  Greece 
from  Turkey.  In  1828  he  entered  on  a  seven 
years'  presicfency  of  Greece;  but  whether  from 
bis  attachment  to  Russian  interests,  or  from  the 
jealousy  and  impatience  of  restraint  of  the 
chiefs,  he  speedily  became  extremely  unpopular. 
Several  of  these  unruly  chiefs  belonging  to  the 
islands  and  to  the  province  of  Mains  at  last,  in 
the  spring  of  1831,  rose  in  open  rebellion  against 
him,  demanding  a  convocation  of  the  National 
Assembly,  the  establishment  of  the  liberty  of  the 
press,  and  the  release  of  certain  state  prisoners, 
especially  of  Petros  Mauromichalis,  one  of  their 
own  number  whom  D'Istrias  had  arrested  and 
imprisoned  The  President  obtained  the  aid  of 
Russi^   but   before   the   insurrection   could   be 

Suelleo  be  was  assassinated  in  a  church  at  Naup- 
a,  by  Constantine  and  George  Mauromichahs, 
the  brother  and  nephew  of  Petros  Mauromicha- 
lis. Consult  Philhps,  'The  War  of  Greek  In- 
dependence'   (1897). 

CAPONIERS,  ka-pjt-nyar,  or  CAPON- 
NIERB,  in  fortification,  a  place  covered  gainst 
the  fire  of  the  enemy  on  the  sides,  sometimes 
also  above,  and  serving  for  the  caimection  of 
two  works   or  for  maintaining  an   important 

eint.  In  particular:  (1)  A  passage  secured 
two  parapets,  in  the  form  of  glads,  which 
leads  througn  the  dry  ditch  from  one  work  to 
another;  for  instance,  from  the  chief  wall  to 
the  ravelin.  If  danger  is  to  be  apprehended 
only  from  one  side,  and  consequently  only  one 
ftar^tet  is  made,  it  is  called  a  demi-caponi^re ; 
if  it  is  coverea  above  with  hurdles  or  with 
wood,  it  is  called  a  coffer:  but  thisword  is 
often  used  indifferently  for  caponiire.  (2) 
Small  block-houses  so  located  as  to  fire  along  a 


dead  angle.  Coehom  l^d  cmt  simitar  hut  less 
useful  works  below  the  ^acis,  and  Scham- 
borst  proposed  them,  under  the  name  of  field- 
caponi^res,  for  the  salient  angles  of  field  for- 
tincation.  Caponidres  are  also  known  as  tam- 
bours in  many  recent  works  on  field  fortifica- 
tions.   See  FoHTiFiCATioN ;  Taubous. 

CAPOTE,  ka-po'ta,  Domiiwo  H«ndei, 
Cuban  statesman:  b.  Cardenas  1863.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Havana  and 
became  one  of  the  best-known  lawyers  in  Cuba. 


ber  1895  he  joined  the  insurgents  under  Gen. 
Maximo  (jomex ;  became  a  brigadier-general, 
and  was  appointed  civil  eovemor  of  Mataneas 
and  of  Las  Villas.  In  November  1897  he  was 
elected  Vice-President  of  the  Cuban  republic 
When  the  Cuban  Constitutional  Convention 
appointed  a  commission  of  five  members  to  con- 
fer with  President  McKinley  and  Secretary 
Root  concerning  the  future  relations  of  the 
United  States  and  Cuba,  he  became  its  leader. 
The  conference  was  held  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
in  April  1901. 

CAPOUL,  ka-pooL  Joccph  Am£dCe  Victor, 
French  tenor  singer :  b.  Toulouse,  27  Feb.  1839. 
He  was  educated  at  Paris,  and  sang  there  in 
the  Opfra  C^mique,  1861-72,  where  he  was 
very  popular,  especially  in  bis  role  as  Gaston 
de  Meillagre  in  Auher's  'Premier  jour  de 
bonheur.'  He  has  also  sung  in  New  Yorl^ 
London,  Vienna,  Saint  Petersburg  and  other 
cities,  being  everywhere  very  successful.  In 
1892  he  accepted  the  position  of  professor  of 
operatic  singing  at  the  National  Conservatory 
in  New  York  In  1898  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Paris,  being  in  great  demand  as  a 
singing  teacher.  In  1900  he  became  stage 
director  at  the  Grand  Opira. 

CAPPADOCIA,  kap-pa-d5'shI-4,  in  an- 
tiquity, one  of  the  most  important  provinces  in 
Asia,  once  a  famous  kingdom;  in  its  widest 
extent  bounded  west  by  Lycaonia,  south  bv 
Cilicia  and  Syria,  east  by  Armenia  and  north 
^  the  Pontus  Euxinus-  In  tf^e  period  of  the 
Persian  government  Cappadocia  comprehended 
all  the  country  between  the  Halys  and  Eu- 
phrates. By  the  former  river  it  was  separated 
from  Phrygia  and  Paphlagonia;  by  the  latter, 
from  Armenia :  therefore  the  region  afterward 
called  Pontus  was  comprehended  in  this  terri- 
tory. The  Persians  divided  it,  according  to 
Strabo,  into  two  satrapies  which  bore  the  name 
of  Cappadocia  Magna,  afterward  Cappadocia 
Proper,  and  Caj^docia  Minor,  afterward  Poiv- 
tus.  This  division,  however,  was  not  always 
strictly  observed.  The  Persian  satraps  gov-r 
emed,  at  a  later  time,  under  the  title  of  kmgs, 
and  sometimes  made  themselves  independent. 
At  the  time  of  the  famous  retreat  of  the  10,000 
Greeks,  both  the  Cappadocias  seem  to  have 
been  under  the  rule  of  Mithridates  I,  who  bad 
participated  in  the  conspiracy  of  Cyrus  the 
Younger,  but  retained  his  government  and  be- 
came, after  the  defeat  of  (07113,  again  depend- 
ent upon  the  kines  of  Persia.  Alexander  the 
Great  received  tribate  from  Ariarathes,  but  the 
latter's  son  did  not  recognize  Alexander's  suc- 
cessors. It  changed  sides  frequently  during 
the  civil  strure'es  of  Osar  and  Pompey,  Oc- 
tavian  and  Antony  and  became  a  Roman  prov>- 


.Google 


070 


CAPPONI— CAFKI 


ince  ID  17  aa  Camadoda  Uagna  was  a  good 
grazing  country,  and  also  well  adapted  for  th« 
cultivation  of  grain,  especially  wheat;  but  wood 
was  scarce.  Mazaca,  afterward  Csesarea,  now 
Kaisariyeb,  was  the  residence  of  the  Idngs  of 
Cappadocia.  The  name  of  Leukosyri  (White 
Synans^  is  said  by  Strabo  to  have  been  applied 
to  the  Cappadocians,  as  if  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  dark  Syrians  who  dwelt  on  the  east 
of  Mount  Amanus.  The  ancient  population  is 
at  present  represented  hy  a  few  mountain 
tribes  called  Taktadji.  Some  anthropologists 
connect  them  with  the  Hitlites.  However, 
there  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  in 
regard  to  their  ethnic  origin.  Consult  Chantre, 
'Recherches  anthropologiques  dans  VAste  occi- 
dentale'  (Lyons  1^5) ;  Grothe,  'Meine  Vor- 
derasienexpeditionen'  (Leipzig  1911} ;  Von 
Luschan  and  Petersen's  'Reisen  in  Lylden* 
(Vienna  1889) ;  Von  Luschan,  'Tachtadschy' 
(in  Arckiv  fir  Anthropotogie  1901). 

CAPPONI,  kip-p&'ne,  Gino,  Makchisb. 
Italian  scholar  and  mstonan :  b.  Florence,  14 
Sept.  1792;  d.  there,  3  Feb.  1876.  He  traveled 
widely  and  devoted  himself  almost  entirely  to 
his  studies  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  became 
Hind  early  in  life.  Returning  to  Italy  he 
founded  at  Florence  the  Antologia  Iltuitma, 
which  was  suppressed  in  1832,  when  he  at  once 
founded  the  Archivo  Islorico  ftaliano.  For  a 
short  time  in  1848  he  was  at  the  head  of  the 
Tuscan  Kovernment,  attacks  by  the  Radicals 
causing  his  temporary  retirement  to  private 
Kfe.  In  1859  he  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention  of  Tuscany;  he  was  also 
made  a  senator  of  Italy;  and  in  1862  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Historical  Commission  for  Tus- 
cany, Umbria  and  the  Marches.  He  wrote 
•Storia  della  repubbltca  di  Firenze>  (1875), 
a  standard  work;  and  had  a  part  in  the  prep- 
aration of  a  lexicon  by  the  Accademia  della 
Crusca,  and  iu  the  editiog  of  texts  of  Dante's 
'Divine  Comedy'  (Florence  1837).  Consult 
Tabarini,  'Gino  Cap^ni'  (Florence  1879),  and 
Von  Reumont,  'Gino  Cappooi  ein  Zeit-und 
Lebensbild>.(GDiha  1880). 

CAPP8,  Edsrard,  American  philologist:  b. 
21  Dec.  1866.  He  was  graduated^  from  Illinois 
College,  1887;  took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Yale^ 
1891 ;  and  was  tutor  in  Latin  at  the  latter  place, 
!890-92.  He  was  successively  associate  pro- 
fessor and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University 
of  Chicago  from  1892  to  1907.  In  the  latter 
year  he  became  professor  of  classics  at  Prince- 
ton University.  Besides  a  number  of  philologi- 
cal papers,  he  has  written  'From  Homer  to 
Theocritus'  (1902)  ;  'Fotir  Plays  of  Menander> 
(1910) ;  and  sundry  other  artKles  in  dassical 
^felogy. 

CAPPS,  Wuhington  Le«,  American  naval 
constructor;  b.  Portsmouth,  Va.,  31  Jan.  1864. 
A  graduate  of  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1884  he  rose  by  grades  to  the  po- 
sition of  naval  constructor  in  189S.  After 
service  at  the  Union  Iron  Works  1896-98,  and 
at  Washington  1899-1901,  b  1903  he  was  a»- 
poinled  chief  constructor  of  the  navy  with  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral.  Reappointed  four  years 
]at«r,  he  retired  in  1910.     President  Wilson  ap- 

G'inted    him    commissioner    to    represent    the 
nited    States  at   the  International   Maritime 
Conference  in  1913. 


CAPRAXAi  ki-pim'ra,  (HfUBlMttisbl,  Cm- 

DiNAL,  Italian  ecclesiastic;  b.  Bologna,  Italy, 
29  May  1733;  d.  Paris.  21  June  1810.  He 
studied  theology,  became  vice-lraate  of  Ra- 
venna in  1758  under  Benedict  XlvTand  in  1785 
was  sent  by  Pius  VI,  as  nuncio  to  Vienna,  to 
remonstrate  with  the  Emperor  Joseph  on  his 
conduct  in  relation  to  Church  matters.  His  re- 
monstrance proved  ineflectual,  but  in  1792  be 
was  appointed  a  cardinal,  shortly  afterward  a 
member  of  the  state  council,  and  in  1800  bishop 
of  Jesi.  In  1801  he  went  to  Paris  as  legate  ot 
Pius  VII,  and  conducted  the  n^otiations  with 
Napoleon  with  so  much  success  that  the  first 
concordat  was  speedilv  concluded.  Shortly 
after  he  was  appointea  archbishop  of  Milan. 
'    ■      1805   he    crowned    Napoleon   king    of 


a  narrow  strait.  It  is  six  miles  long  from 
north  to  south,  and  two  miles  broad.  It  is 
fertile,  and  prodnceg  both  com  and  good  pas- 
tare  and  is  connected' with  the  islana  of  Mad- 
dalana  by  a  causeway  and  drawbridge.  It '  is 
well  known  as  tlie  ordinal'  residence  of  Gari- 
baldi, who  after  1854  possessed  a  dwelling- 
house  on  the  island,  along  with  a  piece  of 
? round  which  he  farmed  until  his  death  there 
June  1882. 

CAPKI,  ka'-prc,  Italy,  an  island  in  the 
beautiful  Ga\i  or  Naples,  which  contributes  not 
a  little  to  the  charms  of  ^is  favorite  scene  of 
nature.  Capri,  five  miles  long  and  three  broad, 
lies  at  the  entrance  of  the  gulf,  and  consists 
of  two  mountains  of  limestone,  remarkable  for 
their  picturesf^ue  shape,  and  a  well-cultivated 
valley.  The  inhabitants  amounting  to  about 
5,000,  are  occupied  in  the  production  of  oil 
and  wine,  in  fishing  and  in  catching  quails, 
wluch  come  in  immense  numbers  from  Africa 
to  the  shores  of  Italy.  Evetv  spot  on  the 
bland  which  can  be  made  productive  is  culti- 
vated. In  fact,  agriculture  all  around  Naples 
is  in  the  highest  state  of  perfection.  The  town 
of  Capri  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  A  high  rock 
separates  Capri  from  the  little  town  of  Ana- 
capri,  which  is  reached  by  522  steps  cut  in  the 
rock  in  1876.  The  highest  point  on  the  island 
is  Mount  Solaro,  which  rises  1,920  feet  above 
the  sea,  Capri  has  a  delightful  climate  and 
pure  air,  and  is  visited  annually  by  over  30,000 
tourists.  It  is  a  favorite  summer  resort  for 
the  Neapolitans,  being  distant  but  20  miles 
southwest  of  their  city.  The  supply  of  drink- 
ing water  is  far  from  satisfactory.  With  the 
Romans  Capri  was  called  Capreee.  Augustus 
obtained  it  from  tlK  Neapolitans  ~in  exchange 
for  Isdiia,  and  made  it  a  place  of  ^reeaUe 
retreat;  but  never  made  use  of  it  Tibnius 
spent  nere  the  last  seven  years  of  his  hfe  in 
degrading  voluptuousness  and  infamous  cruelty. 
The  ruins  of  his  palaces  are  still  extant,  and 
other  ruins  are  scattered  over  the  island.  The 
island  of  Capri  is  notable  for  several  re- 
markable caverns  or  grottoes  in  its  steeit, 
rocky  coast.  Bv  far  the  most  remarkable  of 
these  is  unquestionably  the  celebrated  Gratta 
azzurra  (Blue  (}rotto),  which  was  discovered 
by  a  singular  accident  in  the  summer  of  1832. 
an  Englishman  while  bathing  having  observed 


d=,  Google 


CAKEEIC  A0U>~CA]nUFXQ«nOH 


on 


the  otfbiiig  in  the  rocks  which  form»  the  en- 
trance to  the  grotto,  and  swum  into  iL  It 
gets  its  name  from  the  fact  that,  while  the 
sun  is  shining  outside,  all  the  abjecta  wit,bin 
the  cavern —  rocks,  water  and  sand  —  are 
tinged  with  a  beautiful  blue  color,  very  soft 
and  a^eable  to  the  ^e.  The  cavern. is  *il'1J- 
tical  in  form,  measunng  about  1.200  or  1,300 
feet  in  drcumfererce;  its  height  is  about  41 
feet  with  water  48  feet  deep,  and  its  roof  and 
sides  bristle  with  stalactites.  The  blue  color 
within  the  grotto  is  supposed  to  be  caused  by 
the  refraction  of  the  rays  of  li^t  in  passing 
ihroiwh  the  water  before  entering  the  cave. 
The  blue  rays,  with  those  next  to  them,  the 
violet  and  the  indigo,  being  the  most  refrain 
gible,  are  the  only  rays  that  are  admitted,  thfl 
others  —  red,  orange,  etc.,  beinr  dispersed  in 
the  water.  In  another  part  of  the  coast  there 
is  another  grotto  which  nchibits  phenomena 
precisely  similar  -eitcepi  thai  the  objects  in 
this  one  are  clothed  with  a  creen  instead  of  a 
blue  color.  It  is  hence  called  the  Grolta  verde 
(Green  Grotto).  The  Engliah  captured  the 
island  in  1806  and  fortified  it,  but  lost  it  to 
the  French  two  years  later.  They  recovered 
it  in  1813  and  restored  it  to  King  Ferdinand 
IV  of  Sicily.  Consult  Allera,  <Capri'  (Mnnich 
1894)  ;  Furchheim,  ^Bibliographia  dell'  isola  dl 
Capri'  (Nicies  1899);  GreaorDvius,  'Die 
Insel  Capri'  (Leipiig  1897) ;  Wcichardt,  <Da* 
Schtoss  des  Tibenus  und  andere  Romerbauten 
auf  Capri>  {Leipwg  1900). 

CAPRIC  ACID.  See  Deohc  Aan. 
CAPRICCIO,  ka-pre'cho  (Caprice),  is  the 
name  applied  to  a  musical  composition,  in  which 
the  composer  follows  the  bent  of  his  humor, 
the  aim  being  to  produce  piquant  and  strildng 
effects.  The  capnccio  may  be  used  with  pro- 
priety in  pieces  tor  exercise,  in  which  the 
Strangest  and  most  difhcult  figures  may  be  in- 
troduced,  if  they  are  not  at  variance  with  the 
nature  of  the  instrument  or  of  the  voice.  A 
short<!r  iHCce  of  the  same  nature  is  often  called 
capriccietlo. 

CAPRICORNUS  (Lat.  caper,  «a  goat,"  and 
cornu,  "a  horn'),  'the  goat,*  one  (the  10th) 
of  the  12  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  between  Su^t- 
tarius  and  Aquarius ;  also  the  corresponiunK 
zodiacal  constellation,  one  of  Ptolemy's  original 
48  and  designated  by  the  sign  V3,  representing 
the  horns  of  a  goat.  One  of  its  brightest  stars, 
"  ■  '       's  a  wide  double,  easily  separated  I      ' 


.Alidia,  i 


pncomus  .... 

Pise  is  Austrinus,  Microscopium  and  Sagit- 
tarius. The  star  was  celebrated  among  the 
ancients,  who  regarded  it   as  of  good  omen. 


Gate   of  the  Sui 

CAFRIFICATION,  the  fertilization  of  the 
flowers  of  the  Smyrna  fig  with  pollen  derived 
from  the  wild  fig,  or  caprifig.  From  time  im- 
memortal  it  has  been  the  custom  of  Orientals 
to  break  off  the  fruits  of  the  capritig,  bring 
them  to  the  edible>fig  trees  and  tie  them  to  the 
limbs.  From  the  caprifigs  thus  brought  in 
there  issues  a  minute  insect,  which,  covered 
with  pollen,  crawls  into  the  flower  receptacles 
of  the  edible  hg,  fertilizes  them,  and  thus  pro- 
duces  a  crop  of  seeds  and  briDgi  about  the  suh- 


sBQuent  ripenii^  of  .the  fruit  It  haa  been 
shown  that  the  varieties  of  the  wild  fig  or  cap* 
rifig  are  the  only  ones  which  contain  male  or- 
gans, while  the  varieties  of  the  Smyrna  fig 
are  exclusively  female.  In  the  caprifig  there 
are  said  to  exist  in  Mediterranean  regions  three 
crops  of  fruit, —  the  spring  crop,  a  summer 
crop  and  a  third,  which  remains  upon  the 
trees  through  the  winter.  The  fig-insect  iBUu- 
tophaga  jiroisontm)  over-winters  in  the  third 
crop,  oviposits  in  the  spring  crop,  develops  a 

Seneration  within  it,  each  indiviaual  living  in 
IB  swelling  of  a  gall-flower  (a  modified  and 
unfertile  female  flower),  and,  issuing  from  it 
covered  with  pollen,  enters  the  young  flower 
receptacles  of  the  young  Smyrna  fig,  -which 
are  at  that  time  of  the  proper  size,  and  makes 
an  attempt  to  oviposit  in  the  true  female 
flowers,  fertilizing  them  at  the  same  time  by 
means  of  the  pollen  adhering  to  their  bodies. 
The  life  history  of  the  insect  from  that  time 
on  is  not  well  understood,  but  die  Blastopha^a 
has  been  known  to  occur  again  in  the  over-win- 
tering crop  of  figs.  The  effect  of  caprilica- 
tion  on  the  young  Smyrna  figs  becomes  readily 
visible  withm  a  few  days;  before  the  Blasto- 
phaga  enters  the  fig  the  latter  is  transverse  and 
strongly  ribbed,  while  a  few  days  after  fertili- 
zation the  fig  swells  up  and  becomes  rounded 
and  sleeic.  The  male  Blaslophat/a  is  always 
wingless.  It  has  no  ocelli,  and  its  compound 
wes  are  greatly  reduced  in  size.  The  fact  that 
ttie  male  rarefy  leaves  the  fig  In  which  it  is 
hatched  mi^t  almost  be  inferred  from  these 
facts  of  winglessness  and  partial  blindness. 
When  this  wingless  male  issues  from  the  seed- 
hltre  gall  in  which  it  is  contained,  it  seeks  a 
female  gall  in  the  interior  of  the  same  fig, 
^aws  a  small  hole  through  its  cortex,  inserts 
Its  extrcrpely  long,  almost  telescopic,  abdomi- 
nal extremity  throu^  the  hole,  and  fertilizes 
the  female.  The  female  subsequentlv,  with  her 
powerful  jaws,  gnaws  the  top  of  the  gall  off 
and  emerges,  crawlii^  around  the  interior  of 
the  fig,  and  eventually  forcing  her  way  through 
the  ostiolum,  almost  immechately  seeking  for 

young  figs,  which  she  t — ■*    ' —      '""" 

t . — J  prove  to  be  a 

_.  „ ^e  of  as  many  flowers  a 

and  then  dies.  Should  the  fiz  entered,  how- 
ever, be  a  Smyrna  fig,  either  through  the  fact 
of  the  caprifig  from  which  she  issued  having 


adjoining  Smyrna-fig  tree,  she  walks 
around  among  the  female  flowers  seeking  for 
a  proper  place  to  oviposit.  It  is  this  futile^ 
wandering  search,  when  her  body  is  covered 
with  pollen  from  the  caprifigs,  that  produces 
the  extensive  and  almost  perfect  fertilization 
of  the  entire  number  of  female  flowers.  The 
young  larva  is  a  delicate  little  maggot  curved 
upon  itself  and  showing  no  visible  segmenta- 
tion. In  the  full-grown  larva  the  segments  are 
more  apparent,  and  with  the  growth  of  the 
larva  the  gait  at  the  basa  of  the  male  florets 
becomes  hard,  and  greatly  resembles  a  seed, 
turning  light  brown  in  color.  The  male  and 
the  female  pupa  each  occupies  a  greater  por- 
tii^n  of  the  interior  of  the  gall.  Consult  'The 
Fig>  (United  States  Department  of  AgriciU- 
ture,  Washington  1901). 

Although  figs  are  raised  in  California  and 


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8Ta 


CAHOHULOIDiB  »  CAPSICUM 


die  Soudieni  States  they  have  long  been  in- 
ferior to  the  Smyrna  fig,  the  standard  kind  of 
commerce,  which  owes  its  peculiar  flavor  to 
the  number  of  ripe  seeda  which  it  contains. 
These  seeds  arc  obtained  only  by  die  process 
described  above,  and  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  devoted  much  attention  to 
caprification,  with  a  view  to  the  development  of 
the  American  fig  industry.  The  6g  insects  were 
introduced    in    California    in    1899    and    have 


er  nightjar 


a  superstition  repirding  their  habits),  a  family 
of  birds  of  puzzling  affinities,  but  nearest  to  the 
swifts  {Cypseiida) ,  with  which,  and  the  hum- 
ming-birds, they  are  often  considered  to 
constitute  an  order,  Macrochirei.  The  fam- 
ily is  characterized  by  a  small  bill,  enor- 
mous gape,  fringed  with  elongated,  stiS 
bristles,  elongated  tail  of  10  soft  rectrices, 
long  painted  wings,  very  small  feet  with 
the  middle  claw  pectinate,  and  very  lax 
plumage.  Two  subfamilies,  the  CapritwUginte 
or  true  goatsuckers,  and  the  Nyctibiina  of 
tropical  America,  are  recognized,  to  which  the 
oil-birds  iSteatomis),  and  Podargui  and  its 
allies,  are  sometimes  added  as  two  more.  The 
family  is  nearly  cosmopolitan,  and  comprises 
12  or  15  genera  and  perhaps  100  spedes,  all 
birds  of  more  or  less  crepuscular  hatnts,  which 
catch  insects  on  the  wing  like  swallows.  The 
'night-hawk*  and  "whip-poor-will*  are  the  com- 
mon species  of  the  eastern  United  States. 

CAPRrVI,  ka-pre've,  Oeorg  Leo.  Gkat 
voif,  sometimes  called  Caprivi  de  Cafkaba  db 
MoNTECucuLi,  German  soldier  and  statesman ; 
second  Chancellor  of   the  German   Empir 


in  1849;  fought  in  the  campaigns  of  1864  and 
1866;  and  was  appointed  major  and  a  member 
of  the  general  staff  of  the  First  Army  Corps. 
In  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870  he  was 
chief  "of  staff  to  the  10th  Army  Corps,  served 
with  distinction  at  Metz  and  Orleans  and  in 
the  Loire  campaigns.  In  1882  he  became  coni- 
mander  of  the  30th  Infantry  Division  at  Metz 
and  in  1883-88  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  Ad- 
miralty. This  appointment  was  made  by  Bis- 
marck  and  caused  great  dissatisfaction  among 
the  ofiicers  of  the  navy.  Caprivi,  however, 
soon  mastered  the  details  of  the  department, 
and  the  successful  reorganiiation  of  the  navy 
upon  its  present  basis  is  in  great  part  due  to 
his  capable  and  energetic  direction.  In  1888 
he  became  commander  of  his  old  army  corps. 
Hence  he  was  removed,  on  the  fall  of  Bis- 
marck, in  1890,  to  become  Imperial  Chancellor 
and  Prussian  Prime  Minister.  His  principal 
measures  were  the  army  bills  of  1892  and  18<)3, 
and  the  commercial  treaty  with  Russia  in  1894, 
in  which  year  he  tetired.  He  was  made  a 
count  in  1891.  His  position  as  Bismarck's 
successor  was  one  of  peculiar  difficulty  and 
trial,  but  he  showed  himself  an  able  and  faith- 
ful administrator.  Like  Bismarck  he  was  a 
man  of  giant  stature,  of  ^reat  mental  power 
and  with  an  ircTediUe  capacity  for  work.    Con- 


sult <Die  Reden  des  Grafca  von  CuMivi  .  .  . 
1883-93'   (Berlin  1894). 

CAPROIC  ACID.    See  Hexoic  Acid. 

CAPRON,  Allen  Kiwwn,  American  mili- 


Cuba,  24  June   1898.     He  enhsted  as  a  private 

!I890),  and  rose  to  a  second  lieutenancy 
1893),  joining  the  *Rough  Riders*  on  the  out- 
break of  the  war  with  Spain-  He  was  made 
a  captain  for  bravery,  and  was  the  first  Ameri- 
can army  officer  who  fell  in  that  war. 

CAPRON,  Allyn,  American  soldier:  h. 
Tampa,  Fla.,  27  Aug.  1846;  d.  Fort  Myer,  Va, 
18  Sept.  1898.  He  was  graduated  at  West 
Point,  1867,  and  entered  the  1st  ArtiUety,  re- 
ceiving his  captaincy  4  Dec.  1888.  During  the 
Sioux  campaign  of  1890  be  made  a  briIltaDt 
record  at  the  battles  of  Wounded  Knee  and 
Drexel  Mission.  During  the  war  with  Spaii^ 
1898,  he  opened  the  fight  at  El  Caney.  Cuba, 
and  shattered  the  first  flagstaff  in  Santia^ 
During  this  campaign  he  was  taken  ill  with 
typhoid  fever,  and  succumbed  to  its  attack.  He 
was  a  fine  mathematician,  and  a  recogniied 
authority  on  artillery  and  tactics.  His  father, 
Erastus  Allyn  Capron,  was  killed  at  Chuni- 
busco,  in  the  Mexican  War,  20  Aug.  1847. 

CAPRYLIC  ACID,  or  HBXOIC  ACID 
(GHuOi),  an  acid  found  in  butter  and  cocoa- 
nut  oil.  It  is  obtained  from  the  latter  by  sa- 
ponification with  caustic  potash  and  distilfatiiM 
with  dilute  sulphuric  aoA.  It  is  a  fementatiaii 
product  of  butyric  add.  It  has  an  oily  appear- 
ance and  an  unpleasant  odor  resembling  sweat 

CAPSICIN,  a  name  given  to  two  appar- 
ently different  substances.  One  described  by 
Braconnot,  obtained  from  chilli  pepper,  is  an 
acrid  oil  or  oleoresin,  of  a  reddish-brown  color, 
the  vapor  of  which  excites  sneezing  and  cou^- 
ing.  It  is  probably  a  mixture  of  different 
bodies.  The  other  is  a  resinoid  substance  ob- 
tained from  cayenne  pepper;  it  is  brown  with 
a  golden  tint,  has  the  consistency  of  t 


fever,  indigestion  and  other  disorders,  and  ex- 
ternally as  a  rubefadent.  Quite  recently  a  voU- 
ttle  alkaloid,  also  called  capsicin,  has  been  ob- 
tained from  chilli  pepper,  by  first  removing  the 
acrid  resin,  then  making  the  fluid  alkaHne,  and 
extracting  with  petroleum  spirit.  On  evaporat- 
ing, a  substance  is  produced  with  an  odor  like 
that  of  conia.  It  is  disttnguished  from  coma 
and  nicotine  by  a  variety  of  reactions. 

CAPSICUM,  a  jgenus  of  plants  of  the  or- 
der Solanacea,  consisting  of  annual  or  biennial 
plants,  bearing  membranous  ^ds  containing 
several  seeds,  noted  for  their  hot,  pungtnt 
qualities.  C.  annuwm,  a  native  of  South  Amer- 
ica, furnishes  the  fruits  known  as  chillies. 
These,  as  well  as  the  fruits  of  C.  fruleice*s 
and  other  species,  are  used  to  form  cayenne 
pepper.  For  this  purpose  the  ripe  fruits  are 
dried  in  the  sun  or  m  an  oven,  and  then  ground 
to  powder,  which  is  mixed  with  a  large  quan- 
tity of  wheat  flour.  The  mixed  powder  is  theo 
tnmed  into  cakes  with  leaven ;  tnese  are  baked 
till  they  become  as  hard  as  biscuit,  and  are  then 
ground  and  sifted.  Cayenne  pepper  is  largely 
adulterated  with  red  lead  and  otner  substances. 
C.  fniftus  u  the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  C.  fatlig»- 


d=,  Google 


CAPSTAN — CAPTAIN 


673 


turn,  imported  [n>in  Zaiuibar.  It  is  a  small, 
obtong,  scarlet,  membranous  pod,  divided  in- 
ternally into  two  or  three  cells  containiiig 
nmnerous  flat,  white,  reniform  s«eds.  It  has 
no  odor;  its  taste  is  hot  and  acrid  C.  baceatum, 
or  bird  pepper,  is  a  perennial  in  tropical  lati- 
tudes, C.  ffrossum  has  a  large,  long,  ovate 
fniit,  known  as  bell  pepper,  ana  is  nied  either 
ripe  or  unripe,  except  tor  cayenne  pepper,  when 
ihe  dried  ripe  fruit  is  employed.  Capsicum 
fruits  are  used  medicinally,  in  powder  or  as  a 
tincture,  externally,  or  as  a  g^rgie  in  cases  of 
malignant  sore  throat,  and  internally  as  a  stim- 
ulant in  cases'of  impaired  digestion. 

By  reason  of  the  resin-like  body,  capsicin, 
which  is  contained  in  the  fruits  of  tnese  plants, 
they  possess  very  active  irritant  properties.  The 
pure  crystals  of  capsicin  are  eitremely  virulent, 
and  readily  cause  severe  poisoning;  but  the 
ground  fruit  is  less  activ^  and  is  of  service  in 
medicine,  both  for  external  and  internal  medica- 

Externally,  capsicum  is  used  as  an  irritant 
to  cause  redness  of  the  skin  or  to  blister,  thus 
aHecting  related  visceral  areas  within  the  body. 
It  is  thus  em^loj'ed  in  bronchitis,  in  early  stages 
of  pneumoma,  m  pleurisies,  and  in  joint  and 
nerve  affections.  Intemalty,  capsicum  is  used 
to  stimulate  the  appetite  and  to  increase  the 
amounts  of  gastric  and  intestinal  juices.     It  is 

Earticularly  serviceable  in  the  gastritis  of  alco- 
olism.  All  capsicum  should  be  excluded  from 
the  diet  of  patients  with  disease  of  the  kidneys 
or  acute  disease  of  the  gemto-urinai?  system. 
See  Pepper. 

CAPSTAN  (Fr.  cabeitcm,  probably  from  a 
derivative  of  Lat.  cafiUlmtH,  a  halter,  from 
cafere,  to  hold),  an  apparatus  largely  used  on 
ships  for  moving  heavy  weights  and  by  various 
methods  for  the  apphcation  of  power.  Con- 
structed 'on  the  mechanical  principle  of  the 
wheel  and  axle,  its  axis,  unfike  that  of  the 
windlass,  is  vertical.  The  capstan  m^  be  oper- 
ated either  by  steam  power  or  by  means  of  a 
lever  set  in  its  socket  and  worked  by  horses  or 
pushed  by  hand,  the  last  method  usually  re- 

Suiring  several  men.  When  used  elsewhere 
lan  on  shipboard,  the  capstan  generally  has 
some  sped&c  name.  Thus,  when  employed  for 
raising  coal  from  pits  it  is  commonly  called  a 
gin ;  if  worked  by  horses,  it  is  known  as  a 
whim-gin.  Capstans  were  formerlv  made  of 
wood,  but  are  now  almost  universally  of  iron. 
The  upright  barrel  of  a  capstan  is  constructed 
around  a  spindle.  The  barrel  is  sometimes 
smooth,  and  sometimes  for  increase  of  friction 
has,  running  up  and  down  its  surface,  ribs  or 
ridges  called  whelps.  In  the  capstan-head  or 
drum'head,  surmounting  the  barrel  are  holes 
for  the  levers  or  capstan-bars  used  to  revolve 
the  barrel.  Being  smaller  at  its  centre  than  at 
the  top  or  bottom  end,  the  barrel  has  a  curve 
from  above  and  below,  whereby  a  rope  wound 
by  woricing  the  capstan  slips  toward  the  concave 
part  so  formed.  By  this  device  a  length  of 
rope  may  be  compactly  and  securely  wound 
and  kept  in  place  for  repeated  use.  On  the 
circumference  of  a  pawl-head  at  Ihe  bottom  of 
ifae  barrel  are  pivoted  pawls  which  catch  a 
pawl-rim  or  ratcfaet-ring  fastened  to  the  plat- 
form or  floor  on  which  the  capstan  is  fixed 
There  are  various  other  devices  for  increasing 
friction,  the  prevention  of  slipping  and  reverse 
operation  of  the  mechanism. 


CAPSULE,  in  beUitiy,  a  dry  fruit  contain- 
ing several  seeds,  sometimes  a  large  number, 
and  opening  of  itself  ty  means  of  valves  or 
pores  when  it  comes  to  maturity.  According 
as  it  contains  one,  two,  three  or  more  cells,  the 
capsule  is  called  unilocular,  liil  ocular,  trilocular, 
etc,  and  when  it  has  many  cells  it  is  called 
multilocular. 

/n  anatomy  a  capsule  is  a  mass  of  fibrous, 
connective  tissue  celts  surrounding  or  support- 
ing an  organ,  either  as  a  bag,  as  is  the  case  in 
the  Iddneys ;  or  as  a  framework,  as  in  the  liver. 
The  capsule  is  usually  an  integral  portion  of 
the  structure  of  an  organ. 

In  bacUriology,  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
thin  envelope  wnicb  surrounds  certain  micro- 
organisms. 

In  pharmacy  gelatin  capsules  are  widely 
used  for  purposes  of  rendering  medicines 
tasteless. 

CAPTAIN.  This  is  one  of  those  many 
words  derived  from  the  Latin  of  the  Middle 
A^s,  and  now  to  be  found  in  all  the  different 
idioms  of  Europe.  Captain  comes  from  the 
Latin  capiiatietis,  from  caput,  head,  and  signi- 
fied, first,  a  governor  of  a  province,  who  in 
the  first  half  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  generally 
a  military  man.  Thus  the  word  ca4>tain  soon 
came  to  be  used  chiefly  to  denote  a  hi^  or 
rather  the  bluest,  military  officer.     In  the  lat- 


part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  when  armi 
vet  so  regularly  divided  and  subdi\ 


ided  a 


armies  consisted.  These  were  generally  col- 
lected by  their  commander^  who  entered  with 
his  company  into  the  service  where  most  pay 
or  most  booty  could  be  obtained.  The  prac- 
tice of  waging  war  by  troops  collected  in  this 
manner  prevailed  to  the  greatest  extent  in 
Italy,  where  the  continual  quarrels  of  the  nu- 
merous small  states  afforded  ample  employ- 
ment to  the  unsettled  and  the  dissolute.  These 
companies  play  an  important  ]>art  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Middle  Ages,  particularly  diat  of 
the  two  centuries  preceding  the  Reformation, 
and  had  a  very  important  influence  on  the  man- 
ners and  morals  of  the  south  of  Europe. 

CAPTAiif,  in  most  modem  armies,  is  the 
commander  of  a  company  of  foot,  a  battery  of 
artillery,  or  a  squadron  of  horse,  or  a  staff- 
officer  of  equivalent  rank.  In  England  com- 
panies and  batteries  are  often  commanded  by 
majors.  In  the  United  States  cavalry  a  cap- 
tain commands  a  troop,  and  a  major  a  squad- 
ron of  four  troops.  In  the  United  States  army 
the  captain  nominates  the  non-commissioned 
officers  of  his  company  who  are  appointed  by 
the  colonel  of  the  regiment;  and  from  the  ser- 
geants he  selects  the  first  sergeant,  mess-ser- 
geant and  supply- sergeant. 

Captain,  in  the  navy,  an  officer- command- 
ing a  ship  of  war  or  a  staff  officer  of  equiva- 
lent rank.  The  naval  captain  is  next  in  rank 
above  the  commander,  and  in  the  United  States 
ranks  with  a  colonel  in  the  army. 

Captain-General,    the    commander-in-chief 


which  conferred  an  almost  unlimited  power  o  _ 
the  person  who  possessed  it  in  the  district 
where  he  commanded.  But  it  never  corre- 
sponded to  that  of  generalissimo  except  in 
the  case  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  in  I63S.  r  "- 


Coogic 


CAPTION  — .CAFU  ANA 


lime  of  Louis  XIIl.  The  title  is  not  in  use 
at  present,  nor  would  it  ^p_^^  with  the  existing 
organization  of  the  administration.  In  Spain 
the  rank  of  a  captain -nneral  corresponds  with 
that  of  a  marshal  of  France,  the  captain-gen- 
eral having  command  of  an  army  or  army 
corps.  The  title  was  also  given  to  the  head  of 
a  province  in  the  Spanish  colonies  in  South 
America,  which  were  divided  into  vice-royalties 
and  captain-generalships  {capitaniaj'geHer- 
ales)  ;  thus  Chile  used  to  be  a  captain-general- 
ship. The  captains-general  were  not  placed 
under  the  viceroys,  but  accountable  only  to 
the  king  through  (he  council  of  the  Indies. 
The  captain-general  of  Vcneiuela,  for  instancy 
had  no  connection  with  At  viceroy  of  Mew 
Granada.  They  decided,  in  the  last  instance, 
on  all  legislative,  judicial  and  military  affairs, 
and  presided  in  the  real  awiifneia.  The  time 
during  which  these  governors  remained  in 
power  was  limited  to  a  few  years,  probably  in 
order  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  too  pow- 
erful. The  consequence  was,  that  the  colonies 
"were  oppressed  the  more  to  enrich  the  sovem- 
ors,  for  rich  every  one  was  when  lie  left  his 
office. 

Captain  of  a  merchant  ship,  he  who  has  the 
ditection  of  a  ship,  her  crew,  lading,  etc  In 
email  vessels  he  is  more  ordinarily  called  mas' 
ter,  which  indeed  is  the  correct  title. 

CAPTION,  in  law,  signifies  the  heading  or 
that  part  oE  a  legal  instrument  such  as  an  in- 
dictment or  commission,  which  states  when, 
where  and  by  what  authority  it  is  executed. 
In  Scotch  law  it  si^ifies  a  warrant  of  impris- 
onment issued  against  a  party  to  enforce  an 
obligation,  being  now  confined  to  a  warrant 
served  upon  a  party  who  has  illegally  retained 

epers  in  a  lawsuit  that  had  been  borrowed 
him,  and  intended  to  compel  the  return  of 
the  papers.  The  word  is  not  now  used  with 
any  other  signification  in  Great  Britain;  it  is 
never  employed  to  denote  the  heading  of,  for 
instance,   a   newspaper   article. 

CAPTIVI.  cip-t*'-ve  (<The  Captives'),  a 
comedy  of  Plautus,  declared  by  Lessing  to  be 
the  finest  piece  that  had  ever  been  put  upon 

the  stage.  Such  an  estimate,  even  from  so 
great  a  literaiy  critic,  savors  rather  of  enthu- 
siasm than  of  judgment.  But  the  play  has 
unusual  merits.  The  plot,  while  simple,  is  very 
closely  woven ;  the  deception  and  its  disastrous 
discovery,  upon  which  the  action  turns,  are 
handled  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  spirit  of 
tragedy;  and  the  portrayal  of  character  is  so 
sympathetic  that  the  interest  of  the  audience 
is  aroused  almost  equally  for  the  deceivers 
and  for  the  deceived.  Plautus  himself,  both  in 
the  prologue  and  in  the  epilogue,  dwdls  upon 
the  elevation  of  tone  which  distinguishes  this 
play  from  the  usual  run,  and  expresses  his  re- 
gret that  playwrights  find  few  comedies,  such 
as  this,  through  which  good  men  may  be  made 
better.  This  conception  of  the  function  of 
comedy  is  very  rare  indeed  in  Plautus,  whose 
chief  concern  was  to  make  his  plays  amusing 
but  not  necessarily  edifying.  In  'The  Cap- 
tives* the  moral  lesson  is  the  more  impres- 
sively taught  because  the  hero  has  known  only 
the  life  and  outlook  ot  a  slave  ever  since  he 
was  stolen  from  home  in  early  childhood.  But 
this  slave  has  the  soul  of  a  gentleman,  and  no 
scene  in  the  play  is  greater  than  that  in  which. 


after  the  ^liscovery  of  his  real  status,  he  fear- 
lessljT  defends  his  loyalty  to  the  master,  now 
happily  beyond  reach,  for  whose  sake  be  has 
imperilled  his  own  life.  There  is  a  vivacious 
translation  in  the  'Loeb  Classical  Library'  by 
Paul  Nixon,  'Plautus,  Volume  I'  (New  York 
1916).  Consult  also  the  excellent  chapters  on 
Plautus  in  Sellar.  W.  Y.,  ^Roman  Poets  of  the 
RapuUic>  (3d  ed.,  reissued,  Oxford  1908)  and 


Nelson  G.  UcC^ea. 
CAPUA,  ka'poo-a,  Italy,  city  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Caserta,  18  miles  north  of  Naples,  on 
the  Volturao,  which  is  crossed  by  a  handsome 
bridge.  The  district  is  very  fertile,  but  some- 
what unhealthy.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbish- 
opric, and  was  the  principal  fortress  that  cov- 
ered  the  approach  to   Naples   from  the   north. 


It  V 


:   has    1 


magnificent  gates,  three  principal  streets,  two 
handsome  squares  and  three  public  fountains. 
The  town  is  dirty  and  badly  built.  The  prin- 
cipal public  buildings  are  the  cathedral  with  a 
cupola  supported  bv  18  columns,  entirely  mod- 
emiied;  the  churcn  of  the  Annunciation;  the 
governor's  palace,  the  town-hall,  a  museum 
with  many  ancient  works  of  art,  etc.  The  an- 
cient city  was  situated  two  and  a  half  miles 
southeast  from  the  modem  town,  which 
was  built  from  its  ruins  on  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient Casilinuffl  by  the  Lombards  in  the  9th 
century.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  a  connd- 
erable  town  called  Santa-Maria-di-Capoa-Vel- 
crc.  The  ancient  C^pua,  one  of  the  finest  and 
most  agreeable  cities  of  Italy,  was  of  such  ex- 
tent as  to  be  compared  to  Rome  and  Cartbage. 
Hannibal  wintered  at  ancient  Capua  after  ae 
battle  of^  Cannx,  and  thus  not  only  lost  time, 
but  also  is  commonly  said  to  have  rendered  his 
army  unfit  to  follow  up  the  advantage  he  had 
gained.  It  was  a  favorite  place  of  resort  of 
the  Romans,  on  account  of  its  agreeable  situa- 
tion and  its  healthy  climate;  and  many  existing 
ruins  attesi  its  ancient  splendor.  In  456  a.D. 
it  was  devastated  by  the  Vandals  under  Gen- 
scrie,  and  in  840  the  Saracens  completely  de- 
stroyed it.  The  Torre  Mignana  inside,  and  the 
CapelU  de'  Morti  outside,  the  town,  commem- 
orate the  bloody  attack  On  Capua  in  1501  by 
Csesar  Borgia.  Not  tar  from  the  city  is  the 
field  where  the  soldiers  ot  Garibaldi  and  of 
Piedmoni  defeated  King  Fr«nds  II  of  Naples, 
1  Oct  1860.    Pop.  13.315. 

CAPUANA,  ka-poo-i'ni.  Lnigi,  Italian 
poet,  novelist  and  critic:  b.  Mineo,  Sicily,  27 
Uay  1839.  Having  devoted  himself  to  journal- 
ism, he  settled  in  Florence  in  1864,  where  be 
wrote  dramatic  criticisms;  from  1868  until  1877 
he  lived  in  his  native  town,  then  in  'Milan,  again 
as  a  journalist.  In  1902  he  became  professor 
at  Catania.  With  Verga  he  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  Sicilian  group  of  "realists*  who,  with 
their  vivid  portrayal  of  Italian  regional  life, 
represent  one  of  the  most  virile  brandies  of 
Italian  fiction.  His  best-known  work  is  'Gia- 
cinta'  (1879),  a  naturalistic  novel.  Besides 
this  he  nas  published  several  volumes  of  shori 
stories,  among  them:  'Profiles  of  Women' 
(1881);  'Homo>  (1883);  and  two  collections 
of  charminc  fairy  tales :  <Once  upon  a  Time* 
(1882)   and  'Fairy  Land'   (1883).     A  curious 


CAFUCHIM  —  CAS  BDILDINO  INDUSTRY 


en 


sMoffien  of   Thydmucal  proee  U  hH    'S^nu' 
Rhythms'  (1888),  in  praise  of  worldljr  jay  aoA 

CAPUCHIN,  ap-u-shen  or  kap^fi-chen, 
the  name  of  sevsral  animali  in  wnich  the 
KTOtvth  of  the  hair  or  feathers  upon  the  bead 
lorms  a  sort  of  hood  suggesting  that  of  a  Cap- 
uchin friar.  Certain  monkeys  are  so  called, 
cspeciaH^  the  Soudi  American  sapajoas  of  the 
genns  Cebvs  and  one  or  more  of  the  macaques 
(q.v.).  A  breed  of  domestic  pigeora  is  alio  so 
called. 

CAPUCHINS,  an  order  of  mendicant  friars 
in  the  Rom^ri  Catholic  Church  founded  in  1528 
in  virtue  of  a  bull  of  Clement  VII.  Its  founder, 
Matleo  di  Basst,  was  a  memb<!r  of  the  rigorist 
section  of  the  Obser  van  tine  Franciscans,  who 
sought  to  restore  the  rule  of  perfect  poverty 
and  humility,  and  to  be  of  aid  to  [larish  priests 
in  the  cure  of  souls.  The  Capuchin  friars  ob^ 
taincd  their  name  from  the  capuerce,  cowl  or 
hood  which  they  wore.  They  were  vowed  to 
live  according  to  the  rule  of  Saint  Francis  in 
hermitages  and  to  labor  for  the  conversion  of 
notorious  sinners.  Their  churches  were  to  be 
bare  of  ornament.  Soon  after  their  foundation 
they  did  heroic  service  in  ministerinK  to  those 


was   interdicted   ^ , -„    _^    _,. 

and  would  have  been  suppressed  had  not  Car- 
dinal Sanseverino,  archbishop  of  Naples,  in- 
terceded for  them.  Paul  also  forbade  them  to 
establish  any  convents  beyond  the  Alps,  but  his 
successor,  Gregory  XIII,  revoked  that  de- 
cree. Again,  Gregory  XIV  in  1591  withdrew 
from  them  the  faculty  of  ministering  in  the 
confessional ;  but  it  was  restored  to  them  10 
years  later  by  Clement  VIII.  Finalljr,  ia  1619 
the  fraternity  was  restored  to  good  standing, 
and  was  even  erected  into  an  order  adminis- 
tratively independent  of  the  general  of  the 
Franciscans,  and  their  vicar-general  assumed 
the  shle  of  minister-general  Ever  since,  the 
Capuchins  have  been  recognized  as  eminently 
useful  servants  of  the  Church.  The  order  con- 
ducts missions  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  and 


provinces,  with  31,000  members,  the  largest 
number  reached  in  their  history.  In  Austria, 
they  are  most  numerous,  but  there  are  also 
22  scattered  missions.  Two  provinces  exist  in 
the  United  States,— one  centres  at  Detroit, 
Mich.,  and  one  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  There  is  also 
a  missionary  district  in  California.  An  order 
of  Capuchin  nuns  was  established  at  Naples  in 
1538. 

CAPULBTS  AND  MONTAGUES,  the 
English  spelling  of  the  names  of  the  Cappel- 
lettt  and  Monteechi,  two  noble  families  of 
northern  Italy,  according  to  tradition  of  Verona, 
chiefly  memorable  from  their  connection  with 
the  legend  on  which  Shakespeare  has  founded 
his  tragedy  of  'Romeo  and  Juliet'  Consult 
Daniel,  'Originals  and  Analogues  of  Romeo 
and  Juliet*  (in  'New  Shakespeare  Society  Pub- 
lications,' London  1875) ;  Fumess,  H.  H., 
•Romeo  and  Juliet*  (New  VaHorwn  editiom 
Fbiladeipbia  1871;  last  revision  1903). 


CAPUS,  k4-p0'  CVinuai  Utria),  Alfred, 
French  htterateur:  b.  25  Nov.  18S8.  He  was 
educated  at  Aix- en- Provence  and  at  the  Lyc^e 
Oindoreet,  Paris.  He  was  intended  for  the 
engineering  profession  and  to  this  end  received 
■  technical  training.  His  tastes,  however, 
tamed  him  to  literature;  he  entered  the  jour- 
nalistic fidd  as  member  of  the  staff  of  the 
Figaro.  He  soon  became  known  as  a  master- 
fiu  critic  and  satirist.  He  published  'Qui  perd 
gagne'  in  1890;  'Faux  depart'  (1891);  'Mon- 
sieur veut  rire*  (1893) ;  'Annies  d'aventures> 
(1895).  These  novels,  while  very  successful, 
have  been  overshadowed  by  his  dramas,  in 
which  hit  genius  is  best  revealed,  and  which  in 
1914  led  to  his  selection  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  The  plays  are  'Brignol  et 
sa  fiUe*  (1895);  L'lnnocent,*  with  Alphonse 
Alais  (1896);  'Rosine*  (1897);  'Manage 
bourgeois'  (1898);  *Les  maris  de  Liontine* 
(1900);  "La  veine'  (1901);  'U  petite  fonc- 
tionnaire'  (1901);  <Les  deux  doles'  (1902); 
<La  chatelaine'  (1902);  L'Adversaire,*  with 
Emmanuel  Arine  (1903) ;  'Notre  jeunesse' 
(19M);  'Monsieur  Piteois'  (1905);  L' Atten- 
tat,' with  Detcaves  (19(i6) ;  'Hiline  Ardouin» 
(1913).  He  also  published  <L'Ingtitut  de 
beaute,'  and  'Notre  ^)oque  et  le  th&tre.' 

CAPUT  MORTUUM  (Latin),  literally,  a 
dead  head;  a  fanciful  term  much  used  by  the 
old  chemists  to  denote  the  residuum  of  chem- 
icals when  all  their  volatile  matters  had  es- 
caped; hence  the  word  is  figuratively  used  of 
anything  from  which  all  that  rendered  it  valu- 
able has  been  taken  away.  It  is  used  in  histori- 
cal researdi  in  this  sense. 

CAPUTIATI,  ki-yu-shi-a'ti  (from  Lat 
caput,  head),  a  Christian  sect  which  arose  tn 
France  in  the  12th  century,  and  so  called  be- 
cause they  wore  as  a  distinguishing  badge  on 
their  heads  a  leaden  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
They  advocated  liberty,  equality  and  the  aboh- 
tion  of  all     '   "  ' 

to  suppress  them. 

CAPYBARA,  ki-pe-bi'ta  an  aquatic  rodent 
(Hydrochotrus  capyoara),  of  the  lamily  Cavii- 
air,  native  to  South  America.  It  is  the  largest 
rodent  known,  being  four  feet  long,  and  weir- 
ing nearly  100  pounds.  It  has  a  rou{^  brown 
coat,  a  heavy  flat  head,  small  [Ug-Uke  eyes  and 
ears,  and  a  blunt  muizle.  Its  feet  are  supplied 
with  hoof-like  claws,  and  its  tail  unlike  that 
of  most  rodents,  is  very  short  The  animal  is 
herbivorous,  browsing  on  grass  along  river 
banks,  and  often  creating  havoc  in  sugar  plan- 
tations. It  is  awkward  on  land,  but  swims  and 
dives  well,  and  can  remain  unoer  water  a  long 
time.  The  flesh  is  edible,  except  that  of  very 
old  males.  It  is  known  throughout  Spanish 
South  America  as  carjnncho,  but  is  called  water 
hog  and  water  horse  in  British  Guiana.  Con- 
sult 'Proceedings  of  Zoological  Society  of 
London'    (18W). 

CARABAO,  ki-ra-ba'«^  a  small  variehr  of 
water  bulTab  (B.  Bttbatits)  found  in  the  Phil- 
ippines.   See  Buffalo. 

CAR  BUILDING  INDUSTRY.  The 
memory  of  men  stilt  living  is  sufficiently  elastic 
to  stretch  back  to  the  beginnings  of  steam  rail- 
roads in  this  country,  and  to  comprehend  the 
various  changes  by  which  the  modem  railway 
has  become  a  highly  organized  and  ebbOTBlely 


Cig 


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ore 


CAR  BUILDING  INDUSTRY 


equipped  mechaniaBi.  We  borrowed  the  rail- 
way from  England,  but  developed  it  on  our 
own  lines.  The  invention  of  the  locomotive  at 
first  simply  furnished  a  mechanical  power  to 
transport  freight  in  cars  that  had  formerly 
been  nauled  by  horses.  Tramways  were  in  use 
in  the  Hungarian  mines  during  the  16th  cen- 
tury; and  Ralph  Allen's  English  stone-car  of 
1734,  with  its  flanged  wheels  and  its  hand- 
brake, is  clearly  the  forerunner  of  the  frdgbt' 

The  term  "railway"  was  invented  in  1775, 
when  it  was  first  used  in  Smeaton's  reports 
on  Ecighsfa  transportation,  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury before  steam  was  applied  to  locomotion. 
Thanks  to  the  recent  researches  of  Mr.  Clem- 
Mit  E.  StrettOQ,  we  now  know  that  the  first 
persons  ever  conveyed  by  a  locomotive  on  rails 
traveledj  on  24  Feb  1804.  behind  Trevethick's 
locomoltTC  on  the  Pennycurran  cast-iron  plate- 
way  or  tram-road  to  Merthyr-Tydvil,  in  Wales, 
a  distance  of  nine  miles.  In  order  to  transport 
long  bars  of  iron  and  timber,  the  cars  were 
made  in  pairs,  coupled  together  by  an  iron 
draw-bar  having  a  joint  at  either  end.  The 
cars  had  no  ^des,  but  in  the  middle  of  each 
was  fixed  a  centre-pin  upon  which  worked  a 
cross-beam  or  bolster,  and  upon  this  cross- 
beam the  timber  or  bars  of  iron  were  placed. 
On  the  occasion  referred  to  the  trucks  were 
loaded  with  10  tons  of  iron  bars,  and  70  per- 
sons stood  on  the  iron.  Here  we  have  the 
origin  of  the  bogie  or  truck,  the  invention  of 
which  has  been  claimed  for  this  country,  as  we 
shall  see  hereafter.  Also  the  capacity  of  the 
freight-car,  fixed  at  the  beginning  at  10  tons, 
remained  at  that  figure  for  half  a  century  or 

In  1812  ^ohn  Blenldnsop  of  Leeds  had  a  pri- 
vate car  built  to  carry  himself  and  his  managers 
to  his  Middleton  colliery,  while  the  workmen 
rode  on  the  coal-cars.  On  27  July  1814,  George 
Stephenson's  first  locomotive,  Blucher,  drew 
over  the  Kenilworth  colliery  line  a  passenger- 
car  made  by  placing  the  body  of  Lord  Ravens- 
worth's  four-tn-hand  coach  on  a  wooden  frame 
fitted  with  flanged  wheels.  This  car  was  used 
for  20  years.  On  27  Sept.  182S,  the  Stockton 
&  Darlington  Railway  was  opened,  and  trains 
of  coal-cars  were  run,  with  one  passenger-coach 
named  the  Experiment.  This  was  the  first  pas- 
senger-car to  be  run  regularly  for  the  use  of 
the  public.  It  was  placed  on  four  wheels,  and 
had  a  door  at  each  end,  with  a  row  of  seats 
along  either  side  and  a  long  deal  table  in  the 
centre.  This  car  was  operated  10  days,  until 
the  noveltv  was  worn  oft;  and  then  the  faster 
Stage-coaches  carried  the  passengers.  It  was 
not  until  15  Sept.  1830  that  the  Liverpool  & 
Manchester  Railway  opened  its  line  with  a  train 
carrying  600  passengers,  and  immediately  there- 
after began  to  run  the  first  regular  passenger- 
It  is  a  striking  fact  in  the  history  of  car 
construction  that  Oie  English  invented  both  the 
truck  and  the  long  passenger-car  with  the  door 
at  each  end;  and  that  these  forms,  once  in- 
vented, were  almost  immediately  discarded  in 
England,  bo  that  it  was  left  for  this  country 
to  reinvent  them  and  to  make  them  the  distin- 
guishing features  of  American  car  building  as 
contrasted  with  English  construction.  Indeed, 
it  has  been  with  great  reluctance  that  we  have 
ceased  to  claim  *"«"  as  original  discoveries. 


The  fact  that  passenger  trains,  by  disidacing 
stages,  threw  out  of  use  many  of  those  vdiicles, 
coupled  with  the  other  fact  that  the  sl^<e 
owners,  submitting  to  the  inevitaUe,  often  be- 
came railroad  promoters,  furnishes  a  reason 
why  the  early  masters  of  transportation  both 
used  the  stage-coach  body  as  a  matter  of  econ- 
omy, and  also  built  their  new  cars  on  the  model 
in  which  the  conveniences  of  travel  had  been 
most  higbl^  developed.  The  first  passenger- 
coach  used  m  Pennsylvania  in  1832  was  a  stage- 
coach slightly  enlarged.  To  be  sure,  the  early 
prints  show  that  in  1830  Peter  Cooper's  first 
locomotive  hauled  an  open  boat-stuiped  car 
from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott  s  Mills,  on  the  Balti- 
more &  Ohio  Railroad;  but  tliis  model  must 
have  been  adopted  for  economy's  sake,  because 
in  1833  that  railroad  placed  in  service  the  Ohio, 
a  car,  stage-coach  in  shape,  with  seats  on  top 
as  well  as  inside. 

As  president  Mendes  Cohen  well  observed 
in  his  address  before  the  American  Society  o£ 
Civil  Engineers  in  1892,  the  first  important  mod- 
ifications in  car-building  were  called  forth  by 
the  speed  developed  in  the  locomotive.  Nat- 
urally the  wheels  first  demanded  attention.  The 
names  of  four  men  are  connected  with  early 
wheel  improvement.  Mr.  Knight  improved  the 
shape  of  the  tread  and  flange;  John  Edgar 
and  Ross  Winans  developed  the  chilled  features; 
and  Phineas  Davis  further  improved  and  per- 
fected the  wheel  by  altering  the  disposition  of 
the  metal  in  the  tread  and  the  angle  of  the 
flange,  and  by  introducing  within  the  cast-iron 
wheel  a  wrought-iron  ring  of  five-eighths  or 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  round  iron  both  per- 
mitted the  chill  and  added  strength  to  the  wheel. 
Mr.  Winans'  shops  turned  out  thousands  of 
these  wheels  for  use  not  only  in  this  country, 
but  also  in  Germany  and  Switrerland  From 
30,000  to  50,000  miles  represented  the  capalxli- 
ties  of  a  Winans  wheeL 

With  increased  speed  came  the  need  for  in- 
creased  steadiness,    and  it   occurred    to    Ross 


portation  of  freigKt,  he  could  build  an"  eas^- 
riding  passenger-car.  A  bogie-truclc  is  a  pair 
of  wheels,  or  more  commonly  two  pairs  of 
wheels,  connected  by  a  frameworlo  and  having 
a  very  strong  vertical  central  tdng-ptn,  on 
which  one  end  of  a  locomotive  or  railway  car 
is  supported.  "The  device  facilitates  rounding 
the  curves  of  a  railway  track.  In  1833  Mr. 
Winans  constructed  three  long  houses  on 
wheels,  each  capable  of  seating  60  passengers. 
Having  patented  his  invention,  he  was  con- 
fronted by  the  fact  that  the  principle  he  had 
used  was  one  that  had  been  utilized  frequently 
on  tramways,  and  finally  the  courts  annulled 
the  patent. 

We  now  konw  that  prior  to  1830  England 
had  three  bogic-en^nes  at  woric;  that  in  1831 
Stevenson's  John  Bull,  built  for  the  Camden 
&  Amboy  road,  was  made  into  a  bo^e  after 
it  reached  this  country;  that  Horatio  Allen 
used  a  bogie-engine  on  the  South  Carolina 
Railroad  in  1832,  the  same  year  in  which  the 
bogie- locomotive  Experiment  was  built  for 
the  Mohawk  &  Hudson  Railroad  Moreover, 
the  bogie  principle  was  patented  in  England  in 
1812.  Yet  it  is  certain  that  the  Americsn  pas- 
senger-car of  to-day  originated  ^th  the  three 
passenger-coaches  liuilt  in  Ross  Wiiunu'  shops 


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CAS  BtrtLDINO  INDUSTKT 


'677- 


in  1633.  Engbsd  discarded  the  bosie  principle 
for  engiDcs  in  1830,  and  did  not  return  to  it 
until  1^6;  and  ihat  country  to  this  day  has  not 
adopted  the  bogie  for  passenger-  or  fretght- 
cars.  In  1889,  the  Pans,  Lyons  &  Mediter- 
ranean Railway  adored  the  bogie  for  certain 
mssengCT-cars ;  and  in  1895  the  Great  Western 
Railway  of  England  began  to  experiment  with 
the  bogie-truck.  In  America  the  Winans  pas- 
senger-coach almost  immediately  supplanted 
everywhere  the  stage-coach  form,  which  Eng- 
land still  retains  in  a  modified  shape,  excepting 
only  on  the  Pullman  cars,  introduced  into 
that  country  in  1874,  With  ua  not  onljr 
the  passenger-cars,  but  the  baggage,  msul 
and  frei^t-cars,  all  were  placed  on  swiTeting 
trucks. 

That  the  early  railroads  of  this  country 
were  designed  to  carry  passengers  rather  than 
freight  is  to  be  seen  by  their  reporis.  The 
BalSmore  &  Ohio  road,  from  1  Jan.  1831  to  1 
October  carried  over  its  13  miles  of  track  5.931 
tons  of  freight  and  81,905  passengers;  and  so 
late  as  1839  the  Camden  &  Amboy  carried  oidy 
13,520  tons  of  merchandise  as  against  181,479 
pusengers.  In  fact,  the  railw»'s  as  fretf^t 
carriers  could  not  compete  with  the  canals, 
which  in  those  days  were  the  traffic  routes.  In 
1831  the  Tuscarora  &  Port  Carbon  Railioad 
could  not  meet  canal  rates  by  39^  cents  per 
ton,  the  railway  charges  being  40  cents,  plus  a 
toll  of  15  cents  per  ton,  while  the  canal  rates 
were  1(^  cent&  plus  5  cents  tolL 

Mr.  John  Kirby,  describing  from  memory 
the  freight-car  of  1848,  says  that  it  was  the 
same  square  box  it  is  to-day;  its  capacitv  was 
from  6  to  10  tons;  the  roof  was  covered  with 
cotton  duck  painted  and  sanded.  The  hot  sun 
cracked  this  covering  and  let  the  water  in  on 
the  freight,  an  annoyance  ccnnmoD  also  to  pas- 
senger-coaches of  that  day.  Few  freight-cars 
were  used  in  New  York  State  at  that  oate^  the 
Erie  Canal  being  sufficient  for  summer  freight. 
Wood  was  the  universal  fuel,  so  there  was  no 
coal  transportation.  Wooden  brakeheads  were 
used,  and  it  required  three  men- to  turn  the 
screw  that  pressed  the  wheels  on  and  off  the 
axles.  The  ripping  of  planks  was  done  by 
hand,  as  was  also  the  dressing  up;  and  whai 
one  man  had  tools  to  grind,  a  fellow-workman 
turned  the  stone.  Carjienters  and  car  builders 
of  six  years'  experience  commanded  $1.12}4  a 
day  wages. 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  to-day,  the 
passengcr'Car  of  the  early  fifties,  built  at  a 
cost  of  about  ^000,  was  a  combination  of  in- 
conveniences. The  cait'iron  stove  in  the  centre 
of  the  car  broiled  those  who  sat  immediately 
around  it.  while  the  unfortunates  one  seat  re- 
moved from  its  Satanic  glare  shivered  and 
froze.  In  stmimer  the  dnst  was  intolerable, 
and,  notwithstanding  elaborate  devices  for  ven- 
tilation, the  dust  problem  did  not  begin  to  be 
solved  before  the  appearance  of  the  monitor 
roof  or  clearstory  in  I860.  Hot-water  heating 
and  the  abolition  of  the  deadly  car-stove  came 
with  the  Pullmans. 

In  1856  Capt  (later  Sir)  Douglai  Gallon, 
of  the  Royal  Engineers,  was  sent  to  America  to 
investigate  our  railways.  His  report  to  the 
lords  of  the  Privy  Council  for  Trade  gives  a 
straightforward  and  nnUased  account  of  his 
investigations.  Perhaps  there  is  extant  no  other 
r^ort  which  so  comprehetuively  discusses  the 

VOL  3  —  37 


railw^  situation  in  the  United  States  about 
that  date. 

■The  practice  of  constmcting  railways  (in 
America]  in  a  hasty  and  imperfect  manner," 
says  Captain  Galton,  'kas  lea  to  the  adoption 
of  a  form  of  rolling  stock  capable  of  adapting 
Itself  to  the  inequahiies  of  the  road;  it  is  also 
constructed  on  the  principle  of  diminishing  the 
useless  weight  carried  in  a  train.  The  principle 
is  that  the  body  of  the  car  it  carried  on  two 
<  four-wheeled  trucks,  to  whidi  the  body  is  at- 
tached by  means  of  a  pintle  in  the  centre,  Uie 
wei^t  resting  on  small  roUen  at  each  side. 
The  framing  of  the  truck  is  supported  on 
q>riiigs  resting  on  the  axles,  and  the  pintle  and 
rollers  are  fixed  to  a  cross-fceam  which  is  at- 
tadied  by  springs  to  the  main  framing;  so  that 
between  the  body  of  the  car  and  the  axles  are  a 
double  set  of  springs.  India-rubber  springs 
are  in  general  use,  but  they  often  become  liard; 
consequently  sometimes  steel  qirings  are  used, 
with  great  advantage.  Any  side  movement 
which  mif^t  result  from  the  slight  play  allowed 
to  the  cross-beam  is  counteracted  by  springs 
placed  between  its  ends  and  the  framing.  An 
iron  hoop  attached  to  the  framing  passes  under 
the  axle  on  each  aide,  so  as  to  snpport  the 
axle  in  case  it  should  break.* 

The  bearings  Captain  Galton  found  not  tm- 
like  those  used  in  England,  but  the  use  of  oil 
as  a  lubricator  was  novel.  He  was  told  that 
under  favorable  circumstances  the  oil  in  an 
axle-box  needed  to  be  renewed  but  once  a 
month;  but  that  it  was  difficult  to  obtain  good 
oil.  The  wheels  were  of  cast-iron,  with  chilled 
tires;  they  were  from  30  to  36  inches  in 
diameter,  weighed  rather  more  than  500 
pounds  and  were  without  spokes.  When  made 
by  the  best  makers  they  would  run  from  60,000 
to  80,000  miles  before  the  tires  were  worn, 
and  they  cost  frwn  $14.50  to  $17,00  each.  The 
iron  used  in  making  wheels  was  of  very  superior 
quality;  and  so  great  was  the  practical  skill 
required  that  but  three  firms  in  the  United 
States  could  be  relied  on  to  fttrnish  wheels 
of  the  first  grade. 

The  moat  approved  form  of  draw-bar  was 
continuous  under  the  car,  and  was  attached  to 
the  elliptic  springs,  acting  in  both  directions. 
The  iron  shackle  was  in  general  use,  but  some 
railways  preferred  an  oak  shackle  18  inches 
long^  2  inches  thick  and  6  inches  broad. 
This  block  was  bound  with  an  iron  band  di- 
vided on  each  side  at  the  centre,  so  that  a  car 
on  leaving  the  rails  would  break  the  shackle 


Alreac^  the  automatic  coupler  for  freight- 
cars_  was  prefigured  in  a  device  by  which  the 
pin  in  the  bumper  of  one  of  the  cars  was  sup- 
ported by  means  of  a  ball,  so  that  the  shaclde 
of  the  on-coming  car  pushed  back  this  ball  and 
let  the  pm  fall  into  its  place.  All  passenger- 
cars  and  most  freight-cars  were  supplied  with 
brakes;  and  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  Rail- 
road was  endeavoring  to  anticipate  the  day  of 
train-brakes  by  an  invention  whereby  a  sudden 
check  in  the  speed  of  the  en^pne  applied  the 
brakes  to  the  wheels  of  all  the  cars.  The 
toilet,  the  car-stove  and  the  ice-water  tank  all 
had   established  themselves  in   the  best  cars. 

On  the  Illinois  Central,  between  Cairo  and 
E>ubuqDe,  some  of  the  cars  were  filled  with 
compartments  in  which  the  backs  of  seats 
turned  up  and  so  fanned  two  tiers  of  berths 


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8TS 


CAR  BUILDIHO  INDUSTRY 


or  sofas,  for  the  accommodation  of  persons 
who  mignt  wish  to  lie  down  and  were  willing 
to  pay  for  the  privileec.  The  passenger-car 
had  attained  a  length  of  60  feet,  though  the 
30-  and  45-foot  cars  were  more  common;  the 
baggage-cars,  with  their  compartments  for  mail 
and  express,  weie  30  feet  long,  and  the  freight- 
cars  from  28  to  30  feet.  In  those  days  the 
freight-cars  were  constructed  more  strongly 
than  were  the  passenger-coaches;  a  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  freight-car  ^  feet  long,  and  with  a 
capacity  of  nine  tons,  itself  weired  six  tons. 
Of  necessity  progress  in  car-building  had  to 
wait  for  the  development  of  the  railroads. 
The  original  roads  were  not  constructed  as 
through  lines  between  the  larger  cities,  but  as 
the  connecting-links  between  natural  water- 
ways, answering  to  the  portages  or  carrying 
places  of-  the  old  days  when  commerce  was 
conducted  in  canoes.  Often  built  as  the  result 
of  local  or  State  enterprise,  a  short  line  was 
sufficient  to  use  up  the  scanty  capital  available. 


systems  of  to-day  represent  survivals  of  the 
fittest  early  ventures,  and  development  accord- 
ing to  environmenL  Thus  the  various,  small 
roads  which  traversed  the  present  main  line 
of  the  New  York  Central  were  not  consoli- 
dated until  1853,  and  the  same  year  the  roads 
between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburg  came  un- 
der, one  control.  So  late  as  1862  there  were 
live  separate  companies  operating  the  lines 
between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Uichigan ;  and 
as  each  road  had  a,  gauge  of  its  own,  it  was 
regarded  as  a  triumph  in  car  construction 
when  freight-cars  of  compromise  gauge  were 
built  to  run  over  all  five  roads.  In  18cd,  how- 
ever, the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern 
lines  came  under  a  single  bead. 

When  in  October  1865  a  combination  was 
formed  among  eight  railroads  to  establish  a 
fast  freight  line  between  New  Yotk  and  Boston 
and  Chicago,  the  maximum  difference  in  the 
gauges  of  the  several  hnes  was  one  inch;  and 
this  was  compensated  for  by  a  broad  tread 
wheel.  Each  company  contributed  a  number 
of  cars  proportionate  to  its  mileage,  one  car 
for  every  three  (afterward  increased  to  one 
for  every  two)  miles.  In  1865  the  quota  of 
the  Lake  Shore  &  Northern  Indiana  was  179 
cars;  while  in  1894  that  road's  quota  of  Red 
Line  cars  was  ^200. 

In  1862  the  Xlnited  States  government  con- 
ducted the  greatest  railroad  business  known  up 
to  that  time.  With  headquarters  at  Nashville, 
the  government  operated  1,500  miles  of  road 
with  18,000  men,  whose  monthly  wages 
amounted  to  $2,200,000.  The  rolling  stock 
consisted  of  271  en^nes  and  3,000  oars.  No  en- 
tirely new  locomotives  were  built,  but  the  3,000 
men  employed  in  the  locomotive  repair  shops 
pieced  out  fully  equipped  engines  founded  on 
»  serviceable  boiler  or  a  pair  of  sound  driving- 
wheels.  Among  the  triumphs  of  the  national 
car-shops  were,  first,  a  headquarters  car  for 
General  Thomas,  the  car  being  50  feet  long, 
iron-plated,  and  provided  with  a  kitchen,  a 
dining-room,  a  sleeping  apartment  and  an 
office;  and,  secondly,  Ue  fiospital  trains,  in 
which  the  jars  and  jo^ts  were  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  It  was  durmg  the  year  1864  that 
General  McCallura  and  Colonel  Wyman  came 
to  Detroit  and  summoned  the  managers  of  the 


Michi^n  Car  Company  to  stop  all  btnlding 
then  in  progress  and  to  work  solely  for  ifac 
government.  They  gave  a  contract  for  a 
nimtber  of  box-  and  flat-cars  to  be  operated 
on  Southern  roads;  and  inasmuch  as  the  gauge 
differed  from  that  of  the  Northern  roads,  the 
new  cars  were  loaded  on  flat-cars  and  sent  to 
Cincinnati.  The  government  officials  fixed  the 
price  of  the  cars  and  made  payment  in  certifi- 
cates, some  of  which  the  comparer  exchaoged 
for  materials,  and  the  remainder  were  held 
until  vaoaey  could  be  obtained  for  them. 

The  enormous  transportation  bu^ncss  de- 
veloped by  the  war,  t<%ether  with  the  labor 
coadidons  and  the  paper-money  issues,  com- 
bined to  raise  the  price  of  cars;  so  that  the 
standard  freight-car  of  1864,  a  car  28  feet  long 
and  with  a  capacity  of  10  tons,  cost  $1,000  or 
more.  About  30  years  later  a  car  34  feet  long, 
with  a  capacity  of  30  tons,  and  provided  with 
automatic  couplers,  air-hrakes  and  other  im- 
provements, could  be  purchased  for  about  £500. 

When  the  war  ended  the  managers  of  lail- 
wavs  were  called  on  to  face  a  heavy  decline 
in  both  freight  and  passenger  trafiic,  due  to  the 
disbanding  of  the  armies.  Uoney  was  not 
plentiful,  cars  were  very  expensive  and  the 
mania  for  extending  lines  into  new  territory 
had  begun.  Under  these  conditions  the  roads 
began  a  system  of  borrowing  cars  from  the 
builders  or  from  car- trust  companies.  The 
Michigan  Car  Company  was  probably  the  first 
to  m^e  contracts  on  a  car-loaning  basis;  be 
that  as  it  may,  this  company  had  at  one  time 
loaned   to    railroads  between  6,000  and  7,000 


credit  the  roads  began  to  buy  cars  for  cash  or 
on  long  time,  as  was  most  convenient;  and 
loaning  freight-cars  to  railroads  on  a  mileage 
basis  was  practically  discontinued,  A  majority 
of  the  refrigerator-cars,  however,  continued  to 
be  owned  by  private  parties  and  run  on  a 
mileage  basis.  The  reduction  in  the  mileage 
rate  pracdcally  killed  the  business  of  private 
ownershii:^  'Since  the  new  rate  did  not  much 
more  than  pay  for  the  repairs. 

In  the  winter  of  1868-69  the  first  Westing- 
house  air-brake  was  used  on  the  SieubenviUe 
accommodadon  train  running  on  the  Pittsburgh, 
Cincinnati  8i  Saint  Louis  Railroad,  The  Penn- 
sylvania road  adopted  it,  and  since  the  auio- 
madc  feature  was  added,  in  1873,  it  has  come 
into  almost  universal  use  on  passenger-trains, 
while  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  new 
freight-cars  built  are  equipped  with  it.  In  1887 
a  train  of  SO  frd^t-cars  made  a  triumphal 
tour  of  the  great  hues,  and  t^  repeated  tests, 
under  varying  conditions,  proved  that  the 
Westioghouse  brake  can  stop  a  train  m  ont- 
tentb  the  space  required  by  the  hand-brake, 
la  1667  Colonel  Miller  placed  bia  pstent  plat- 
form, buffer,  and  coupler  on  three  cars  building 
in  the  shops  at  Adrian,  Mich, ;  and  widi  ertat 
rapidibr  the  dangerous  old  platform,  with  its 
loose  fink  coupling,  disappeared.  In  1860  the 
Post-Oflice  Department  began  to  donand  more 
room  from  the  railroad  companies,  and  year 
by  year  the  mail-tars  were  increased  from  17 
to  20  feet  in  length,  then  to  35,  and  finally  to 
60  feet 

The  intercHatige  of  cars  among  the  variooi 
roads  made  it  necessary  to  adopt  standards  in 
car  construcUoD,  ia  order  to  facilitate  itfrnB 


■  Google 


CAR  BUILDING  IMDUSTRY 


579 


lo  ears  when  away  £rom  the  home  road.  Some 
authority,  too,  was  needed  to  settle  disputes 
between  roads,  arising  from  charges  (or  re- 
pairs; to  investigate  new  brakes  and  couplers; 
and,  in  Reneral,  to  keep  the  work  of  construc- 
tion fully  abreast  of  the  times.  The  Master 
Car  Builders'  Association,  orgaiuced  in  1667, 
amply  tills  this  need;  and  the  reports  of  its 
annual  meetings  contain  the  latest  word  on  all  ' 
subjects  relating  to  car-building.  Its  arbitra- 
tion committee  also  acts  as  a.  court  of  concilia- 
tion for  ^e  various  roads. 

Car-building  has  undergone  a  revolution 
during  the  past  25  years,  due  in  part  to  ip- 
ereased  demands  on  the  railways,  and  in  ^rt 
to  improved  methods  of  construction:  The 
use  of  wood  as  a  material  is  markedly  less,  and 
the  use  of  steel  is  steadily  increasing,  so  that 
both  passenger  and  freight  cars  of  recent  date 
seem  to  be  of  better  and  more  durable  type 
than  ever  before.  Modem  cars  are  a  develop- 
ment, built  for  service  and  long  life,  and  to 
meet  the  numerous  demands  of  shippers  and 
the  traveling  public.  The  i>arlor  car  has  de- 
veloped into  an  entire  scries  of  sumptuous 
apartments  on  wheels  built  to  transport  those 
who  want  comfort  and  luxury  in  their  joumcy- 
ings,  and  arc  willing  to  pay  for  them ;  the  dif- 
ference in  the  needs  of  the  commuters  around 
a  large  city  and  of  passengers  going  long  dis- 
tances has  called  for  a  dincrentiation  in  pas- 
senger cars.  For  express  and  mail  service 
there  has  been  developed  a  line  of  cars  that 
enable  business  to  be  properly  handled  en  route, 
avoiding  delays  at  terminals.  For  frd^t 
transportation  there  have  been  put  into  use  ht- 
erally  hundreds  of  styles  of  cars,  adaptol  to 
convenient  carrying  of  special  goods  of  widely 
varying  nature. 

Paasenger  Cars.— The  standard  passenger 
car  is  termed  a  day  coach,  and  is  78  feet  long, 
10  wide  and  14^  high;  it  wei^  112,000 
pounds,  is  practically  all  steel,  and  has  40  dou- 
ble seats,  automatic  windows,  racks  for  coats, 
grips,  etc.,  a  toilet,  ice-water  supply,  Pintsch 
gas  or  electric  lights  and  minor  conveniences. 
If  for  through  traffic  it  has  a  vestibule,  so 
that  passengers  can  walk  from  car  to  car  with- 
out exposure  to  the  weather.  The  conttruc- 
tion  cost  is  about  $10,000.  For  suburban  serv- 
ice, non-vestibuted  cars  are  used,  and  many 
have  cane-covered  seats  that  do  not  hold  the 
dust.  There  were  53,500  passenger  cars  in  use 
on  the  steam  railways  of  the  United  States  in 
1915,  or  about  one  car  to  five  miles  of  tracks. 

A  cheaper  grade  of  passenger  car  is  known 
as  the  emigrant  or  tourist  car,  equivalent  to  the 
second-class  car  of  Europe.  Many  companies 
use  their  older  wooden  cars  for  this  service, 
but  the  cars  built  for  this  trafSc  arc  simply  a 
cheap  grade  of  car,  with  usually  cane-covered 
seats,  fewer  conveniences  and  slight  decora- 
lion. 

The  standard  sleeping  car  is  72^  feet  long 
of  all-steel  construction,  has  24  berths  ana 
weighs  152,000  pounds.  It  is  increasingly 
common  to  build  them  with  two  to  a  doien 
separate  compartments,  like  state-rooms  on  a 
steamboat,  each  compartment  having  two  to 
four  berths  and  toilet  conveniences.  Some 
sleepers  are  built  with  several  compartments 
and  the  remainder  of  the  car  constructed  as  a 
parlor  and  observation  compartment,  so  that  a 
party  or  small  number  of  passengers  can  have 


the  conveniences  of  both  bedrooms  and  draw- 
ing-room. The  form  of  sleeper  that  is  alter- 
able to  a  day  coach,  the  berths  folding  away, 
appears  to  be  less  popular  than  formerly. 

Observation  cars,  with  extra  lai^e  windows, 
and  often  with  individual  seats,  have  come  into 
considerable  use  in  transcontinental  travel. 
The  term  parlor  car  is  now  used  by  the  railways 
for  a  day  coach,  handsomely  fitted  up  with  in- 
dividual chairs,  and  for  which  an  extra  char^ 
is  made.  Sometimes  these  are  called  chair 
cars.  The  tenns  palace  car  and  drawing-room 
car  are  ^ing  into  disuse. 

Smolung  cars  are  nm  on  practically  all  pas- 
senger trains,  and  have  usually  imitation  leather 
covered  seats.  Sometimes  they  arc  provided 
with  card  tables.  The  cafe  car  is  not  only  a 
smoker,  but  card-room  and  bar-room  combined 
—  a  high-class  cafi  or  saloon  on  wfaoels.  The 
dining  car  is  fitted  up  with  a  kitchen,  and  the 
passengers  are  expected  to  come  in  to  the 
tables  to  take  their  meals,  or  sometimes  the 
service  is  extended  through  the  train.    The  but- 


The  business  car  is  a  recent  innovation,  hav- 
ing tables,  desks  and  stationery  for  correspond- 
ence; also  typists  and  stenographers  in  attend- 
ance. The  private  car,  built  for  railway  offi- 
dals  and  people  who  wish  to  travel  in  luxuri- 
olis  seclusion,  is  fitted  u{>  as  a  living  suite  of 
rooms,  with  hotel  conveniences  and  elegant  ap- 
pointments. 

Sleeping  Cart— Improved  railway  travel 
may  be  said  to  date  from  1836,  when  the  first 
sleeping  car  was  offered  to  the  traveling  oub- 
lic.  In  that  year  the  Cumberland  Valky  Rail- 
road of  Pennsylvania  installed  a  sleeping-car 
setvice  between  Harrisburg  and  Chambers- 
burg,  This  €rst  sleeping  car  was  an  adapta- 
tion of  an  ordinary  day  coach  to  sleeping  re- 
quirements. It  was  mvided  into  four  com- 
partments in  each  of  which  three  bunks  were 
built  against  one  side  of  the  car,  and  in  the 
rear  of  the  car  were  provided  a  towel,  basin 
and  water.  No  bed  clothes  were  furnished 
and  the  weary  passengers  fully  dressed  reclined 
on  rough  mattresses  with  their  overcoats  or 
shawls  drawn  over  them.  Candles  furnished 
the  light,  and  the  heat  was  supplied  by  box 
■  stoves  burning  wood  or  sometimes  coal.  Other 
similar  cars  were  adopted  soon  after  tn-  various 
railroads  and  for  a  number  of  years  these  cars 
found  an  appreciative  patronage,  and  tem- 
porarily served  the  patrons  of  the  railroads. 
Improvements  were  negligible  and  the  only 
justification  for  such  cars  existed  in  the  ability 
of  the  passengers  to  recline  at  length  during 
the  long  night  hours.  The  first  fundamental 
improvement  came  in  1858  when  Geot^  Morti- 
mer Pullman  put  several  revolution! iing  ideas 
to  practical  test  by  remodelling  two  Chicago 
and  Alton  coaches  into  sleeping  cars.  In  these 
Mr.  Pullman  introduced  bis  invention  of  upper 
berth  construction  by  means  of  which  the  upper 
berth  might  be  closed  in  the  day  time  and 
also  serve  as  a  receptacle  for  bedding.  Other 
improvements  were  worked  out  and  tested,  and 
from  these  first  experiments  were  drawn  the 
plans  from  which  the  first  cars  entirely  con- 
structed by  him  were  made.  These  cars  were 
epubr  wtth  the  traveling  public  but  in  1864 
r.  Pullman  put  in  service  a  modd  car,  en- 
tirely built  according  to  his  own  ideas,  at  tbe 


Google 


CAR  BinLDING  IHDU8TRV 


then  unprecedented  coit  o£  $18,000i  This  car, 
named  the  Pioneer,  had  improved  truck 
springs  reinforced  by  blocks  of  solid  rubber; 
it  was  a  foot  wider  and  two  and  a  half  feet 
higber  than  any  car  then  in  service.  Other 
cars  of  the  same  typ«  were  soon  put  in  service 
and  were  universally  admired.  Within  a  com- 
paratively short  period  railroads  adopted  new 
and  superior  accommodations  at  the  popular 
demand  for  the  increased  comfort  and  safety 
offered  by  the  new  type  of  sleeping  cam. 
Various  companies  b^an  the  building  of  slent- 
ing  and  parlor  cars  in  competition  with  the 
Pullman  Company,  incorporated  in  1867.  The 
Gates  Sleeping  Car  Company  and  the  Wa^er 
Palace  Car  Company  were  for  a  lime  senous 
competitors  and  from  1870  to  1890  the  Wagner 
and  Pullman  companies  were  the  strongest  in 
the  field.  Through  the  control  of  better  patents 
and  in  course  of  competition  the  Pullman  Com- 
pany soon  became  the  onlv  important  sleeping- 
car  company  in  the  Unitea  States.  Its  busmess 
grew  rapidly  anl  now  it  builds  and  operates 
sleeping  cars  throughout  the  United  Stales, 
Canada  and  Mexico  on  all  important  lines,  and 
also  builds  other  types  of  cars,  both  freight 
and  express,  for  Europe,  South  America  and 
Eii|;land.  A  few  railway  companies  operate 
their  own  sleeping  cars.  The  general  arrange- 
ment between  the  Pullman  Company  and  the 
railroad  companies,  over  whose  lines  it  operates 
its  cars,  (fifiers  widely  as  between  di&ereni 
companies.  Where  the  average  number  of 
passengers  traveling  ta  Pullman  cars  per  car 
mile  is  veiv  high,  as  it  is  on  the  line  between 
Boston  and  New  York,  the  Pullman  Company 
pays  the  railway  company  something  for  cariy- 
mg  the  car  on  its  trams.  Where  the  passenger 
traRic  in  Pullman  cars  per  car  mile  is  very 
light  the  railway  company  pays  a  rental  to  the 
Pullman  Company  for  its  cars.  The  Pullman 
service  has  kept  in  advance  in  service  and 
efficiency  of  all  its  competitors.  Its  standard 
has  always  been  high.  It  was  a  pioneer  in  in- 
Stalling  electric  lighting  and  steam  heating 
f^stems  in  its  cars  and  many  other  devices  tend- 
ing to  increased  comfort  and  safety  have  been 
adopted  and  it  is  ever  ready  to  adopt  new 
ideas  in  the  construction  and  equipment  of  its 
cars.  Its  service  is  superior  to  uiat  on  rail- 
ways which  operate  their  own  sleeping  cars.- 
Its  cars  are  now  constructed  entirely  of 
steel  and  are  especially  designed  to  secure  the 
safety  and  comfort  of  passengers.  Their  rates 
were  found  to  be  entirely  reasonable  after  an 
exhaustive  investigation  by  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  in  1910.  To-day  the  Pull- 
man Company  operates  7,500  cars  over  137  rail- 
ways, or  a  loUl  of  223,489  miles  of  track.  To 
operate  these  cars  over  10,000  car  employees 
are  required,  while  7,000  more  are  employed  to 
keep  the  cars  in  repair,  and  maintain  them  in  a 
dean  and  sanitary  condition. 

Baggage  and  Combination  Cara.— The  rail- 
ways ddine  a  baggage  car  as  one  built  for  car- 
rying trunks  and  passengers'  baggage  and 
having  targe  side  doors.    There  are  usually  end 

J ._j  _  I —  windows.    Where  trains  have 

msequently  light  demands  for 
>n  to  combine  the  smoker 
one,  with  a  bulkhead  di- 
viding the  compartments.  Sometimes  Ae  bag- 
gage and  mail  are  combined  in  a  simUar  way, 
and  a  few  cars  are  made  with  three  compart- 


ments, for  baggage,  mail  and  smoking.  Bag- 
gage compartments  are  also  scmtetimes  btmt 
as  parts  of  regular  passenger  cars. 

Frelgbt  Cara^- There  were  2,500,000  freight 
cars  in  service  on  the  steam  railways  of  the 
United  States  in  1917,  and  about  125,000  new 
cars  of  this  class  are  being  built  annually.  This 
is  only  a  small  increase  in  number,  but  the 
increase  in  carrying  capacity  is  probably  6  lo  6 
per  cent,  owing  to  the  larger  size  of  the  mod- 
em-built cars.  Uuch  of  the  recent  construc- 
tion is  pressed  steel,  that  is,  soft  steel  plates  for 
the  car-bodies,  sheared  to  size  at  the  rolling 
mill,  and  pressed  into  form  and  riveted  and 
bolted  together.  The  larger  steel  plates  ot 
simple  form  are  cold-pressed,  those  of  intri- 
cate form  and  small  parts  are  mostly  hot- 
pressed.  The  bolsters  and  framework  of  the 
Inicks  are  also  now  mostly  made  of  steel  by 
machine  for^pg,  the  tic-rods  and  attachments 
are  mostly  steetand  the  wheels  are  either  iron 
or  steel  The  notion  that  some  car-wheels  are 
of  paper  is  a  pleasing  fiction,  or^tiating  with 


doors  and  a 


newspaper  reporter.    Its  onlv  baus  is  the 
of  paper  in  compound  wheels  placed  be- 
tween the  two  parts  of  a  car-wheel  to  deaden 


Uie  "ringing  or  noise  of  vibration.  These  all- 
steel  cars  involve  hi^er  first  cost  than  the 
wooden  cars,  but  being  made  in  lar^r  sizes 
and  luving  much  greater  life,  are  commg  more 
and  more  into  use.  The  typical  old-fashioned 
wooden  box  car  is  40  feet  long,  8  feet  10 
inches  wide  and  8  feet  tugh,  weighs  36,000 
pounds  and  cost,  before  the  war,  $1,300,  having 
a  carrying  capacity  of  60,000  ^unds.  The  all- 
steel  cars  are  built  of  capacities  ranging  from 
80,000  to  120,000  pounds. 

Box'  cars  are  ventilated  when  designed  for 
carrying  food  stuiTs  and  double-walled  or  in- 
sulated for  fruit  transportation.  'When  pro- 
vided with  icing  convenience*  they  are  termed 
refrigerator  cars,  and  are  specially  built  for 
carryine  meat,  beer,  produce,  etc.  Stock  cars 
are  built  with  stalls  for  horses  and  cattle  and 
pens  for  sheep,  swine  or  -poultry.  Flat  cars 
are  the   cheapest   rallwaycars,   many  of   them 

ply  of  the  running  gear,  that  is,  a  pair  of 
trucks,  with  a  deck  and  brakes.  Keepers  are 
inserted  in  the  sides  of  the  deck  in  which  up- 
rights can  be  inserted  to  keep  the  load  from 
falling  off.  They  are  used  for  carrying  stonev 
ore,  lumber,  glass,  ordnance  and  any  heavy 
freight  that  will  bear  exposure  to  the  weather. 
When  provided  with  low  sides  they  are  termed 


bottoms  and  gates  below,  so  that  the  contents 
can  be  discharged  by  opening  the  gates;  two 
hoppers  to  a  car  is  a  common  construction. 
Dump-ors  usually  are  arranged  to  tip  side- 
ways so  as  to  slide  off  the  load.  These  are 
used  for  conveying  earth,  gravel  and  ballast 
for  road  filling.  Tank  cars  are  built  for  ni\ 
acids  and  other  fluids  that  have  to  be  handled 
in  large  quantities,  and  they  arc  usually  cylin- 
drical in  form. 

Special  Service  Can.—  The  steam  tail'«W 
of  the  United  States  have  in  service  125,000 
cars  designed  for  their  own  use,  a  number 
twice  as  great  as  the  total  of  passenger  cars. 
Perhaps  the  most  familiar  of  these  to  the  pub- 
lic is  the  freight  caboose,  seen  on  the  tail  end 
of    railway  trains,  and  serving  to  bouse  the 


:,  Google 


CARABA8 — C  ARABOBO 


881 


crew  and  carry  thdr  tools  and  supplies.  There 
are  repair  cars  with  a  general  equipment  of 
tools  —  traveling  machine  shopa.  Wrecking 
cars  are  supplied  with  very  heavy  and  power- 
ful cranes  for  liftine;  wrecked  cars  or  loco- 
motives that  have  left  the  track.  Every  rail- 
way has  to  keep  them  at  convenient  points  for 
use  in  case  ol  accident,  but  they  also  have 
their  uses  in  construction  work  Steam-shovel 
cars  are  utilized  to  dig  sand  and  gnivel  from 
banks,  and  pile-driver  cars  for  construction  in 
boggy  places.  There  are  ditdring  cars  for  ex- 
cavating, track-layer  cars  and  an  entire  series 
of  other  special  cars  used  for  modem  scientific 
railway  construction  and  repair  work.  The 
snow-removal  car  plows,  some  of  which  have 
great  rotating  heads,  are  among  those  most 
readily  noted  by  the  public. 

The  smallest  of  all  railway  cars  b  the  pusb- 
car,  made  of  two  pairs  of  wheels  and  a  slight 
deck,  designed  for  the  convenience  of  track- 
workers.  Next  comes  tlie  handcar,  with  a  hand 
lever  connected  by  a  cmnk  to  the  wheels.  A 
few  active  men  can  operate  one  for  a  short 
distance  at  almost  railway^  speed.  A  new  form 
of  inspection  car  is  an  improvement  on  the 
handcar,  having  a  small  gasoline  engine  for 
working  the  lever. 

Street  Railway  Cwb^^  Since  power  was  ap- 
plied to  street  railway  cars  they  have  increased 
m  size  and  developed  altw  lines  similar  to 
steam  railway  practice.  Tne  earlier  electric 
cars  were  short  and  mounted  on  a  single  trade 
As  traffic  developed  the  two-truck  car  came  in, 


and  is  now  the  accepted  type.    Oi 

--'    and  a  running  board 

:  trafEc,  but  the  standard 


board  are  favored 


place  of  longitudinal  side  seats.  The  front 
and  rear  platforms  are  now  general^  en- 
doMd,  to  protect  the  motorman  and  conductor 
from  the  weather.  Electric  light  and  heat  are 
commonly  supplied,  though  in  some  the  car- 
stove  burning  coal  is  still  in  use.  Since  191(X 
the  *pay  as  you  enter'  type  of  car  has  become 
popular  with  the  companies  and  passcnsers  are 
detained  in  a  rear  vestibule  until  the^  trave  de- 
posited thdr  fares  in  a  box. 

For  subways,   all-steel  car  construction  is 

Kferred,  and  in  some  cases  Is  obUgatory  by 
.  These  cars  have  both  side  and  end  doors, 
for  the  quick  transfer  of  passengers.  Elevated 
dectric  railway  cars  for  city  traffic  foJktw 
closely  the  lines  of  develotnnent  of  steam  pas- 
sencrer  cars,  but  are  of  lighter  construction. 

Peatnrea  of  Cotutrnetion^— The  hpical 
modem  railway  car  is  the  day  coach.  It  has 
spokeless  wheels  of  either  cast  Iron,  wrou^t 
iron  or  cast  steel,  widi  a  steel  tire  shrunk  on. 
The  wheels  are  fixed  solid  on  the  axles  in 
pairs,  and  two  pairs  of  wheels  form  a  trudc, 
though  eight-wheeled  trucks  have  been  built 
The  body  of  the  car  rests  on  and  is  fixed  to 
each  truck  by  a  central  _pin  on  which  it  turns. 
There  are  rolls  and  sprmgs  for  steadying  the 
car  and  preventing  jolting.  Between  the 
trucks,  under  the  deck,  is  located  thie  air-brake, 
consistin([  of  a  reservoir  of  compressed  air,  a 
brake-cyhnder  and  connections.  (See  Air- 
Brake).  Cars  are  provided  with  couplers  at 
the  end  of  the  car-deck  and  automatic  couplers 
are  now  generally  in  use,  which  hook  the  cars 
together  when  gently  bumped.    The  car  roof 


has  a  raised  central  section  called  the  clear- 
story, in  which  ventilators  are  placed,  so  that 
air  circulation  may  be  maintained  without 
drafts.  The  car-seats  have  been  the  subject  of 
himdreds  of  patents,  but  the  accepted  form  is 
now  a  metal  framed  seat  for  two,  with  double 
levers  for  reversing  the  back,  which  is  ordi- 
narily high.  Both  seat  and  back  are  cushioned, 
most  commonly  covered  witli  plush.    See  Rail- 

Statistlcs— There  are  110  establishments  in 
the  United  States  manufacturing  strictly  rail- 
way cars.  The  American  Car  and  Foundry 
Company  and  the  Pressed  Stee!  Car  Company 
are  the  largest,  but  a  large  business  is  done  by 
the  Southern  Car  and  Foundry  Company, 
Standard  Steel  Car  Cotnpany^  the  Pullman  Com- 
pany, Haskell  &  Barker  Car  Company  and  West- 
em  Steel  Car  and  Foundry  Company.  Each 
railway  hat  its  own  repair  shops  and  many  of 
these  make  cars,  their  output  being  about  IS 
per  cent  of  the  total  production.  In  addition, 
a  number  of  .foundnes  and  machine  works 
make  some  cars  as  a  side  line,  their  production 
being  about  9  per  cent  of  the  total.  All  these 
shops  have  a  total  capacity  of  nearly  300,000 
cars  a  year,  but  rarely  have  more  than  125,000 
been  made  in  a  year.  In  1909  the  production 
was  101^243  cars,  of  which  1,601  were  passen- 
ger, and  603  were  for  electncal  use  on  trunk 
fine  terminals,  and  2,089  were  for  street  rail- 
ways. It  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  use 
now  (1917)  2,800,000  cars  of  all  sorts  on  the 
trnnk  line  railways  of  the  United  States. 

Railway  cars  are  made  by  so  many  differ- 
ent concerns  that  are  also  engaged  in  other 
manufacturing  that  it  is  impossible  to  state 
with  accuracy  the  capital  invested  in  the  busi- 
ness. The  total  manufacture,  while  given  as 
135,00a  valued  at  ^165,000,000  in  the  1914  census 
is  really  much  higher,  because  the  large  rail- 
ways all  maintain  very  large  repair  shops,  and 
often  car^  are  made  of  two-tnlrds  new  and 
classed  as  "repairs.*  These  repair  shops  in 
1914  added  a  value  of  $243,000,000  to  the  roll- 
ing stock  of  the  United  Stales  railways.  Penn- 
sylvania is  the  leading  State  in  the  steam-car 
building  industry,  with  $93,600,000  production  in 
1914;  IlKnois  was  next  with  $41,496,000,  Ohio 
third  with  $33,286,000;  and  New  York  produced 
$30,893,000.  Indiana  and  California  follow, 
but  in  other  States  the  productionis  smalL 
Ckarlbs  H.  Cochrane, 
Author  of  ^Modern  Industrial  Progress.^ 

CAKABAS.  Marquis  of,  the  exalted  per- 
sont^  who  figures  in  Perraulfs  story  of  *Le 
Chat  Battel  ('Puis  in  Boots').  The  name  is 
often  applied  to  an  extremely  conservative  aris* 
tocrat.  In  Disraeli's  'Vivian  Grey'  the  Mar- 
quis of  Clanricarde  is  satirized  as  the  Marquis 
of  Carabas. 

CARABID,S,  the  family  of  Coteoplera. 
comprising    the    ground-beetles.     See    GaoUHo 

Beetixs, 

CARABINE,  or  CARBIHB.    See  Suall 

CARABOBO,  a  sUte  of  Venetuela,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea;  area,  2,984 

Suare  miles.    The  capital  is  Valencia,  and  the 
ief  port  Puerto  Caoelto.     Coffee,  cacao   and 
sugar  are  cultivated    The  village  of  Carabobo, 


d=,  Google 


CASAC  AL — CARACCIOU 


20  miles  southwest  of  Valencia,  was  the  scene 
of  the  battle  fought  24  June  1821,  which  was 
decisive  of  the  independence  of  ColomtHa. 

CARACAL,  a  lynx-like  wild  cat  of  Africa 
and  sQUthern  Asia,  slender  in  form  and  usually 
red-brown  in  color.     Se«  Lykx. 

CARACALLA,  Roman  emperor:  b.  Lyons 
188  A.!).;  d.  217.  His  real  name  was  Mabcus 
AuRELius  Antoninus  Bassianus,  and  he  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Septimius  Severus.  He  ac- 
companied his  father  on  his  expedidoDs,  notably 
to  Britain ;  and  on  the  death  of  his  father  he 
succeeded  to  the  throne  with  bis  brother, 
Antoninus  Geta,  whom  he  speedily  murdered. 
To  effect  his  own  security  upward  of  20,000 
other  victims  were  butchered.  In  212  he  gave 
citizenship  to  all  free  inhabitants  of  the  em- 
pire, his  motive  being  to  increase  revenue  from 
the  taxes  on  inheritances.  His  reign  as  sole 
emperor  was  occupied  largely  with  military 
cam^igns.  Among  the  buildings  of  Caracalla 
in  Rome  the  baths  — TAermtr  Caracallir  — 
near  Porta  Capen^  were  most  celebrated,  and 
their  ruins  are  still  magnificent.  He  was  him- 
self assassinated  by  Macrintis,  the  pretorian 
prefect,  near  Edessa,  in  217. 

CARACARA,  a  genus  of  large  camon-eat- 
ing  hawks  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America, 
with  black  and  white  plumage,  the  head  some- 
what crested,  legs  long  and  naked,  and  the 
general  aspect  vulture-like.  They  have  in- 
creased greatly  with  the  spread  of  the  cattle- 
raising  mdustn  in  South  America,  and  have 
proved  of  much  service  as  scavengers  about  the 
ranches  and  villages.  They  erect  nests  of  sticks 
iu  trees  or  cliffs  and  lay  only  two  eggs,  heavilv 
blotched  and  spotted.  The  species  to  wtuca 
the  name  most  strictly  applies  is  Polybonu 
ckeriway,  which  is  found  from  Venezuela  to 
Texas  and  southern  California-  Another 
prominent  species  is  the  carancho  (f.  Ikarus), 
numerous  and  well  known  all  over  Brazil  and 
Argentina.  Compare  Chiuango.  '  Consult 
Sdater  and  Hudson,  'Areentine  Ornithology'' 
(Vol.  II,  London  1889)  :  Darwin,  <A  Natural- 
ist's Voyage'  (London  1860). 

CARACAS,  Veneiuela,  city  and  capital  of 
the  United  States  of  Vennuela,  was  founded  in 
1567  by  Diego  de  Lazada,  who  called  the  dty 


racas  tribe  of  Indians,  formerly  inhabiting  the 
valley  in  which  the  ciw  is  built.  It  was  twice 
destroyed  —  in  1595,  when  it  was  sacked  by  the 
English,  under  Preston,  and  in  170^  when  the 
French  put  it  to  sack  and  pillage.  But  it  con- 
tinued to  grow,  and  played  an  imix>rtant  part 
in  the  war  of  ind^>endence  against  Spain, 
claiming  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first 
colony  in  South  America  that  succeeded  in 
throwing  off  the  yoke  of  Spain.  Caracas  was- 
the  birthplace  of  Sim6n  Bolivar.  The  great 
earthquake  of  1812  killed  12,000  persons  and 
laid  half  the  citjr  in  ruins.  The  last  serious 
shock  occurred  in  1900.  Its  altitude  being 
about  3,000  feet  above  sea-leveL  the  climate  is 
generally  mild  and  agreeable,  the  temperature 
seldom  rising  above  82°  F.  (with  84.2  as  a 
maximum),  or  falling  below  65°  F.  (with  a 
minimum  of  48.2).  Toward  the  end  of  Decem- 
ber the  temperature  is  lowest,  and  it  is  highest 
from  June  to  September.  Mean  temperature, 
66.2°  F.,  lat.  10°  32*  N.,  long.  67*  4'  45"  W. 


The  streets  cross  each  other  at  ri^t  angles, 
running  due  east  and  west,  or  north  and  south, 
and  tiie  principal  thoroughfares  are  paved  with 
stone,  and  have  sidewalks  of  cement  The  capi- 
tol  building  occupies  an  entire  square,  an  area 
of  more  than  two  acres.  It  includes  the  halls  in 
which  both  chambers  of  the  national  Congress 
hold  their  sessions.  The  rooms  of  the  Hi^ 
Federal  Court  and  the  Departments  of  Public 
Instruction  and  the  Interior  are  in  the  galleries 
on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  capital.  La 
Casa  AttKurilla  (the  Yellow  House),  official  resi- 


side  of  the  same  square  is  the  main  post-office. 
N«r-by  are  the  arcfafcidiop's  palace,  the  cathe- 
dral and  the  municipal  palace.  Opposite  the 
southern  facade  of  the  capitol  are  the  university 
buildings  (Gothic  architecture,  with  interior 
sardens) ;  the  old  temple  of  San  Francisco  and 
the  Exposition  Palace,  the  western  wing  of 
which  contains  the  Bolivar  Uuseum,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Academy  of  Historj^,  and  the 


are  housed  by  the  university.  Other  character- 
istic buildings  are:  The  National  Pantheon, 
the  Masonic  Temple,  the  three  markets,  the 
National  Benevolent  Institute,  the  Arsenal,  the 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Trades  and  the  Municipal 
Theatre.  Besides  the  Plata  Bolivar,  the  prin- 
cipal public  squares  are  the  Washington,  Pan- 
tAeon  and  Fifth  of  July  (Independence  Day). 
The  cathedral,  AUxng  from  1614,  the  Basilica 
de  Santa  Ana,  and  the  Santa  CaMlla,  are  note- 
worthy among  the  churches  of  the  city.  Inter- 
esting relics  of  the  heroes  of  the  stru^e  for 
liberty,  Miranda,  Bolivar  and  P&ez,  are  shown 
in  the  Nations]  Museum.  There  are  seveml 
pnMsenades  (called  'Iron  Bridge,*  'Paradise 
Avenue*  and  'Independence*)  and  amoiw  the 
places  of  aowsemeiit  are  a  Plaza  de  Toros, 
baseball  grounds  and  a  bicycle  park.  An  im- 
portant institution  supported  by  the  govera- 
inent  is  the  Vargas  Hospital.  The  Linares 
Hospital  for  children  is  maintained  by  private 
contributions.  Leading  clubs  are  the  Union, 
(jerman,  Italian  and  Agricultural.  Caracas 
does  little  manufacturine  but  b  the  centre  of 
the  export  trade  of  the  district,  wliich  produces 
cacao,  coffee,  tobacco,  etc.  Street  railways  are 
controlled  by  the  Caracas  and  Bolivar  com- 
panies. The  city  has  cheap  telephone  service, 
luinished  by  two  companies,  and  is  lighted  by 
gas  and  electricity.  All  telegraph  lines  through- 
out the  republic  are  owned  by  the  government. 
Four  lines  of  railway  start  at  Caracas,  direc  of 
which  are  designed  to  place  die  capital  in  com- 
munication with  the  interior^  while  the  most 
unfKjrtant  runs  to  Port  La  Giiayra.  Pop.  in- 
cluding the  six  suburban  parishes  making  up 
the  Federal  district  Is  about  9(^)00. 

CAKACCIOLI,  ka-r3-chol5,  Francesco, 
Italian  admiral:  b.  Naples  1752;  d  29  June 
1799.  He  was  distinguished  in  the  Neapolitan 
service,  but  entered  the  service  of  the  Parthe- 
nopean  Republic  set  up  by  the  French  republi- 
cans in  1799,  and  repelled  a  Sicilian-English 
fleet.  When  Ruffo  took  Naples,  Caraccioli  was 
arrested,  and  being  tried  by  court-martial  was 
condemned  to  death,  and  hanged  at  the  yard- 
arm  of  a  Neapolitan  fiigatE.  His  corpse  was 
thrown  into  the  sea,  "nie  court-martial  was 
ordered  by  Nelson,  to  whom  the  King  bad  ^ven 


d=,  Google 


CASACTACU8 — CASAPA 


B68 


command  of  the  NeapoKtan  nav^.  NeUon  ia 
said  to  have  been  influenced  is  hia  decision  by 
the  notorious  Lady  Hamilton. 

CAAACTACUS,  Britisb  Idn^.  He  was  a 
son  of  Cunobelin.  King  of  the  Tnnovantes,  and 
in  43  A.Oj  when  Plautius  landed,  was  at  the  head 
of  the  C^tuvellauni.     Plautius  and  his  Iteuten- 


several  occasions,,  the  chief  battle  probably  tak- 
ing place  about  Wallingford.  V^ea  the  Ro- 
mans had  pushed  well  down  the  Thames  the 
Emperor  Claudius  arrived  and  took  part  in 
furUier  military  operations,  but  his  stay  was  a 
very  ^ort  one.  Caxactacus  now  established 
hinuelf  in  South  Wales  among  the  Silures, 
whence  he  took  every  opportunity  of  harassing 
the  Romans.  In  47  A.D,  Plautius  was  replaced 
by  Ostorius  Scapula,  and  that  commander  com- 
pletely defeated  Caractacus  in  a  battle  some- 
where about  Shropshire,  prpbably  at  Caer  Cara- 
doc  The  wife,  daughter  and  brothers  of  the 
British  leader  were  capturecL  and  Caractacus 
himself  fled  to  the  country  of  the  Brigantes  in 
the  north,  only  to  he  delivered  up  Dy  their 
Queen,  Cartimandua,  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans.  He  was  taken  to  Rome  and  made  to 
take  part  in  a  triumphal  procession.  Here  he 
was  fed  before  the  tmperor  Oaudius  and  an 
assembly  of  the  people.  According  to  Tacitus 
(<AnnaIes,>  book  XH,  chapter  XXXVII)  when 
he  came  to  the  seat  of  the  Emperor  be  stopped 
and  addressed  him,  and  so  won  upon  the 
monarch  by  his  noble  behavior  and  pathetic 
speech  that  the  other  pardoned  him.  Accord^ 
ing  to  the  Welsh  Triads  he  lived  four  years 
longer,  and  his  children  became  Christians  and 
introduced  Christianity  into  Britain.  He  is  in- 
troduced among  the  dramatis  personx  o£  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher's  play,   'Eondoca.> 

CARADOC  GROUP.    See  Bala  Beds." 
CARADOC     SANDSTONE,     the     name 

S'ven  by  Murchison  lo  a  thickness  of  about  4,500 
«t  o{  sandstones,  shales,  grits,  flags  and  sandy 
limestones  on  the  border  between  England  and 
Wales,  which  he  made  a  separate  series.  Sub- 
sequent investigation  has  shown  that  the  Cara- 
doc  series  is  of  the  same  age  as  the  Bala,  and 
the  series  is  sometimes  calleo  Bala  and  Caradoc 
by  English  geologists.  The  Caradoc  and  Bala 
beds  are  fossilif  erous  and  have  been  used  largely 
as  the  basis  of  comparison  in  geological  study. 
The  rocks  are  of  the  uppermost  division  of  the 
Ordovician  system  of  England.  See  Ori»vician. 

CARAFE,  ka-raf,  the  French  name  for  an 
ordioaiy  glass  bottle  or  decanter  for  holding 
drinking  water. 

CARAPFA.  a  celebrated  Neaf)olitaD  family, 
which  has  proauced  several  distinguished  com- 
manders and  statesmen:  1.  Olivi^u,  b.  1406; 
d.  Rome  1511.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  by 
Pope  Paul  II  in  1467.  Sixtus  IV  appointed 
him  his  legate  to  Alfonso  of  Naples,  and  in 
1472  made  him  admiral  of  his  fleet  against  the 
Turics,  from  whom  he  captured  Smyrna,  and 
the  port  of  Satalia  in  Asia  Minor.  2.  Casia, 
b.  Naples  1517;  d.  1561.  He  served  first  b  the 
Netherlands  under  the  Spaniards,  then  en- 
tered the  order  of  Malta,  and  was  made  a  car- . 
dinal  by  his  uncle  Pope  Paul  IV,  who,  for  his 
sak^  stripped  the  Colonnas  of  their  possessions. 
This  involved  them  in  a  war  with  Philip  of 
Spain,  but  the  result  proved  favorable  to  tho'. 


Carafia  family!  Paul  IV  who  succeeded  Pius 
IV  appointed  a  commission  of  dgfat  cardinals 
who  tried  Carlo  and  on  3  March  1561  put  him 
to  death  for  high  treason.  3.  Antonio,  b. 
Maples  1538;  d.  1591.  He  was  made  cardinal 
l^  Pius  V,  and  entrusted  with  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  congregation  for  the  revision 
of  the  Bible,  and  an  exposition  of  the  canons  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  Under  Gro^ory  Xlll  he 
became  librarian  of  (he  Vatican.  He  translated 
llieodoret's  Commentaries  on  the  Psalms,  and 
the  Orations  of  Gregory  Nazianzus  from  Gredc 
into  Latin.  4.  Aktonio,  another  member  of  the 
family,  distinguished  himself  in  Hungary  in  the 
service  of  Austria,  but  made  himself  universally 
hated  by  his  cruelty;  d.  Vienna  1693. 

CARAHBOLA,  the  fruit  of  an  East  In- 
(Ean  tree  of  the  same  genus  as  the  bilimbi,  tfaa 
Averrkoa  CaramboU,  order  Oxatidacta.  It  is 
of  the  siie  and  shape  of  a  duck's  egg,  of  an 
agreeable  acidulous  flavor.  The  rind  is  yellow 
and  smooth  with  five  lon^tudinal  ribs.  In 
British  India  it  is  used  for  flavoring  sherbets, 
tarts,  etc.,  and  is  known  as  the  caromandel 
goDseberty.  The  leaves  are  characterized  by  an 
extreme  irritability  and  a  tendency  to  display 
the  phenomenon  of  sleep  in  plants. 

CARABCEL.  When  sugar  is  gradually 
heated,  it  loses  water  and  other  substances,  and 
is  converted  into  a  dark  mass  with  a  i^racteris- 
tic  smell  and  taste.  All  materials  containing 
sugar  form  the  same  substance,  such  as  coffee, 
malt,  chicory.  This  is  crude  caramel,  which  is 
used  in  cookery  as  a  coloring  and  flavoring  in- 
gredient. It  IS  a  mixture  of  several  bodies, 
of  which  three  have  been  described;  Carame- 
lane,  a  brown  bitter  body,  soluble  in  water; 
Caramelene,  a  dark  brown  Dody,  also  soluble  in 
water^and  possessed  of  great  tinctorial  power; 
and  Caramelin,  a  black  substance,  of  intense 
coloring  power,  which  exists  both  in  a  soluble 
and  insoluble  modification.  A  kind  of  brown 
soft  candy  Is  also  called  caramel. 

CARAN  D'ACHB,  ka'ron  d'ash'  (French 
for  leadpencil),  or  POIRE,  Emtnantid, 
French  caricaturist  and  artist ;  b,  Moscow, 
Russia,  1858;  d.  Paris,  26  Feb.  1909.  His  am- 
bition was  to  be  a  military  painter,  but  he  is 
best  known  for  his  series  of  pictorial  anecdotes 
contributed  to  La  Vie  Partsienne,  La  Carica- 
ture, It  Figaro  illustri,  le  Chat  Noir,  etc.  Be- 
sides illustrating  Bemadaky's  'Prince  Kozako- 
koff'  and  other  celebrated  books  he  published 
several  albums  of'  sketches,  the  'Camet  de 
chii^ues'  depicting  the  Panama  scandals;  'Al- 
bum de  croquis  miKtaires  et  dTiistoire  sans 
ligendes';  'Histoire  de  Marlborough.'  etc 
Consult  Spielmann,  M,  H.,  Introduction  to 
'Works  of  Caran  d'Ache*  (London  1898). 

CARANGID.E,  kJ-ran'jI-de.  a  famHy  of 
marine  fishes,  the  pompanos.  Among  the  more 
widely  known  members  of  the  family  are  the 
leather  jackets,  pilot  fishes,  amber  fishes,  run- 
ners, horse  mackerels,  crevall^.  moonfishes  and 
pomjianos.  Iliere  are  about  200  species  in  the 
family,  and  nearly  all  are  good  for  food.  They 
abound  in  the  warmer  seas,  and  many  of  them 
are  remaikable  for  their  graceful  or  strange 

CARAPA,  a  small  genus  of  tropical  trees 
of  the  family  Mtliacea,  with  mostly  iimari- 
IMunate  leaves  and  regular  flowers.    A  South 

Dgil  zed  =,  Google 


CASAP ACK — CAKA VAOOIO 


American  spedes  ^C.  gvtantnsis)  is  a  fine  lar^e 
trc«,  whose  bark  is  in  repute  as  a  febrifuge. 
Oil  made  from  its  seeds  (called  carap'oil  or 
crab-oil)  is  used  for  lamps,  and  masts  of  ships 
are  made  from  its  trunk.  The  wood  is  called 
crab- wood.  The  oil  of  the  African  species 
(C>  proceva),  called  eoondi,  kundah  or  talU- 
coona  oil,  is  used  hf  the  negroes  for  making 
soap  and  anointing  their  txiaies  in  order  to 
protect  them  against  insects.  The  oil  of  the 
South  American  carapa  is  used  for  the  same 
puipOfe  also. 


toises,  etc,-— belonging  to  the  order  of  the  Che- 
Ionia  are  enclosedf  the  lower  part  being  called 
plastron.  The  same  name  is  also  gtven  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  shell  of  the  Crustaeta,  and 
to  tiie  case  enclosing  certain  of  the  Inftuona 
(qq-v.). 

CARAPBGUA',  ki-rfi-^-gwy,  Paraguay, 
isterior  town  37  miles  soumeast  of  Asuncion. 
Settled  in  1785  it  is  situated  in  a  fertile  country 
producing  cotton,  tobacco,  com,  sugar  cane  and 
manioc  It  has  modem  public  buildings,  in- 
cluding a  church  and  two  schools.  Pop, 
13,000. 

CARAQUBT,  U-ri-ket*,  Canada,  ^ort  of 
entry,  Gloucester  County,  New  Brunswick,  on' 
the  Bay  of  Chaleur  and  on  the  Caraquet  Kail- 
road.  The  settletnent  consists  oE  Upper  and 
Lower  Caraquet  and  is  noted  for  its  fisheries. 
Pop;  4,621. 

CARAT,  derives  its  name  from  mrr&t, 
which  in  Arabic  signifies  the  pod  of  the 
Erythrina  abyssinica,  the  coral  tree  of  Abys-. 
slnia,  the  seeds  of  which  liav^  from  time  im-, 
memorial,  I>een  used  in  the  E!ast  in  weighing 
gold,  because  they  never  vary  in  weight  when 
once  dry.  It  is  a  weight  of  three  and  a  sixth 
troy  grains,  used  in  weighing  pearls  and  precious 
stones,  and  also  serves  to  express  the  relative 
fineness  of  gold.  Twenty-four  carats  being 
assumed  as  the  standard  of  gold  perfectly 
free  from  alloy,  every  specimen,  in  proportion  as 
it  falls  short  of  this  parity,  has  a  fineness  of 
less  than  24  carats— for  example,  if  the  alloy 
amounts  to  a  sixth  of  the  whole,  it  is  20  carats 
fine;  or  to  a  fourth,  it  is  16  carats  fine. 

CARAUSIUS,  ka-ro'shi-fis,  Roman  gen- 
eral: b.  among  the  Uenapii,  in  Gallia  Belgica. 
He  was  sent  bj;  the  Emperor  Maximian  to  de- 
fend the  Atlantic  coasts  against  the  Franks  and 
Saxons ;  but  being  suspected  of  permitting  thoso  , 
pirates  to  commit  their  ravages  in  order  to  in- 
crease his  own  plunder  when  he  afterward  cap- 
tured their  vessels,  and  foreseeing  that  he  waj 
likely  to  fall  into  disgrace,  he  landed  in  Britain 
and  had  himself  proclaimed  emperor  by  bis 
legions  {287  a.d.V  In  this  province  he  was 
able  to  maintain  himself  six  years  by  guarding 
the  English  Channel  with  his  fleet.  He  became 
co-emperor  with  Diocletian  and  Maximian  in 
289;  but  under  Constantinc  his  rrigncametoan 
end,  Boulogne  fell  in  293  and  In  the  same  year 
he  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  officers 
natncd  Allectus.  Consult  Gibbon,  'Decline 
and  FalP  (Vol.  I,  chap.  XIII,  ed.  by  Bury,  with 
notes,  London  1896) ;  Webb,  'The  Reign  and 
Coinagb  of  Caransiws*   (London  1908). 

CARAVACA,  Spain,  town  in  the  prorince 
of  Murda,  about  40  miks  west  by  nortn  of  the 


town  of  Uurda.  It  occi^es  the  side  of  a  hiU 
crowned  by  an  ancient  castle  and  overlooking 
the  river  Caravaca,  here  crossed  by  a  stone 
bridge;  is  well  built  and  has  a  handsome  town- 
house  and  churcli,  the  latter  with  a  lofty  tower 


of  woolen  and  hempen  goods,  paper,  soa^ 
earthen  and  copper  ware,  chocolate  and  ou. 
Pop.  17,349. 

CARAVAOGIO,  ki-rii-vad'jO,  Hicbel- 
Annlo  Merisio  (or  Merisi)  da,  Italian  painter : 
b,  Caravaggio,  in  the  Milanese,  I5l5S;  d.  near 
Porto  Ercole  1609.  He  was  at  first  a  ioumw'- 
man  masoUj  but  soon  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  painting,  studied  in  Milan  and  Venice, 
and  afterward  went  to  Rome  where  he  was  for 
a  time  associated  with  Cesare  d'Arpino  ajid 
Prospero  Orsi,  and  distin^shed  himself  as  the 
founder  of  the  naturalistic  school.  Hb  char- 
acteristic traits  are  vigor  and  truth  of  chiaros- 
curo, combined  with  excellent  coloring.  He 
was  fond  of  introducing  broad  and  deep 
masses  of  shade,  whereby  a  great  effect  is 
given  to  the  li^L  To  aid  him  in  producing 
this  effect  the  room  in  which  he  worked  was 
illuminated  by  a  skylight,  and  the  walls  were 
painted  black.  He  excelled  in  the  painting  of 
naked  figures.  His  faults  are  obvious.  Narrow 
and  servile  imitation  of  nature  vras  his  highest 
aim.  Annibale  Caracci  and  Domenichino  were, 
perhaps,  less  distinguished  than  Caravaggio  dur- 
itig  their  lives,  but  after  their  death  were  ranked 
higher  because,  without  neglecdng  coloring  and 
the  stutly  of  nature,  they  aimed  at  correct- 
ness of  design  and  dignity  of  conception.  His 
violent  character  involved  him  in  many  difficul- 
ties. He  died  in  consequence  of  wounds  re- 
cdved  in  a  quarrel.  The  painters  who  have 
been  intiuenced  by  him  most  are  Manfrcdi, 
Valentin,  Guido  Reni,  Guercino,  Domenichino 
and  Ribefia,  catted  Esfiagnolet.  His  first  paint- 
iiwa  are  genre  pieces,  of  which  the  best  are 
'Card  Players'  in  the  Sciarra  Palace,  Rome, 
and  the  'Gipsy  Fortune  Teller*  in  the  Palazzo 
dd  Conservatori,  on  the  Capitoline  Hill.  The 
works  of  his  later  life  are  lar^  religious  pieces, 
which  aroused  great  opposition  in  Rome  be- 
cause he  used  to  portray  the  saints  as  common 
ttpes  of  humanity,  'Saint  Matthew  Writing 
tne  Gospel,'  and  the  'Death  of  Maiy>  are  among 
those  which  were  removed  from  the  churches 
in  Rome;  the  former  beinz  now  in  the  Berlin 
Museum  and  the  tatter  in  the  Louvre.  The  tnost 
renowned  of  his  religious  woi^s  and  his  gen- 
erally accepted  mastermece  is  the  'Burial  of 
Christ'  now  in  the  Vatican,  but  originally 
painted    for   the    church    of    Santa    Maria    ia 


emotiou  portrayed.  It  shows  great  care  i„ 
execution  and  harmonious  grouping.  Accunu^ 
and  realism  are  used  in  the  representation  of 
the  figure  of  Christ.  Numerous  pieces  ascribed 
to  him  are  to  be  found  in  the  various  galleries 
of  Europe,  notably  at  Berlin  and  London;  bat 
it  is  doubtful  if  all  are  originals.  Among  his 
portraits  may  be  mentioned  one  of  hims^f  in 
the  Uffiiri  at  Florence,  and  that  of  the  Grand 
Master  of  the  Kni^ts  of  Malta  (Louvre).  His 
influence  as  a  master  of  realism  in  painting 
was  widely  Effused  over  Italy;  and  the  Dutcfa 
Naturalists  profited  much  fay  me  careful  sta4r 


.Google 


CARAVAGGIO  —  CARAWAY 


Bse 


of  bis  works.     Corsntt  B^lione,  <Le  vite  de* 

S'ttori'  (Rome  1649) ;  Fornome,  'Michelangelo 
aravaggio'   (Bergamo  1907). 

CARAVAGGIO,  Italy,  town  and  commune 
in  Lombardy  in  the  province  of  Bergamo,  24 
miles  east  of  Milan,  on  the  Gera  d'Adda.  A 
steam  tramway  connects  it  with  Monia  and 
Milan.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of 
the  two  great  painters,  Polidoro  Caldara  and 
Michelangelo  Merisi,  both  called  da  Caravaggio. 
It  was  formerly  surrounded  by  walls  and  de- 
fended by  a  strong  castle.  The  site  of  its 
ancient  fortified  walls  is  now  occupied  by 
promenades,  but  the  moat  remains  and  is 
spanned  by  six  bridges.  Its  principal  church 
has  some  good  paintings,  and  a  lofty  campanile. 
The  commune  is  famous  for  its  melons.  Pop. 
about  10,000. 

CARAVAGGIO  DA  POLIDORO,  Ital- 
ian painter:  tx  Caravaggio  1495;  d.  1543,  His 
real  name  was  Caldara,  but  he  was  sumamed 
.  Cakavagcio  from  his  birthplace.  He  went  to 
Rome  in  his  youth  and  carried  bricks  at  first 
for  the  masons  who  worked  in  the  Vatican. 
He  first  felt  a  great  desire  to  become  a  painter 
from  seeing  Giovanni  da  Udine  and  the  other 

Sinters  who  were  occupied  in  the  Vatican.  He 
rmed  a  close  friendship  with  Maturino  of 
Florence,  who  assisted  him  with  his  advice. 
Caldara  soon  surpassed  him,  and  exerted  him' 
self    to    introduce    improvements    in    drawing. 

having  always  in  view  the  antiques.     Rafael      „, 

employed  him  in   the  galleries  of  the  Vatican,      may  pai 
where  be  painted,   under  his  direction,  several      splendoi 


the  season  of  the  year  in  which  the  feast  of 
Bairam  occurs,  the  pilgrims  requiring  to  be  at 
Mecca  on  the  day  of  the  feast.  As  these  cara- 
vans serve  mercantile  as  well-  as  religious  pur- 
poses, Mecca,  on  the  arrival  of  the  caravans, 
resembles  a  great  fair,  and  this  fair  is  indeed 
the  most  important  in  all  the  East.  The  journey 
from  Damascus  to  Mecca  and  back  occupies 
about  four  months.  The  leader  of  such  a  cara- 
van to  Mecca,  who  carries  with  him 


._:  painted, 

excellent  friezes.  At  Messina  he  executed 
oil-pamting,  representing  Christ  bearing  the 
cross  (1534;  in  the  Museum  of  Naples),  which 
contains  a  number  of  beautiful  figures,  and 
proves  his  ability  to  treat  the  most  elevated 
subjects.  He  has  approached  more  than  any 
-  one  to  the  stj>le  and  the  manner  of  the  ancients, 
particularly  in  imitating  their  bas-reliefs.  His 
figures  are  correct,  well  distributed  and  ar- 
ranged; the  positions  are  natural,  the  heads  full 
of  expression  and  character.  It  is  evident  that 
he  would  have  acquired  zreat'  celebrity  if  he  had 
undertaken  greater  works.  He  applied  himself 
to  the  chiaroscuro,  particularly  to  that  kind  of 
it  which  is  called  tgraffiato.  He  showed,  also, 
much  talent  in  his  landscapes.  At  the  sack  of 
Rome  in  1527  he  fled  to  Naples,  and  on  his  re- 
turn from  that  place  to  Rome,  in  1543,  he  was 
murdered  by  his  domestic.  Consult  Bertolotti, 
'Artisti  lombardi  a  Roma*  (Milan  1881). 

CARAVAN,  a  Persian  word,  used  to  de- 
note large  companies  which  travel  together  in 
Asia  and  Africa  for  the  sake  of  secunty  from 
robbers,  haviti^  in  view,  principally,  trade  or 
pilgrimages.  Such  companies  often  have  more 
than  1,000  camels  to  cari^  their  baggage  and 
their  goods.  These  walk  m  single  filcL  and  ibe 
line  is  often  four  or  five  miles  long.  To  avoid 
the  excessive  heat,  they  travel  mostly  early  in 
the  morning.  As  every  Mohammedan  is  sup- 
posed to  visit  the  tomb  of  Mohammed  once  at 
feast  during  his  life,  caravans  of  pilgrims  go 
to  Mecca  every  year  from  various  places  of 
meeting.  Of  fne  various  caravans  wnieh  pro- 
ceed to  Mecca  every  year,  the  most  important 
has  always  been  the  Syrian.  The  place  al  which 
it  meets  is  Damascus,  and  here  the  pilgrims  and 
merchants  assemble  many  weeks  before  the  day 
pf  departure,  which  is  always  fixed  according  to 


choose  one  of  their  own  number  for  a  leader, 
whom  they  call  Karwao  Bashi.  Besides  a 
leader,  each  caravan  has  its  servants,  guides, 
military  escorts  and  priests.  Obedience  is  en- 
forced by  the  leader  in  the  matter  of  internal 
discipline,  but  in  trafficking,  each  member  is 
independent.  Much  information  on  the  subject 
of  caravans  is  to  be  fotmd  in  the  travels  of  Nie- 
buhr,  who  made  many  journeys  with  them,  and 
describes  them,  as  is  well  knowiK  minutely  and 
faithfully. 

CARAVANSARI,  in  the  East,  a  sort  of 
inn,  situated  in  countries  where  there  are  no 
cities  or  villages  for  a  considerable  extent  to 
furnish  travelers  with  a  shelter.  The  building 
is  generally  spacious,  enclosing  a  courtyard  con- 
taining a  fountain  or  well.  Small  unfurnished 
rooms  constitute  the  interior,  poorly  ventilated 
and  lighted.  The  interior  court  is  entered  at 
a  large  gateway,  through  which  loaded  camels 
may  pass.  Some  of  them  are  built  with  much 
splendor,  though  thn^  are  generally  unfurnished, 
and  the  traveler  is  obliged  to  bring  with  him  not 
on^  his  bed  and  carpet,  but  also  all  his  provi- 
sions and  necessaries.  In  many,  the  hospitality 
is  gratuitous.  It  is  common  for  a  pious  Mo- 
hammedan to  establish,  during  his  life  or  by 
will,  one  or  several  of  such  caravansaries.  This 
kind  of  benevolence  is  considered  peculiariy 
agreeable  to  the  Deity,  and  promotive  of  the 
eternal  happiness  of  the  founder.  Sometimes 
persons    are   kept    in    these    establishments    to 

Kide    the   caravans    for  some  distance.     See 
JAS. 

CARAVBL,  formerly  the  name  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  vessels;  one  used  in  Portugal 
of  100  to  150  tons  burden;  another,  a  small 
lateen-rigged  fi^ng  vessel  used  on  the  coasts 

of  Normandy  and  Picardy  of  10  to  15  tons; 
and  a  third,  a  large  Turkish  ship  of  war. 

CARAWALA,  ka-r^-wa'U.  a  large  viper 
iHypnale  nepa)  of  Ceylon  and  southern  India, 
numerous,  and  greatly  dreaded  by  the  natives, 
especially    those    who    work    in    the    pineapple 

plantations.  It  is  of  small  siie,  rarely  exceed- 
ing 20  inches  in  length,  and  has  the  extremity 
of  the  upturned  muzzle  covered  with  scales. 
Its  poison  has  the  peculiarity  of  not  affecting 
the  system  until  several  days  after  the  bite,  so 
that  proper  remedies  immediately  applied  will 
counteract  the  venom. 

CARAWAY,  an  umbelliferous  biennial 
plant  (Carum  canti),  with  a  tapering  fleshy 
root,  a  furrowed  stem,  and  white  or  pinkish 
flowers.  It  produces  a  well-known  seed  used 
in  confectionery,  and  from  which  a  carminative 
oil  is  extracted  and  a  spirit  cordial  distilled. 
The  plants  found  wild  in  America  are  the 
descendants    of    naturalized    European    plants, 


=,  Google 


066 


C  AKAYOH  —  CASBIDB 


that  have  escaped  from  cultivatiott.  It  is  large- 
ly grown  in  England,  on  strong  and  rich  clays, 
ana  is  sometimes  sown  with  beans,  but  more 
usually  with  coriander  and  teazel,  or  coriander 
alone.  After  the  coriander,  which  is  only  a 
preparatory  crop,  has  been  removed  the  plants 
of  the  caraway  are  singled  out  and  repeatedly 
hoed  and  cleaned.  It  is  cut  about  the  beginning 
of  July,  and  produces  on  an  average  about  900 

Kunds  per  acre.  It  is  a  favorite  crop  with  the 
Itch.  The  volatile  oils  in  caraway  render  it 
of  much  service  in  medicine.  The  action  of 
these  oils  is  to  stimulate  peristalsis  and  thus 
overcome  flatulency.  They  are  further  antisep- 
tic and  check  excessive  intestinal  putrefaction. 
They  act  also  as  mild  local  anxslhetics  and  are 
useful  in  nausea  and  vomiting. 

CARAYON,  ka-rfi-yQA,  Angnite,  French 
historian;  b.  Saumur,  31  March  1813;  d. 
Poitiers,  15  May  1874.  A  distinguished  Jesuit, 
he  wrote  *FiTst  Canadian  Missions  of  the 
Jesuits*  (1864):  'Banishment  of  the  Jesuits 
from  Louisiana*  (1865),  and  similar  studies. 

CAKBAJAL.  kar-ba-hal',  FrmndKO, 
Spanish  soldier:  b.  Alavaro  1464;  d.  near 
Cuico,  10  April  1548.  He  served  b  the  army 
in  Europe;  went  to  Mexico  in  1528;  and  when 
Piiarro  appealed  for  help  against  the  Inca  up- 
rising he  was  one  of  the  force  sent  by  Cortez 
to  Peru.  He  was  marshal  under  Vaca  de  Cas- 
tro, in  the  battle  of  Chupas.  He  later  todc 
ofhce  under  Gonialo  Piiarro,  in  the  war 
S^inst  Diego  Centeno  and  De  la  Gascai.  At 
first  he  was  triumi^anl  over  Centeno  in  the 
Collao,  but  at  the  battle  of  Sacsabuana,  8  Apnl 
1528,  he  was  taken  prisoner  with  Pizarro  and 
executed.  Because  of  bis  remarkable  activity 
in  this  campaign,  despite  his  years,  he  was 
known  as  the  "Detnon  of  the  Andes."  He  was 
extremely  cruel  in  his  treatment  of  his  enemies, 
but  was  not  less  noted  for  his  humor  which 
never  failed  him,  not  even  at  his  own  execution. 
Consult  Markham,  'A  History  of  Peru' 
(Chicago  1892). 

CARBALLO,  kar-bal'  yS,  Spain,  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Coruiia  and  near  the  coast  of 
the  northwestern  extremity  of  the  peninsula. 
It  has  warm  mineral  springs  and  bams.  Pop. 
13,513. 

CARBAZOTIC  ACID.    See  Picuc  Acid. 

CARBSRRY  HILL,  Scotland,  a  rising 
ground  in  Mid-Lothian,  about  seven  miles 
southeast  of  Edinburgh,  between  Musselburgh 
and  Ormiston,  where  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
surrendered  herself  to  the  confederal*  nobles 
of  the  kingdom,  IS  June  1567,  just  before  her 
confinement  in  Loch  Leven  Castle. 

CARBIDE,  in  chemistry,  a  binary  com- 
pound of  carbon  with  a  metallic  element,  or 
with  certain  of  the  non-metallic  elements.  Of 
the  known  carbides  those  of  iron  and  calcium 
are  most  important.  Carbide  of  iron  occurs 
in  steel,  and  is  undoubtedly  concerned  in  some 
manner,  with  the  hardening  of  that  metal,  al- 
though the  authorities  are  not  agreed  as  to  the 
precise  role  that  it  plays.  The  best-known  car- 
bide of   iron   is  the  one  having  .  the  formula 


certain  sense  to  the  hjrdrocarbon  series  CaH*; 
So  that  when  any  one  of  the  carbides  of  iron  is 
treated  with  an  acid,  the  corresponding  hydro- 
carbon is  set  free.  Calcium  carbide  is  formed 
by  the  action  of  carbon  upon  lime  at  the  tem- 
perature of  the  eltctric  furnace.  It  has  the 
formula  CaCi,  and  its  commercial  value  de- 
pends mainly  upon  the  fact  that  it  is  readily  de- 
composed by  water,  with  the  copious  hberation 
of  acetylene  gas  (q.v.).  Carbide  of  magnesium 
is  not  formed  at  the  temperature  of  the  electric 
furnace,  probably  because  it  is  not  stable  at 
that  temperature.  It  may  be  prepared,  how- 
ever, by  the  action  of  calcium  carbide  upon 
magnesium  fluoride,  in  accordance  with  the 
equation  CaC. -|- MgF,  =  CaF,  +  MgC^  Like 
calcium  carbide  it  is  decomposed  by  water  with 
evolution  of  acetylene  gas,  the  yield  being  50 
per  cent  greater,  per  pound  of  the  carbide,  in 
the  case  of  magnesium  carbide.  It  is  not  un- 
likely that  magnesium  carbide  will  one  day 
replace  calcium  carbide  for  the  production  of 
acetylene  gas,  on  account  of  the  larger  yield; 
but  this  substitution  cannot  be  made  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  until  some  cheaper  mode  of -manu- 
facture b  found.  The  chemistry  of  the  car- 
bides is  still  in  its  infancy,  but  within  the  past 
few  years,  and  largely  owing  to  the  splendid 
work  of  Moissan,  many  new  bodies  belonging 
to  this  class  have  been  discovered.  Gold,  bis- 
muth, lead  and  tin  do  not  form  carbides  at  the 
temperature  of  the  electric  furnace,  nor  do 
they  dissolve  carbon  at  that  temperature. 
Platinum  and  iridium  dissolve  carbon  freely, 
but  deposit  it  again,  upon  cooling,  in  the  form 
of  graphite.  Aluminum  absorbs  carbon  freely, 
with  the  formation  of  A1,0,  and  similar  re- 
sults are  obtained  with  man^  other  metals  and 
metallic  oxides.  The  carbides  of  chromium, 
molybdenum,  titanium,  tungsten  and  zirconium 
do  not  decompose  water.  Those  of  calcium, 
strontium,  banum  and  lithium  decompose  it 
with  liberation  of  pure  acetylene ;  but  the  car- 
bides of  aluminum  and  beryllium  yield  pure 
methane,  and  carbide  of  manganese  gives  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  methane  and  hydro- 
gen. Other  carbides  decompose  water  with 
more  complex  results.  Thus  the  carbides  of 
the  rare  metals  of  the  cerium  group  yield  com- 
plicated mixtures  of  hydrogen,  acetylene, 
methane  and  ethylene,  and  the  carbide  of  ura- 
nium gives  all  these  products  (except,  perhaps, 
acetylene),  and,  in  addition,  copious  quantities 
of  various  liquid  and  solid  hydrocarbons.  The 
carbides  of  sodium  and  potassium,  which  are 
best  prepared  by  passing  dry  acetylene  gas  over 
the  corresponding  metals  at  a  temperature  of 
about  450  F.,  decompose  water  with  liberatioii 
of  acetylene.  The  carbides  of  titanium  and 
of  silicon  are  characterired  by  extreme  hard- 
ness, and  it  is  said  that  they  will  even  cut  the 
diamond  with  facility.  Carbide  of  silicon  u  an 
exceedingly  stable  substance,  and  is  now  largely 
used  under  the  trade  name  of  'carborundun,* 
as  an  abrasive  material  in  the  manufacture  of 
grinding- wheels,  whet- stones  and  polish  ing- 
doth. 

Moissan's  researches  with  the  electric  fur- 
nace are  reooned  chiefly  in  the  Annates  de 
CkimU  et  ae  Physique,  and  useful  reviews 
of  them  have  been  printed  at  frequent  intervals 
in  Nature.  Moissan  claims  to  have  been  the 
discoverer  of  the  crystalline  carbide  of  calcium 


d=,Geioglc 


CAfiBIDB  FURNACES  — CARBOLIC  ACID 


that  is  now  coaunerdally  familiar;  but  in  the 

United  States  this  hooor  is  usually  accorded  to 
Mr,  Witlson,  whose  labors  were  certainly  quite 
independent  of  those  of  Moi^san.  See  Calciuu 
Carbide;  Caebobumdum  ;  Electro- Cueukal 
Indusisies. 

RiGHABD  Ferris. 


CAKBOHYDRATE,  in  chemistry,  a  com- 
pound consisting  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  and  having  the  general  formula 
ChHvOf.  As  will  be  seen,  the  number  of  car- 
bon atoms  in  a  carbohydrate  is  always  divisible 
by  six,  and  the  oxygen  and  hyaro^en  are 
present  in  the  same  proportion  in  which  they 
occur  in  water.  It  is  not  implied,  however, 
that  the  compound  contains  water  as  such,  but 
only  that  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  atoms  are 
present  in  the  proiwrtion  of  two  atoms  of  dte 
latter  to  one  of  the  former.  It  will  also  be  ob- 
served that  a  carbohydrate  and  a  hydrocarbon 
are  two  essentially  different  things,  inasmuch 
as  a  carbob^^drate  contains  oxygen,  while  a 
hydrocarbon  is  a  compound  containing  no  ele- 
ment but  carbon  and  hydrogen. 

The  carbohydrates  consbiute  a  large  and 
very  important  class  of  substances,  emBiadng 
the  starches,  siuars,  glucoses  and  gums,  as  well 
as  cellulose,  llieir  chemical  relations  arc  in- 
tricate, and  are  far  from  being  thoroughly 
understood.  Several  schemes  have  been  pro- 
posed for  their  classification,  but  owing  to  the 
present  imperfection  of  our  knowledge  none  is 
•atircly  satisfactory.  The  classification  pro- 
posed by  O'Sullivan  is  convenient,  however, 
and  will  be  adopted  here. 

Chit  1. —  Sacchabans:  AmarphoM  nibitsnca.  having  the 
Ecnen]  [annuls  dCJIuOi.  (oluble  ia  water  bat  nuoIiiblB 
m  alcoho!,  and  furthA'  ch&ncCericed  by  the  facTt  that 
wbea  they  are  treated  whb  adds  tb^  yield  Bubetuica 
of  thdn^'CaHuOt,  dinctbr.  and  ntboat  the  lormBtion 
□f  iat«rcnediata  comixiiuidft.  Dectian.  LBVuUn.  tha 
amylana  and  the  golactans  are  examples.  (Th«e  bodies 
arf  goms)- 

Ctaii  2, —  Saccbaikns:  aobatancea  pmifiiiii  •  certaia 
AnuHiat  o£  itructurCr  having  tna  CBneral  formulA 
nCJIuOt    rn»1ub1e  in   either  water  or  alcohol,  and 

first  into  hCuHbOu.  and  finally.'br  tha  action  of  add*, 
into  nCJIiiOi.     CaUDlon.  tUI^  iouHn  and  tunion  aiv 


example 
len  elat 


Em  iibieli  di 


divjda  the  carbohy- 
anae  and  shiaow. 

Amorpboiu  mibMaoaei,  having  the 
ffencT^  lormtiia  nL^HiiOi.  aohibla  in  water,  but  insoluble 
m  alcohiri;  cDorerted  by  uMt  Bnt  into  nCif  sOii.  and 
finally  into  nCJliaOii  and  by  certain  farnwnta  into 
nCiiHaOu.      Clycoges,  deittin  and  malto-deitrin  are 

aa  4. —  Sacchabos^  (Mifiu*). 

Gmtt  fa}.—  Saccharqns:  Sweet.  cryMalltiabla  bodka, 
■oluble  in  water  and  in  moderatelv  atrona  alcohol, 
having  the  general  formula  nCuHgOii.  and  convert- 
ible by  ai:idi  and  aometima  by  femienta  mto 
uCtMuOi.  Sucraas  (cane  pwv),  lactoae  (mdk 
mgar).  uuJtose  and  raffinooe  are  exanaptaa. 

Group  {b). —  Gli;cos^:  Subatancea  crystallizing, 
though  not  so  readily  as  the  nenbcra  of  thepnced- 
ine  Brrmp;  having  tbn  eBneial  foimula  nOHuOi; 
■ohiUe  in  both  water  and  alcohol;  andoonvertad  by 
the  prolonsed  action  d  adds  into  substancia  that 


by  yeast;  while  othen.  st 
feniKDtablB. 

1W0   W.— Certain   substant — 

scytht.  wbieh  probably  belong  in  the  aromat 
and  bear  tut  qwcial  resemblance  to  the  othi 
bers  9f  the  carbohydrate  family. 


carbohydrates  in  the  strict  sense,  are  neverthe- 
less closely  allied  to  the  carbohydrates  and  are 
easily  converted  into  them  when  hydrolysed. 
In  this  class  he  places  the  glucosides  and  cer- 
tain of  the  gums,  mucilages  and  pectins. 

The  carbohydrates  are  exceedingly  import- 
ant elements  in  the  world's  food  supply,  and 
may  indeed  be  said  to  be  essential  to  the  mainte- 
nance ol  life.  They  are  practically  all  of  vege- 
table origin,  and  are  derived  ultimately  from 
certain  simple  fundamental  substances  that  are 
formed  in  the  green  leaves  of  plants.  Under 
the  influence  of  sunlight  the  chlorophyll  con- 
tained in  the  leaves  is  competent  to  split  up  the 
carbon  dioxide  of  the  air,  retaining  the  carbon 
and  setting  the  oxygen  free.  The  carbon  that 
is  abstracted  in  this  way  is  caused  to  combine 
with  the  water  that  the  leaves  contain,  with  the 
production  of  carbohydrates;  but  the  identity  o£ 
the  carbohydrate  that  is  first  formed  in  this 
way,  and  which  serves  as  the  startitv-point  for 
the  others,  is  not  yet  established.  According  to 
the  views  of  Sachs  the  'first  obvious  product* 
is  starch,  the  formation  of  which  he  explained 
by  the  equation: 

Carbon        Water  Starch  Free 

Dioxide  Oxygen 

6C0.  +   SHJ3    =    aH«a    +    120 
It  appears  more  likely,  however,  th^t  formic 
aldehyde,  CHiO,  is  the  first  product,  as  is  indi- 
cated by  the  equation 

H,0-4-CO.=  CH,0  +  20, 
and  that  the  subsequent  products  are  built  up  by 
polymerization. 

Carbohydrate  metabolism  is  one  of  the  most 
important  pbysiological  processes  of  the  animRl 
body.  The  carbohydrates  are  the  chief  source 
of  eneivy  and  heat  in  the  body.  Most  of  the 
carbot^drates  .are  converted  mto  maltose  by 
the  digestive  processes.  This,  during  the  proc- 
esses of  absorption  and  assimilation,  becomes 
dextrose,  which  sugar  is  the  only  normal  sugar 
of  the  circulatii^  fluids  and  the  tissues.  'Ilie 
dextrose  is  taken  up  by  the  blood,  conveyed  to 
the  liver  by  the  portal  vein  and  a  part  stored  up 
in  the  liver  cells.  Some  of  the  dextrose  b  also 
stored  in  muscle,  and  certain  portions  of  it  are 
utUiied  by  the  nudeoproteids  of  the  body.    The 


of  this  process  of  oxidation  are  very  much  ii 
volved,  but  it  seems  certain  that  an  oxidizing 
ferment,  perhaps  from  the  adrenal  glands,  act- 
ing in  conjunction  with  the  pancreas,  is  largely 
influential  in  the  process.  A  failure  to  bring 
about  sutBcient  oxidation  of  the  sugar  in  the 
body  causes  the  well-known  symptom  of  gly- 
cosuria, one  of  the  features  of  diabetes  (q.v.)- 
RlCHARD  Perbis. 

CARBOLIC  ACID,  a  substance  having  » 
formula  C>Ht.OH,  possessing  feebly  acid 
properties,  and  occurring  chiefly  in  that  part 
of  the  distillate  from  coal-tar  which  passes  over 
at  temperatures  between  310°  and  440°  F^ 
known  as  the  'middle  oils'  or  'carbolic  oib.* 
It  is  also  foimd  in  small  quantity  in  the  later 
disbllate,  between  450°  and  5211°.  known  as 
•creosote  oil.*  Chemically,  carbolic  acid  has 
the  structure  of  an  alcohol  (q.v.),  and  is  an 
aromatic  compound  derived  from  benzene  tw 
the  substitution  of  the  hydroxyl  groiv^  OH. 


:,  Google 


CASBOLINSUH 


lor  one  of  the  typical  hydroKen  atoms.  It  b 
also  known  as  phenol,  i^enyl  Hydrate  or  phenyl 
alcohol. 

Carbolic  acid  is  obtained  for  commercia] 
purposes  almost  exclusively  from  gas-tar.  The 
carbolic  oil  is  washed  with  a  solution  of  caustic 
soda  of  a  sped6c  gravity  1.075  to  1.100.  In 
quantity  the  solution  is  somewhat  more  than 
sufficient  to  extract  all  the  carbolic  add,  hut 
not  enough  to  take  up  all  the  cresylic  add  also. 
The  resultii^  phmate  of  soda  solution  is 
drawn  off  and  i»  used  to  wash  another  por- 
tion of  the  oil,  when  the  cresylate  of  so&  u 
decomposed,  and  the  cresylic  add  is  replaced 
try  cari>olic  add.    In  this  way  a  solution  con- 


,.    ._   .^  .    „  .a  small  quan- 

tity  of  sulphuric  add,  and  the  carbolic  add  set 
free  floats  on  the  surface  and  is  skimmed  oil. 
The  crude  carbolic  add  thus  obtained  contains 
about  15  per  cent  of  water,  and  a  little  cresylic 
acid.  It  IS  purified  by  distillation  and  crystal- 
lization. A  part  remains  liquid,  and  this  is 
sold  as  liquid  carbolic  acid^r  it  is  turned  back 
to  be  worked  up  again.  The  drained  crystals 
are  treated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  add  and 
potassium  bichromate,  and  redistilled.  For 
medicinal  purposes  it  is  again  distilled  in  glass 

Carbolic  add,  in  the  pure  stat^  crystallizes 
in  white,  deliquescent  needles,  having  a  strong 
characteristic  smell  slightly  suggestive  of  tar. 
The  reddish  color  noted  when  it  has  been  ex- 
posed to  the  air  is  attributed  to  minute  traces 
of  lead.  It  melts  at  106°  F.,  and  boils,  under 
ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  at  about  360'  P. 
Its  spedfic  gravity  is  about  1.07.  It  dissolves 
■n  aJcohol,  ether  and  many  other  organic 
liquids,  but  is  only  moderately  soluble  in  water 
under  ordinary  atmospheric  conditions.  It 
readily  absorbs  a  small  quantity  of  water  from 
the  air,  forming  a  hydrate  which  is  fluid  at 
temperatures  above  63'  F.  If  die  liquid  so 
fonned  is  shaken  with  water,  the  greater  part 
of  the  carbolic  add  separates  out  upon  stand- 
ing, and  the  vessel  is  found  to  contain  an  upper 
layer  consisting  of  water  in  which  a  small 
amount  of  carbolic  add  is  dissolved,  and  a 
lower  layer  of  carbolic  add  in  which  a  little 
water  is  dissolved.  It  does  not  exhibit  very 
marked  add  properties,  but  dissolves  in  the 
alkalis  with  the  formation  of  salts  called 
phenates.  It  does  not  have  a  strong  affinity  for 
the  alkaline  bases,  however,  and  from  a  strong 
solution  of  sodium  phenate  (for  example)  it 
may  be  again  separated  in  the  form  of  an  oily 
liq^uid  by  the  addition  of  another  acid ;  the  new 
acid  appropriating  the  base  to  itself,  and  setting 
die  catiiolic  add  free.  A  solution  of  carbolic 
acid,  even  when  very  weak,  develops  a  red 
color  when  boiled  witn  a  solution  of  mercurous 
nitrate  and  nitrous  add.  This  reaction,  whidi 
serves  for  the  detection  of  carbolic  acid,  is 
said  to  be  delicate  enough  to  indicate  one  part 
of  die  add  in  more  than  100,000  parts  of  water. 
In  the  arts  large  quantities  of  carbolic  add  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  salicylic  add  (q.v), 
and  it  is  an  important  source  of  picric  aad 
and  coralline  in  Uie  dye-making  industry.  It  is 
coniumed  in  immense  quantities  in  making  high 


exploMves    after    transfonnatiMi    into    picric 

In  medicine^  carbolic  add  has  many  uses. 
It  is  highly  poisonous  to  living  matter,  and  is 
used  extensive^  to  kill  bacteria.  In  surgery  it 
it  used  to  disinfect  wound^  and  as  an  antiseptic 
dressing  in  proportions  of  from  %-2  parts  of 
add  to  100  of  water.  It,  or  some  of  its 
derivatives  or  allies,  is  used  to  sterilize  instru- 
ments and  bed  linen,  the  walls  and  floors  of 
rooms  (by  washing)  and  dejecta.  Internally, 
tarbolic  add  is  used  as  a  bacteridde,  limiting 
excesnve  intestinal  putrefaction.  It  is  also  an 
anxsthctic,  and  is  at  times  of  service  in  irri- 
tability of  the  stomach.  When  used  in  too 
concentrated  a  solution  it  is  an  active  caustic, 
causing  a  white,  painless  bum,  AJcohol  is  an 
excellent  antidote.  Taken  internally  in  pure 
form  in  doses  over  two  to  three  drops  it  causes 
poisoning  with  B  characteristic  series  of  symp- 
toms, "niere  is  burning  in  the  mouth,  fauces, 
osophagus  and  stomach.  The  whitish  scars  of 
the  lips  and  mouth  are  characteristic.  There 
is  great  pain,  with  vomiting  of  large  quantities 
of  mucus,  clamminess  of  the  skin  and  restricted 
respiration.  There  is  usually  rin^ng  in  the 
ears,  headache  and  vertigo;  the  unne  may  be 
suppressed,  reddish  or  greenish ;  and  death  re- 
sults with  small,  rapid  pulse,  collapse,  and,  may 
be,  convulsions.  Similar  symptoms  may  de- 
vdop  slowly  in  sub-«cute  forms  of  poisoning. 
The  urinaiy  gmpioms  usually  lead  to  the 
diagnosis.  The  treatment  of  the  acute  form  of 
poisoning  is  the  free  use  of  ^stric  lavage,  in- 
gesdon  of  alcohol  usually  m  the  form  of 
whisky  sU^tlv  diluted  and  the  use  of  lime 
water,  and  solutions  of  sulphate  of  soda  or 
sulphate  of  magnesia.  Symptomadc  treatment 
and  careful  nursing  are  necessary  for  other 
symptoms. 

RlCHAUl  FCBRIS. 

CARBOLINBUH,  derived  from  the  Latin 
word  carbo,  coal,  olewn,  oil,  to  form  a  trade 
name  for  a  new  commodity,  is  a  distillation 
from  coal-tar  or  bitmninous  shale,  con- 
taining phenoloid  hydrocarbons  of  a  highly  pre- 
servative nature.  Extensive  deposits  front 
which  carbolinuem  is  obtained  are  found  in  the 
pnpe- growing  countries  bordering  on  the 
Rhine,  various  other  parts  of  Europe  and  some 
places  in  America.  The  liquid  in  its  Cfnmner- 
dal  form  is  of  a  nut-brown  color,  but  it  is  a 
stain  rather  than  a  paint.  However,  it  can  be 
washed  off  a  person's  hands  with  cold 
water  without  leaving  any  stain.  Tests  made 
with  it  prove  that  it  has  many  times  greater 
penetrating  power  than  linseed-oil.  It  never 
crystallizes.  When  it  has  been  painted  upon 
wood  and  has  become  apparently  thoroughly 
dry,  its  action  does  not  cease.  If  the  wood  is 
then  painted  with  a  heavv  coat  of  white-lead 
mixed  with  linseed-oiL  toe  carbolineum  vrill 
make  its  appearance  thruugli  the  paint  in  a 
short  time.  Consequently,  any  wood  that  is 
first  treated  with  carbolineum  cannot  be  painted 
without  previous  sizing.  Owing  to  carbolinrum 
being  composed  of  heavy  hydrocarbons,  it  i.s 
only  slighdy  inflanmiable ;  but  when  ignited  by 
holding  a  match  in  contact  with  th^  carbch- 
lineum  for  a  short  time,  it  bums  with  a  briicbt 
red  li^t,  giving  off  considerable  carbon  in  the 
form  of  a  dense  smoke.  Large  quantities  of 
carbolineum    are    made    by    subjecting    cnide 


d=,  Google 


CARBON— CARBON  BLACK 


anthracene  (green  oils)  to  heavy  pressure,  and 
adding  line  chloride  and  chlorine.  There  are 
also  on  the  market  imitations  of  carbolineum, 
made  from  the  heavy  oila  of  petroleum.  These 
are  deficient  in  the  specific  preservative  qnal- 
ities  which  have  given  the  original  carbolineum 
its  reputation.  As  made  from  coal-tar,  carbo- 
lineum is  a  substance  with  distinctive  physical 
and  chemicat  qualities.  It  distils  between 
the  temperatures  of  570'  and  735°  F.,  follow- 
ing the  creosote  oils.  Unlike  the  latter  it  has 
no  destructive  effect  upon  wood  fibre,  nor  does 
it  have  to  be  applied  under  heat  (350*)  and 
pres^re  (125  pounds)  as  with  creosote  oils, 
cooldng  the  wood  and  deadening  its  fibre.  Once 
(he  outer  layer  of  the  wood  is  dry  the  carbo- 
lineum enters,  leaving  the  pores  open  so  that 
interior  moisture  escapes  as  the  preservative 
makes  its  way  in.  The  creosote  oils  close  the 
pores  and  confine  die  interior  moisture. 

Carbolineum  first  came  into  use  about  the 
year  1876.  The  grape-growers  of  the  Rhine 
valley  were  much  annoyed  with  insects  and  sus- 
tained considerable  loss  by  the  rotting  of  the 
posts  and  poles  used  in  their  vineyards.  It  is 
said  that  Richard  Avenarius,  who  was  an  officer 
in  the  German  army,  first  suggested  the  use  of 
carbolineum  as  a  wood  preservative. 

Carbolineum  is  usually  shipped  in  barrels 
and  then  put  in  small  packages  to  accommodate 
the  retail  trade.  It  is  retailed  at  about  75  cents 
per  gallon.  The  most  extensive  users  are  the 
tanners,  railroad  companies,  maltsters  and 
farmers.  Railroad  ties  and  posts  are  dipped  in 
it  in  an  open  tank  before  settltlg. 

Some  of  the  railroad  companies  after  due 
experiment  have  made  extensive  use  of  it,  even 
'painting'  parts  of  the  woodwork  of  their 
freight  cars  with  it.  It  is  used  in  a  modified 
form  by  dyers.  Farmers  use  it  for  painting 
hog-pens,  chicken-coops  and  bams  for  the  pur- 
pose of  destroying  lice  and  other  vermin.  The 
carbolineum  may  be  applied  directly  to  the 
skin  of  animals,  without  mjury. 

Considerable  litigation  has  grown  out  of 
the  promiscuous  use  of  the  word  'carbolineum* 
by  manufacturers.  Richard  Avenarius  did 
not  obtain  a  trade-mark  on  the  word 
'carbolineum'  when  he  first  used  it,  and  never 
obtained  a  patent  on  carbolineum,  and  many 
others  began  its  manufacture  under  that  com- 
mercial name.  Eventually  he  filed  the  word 
'carbolineum'*  as  a  trade-mark  in  Austria, 
but  subsequently  his  trade-mark  was  revoked 
and  protection   refused  on  the   ground  of   the 

general  use  of  the  word.  Also,  he  rwstered 
le  word  'carbolineum*  as  a  trade-mark  in  the 
Patent  Office  of  the  United  States,  as  No. 
H048,  dated  8  Feb.  1887.  His  right  to  such  use 
was  questioned  and  considerable  litigation  en- 
tued.  The  matter  had  not  been  settled  definitely 
when,  in  1917,  American  manufacturers  were 
permitted  to  use  German  patents  and  trade- 
marks under  license. 

RiCBABD  FExaia. 
CARBON,   a   non-metallic   element,   exist- 


allot  ropy,  at  least  three  distinctly  different 
forms  of  it  being  known.  These  are  (1) 
amorphous  carbon;  (2)  graphite;  and  (3) 
diamond.  Amorphous  carbon  is  formed  when 
wood  or  coal  or  almost  any  vegetable  matter  is 


heated  strongly,  out  of  contact  with  the  air,  and 
is  familiar  to  evei^body  as  charcoal,  coke  and 
lampblack.  Graphite  (q.v.)  occurs  native,  and 
may  also  be  artificially  prepared  in  various  , 
ways.  Diamond  (q.v.),  which  is  crystallized 
carbon,  also  occurs  native  in  certain  regions, 
and  pure  specimens  that  are  devoid  of  color, 
or  which  have  certain  fecial  tints,  are  hi^ly 
esteemed  as  gems: 

Carbon  has  the  chemical  symbol  C,  and  an 
atomic  weirfit  of  12.005  if  0=^16,  and  1!.91  if 
H^^l.  Tne  specific  gravity  of  diamond  is 
3.51,  that  of  graphite  is  from  2.11  to  2J6  and 
that  of  bard  gas-coke  is  about  2.35.  The  linear 
coefficient  of  expansion  of  diamond  (Fahren- 
hcit    scale)    is    0.00000066    at    ordinary    tem- 

Sratures,  and  that  of  graphite  is  0.0000044. 
aphite  has  an  electrical  conductivity  of  about 
one-twelfth  of  that  of  mercury,  and  hard  gas- 
coke,  about  one  one^hundredth.  Diamond  is 
practically  a  non-conductor.  The  specific  heats 
of  diamond  and  graphite  are  quite  different  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  Thus  at  50°  F.  dia- 
mond has  a  specific  heat  of  0.113,  graphite 
0.160  and  wood  charcoal  about  0.165.  These 
values  increase  as  the  temperature  rises,  and  at 
about  1100°  F.  all  three  varieties  have  a  com- 
mon specific  heat  of  about  0.44. 

Carbon  is  infusible,  and  insoluble  in  any 
known  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  dis- 
solves to  a  limited  extent  in  melted  cast  iron, 
and  in  melted  platinum  it  dissolves  freely, 
separating  out  again  in  the  form  of  graphite 
upon  cooling.  It  is  unaltered  by  the  action  oE 
acids,  except  when  some  powerful  oxidiung 
agent  like  chlorate  of  potassium  or  bichromate 
of  potassium  is  also  present.  Chemically  it  is 
tetravalent  in  nearly  all  of  its  compounds.  It 
comMnes  with  oxygen   in   three   dtiierent  pri>- 

Sirtjons,  with  the  formation  of,  a  monpxidc 
0,  a  dioxide  COa  and  a  suboxide  CiOi.  It 
also  forms,  with  hydrogen,  a  great  number  of 
compounds  known  as  hydrocarbons  (q.v.)  ;  and 
it  combines  with  many  of  the  metals  to  form 
carbides  (q.v.l.  With  hydrogen,  oxyKen,  nitro-  ' 
gen  and  small  quantities  of  other  elements,  it 
constitutes  the  entire  substance  of  animals  and 
plants ;  and  the  coal  beds  upon  which  our 
modern  civilization  is  founded  are  composed  of 
vegetable  remains  from  which  the  elements 
other  than  carbon  have  been  mostly  expelled 
by  the  combined  action  of  heat  and  pressure. 
See  Akomatic  Compounds  ;  Carbon  Cou- 
pouNDs;  Chaecoai.;  Coal;  Elbctro-Chemiqu. 
Industries;  Diamokd;  Fatty  CoiiE<ouNDg; 
Gkaphite. 

RicKABD  F^ms. 


CARBON  BLACK,  the  trade  term  given 
to  black  made  from  gas.  It  was  originally 
called  hydrocarbon  gas  black,  and  a  black  of  a 
similar  nature  to  that  now  made  was  manufac- 
tured both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  from 
artificial  gas.  The  industry  did  not,  however, 
assume  any  importance  before  1872,  when  the 
first  patent  was  obtained  for  producing  this 
black  from  natural  gas.  Since  that  date, 
many  patents  have  been  taken  out  in  connec- 
tion  with  the  manufacture  of  this  black  from 
natural  gas,  and  at  the  present  time  there  are 
10  distinct  processes  in  use. 


d=,  Google 


S80 


CARBON  COMPOUNDS 


The  abundance  of  natural  gas  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  automatic  method  used  in  mak- 
ing the  black,  have  enabled  manufacturers  in 
this  country  to  produce  it  at  so  much  lower 
prices  that  little  of  this  black  is  now  made  from 
artificial  gas,  and  large  quantities  of  the  prod- 
uct are  exported  annually.  The  totaJ  produc- 
tion of  carbon  black  in  this  couDtrf  in  1914  was 
valued  at  $900,630,  of  which  about  one-seventh 
was  exported.     See  Blacks. 

CARBON  COMPOUNDS,  in  chemistry, 
those  compounds  which  contain  the  element 
carbon.  Tnese  are  of  two  classes,  the  organic 
and  the  inorganic,  the  former  being  by  far  the 
larger  and  more  important ; '  so  much  so  that 
the    chemistry    of    the    carbon    compounds    is 


.4it  by  many  authorities  that  the 
pounds  thai  occur  m  animals  and  plants  are 
essentially  different  in  nature  from  those  that 
are  produced  in  the  laboratory,  and  that  they 
cannot  be  obtained  without  the  action  of  the 
•vital  principle.'  This  idea  received  its  first 
blow  in  1828,  when  Wohler  prepared  urea  from 
substances  that  had  been  previously  considered 
to  be  inorganic;  yet  as  late  as  1849  the  great 
chemist,  Berzelius,  defined  organic  chemistry 
as  'the  chemistry  of  compounds  formed  under 
the  influence  of  life."  A  vast  number  of  sub- 
stances Chat  were  formerly  classed  as  organic 
have  now  been  prepare*!  in  the  laboratory, 
and  the  old  classification  of  chemistry  into 
organic  and  inorganic  branches  has  broken 
down,  the  organic  division  being  now  more 
correctly  called  the  'chemistry  of  carbon 
compounds.* 

The  organic  carbon  compounds  form  a 
group  of  ^reat  complexity,  and  are  apparently 
unlimited  in  number.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
that  carbon  is  quadrivalent ;  that  it  forms 
multitudes  of  compounds  with  hydrogen  alone, 
in  many  of  which  more  or  less  of  the  hydrogen 
can  be  replaced  by  other  elements,  with  the 
formation  of  new  and  altogether  different  sub- 
stances ;  that  its  chemical  bonds  are  apparently 
powerful;  and  that  it  unites  with  elements  of 
the  most  widely  different  nature. 

In  a  general  way,  the  better-known  carbon 
compounds  are  mostly  divided  into  two  great 
classes,  according  to  the  type  of  the  'graphical* 
or  "structural*  formula  that  must  be  used  in 
order  adequately  to  represent  their  chemical  re- 
lations, lite  first  class  inclndes  all  those  bodies 
whose  structural  formulae  are  distinguished  by 
the  fact  that  the  atoms  (or  radicals)  that  are 
present  form  "open*  chain^  which  do  not  any- 
where return  into  one  another.  The  hyilrocar~ 
bon  "propane,*  which  has  the  structural  formula 
H  H  H 
H-C-C-C-H. 

i  i  i 

i«  an  illustration  of  this  class.  The  "open 
chain*  compounds  are  called  fatty  compounds, 
and  are  treated  under  that  heading.  The  name 
was  originally  given  because  many  of  the  sub- 
stances that  are  included  in  the  class  have  long 
been  known  in  connection  with  fats  and  allied 
bodies;  but  it  would  be  more  logical  to  call 
them  'methane  derivatives,*  since  they  may  be 


considered  to  be  obtainable  from  the  hydrocar- 
bon methane,  CH^  by  a  process  of  substitotion. 
The  second  great 
class  of  carbon  com- 
pounds      is       distin- 
guished  by  the   fact 
that     the      structural 
CH   formube  that  are  re- 
quired in  order  to  ex- 
hibit    the     chemical 
properties  of  itsmem- 
^u  hers  return  intothem- 
^"  selves,  so  as  to  form 
•closed*      chains     or 
rings,  which  (at  least 
in     the     fundamental 
"  forms)     contain    sii 

,      ...  carbon  atoms.     Ben- 

zene IS  a  familiar  example.  Frrai  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  first  known  representatives  were 
balsams,  oils  and  resins,  these  substances  are 
known  collectively  as  aromatic  compounds,  and 
are  described  under  that  heading.  A  better 
name  would  be  "benzene  derivatives,*  since  all 
the  members  of  the  class  are  derivable  from 
benzene  by  substitution.     See  Amsmatic  Cok- 

POUNDS. 

In  addition  to  the  aromatic  and  fatty  com- 
pounds, others  are  known  which  do  not  prop- 
erly come  under  either  heading.  Thus  the 
structural  formula  of  furfuran  contains  a 
closed  ring,  formed  by  the  union  of  four  atoms 
of  carbon  and  one  of  oxygen.  Oosed  rings, 
consisting  of  three,  four  and  five  atoms  of 
carbon,  arc  also  known.  The  pronounced 
analogies  and  affinities  that  exist  among  the 
members  of  the  aromatic  and  fatty  groups, 
respectively,  have  forced  those  two  groups 
upon  the  attention  of  chemists.  Those  com- 
pounds of  carbon  which  arc  not  strictly  in- 
cluded within  either  have  not  yet  been  classified 
upon  a  similarly  broad  basis. 

The  principal  phenomena  of  the  carbon 
compounds  are  given  under  special  headings. 
In  addition  to  those  already  given,  sec,  par- 
ticularly, IsoMEBiSM ;  and  Radicau  For  an 
excellent  presentation  of  the  whole  subject, 
consult  Hjelt,  'Principles  of  General  Organic 
Chemistry.' 

Among  the  inorganic  carbon  compounds 
the  more  important  are  dealt  with  under  sepa- 
rate headings ;  see  Casbonic  Oxide,  Carsow 
Dioxide  and  Carbon  Bisulphide.  With  few 
exceptions  the  others  are  interesting  chiefly  as 
chemical  substances,  with  no  distinctive  use  in 
the  atts.     The  most  useful   of  all   is 

Carbon  tetrachloride  (CCU),  at  first  pro- 
duced by  exposure  of  chlorine  and  chloroform 
in  mixture  to  the  action  of  sunlight,  it  is  now 
generally  prepared  by  the  chlorination  of  carbon 
oisulphide  in  the  catalj^ic  presence  of  powdered 
aluminum  chloride.  It  is  a  colorless  liquid, 
with  a  pungent  aromatic  odor,  boiling  at  170°  F. 
It  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  is  itself 
a  solvent  of  fatty  organic  substances.  Throuf^ 
this  property  it  is  of  considerable  importance  ui 
manufactures,  replacing  carbon  disulphide,  as 
its  vapor  is  not  inflammable.  In  its  effects  oa 
the  human  system  it  closely  resembles 
chloroform. 

Carbon  trichloride  (CtCL)  is  produced  bf 
exposing  ethylene  chloride  (or  other  deriw- 
■'■  --  at  ethyl  and  ethylene)  to  the  action  of 
by   heatir 


chlorine    in   i 


nshine ; ' 


'   heating  pnw' 


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CAKBOH   DIOXIDE 


Wl 


chloride  with  iodine  trichloride.  It  is  colorless 
and  nearly  tasteless,  and  has  an  aromatic  odor 
resemblinc;  camphor.  It  is  insoluble  in  water, 
but  dissolves  in  all  oils  and  in  ether  and 
alcohoj,  from  which  it  crystallizes  in  right 
rhombic  prisms.  It  vaporizes  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures. 

Carbon  dichloride  (CiCU)  is  prepared  by 
adding  carbon  trichloride  in  small  portions  to 
am  alcoholic  solution  of  hydrated  potassium 
sulphide  as  lon^  as  sulphureted  hydrogen  is 
evolved.  The  liquid  is  ^en  distilled,  and  the 
distillate  diluted  with  water,  upon  which  the 
carbon  dichloride  separates.  It  is  a  stable 
liquid  at  zero  F.  and  boils  at  240°.  It  dis- 
solves in  alcohol,  ether  and  the  oils,  but  not  in 
water,  acids  or  alkalis.  It  absorbs  bromine, 
in    direct    sunshine,    forming    carbon    ckloro- 

Carbon  oxyckioride  (COCli),  a  colorless 
liquid  obtained  when  a  mixture  of  carbon 
monoxide  and  chlorine  is  exposed  to  sunshine; 
and  also  hy  heating  a  mixture  of  chloroform, 
potassium  dichromate  and  sulphuric  acid.  Its 
boiling  point  is  47°  F. 

Carbon  suboxide  (CVOi),  or  carbon  car- 
bonvl,  discovered  by  Diels  and  Wolf  in  1906^ 
is  formed  by  treating  a  solution  of  dibrom- 
malonyl  chloride  in  ether  with  linc  shavings. 
The  pure  suboxide  is  a  colorless  liquid  with  a 
pungent  odor  resembling  mustard  oil,  and  is 
quite  poisonous.  It  boils  at  44°  and  is  solid  at 
— 224  .  At  low  temperatures  carbon  suboxide 
is  quite  stable,  but  between  30°  and  60°  if  even 
a  trace  of  impurity  be  present,  it  polymerizes 
into  a  dark  red  solid.  It  is  inflammable,  burn- 
ing with  a  bright  blue  Rame  and  the 
of  much  smoke. 


below  70°  a  solid  substance  crystallizing  in  fine 
white  needles.  Above  70°  it  is  a  liquid  with  an 
odor  resembling  cyanogen,  boiling  at  170°,  and 
breaking  into  name  if  heated  to  365°. 

Carbon  oxysull>hide  (COS),  a  colorless  gas 
soluble  in  water,  with  an  odor  resembling  sul- 
phureted hydrogen,  and  highly  suffocative.  It 
has  the  notable  specific  gravity  of  2.10,  and 
may  easily  be  poured  from  one  vessel  into 
another.  It  is  inflammable,  passing  when  burn- 
ing into  carbon  dioxide  and  sulphur  dioxide. 
At  zero  F.,  and  under  a  pressure  of  12vS  atmo- 
spheres it  becomes  a  colorless  and  highly  re- 
fractive liquid  which  dissolves  sulphur,  and 
mixes  with  cither  ether  or  alcohol,  but  not  with 

Several  compounds  of  carbon  and  bromine 
are  important  to  the  student  of  chemistry. 
They  are  carbon  letrabromide  (CBrt)  ;  carbon 
Iribromide,  or  hexabromide  (CiBri) ;  carbon 
dibromide  (CiBr.) ;  and  ■  carbon  bromide 
<C:CBri)-  The  last  named  is  spontaneously 
indammable  in  contact  with  atmospheric  air, 
and  highly  explosive.  From  these  carbon  com- 
pDtmxls  with  bromine  springs  an  extended  list 
of  derivatives. 

Richard  Fekkis. 

CARBON  DIOXIDE,  CARBONIC 
ACID  GAS,  or  CARBONIC  ANHYDRIDE, 
COj,  is  formed  whenever  carbon  is  burned  in 
the  presence  of  excess  of  oxygen  or  air.  It  is 
a  colorless,  odorless  gas  about  1.53  times  as 
heavy  as  air,  bulk  for  bulk,  and  soluble  to  a 
considerable   extent   in   cold   water,   especially 


when  subjected  to  pressure.  Its  solution  pos- 
sesses feebly  acid  properties,  and  has  a  pecul- 
iarly pungent  taste,  on  account  of  which  the 
aqueous  solution  of  the  acid  is  greatly  used 
as  a  constituent  of  various  bevera^s.  The 
effervescence  accompanying  the  opening  of  a 
bottle  of  beer,  soda-water  or  champagne  is 
due  to  the  escape  of  the  carbon  dioxide  that 
was  previously  held  in  solution  under  pressure. 
Carbon  dioxide  occurs  in  great  abundance  in 
nature,  both  free  and  in  conibination  with  vari- 
ous elements  in  the  form  of  carbonates.  Car- 
bonate of  lime,  CaCOi,  is  one  of  the  most 'com- 
mon carbonates.  It  is  formed  when  the  gas  is 
allowed  to  bubble  up  through  a  solution  of 
lime  water  and  exists  in  nature  in  vast  masses 
as  limestone  and  marble.  (Other  ^carbonates 
are  described  under  the  metals  that  constitute 
their  bases).  Carbon  dioxide  is  a  constant  con- 
stituent of^  the  atmosphere  (see  Air),  occur- 
ring even  at  the  tops  of  mountains  and  in  the 
air  collected  by  balloons  at  great  height  It  is 
generated  by  the  combustion  of  fuel,  i^  respira- 


_  _ .  quantities  of  the  gas  are  emitted 
from  the  ground,  or  from  mineral  springs  and 
wells,  as  at  Saratoga  Springs  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  Grotto  de!  Cane,  the  Cave  of 
Montjoly  in  Auvergne,  in  the  valley  of  Wehr, 
in  the  Eifel  and  at  many  other  places  in 
Europe.  It  is  being  simultaneously  abstracted 
from  the  air  by  plants,  which  in  the  siinUgtit 
decompose  the  gas,  tixiog  the  carbon  that  it 
contains,  and  setting;  the  oxygen  free.  Carbon 
dioxide  has  but  feeble  affinity  for  the  bases  with 
which  it  combines,  and  is  readily  displaced  by 
almost  any  other  add.  In  preparing  the  gas 
for  expenmental  purposes  the  usual  method  is 
to  add  a  dilute  mineral  acid  to  pulverized  mar- 
ble or  other  carbonate,  the  carbon  dioxide  then 
being  liberated  continuously  and  in  large  quan- 
tities. On  a  large  scale  carbon  dioxide  is  made 
by  beating  limestone  to  redness  in  closed  re- 
torts, at  the  bottom  of  which  superheated  steam 
is  blown  in.  This  passes  up  through  the  heated 
limestone  carrying  with  it  the  liberated  car- 
bon dioxide,  and  through  outlets  at  the  top  into 
coolers  and  compressors.  Besides  its  large  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  aerated  drinks,  carbon 
dioxide  is  used  in  sugar  factories  to  clarify 
the  cane  juice  after  treatment  with  lime.  It  is 
also  used  to  preserve  wines  from  deterioration 
by  certain  molds,  and  other  organisms  which 
set  up  acetic  fermentation.  Wine  thus  treated 
is  distinctly  improved  in  quality.  Carbon 
dioxide  is  the  active  principle  in  baking  pow- 
ders, bein^  liberated  from  the  soda  carbonate 
by  the  acid  constituent  of  the  powder,  and  in 
its  efforts  to  escape  from  the  dough  produces 
the  lightening  effect. 

The  critical  temperature  of  carbon  dioxide 
is  about  88°  F.,  and  at  any  temperatut* 
lower  than  this  it  can  be  reduced  to  a  liquid 
by  the  application  of  pressure.  Liquid  carbon 
dioxide  is  colorless.  It  will  not  mix  with 
water,  but  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol,  ether  and 
volatile  oils.  When  the  pressure  is  released, 
part  of  the  liouid  vaporizes  rapidly,  and  the 
remainder  solidifies  through  the  production  of 
intense  cold  Solid  carbon  dioxide  is  a  while 
mass  resembling  snow.  It  remains  for  some 
time  open  to  the  air  without  melting.  Its  in- 
terior temperature,  however,  as  shown  by  a 


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CARBON  Dl8xn^Mlt>tt— CARBONADO 


tfaennoineter  sunk  into  the  mass,  b  — 110°  F. 
Its  rndtinj;  point  13—70". 

Poisoning  by  this  gas  frequently  results  in 
closed  rooms  crowded  with  people.    The  symp- 
'  be  very  slight,  consisting  of  a  mild 


indisposiiion,  or  th^  may  be  severe — head- 
ache, nausea,  vomiting,  etc  In  poisoning  in 
the  severer  grades  there  is  cyanosis,  coma  and 
unconsciousness.  Carbon  dioxide  is  not  in  it- 
self a  fatal  poison;  it  becomes  so,  however,  in 
the  absence  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  oicygen, 
death  being  produced  by  simple  asphyxiation. 
RiCHABD  Fekris. 
CARBON  DISULPHIDE,  or  SULPHO- 
CARBONIC  ACID,  CS»  a  liquid  formed 
when  the  vapor  of  sulphur  is  passed  over  red- 
hot  charcoal  and  the  rcsiiliing  gases  coaled  in 
a  condenser.  Under  normal  conditions  it  is  a 
very  volatile,  inflammable  liquid,  with  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  129  and  boiling  at  US'  F.  It 
bums  with  a  blue  name,  giving  off  sulphurous 
and  carbonic  add  gases.  Burned  in  a  Bunsen 
burner,  with  proper  precautions  a^inst  ex- 
plosion, it  produces  a  flame  of  actinic  power 
exceeding  that  of  burning  magnesium.  A 
special  light  for  photographic  purposes  is  pro- 
duced by  burning  a  mixture  of  vapor  of  carbon 
disulphide  and  nitric  oxide,  which  yields  a 
bluish  flame  rich  in  actinic  rays.  Mixed  with 
three  parts  of  oxygen,  or  an  equivalent  (in 
oxygen)  of  atmospheric  air,  the  vapor  forms 
a  dangerously  explosive  mixture.  Practically 
the  whole  commercial  supply  of  carbon  disul- 
phide is  made  from  coke  and  sulphur  in  the 
electric  furnace.  (See  Electro-Chemical  In- 
dustries). The  commercial  disuli^ide  has  an 
exceedingly  disagreeable  smell,  but  this  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  impurities.  The  pure  liquid, 
produced  by  simple  distillation,  has  a  pleasant, 
ethereal  smell.  Carbon  disulphide  (or  bisul- 
phide) dissolves  sparing  in  water,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  part  in  1,000,  forming  a  valuable 
disinfectant.  It  mixes  freely,  however,  with 
alcohol,  ether,  benzene  and  the  fixed  oils  in 
almost  every  proportion.  It  dissolves  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  caoutchouc  and  many  other  or- 
ganic bodies  that  are  almost  insoluble  in  other 
menstrua,  and  it  is  to  this  property  that  il 
owes  its  commercial  value.  It  is  used  in  largest 
quantity  in  the  rubber  goods  manufacture,  not 
only  in  the  preparation  of  a  cement,  but  also 
in  the  making  of  rubberized  cloth  by  coating 
or  infiltrating  with  a  thin  solution  of  rubber. 
It  is  also  used  to  dissolve  the  natural  grease 
out  of  wool,  and  fatty  oils  out  of  seeds  and 
oiipress  residues,  or  oilcake ;  and  in  the  re- 
covery of  oils  from  all  kinds  of  waste  material. 
In  its  purest  refined  state  the  disulphide  is 
employed  to  extract  the  most  delicate  essential 
oils  from  aromatic  seeds  and  spices,  and  per- 
fumes from  flowers.  In  quite  another  direction 
it  is  efficient  in  preserviufi  furs  and  woolens 
from  moths,  as  an  insecticide  upon  infested 
plants  and  in  the  burrows  of  such  animal 
pests  as  moles,  gophers,  woodchucks,  etc.,  to 
destroy  them.  As  a  chemist's  aid  in  quantita- 
tive analysis  it  is  indispensable.  It  has  a  wide 
chemical  interest  as  the  most  energetic  of  sul- 
phurizing a^fents,  aiding  in  the  production  of 
many  sulphides  not  obtainable  otherwise.  Be- 
cause of  its  hi^h  degree  of  volatility  it  is  used 
in  the  production  of  low  temperatures  by  its 
own  evaporation.  Under  the  air-pump  a  cold 
of  — 76°  F.  has  been  attained  by  its  use. 


Pcusoning  by  carbon  disnlplnde  is  becoming 
very  prevalent  since  the  use  of  rubber  goods 
has  become  so  extensive.  The  symptoms  of 
acute  poisoning  are  due  to  a  poisoning  of  the 
blood  and  a  central  paralysing  action  on  the 
nervous  system.  The  blood  action  b  that  of  a 
breaking  up  of  the  red  blood  cells,  haanolysis. 
This  results  in  cyanosis,  pains,  headache,  ver- 
tigo, natisea,  vomiting,  weakness,  unconscious- 
ness, coma  and  death.  Such  acute  cases  arc 
rare,  the  poisoning  developing  as  a  rule  much 
less  rapidly.  In  workers  in  rubber  factories, 
in  which  there  b  much  vapor  of  CSi,  there 
develop  disturbances  of  temper,  loss  of  mem- 
ory, pressure  feelings  on  the  head,  heat,  and 
the  feeling  as  if  the  blood  would  burst  throu^ 
the  skuti,  with  headache.  There  may  also  be 
symptoms  of  irritation  of  the  bronchi,  coutdi- 
ing  and  roudmess  of  the  voice,  etc.  Treat- 
ment is   fresh  air  and  symptomatic 

RlCHAKD  F^xis. 

CARBON  MONOXIDE,  or  CARBONIC 

OXIDE,  CO.  b  produced  in  addition  to  ihe 
dioxide,  when  carbon  is  burned  with  a  limited 
supply  of  air  or  oxygen.  It  is  also  generated 
by  passing  carbon  dioxide  through  a  red-hot 
bed  of  carbon,  in  accordance  with  the  equation 
C0(  +  C  =  2C0.  For  experimental  purpose) 
the  gas  may  be  generated  by  decomposing 
oxalic  acid  by  heating  it  with  strong  sulphuric 
acid,  and  passing  the  gases  that  are  evolved 
through  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  or  time  to 
absorb  the  carbon  dioxide  that  Is  present 
Another  method  is  bv  passing  electric  sparits 
through  carbon  dioxiae.  It  is  evolved  in  large 
(luantities  in  the  manufacture  of  carbides,  and 
is  collected  as  a  valuable  by-product  useful  in 
the  making  of  special  steels.  Carbon  mon- 
oxide is  a  colorless  gas  with  a  density  about 
0,97  times  that  of  air.  It  bums  with  a  lam- 
bent blue  flame  that  is  often  seen  in  coal  fire) 
that  have  been  freshly  supplied  with  fueL 
Carbon  monoxide  is  highly  poisonous^  produc- 
ing first  giddiness  and  then  asphyxtation,  ai 
small  a  quantitv  as  one-half  of  1  per  cent  in 
the  air  breathed  being  fatal,  and  even  as  small 
a  percentage  as  one-nfth  of  1  per  cent  result- 
ing in  death  if  breathed  for  any  length  of  time. 
It  combines  with  the  haemoglobin  of  the  blood, 
and  destroys  the  efficiency  of  that  fluid  as  an 
oxygen-carrying  medium.  Carbon  monoxide 
poisoning  is  often  followed  by  serious  degen- 
erative changes  in  the  brain.  This  gas  is  often 
evolved  by  self-feeding  stoves  with  deficient 
draft. 

CARBON  OXYCHLORIDE.  See 
Phosgene. 

CARBONADO,  a  masave,  black  or  dart- 
gray  variety  of  diamond,  also  called  *blad[ 
diamond.*  Though  possessing  the  adamantine 
or  resinous  lustre  of  the  crystallized  variety,  it 
b  opaque  and,  therefore,  of  no  value  as  a 
gem.  It  is  the  hardest  substance  known  and 
this  fact  makes  it  the  most  desirable  for  use  in 
diamond  drills;  it  therefore  sells  for  as  hi^ 
a  price  per  carat  as  one  carat  rough  gem  dia- 
monds (q,v).  Being  without  cleavage  it  is 
less  brittle  than  the  crystals,  and  owing  to  its 
somewhat  porous  structure,  its  specific  gravity 
is  less,  3.15  to  3.29.  TTie  commercial  supijly 
comes  exclusively  from  the  province  of  Bahii, 
Braiil,  where  it  occurs  in  angular  fragments 
which  occasionally  show  a  rong^i  cuUc  outline. 


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FOSSILS  OF  THE  CARBONIFEROUS,  I 


S  CTclophtliiluniuBiickluidii  l>«ideit  it  lllBiriiJ. ,-..-.,-,  I  ~ 
BbEith  ofm  beetlo  V^lOOy  IL 

9  LtjaAodtniioa  dichotomnin,  ibowmg  the  aug^  (3 


do,  Google 


CARBONARI— CARBOMIPSROUS 


CARBONARI,  kar-bd-ni'ri  (collien,  or 
more  strictly,  charcoal-burners),  the  name  of  a 
lar^  political  secret  society  in  Italy.  Accord- 
ing to  Botta's  'Storia  d'ltalia'  the  Republicans 
fled,  under  the  reign  of  Joachim  (Murat),  to 
the  recesses  of  the  Abruizi,  inspired  with  an 
equal  hatred  of  the  French  and  of  Ferdinand. 
They  formed  a  secret  confederacy,  and  called 
themselves  carbonari.  Their  chief,  Capobianco, 
possessed  great  talents  as  an  orator.  Their 
war-ciy  was  *  Revenge  for  the  lamb  mangled 
tnr  the  wolf!*  When  Murat  ascended  the 
tnrone  of  Naples  he  employed  Uaghella,  a 
Genoese,  in  the  Department  of  Police,  and  after' 
ward  as  minister.  All  his  efforts  were  directed 
to  the  union  and  independence  of  Italy,  and  for 
this  purpose  he  made  use  of  the  Society  of  the 
Carbonari.  The  ritiial  of  the  Carbonari  was 
taken  from  the  trade  of  the  charcoal  burner. 
Clearing  the  wood  of  wolves  (opposition  to 
tjfranny)  was  the  symbolic  expression  pf  their 
aim.  By  this  they  are  said  to  have  meant  at 
first  onfv  deliverance  from  foreign  dominion; 
but  in  later  times  democratic  and  anti-mon- 
archical principles  sprang  up.  They  called  one 
another  good  cousins.  No  general  union  of  the 
order  under  a  common  heaa  seems  to  have  been 
effected.  The  separate  societies  in  the  small 
towns  entered  into  a  connection  with  each 
other,  but  this  union  extended  no  farther  than 
the  province.  The  place  of  assembly  was  called 
the  Dnt  ^barraca)  ]  the  surrounding  neighbor- 
hood was  called  the  wood;  the  meeting  itself 
was  distinjnushed  as  the  sale  (vendilaj.  The 
confederation  of  all  the  huts  of  the  province 
was  called  the  republic,  generally  bearing  the 
incient  name  of  the  provmce.  iTie  chief  huts 
(alta.  barraca)  at  Naples  and  at  Salerno  en- 
deavored to  eflecl  a  general  union  of  the  order, 
at  least  for  the  kingdom;  but  the  attempt  ap- 
pears to  have  been  unsuccessful.  The  order, 
loon  after  its  foundation,  contained  from  24,- 
000  to  30,000  members,  and  increased  so  rapidly 
that  it  spread  through  all  Italy.-  In  1830,  in  the 
month  of  March  alone,  about  650,000  new  mem- 
bers are  said  to  have  been  admitted ;  whole 
cities  joined  the  Society.  The  military,  in 
^rticular,  seem  to  have  thronged  for  admis- 
sion. The  religious  character  of  the  order  ap- 
pears from  its  statutes:  'Every  Carbonaro  has 
the  natural  and  inalienable  ri^t  to  worship  the 
Almighty  according  to  the  dictates  of  his  con- 
science.* After  the  suppression  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan and  Piedmontese  revolution  in  1821,  the 
Carbonari  throughout  Italy  were  declared  guilty 
of  hi^h  treason,  and  punished  by  the  laws. 
Meantime  societies  of  a  similar  kind  had  been 
formed  in  France,  vith  which  the  Italian  Car- 
bonari amalgamated,  and  Paris  became  the 
headquarters  of  Carbonarism.  The  organiza- 
tion took  on  more  of  a  French  character,  and 
gradually  alienated  the  sympathies  of  the 
Italian  members,  a  number  of  whom  dissolved 
connection  with  it,  in  order  to  form  the  par^ 
of  Young  Italy,  under  Maziini.  Con  suit 
'Uemoirs  of  the  Secret  Societies  of  the  South 
of  Italy,  particularly  the  Carbonari*  (London 
1821);  Cantu,  <II  C^ondliatore  e  i  Carbonari* 
(Milan  1878)  ;  Johnston,  R.  M.,  'Napoleonic 
Empire  in  Southern  Italy,  and  the  Rise  of  the 
Secret  Societies'  (London  1904);  Bandini, 
'Glomali  e  scritti  politici  clandeitini  dell  a 
Caibonaria  Romagnola,  1819-21  >  (Rome 
1908). 


CARBONATES,  salts  of  carbonic  acid 
(HiCC^).  The  carbonates  constitute  a  very  im- 
portant group  of  minerals.  Among  econom- 
ically valuable  minerals  of  this  group  are  ^e 
iron  carbonate,  siderite  (FeCOi),  the  zinc  car- 
bonate, smithsonite  (ZnCOi),  the  basic  copper 
carbonates,  aiurite  (2CuCOtCu(OH),)  and 
malachite  (CuCO..Cu(OH),)  and  the  lead  car- 
bonate, cerussite  (PbCO.).  Among  the  import^ 
ant  rock  formers  are  calcium  carbonate,  cal- 
cite  (CaCOi),  and  the  double  carbonate  of 
lime  and  magnesia,  dolomite  (Ca,Mg)COi. 
Many  other  carbonates  are  known.  See  Min- 
eralogy; Cakbon  Diojcide;  Calcite,  etc. 

CARBONDALE,  111.,  city,  Jackson  County, 
on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  95  miles  south- 
east of  Saint  Louis,  Mo.  In  a  fanning  and 
coal-mining  r«ion,  it  ships  fruit,  flour,  live 
stock  and  coaX,  and  has  numerous  industrial 
plants  manufacturing  railroad  ties,  bottles, 
bricks,  flour,  etc.     Pop.  5,411. 

CARBONDALE,  Pa.,  city  of  Lacka- 
wanna County,  situated  on  the  Lackawanna 
River,  110  miles  north- northwest  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  on  the  Erie,  the  Delaware  &  Hudson 
and  the  New  York,  Ontario  and  Western 
railroads.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  important 
anthracite  coal-&eld,  and  the  principal  industry 
is  mining.  A  variety  of  other  industries  are 
represented,  including  foundries  and  machine 
shops,  car  shops,  metal  working  plants,  glass 
works  and  textile  mills.  The  United  States 
census  of  manufactures  for  1914  recorded  43 
industrial  establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 2,090  persons,  of  whom  1,89?  were  wage 
earners,  receiving  annually  $945,000  in  wages. 
The  capital  invested  aggregated  $2896,000,  and 
the  year's  output  was  valued  at  $3,170,000:  of 
this,  $1,639,000  was  the  value  added  by  manu- 
facture. As  it  is  in  a  mountain  region  with  fine 
scenery,  it  is  also  a  summer  resort.  The  city 
has  a  public  library,  emergency  hospital,  hos- 
pital for  the  criminal  insane,  fine  Federal  build- 
ing, and  a  park  in  the  heart  of  the  citv,  contain- 
ing a  soldiers'  monument.  Settled  in  1824,  it 
was  incorporated  in  1851,  and  has  adopted  the 
commission  form  of  government.  Pop.  (1914) 
18,500. 

CARBONEAR,  kar'bdn-er,  Newfound- 
land, a  port  of  entry  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
iwninsula  separating  Trinity  Bay  from  Concep- 
tioa  Bay,  25  miles  in  a  northwesterly  direction 
from  Samt  John's.    Pop.  3,540. 

CARBONIC  ACID  GAS.  See  Casbok 
Dioxide;  Gases,  Comfbessed. 

CARBONIC  ANH'SISRIDE.  See  Cut- 
nos  Dioxide. 

CARBONIC  OXIDE.    See  Carbon  Moh- 

CARBOMIFBROUS.  the  name  applied  to 
the  (ast  period  of  the  Paleozoic  era,  and  to  the 

?'stem  of  rocks  formed  during  that  period 
he  Carboniferous  has  been  variously  subdi- 
vided, the  following  bein^  the  current  usage  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey: 


I  (coal 


Pennsylva; 
boniferous). 

hTississippian  (suh-Carbonifcrotis 
Carboniferoos). 

Many  geologists  divide   the   Carboniferous 
into  Lower  and  Upper,  but  give  the  Permian 


Upper  Car- 
r  Lower 


Da 


,  Google 


carbomhterods 


the  rank  oi  a  period.    Missiasinpian  an4  Penn- 

alvanian  are  terms  derived  geograpbicaily  in 
e  United  States,  and  are  not  used  abroad.  A 
few  American  geolc^sts  consider  that  they  too 
are  of  the  rank  of  periodsj  and  would  discard 
the  old  term  Carboniferous  altogether. 
Permian  is  derived  from  the  province  of  Perm, 
in  Russia,  and  Carboniferous  from  carbon 
(coal)   in  the  rocks  of  the  system. 

Pftlaogeo^raphy  of  the  Carboniferoua  in 
North  Amencs. —  The  Mississippian  opened 
with  shallow  epicontinental  seas  wiOespreaa  over 
central  United  States  as  at  the  close  of  the 
Devonian  (q.v.).  In  theeast  the  Pocono  and 
Mauch  Chunk  formations  are  largely  terrestrial, 
being  a  great  series  of  delta  and  coastal  plain 
deposits  built  up  at  the  west  edge  of  a  land 
mass.  Old  Appalachia,  which  was  persistent 
through  several  of  the  preceding  periods,  on 
the  site  of  the  present  Piedmont,  Coastal  Plain, 
and  farther  east  into  the  present  Atlantic  Ocean, 
In  the  seas  of  the  great  interior  the  sediments  of 


the  epoch  are  largely  limestone.  At  the  close  of 
the  Mississippian  there  was  widespread  emer- 
gence east  of^fhc  Roclo'  Mountains,  with  fold-; 
ing  in  the  Ouachitas  and  also  in  Europe.  This 
emergence  was  accompanied  by  widespread 
erosion,  and  the  Pennsylvanian  rocks  rest  un- 
conformably  on  the  Mississippian  and  older 
beds.  Throughout  Pennsylvanian  times  most  of 
eastern  United  States  was  low  and  swampy  with 
luxuriant  vegetation,  which  accumulated  and 
was  buried  to  form  coal.  Occasional  submer- 
gences occurred  and  marine  beds  are  inter- 
calated with  coal  seams.  The  marine  beds  are 
more  abundant  in  central  than  in  eastern  United 
States;  and  in  ^c  Rocky  Mountains  and  Great 
Basin  the  sea  persisted  practically  through  the 
epocK  and  the  rocks  are  almost  wholly  marine. 
During  the '  Permian  the  region  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River  was  land,  and  humid  during 
the  early  part  of  the  epoch,  as  shown  by  coat 
beds.  West  of  the  Mississippi  River,  die  land 
gradually  emerged  during  late  Pennsylvanian  and 
early  Permian  and  the  climate  grew  arid.  Great 
salt  lakes  were  extensive  and  beds  of  salt  and 
gj^sum  are  abundant.  At  the  same  time  there 
■were  similar  deserts  in  Germany,  in  which  the 
great  German  salt  deposits  were  formed. 
Strangely  enough,  other  continents,  even  within 
the  torrid  zone,  were  undei^otng  glaciation  at 
the  same  time,  particularly  Africa,  Australia 
and  India.  These  extreme  conditions,  together 
with  the  great  period  of  folding  that  formed 
the  Appalachian  Mountains,  wrought  a  pro- 
found change  in  types  of  plants  and  animals, 
and  brought  to  a  close  not  only  the  Carbon- 
iferous Period,  but  the  Paleozoic  Era  as  well. 

As  the  rocks  laid  down  in  Carboniferous 
time  furnish  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
world's  supply  of  coal,  they  have  been  very 
carefully  stucUed  in  many  diSereot  places  and 
accurately  mapped,  so  that  more  is  known  of 
the  Carboniferous  rocks  than  those  of  any  other 
Paleozoic  system. 

The  Lower  Carboniferous  or  Mississippian 
series,  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Neiv  Brunswick,  is 
made  up  of  thick  beds  of  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone overlaid  by  limestones  containing  masses 
of  gypsum.  The  total  thickness  of  the  series  is 
tjOOO  feet  In  Petutsylvania  the  Lower  Car- 
boniferous series  has  a  total  maximum  thick- 
ness of  4,000  feet  of  sandstone  and  shale. 
Farther  west  the  Lower  Carboniferous  is  rep- 


resented  largely  t^  limestones  Widi  a  ..._ __ 

thickness  of  over  1,200  feet  in  southern  Illinoi) 
In  southwestern  Virginia  are  limestones,  sand- 
stones and  shales  of  Lower  Carboniferous  Age, 
2,000  feet  thick,  and  containing  a  few  workable 
beds  of  coaL  In  the  Rocky  Mountains  the 
Lower  Carboniferous  rocks  are,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, limestones. 

The  rocks  of  the  Upper  Carboniferous  or 
Pennsylvanian  include  the  great  coal  fields  of 
eastern  North  America.  (For  the  ori^n  of 
coat  fields,  see  CoAi.).  Th^  are  sandstones  or 
conglomerfttes,  gHts,  shales,  clays,  limestones 
and  seams  of  coal.  The  total  thidmess  of  the 
Nova  Scotia  coal  measures  is  7,000  feet,  and 
76  distinct  seams  of  coal  are  known.  In  Penn- 
sylvania the  coal  measures  have  a  total  thick- 
ness of  4,000  feet.  In  Michigan  the  coal  meas- 
ures are  about  300  feet  thick;  in  the  eastern 
interior  ^Illinois-Indiana)  field  600  to  1,000 
feet,  and  m  the  western  interior  field  the  thick- 
ness vitries  widely,  rcadiing  a  maximum  in 
Aricansas. 

The  Upper  Carboniferous  rocks  cover  wide 
areas  in  Utah,  Colorado  and  Arizona;  they  also 
occur  in  the  Black  Hills  in  South  Dakota,  and 
in  California,  and  British  Cohunbta.  They  are 
generally  limestones  or  sandUones  and  contain 
no  coal  beds.  The  distinction  between  Upper 
and  Lower  Cari)oniferoiis  is  not  as  sharp  as  in 
the  Mississi|>pi  Valley.  The  total  thickness  of 
the  whole  Carboniferous  series  in  Nevada  and 
Utah  is  about  13,000  fecL 

Carbotdferoua  in  other  Contiiicnts. — 
In  western  Europe  the  Lower  Carboniferous 
limestones  reach  from  Ireland  to  Central  Ger- 
many, with  a  maximum  thickness  in  England  of 
6t00O  feet,  and  are  overlaid  by  coal  measures. 
In  Asia  £he  Chinese  coal  measures  are  of  Upjwr 
Carboniferous.  Age,  and  are  underlaid  by  Lower 
Carboniferous  limestone.  In  South  America 
the  Lower  Cacboaiferous  is  mostly  made  up  of 
sandstones,  and  the  UH>er  of  limestones,  vrith 
very  few  coal  seams. 

Life  of  the  Cwbonifennu.— The  plant- 
life  of  the  Carboniferous  Period  showed  some 
advances  from  the  Devonian.  The  ferns  were 
most  ^undaiit,  some  being  like  tall  trees,  others 
as  small  as  the  maidenhair  fern  of  to-day.  The 
moBt  conspicuous  growths  in  the  Carboniferous 
forests  were  the  Lycopods  or  cluh-mosaes,  now 
represented  bjr  insignificant  forms,  bnt  then 
growing  sometimes  75  feet  or  more  high,  with 
trunks  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  spreading 
branches  ILepidodendron) .  Other  Lycopods 
(Sigillmia)  had  short,  thick  trunks  with  few 
if  any  branches.  Still  another  group,  the  horse- 
tail rushes,  were  of  far  greater  importance  in 
Carboniferous  times  than  now.  Of  these  the 
calamitM,  with  their  tall,  slender  stems,  must 
have  been  oile  of  the  commonest  plant  forms 
of  the  Carboniferous  foresL  No  plant  with  con- 
spicuous fljowers  existed. 

Of  animal  life^  corals  were  abundant;  and 
the  Foramintftra,  especially  Ae  genus  Fms%- 
Una,  becdme  of  importance.  The  extinct  blas- 
toids  were  abundant,  and  the  Carboniferous  is 
the  period  in  which  the  crinoids,  or  sea-lilies, 
reached  their  highest  development  Se».- 
urchins  were  more  plentiful  than  in  the  De~ 
vonian,  but  the  trilobites  were  slowly  dying  out 
Scorpions  were  fairly  abundant,  and  the  first 
true  apiders  appeared.  The  brachiopods  were 
less  abundant  than  in  the  Devonian.     Bivalve 


Digit  zed 


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FOSSILS  OF  THE  CARBONIFEROUS 


T  Rhiiomc  of  SifiUuu  in  Watw 

4  Picopteiis  Cyalbu  S  FiriiaCJon  of  Aonnlula 


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d=,  Google 


CARBONUVROUS  UUBeTOHE-^CAKBUSSTOR 


906 


inoUaika  were  numerous,  anumg  them  being  the 
first  land  shell.  Oi  the  fishei^  the  skarks  weic 
cemukabl)'  developed.  Ainfihilnans,  which 
probablv  existed  in  Devonian,  increased  greatly 
m  Canxiaiferous  time,  but  belonged  to  an 
order  now  extinct,  and  were  of  moaerate  size, 
no  species  being  over  ei^  feet  long,  Consult 
Qumberliu  ana  Salisbury,  'Geoloer  (VoL  II, 
New  York  1907);  Clelani  H. ,  r!  <Geolow, 
Phywcal  and  Historical  (New  York  1916); 
Dana,  'Manual  of  Geotogy'  (New  York  1895)  ; 
Geikie,  'Tent  Book  of  Geology'  (London  1903) 
'Report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey* (1900-01,  part  III).  See  Coal;  Clay; 
GiouiGy. 

Cbarus  Lawobkce  Daki, 
AssistoMt  Professor  of  Geology  and  Mineratogy, 
University  of  Missouri,  School  of  Mints. 
CARBONIFEROUS  LIMESTONE,  or 
MOUNTAIN  LIMESTONE,  certain  limfr- 
stones  of  Lower  Carboniferous  Age,  as  n3.med 
by  Uurchison  and  other  English  geologists.  In 
the  United  States  the  sityer-Tead  ores  of  Lead- 
ville  and  other  Rodcy  Mountain  camps,  and 
the  anc  and  lead  ores  of  southwestern  Mis- 
souri, are  in  limestones  of  Carboniferous  Age. 
See  Cabbonifemus. 


_.     _.   s  characterized  by 

hardness,  and  its  principal  use  is  for  abrasive 
purposes,  as  a  substitute  for  corundum  and 
emery.  It  was  discovered  in  1891  b}'  E.  G. 
Acheson,   and   is   now   manufactured   tn   large 

Quantities  in  the  great  electric  laboratoriei  at 
[iagara  Falls.  The  operation  is  carried  on  in 
a  furnace  in  which  the  bed  and  ends  are  per- 
manent, and  the  side  walls  temporary,  being 
made  up  of  looie  firdirick  for  each  di&rge 
treMed.  The  furnace  is  16  feet  long  and  S 
ieet  wide.  The  ekctnxles  enter  the  Interior 
throng  the  ends.  They  consist  of  chisters  of 
carbon  rods,  interspersed  with  copper  coimec- 
lions.  The  material  used  consists  of  S4J2  parts 
of  sand,  mixed  with  9.9  parti  of  sawdust  and 
1.7  parts  of  common  salt  >>  the  last  acting  ai 
a  flnx.  The  amoimt  of  each  charge  is  about 
30,000  ponnds,  and  this  wdgbt  includes  34.2 
parts  of  coke  brolcee  into  pieces  about  the  siz« 
of  pea  coal.  A  part  of  dte  charge  is  ^read  on 
the  bed  of  the  furnace  so  as  not  to  tonch  the 
electrodes  but  up  to  their  level  In  the  centre 
of  this  is  built  a  core  of  coke  connecting  dn 
electtxides.  The  remainder  of  the  charge  it 
then  heaped  upon  the  core,  the  walls  being  bmh 
up  to  a  height  of  £ve  feel,  and  the  heap  between 
tnem  .reaching  eight  feet  The  current  used  is 
at  the  begioning  of  the  process  165  vtrits  and 
1,700  amperes.  Later  this  is  reduced  to  125 
volts  but  increased  to  ti^OOO  antpercs.  The  ran 
continues  for  36  hours,  duriiK  which  t.OOO 
JborsspDwer  is  e:mndeiL  The  furnace  is  then 
allowed  to  cool  for  two  days,  when  the  walls 
are  torn  down  aad  the  contents  removed.  The 
coke  core  has  been  grapbttiied  by  the  heat,  and 
outside  of  this  is  a  layer  a  foot  thick  of  gra- 
^dtic  carbon.  Next  to  this  layer  is  the  cryi^ 
tallLced  cartorundum,  amounting  to  about 
6^700  pounds,  and  in  addition  -  there  is  about 
5(000  pounds  of  amorphotis  alicon  cartudfl. 
The  carborundum  is  broken  np  in  a  crusher 
and  dK  crashed   material  digested  with  stil- 


phuric  add  for  three  days  at  a  temperature  of 
212°  F.  It  is  then  washed,  and  after  being 
kiln-dried  it  is  graded  by  screens  to  the  sev- 
eral degrees  of  fineness  in  which  it  is  sold 
Carborundum  in  powdered  form  is  placed  on 
the  market  in  considerable  quantities  as  car- 
bide of  NEcon  for  the  introduction  of  silicon 
into  iron,  the  material  being  very  readily  dis- 
solved bv  the  fused  metal.  Since  carborundtun 
is  infusiUe  and  is  only  oxidizable  at  extremely 
high  temperatures  in  a  large  amount  of  free 
oxygen,  it  follows  that  the  temperatures  ordi- 
narily generated  for  smelting  ores  and  metals 
are  much  below  its  point  of  destruction.  Finely 
powdered  carborundum  is  made  up  into  a 
highly  refractory  paste  with  fire  clay,  lime  and 
sodium  silicate,  which  is  applied  by  means  of  a 
-brush  or  otherwise  to  bricks  \^cb  are  intended 
to  be  lued  for  building  a  furnace,  or  the  bricks 
are  actually  immersed  in  the  viscous  liquid  for 
a  certain  time.  If  the  furnace  has  already 
been  built,  the  paste  can  be  painted  on  the  sur- 
faces exposed  to  the  (ire.  It  is  stated  that  a 
coating  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  thick  will  pro- 
tect the  bricks  from  the  attack  of  the  highest 
temperature  that  is  ever  produced  by  combus- 
tion methods  in  ordinary  work. 

RlCHABD  F^sus. 
CARBUNCLE,  a  general  term  used  to 
describe  any  red  garnet  when  cut  en  cabochon, 
Pliny  and  other  early  writers  apparently  an- 
plied  the  name  "carbunculus*  indiscriminately 
to  ruby,  ruby  sinnel  and  garnet  Th»  best 
usage  at  the  present  time  confines  it  to  the 
altnandite  garnet  when  cut  en  cabochon,  that 
is,  with  a  rounded  convex  surface.  Usually 
such  stones  are  hollowed  out  at  the  back  and  a 

E'ece  of  metal  foil  is  inserted  in  order  to 
j;hten  the  otherwise  too  dense  red  color. 
CARBUNCLE,  in  pathology  a  deep  infec- 
tion of  the  subcutaneous  tissues  ty  means 
chieflr  of  the  Stafhylococcut  organisms,  whidi 
are  always  present  in  the  air.  Tliese  infeclions 
take  place  through  minute  cuts  or  the  hair 
follicles  and  are  located  chiefly  in  the  nape  of 
the  neck.  In  addition  to  the  local  discomfort 
graver  constitutional  s^ptoms  such  as  fever, 
headache,  loss  of  appebte  and  loss  of  flesh  are 
preaent  The  local  discomfort  is  apt  to  develop 
mto  deep,  painful  burning  and  throbliing.  Pus 
is  farmed  and  gradually  makes  its  way  to  the 
surface  tbrou^  minute  orifices,  or  die  whole 
area  breaks  down  into  a  slon^ing  ulcer  with  a 
hard,  deep,  angry  centre  called  the  ■core.'  The 
whole  process  may  take  one  or  two  months  be- 
fore complete  recovery  occurs.  The  trcatutent 
is  dietetic^  hygienic  and  surgical. 

CARBURETOR.  An  essential  adjunct  to 
internal  combustion  engines  of  the  explosion 
type,  performing  ti>e  twofold  operation  of 
vaporizing  the  fuel  (gasoHne,  benzol  or  alcohol) 
and  mixing  this  vapor  with  the  proper  propor- 
tion of  Bir  to  form  an  exptosrve  compound. 
The  instrument  consists  of  a  tubular  air-in- 
take into  which  is  projected  the  fuel  tube.  The 
bqind  fuel  is  atamzed  into  a  fine  ipray  by  the 
roth  of  air  past  die  open  mouth  of  the  tube 
throu^  wfaich  the  fuel  is  fed  in  a  constant 
flow  rqnilated  by  a  float  valve  in  a  float  cham- 
ber. The  importance  of  the  delicate  adjtist- 
ment  of  the  carburetor  spears  in  the  fact 
tfaat  upon  the  accurate  admii^ure  of  the  air 
aad  fad  depends  die  smoofli  worldng  of  tbe 


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C  AKC  AQEMTB — CASCHBHUH 


ei]^n&    Ttie  proportion  of  air  to  gasoline  re- 

tuircd  under  ordinary  running  conditions  b 
,400  parts  to  one.  In  starting  a  cold  engine, 
however,  a  larger  percentage  of  ^soline  is 
needed,  and  to  supply  this  an  auxiliary  carbu- 
retor is  sometimes  arranged  to  cut  in  temiM>- 
rarily,  until  the  engine  gets  warm.  Many  varie- 
ties of  the  carburetor  are  in  existence,  but  all 
aT«  the  same  in  principle.  Special  fonns  of 
carburetor  have  been  devised  for  kerosene  and 
other  liquid  fuels,  with  but  partial  success.  See 
AmouoBii^;  Automobile  Ehginb;  Ihtexnai. 
CoiuuSTioN  Engine.  Consult  Bramley,  F.  H., 
'Modem  Csrburctters'(London  1913);  Br«wer, 
R.  W.  A.,  'Carburetion'  (London  1913); 
Browne,  A.  B.,  <Handbo<dc  of  Carburetion' 
(New  York  1916). 

CARCAGBNTB,  kar-kS-hbi'ta,  Spain,- 
town  of  Valencia  province  on  the  nver  Jucar, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Valencia-Muma  and 
Carcagente-Denia  railways.  The  centre  of  a 
region  of  orange,  palm  and  mulberry  trees,  it 
also  cultivates  rice  extensively,  for  which 
climate  and  soil  are  particularly  well  adaptetl, 
and  it  baa  modem  linen  and  silk  mills.  Car- 
raigente  is  of  great  antiquity  with  intereitii^ 
Roman  ruins.     Pop.   12,300. 

CARCANBT,  karTca-nit,  a  jeweled  neck- 
lace or  chain,  an  ornament  referred  to  by 
Shakespeare,  and  by  Tennyson  in  *The  Last 
Tournament.'  Venice  was  famous  for  its 
manufacture  of  carcanets  in  the  .15th  century. 

CARCANO,  kar-ka'nA,  Oiolio,  Italian 
poet:  b.  Milan  1812:  d.  1884.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  tte  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
in  Milan  in  1859,  and  became  a  senator  in  1876. 
He  wrote  a  narrative  poem,  'Ida  delta  Torre,' 
while  a  student  at  Pavia  (1834).  His  next 
work,  'Angiola  Maria'  (1839),  had  extraor- 
dinary success;  it  is  a  deeply  sympathetic  story 
of  Italian  familv  life,  and  is  regarded  as  the 
highest  type  of  that  class  in  Italian.  In  the 
same  vein  is  the  volume  'Simple  Narratives' 
(1843).  He  wrote  also  "Damiano,  the  Story  of 
a  Poor  Family'  and  other  works.  Consult 
Prina.  <Giulio  Carcano'  (1884) ;  and  Riiii's 
preface  in  'Lettere  di  (^ulio  Carcano*  (Milan 
1887). 

CARCAR,  karlcar,  Philit^ines,  a  chy  on 
the  northern  coast  of  the  island  of  Cebu,  situ- 
ated on  the  Bay  of  Carcar,  23  miles  from  the 
city  of  Cebu.  It  is  near  tne  head  of  the  bay 
and  on  the  road  running  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  island.     Pop.  31^5. 

CARCARILLA,  the  bark  of  a  tree  (Cro- 
ton  eteuleria),  of  the  family  E»phorbuKe». 
This  is  a  shrub  of  the  BahamaE  and  now  yields 
most  of  the  cascarilla  of  commerce,  alinouf^ 
in  former  years  other  species  were  used.  It 
contains  tannic  acid,  volatile  oils,  cascarillin,  a 
glycoside  and  some  resin.  In  n>edicine  it  is 
used  as  an  aromatic  bitter  in  combination  with 
other  remedies  for  coostipation,  indigestion 
and  loss  of  appetite. 

CARCASS,  in  military  language,  an  iron 
spherical  case  filled  with  combustible  materials, 
"""''''■■  '  '  a  mortar,  bo«4t2er  i" " 


througfa  which  the  flame  rushes,  firing  every- 
thing withm  its  influence  Carcasses  are  of 
considerable  use  in  bombardments  for  setting 
fitc  to  buildings.  Teasels  \3ing  ■■  harbors,  etc 


They  will  continue  to  bum  for  8  or  1C 
and  are  not  even  octinguishable  by  1 

CARCASSONNE,  kar-ka-sdn',  France, 
capita]  of  the  department  of  Aude,  on  b«>th 
sides  of  the  river  Aude  and  on  a  branch  of  die 
Canal  du  Midi,  53  miles  south  of  Toulonse. 
It  consists  of  an  old  and  a  new  town  which 
eommuntcate  by  a  bridge  of  12  arches  spanning 
the  river.  The  old  town  is  surroundni  by  a 
double  wall,  part  of  it  so  ancient  as  to  be  at- 
tributed to  the  Visigoths,  and  is  defended  by 
a  castle.  Its  streets  are  narrow,  dirty  and  deso- 
late, forming  a  striking  contrast  to  those  of 
the  new  town,  which  is  reeularly  built,  and  has 
many  handsome  modem  houses.  The  princi- 
pal buildings  are  the  restored  cathedral  of 
Saint-Nazaire,  the  courthouse,  the  prefecture 
the  old  market  and  the  churdies  of  Saint 
Michel  and  Saint  Vincent  The  town  con- 
tains a  lyceum,  a  teachers'  college,  a  seminarr, 
a  public  library  and  a  museum.  The  boulevaros 
are  finely  planted.  The  chief  manufacture  is 
that  of  woolen  cloth  which  is  exported  chieflv 
to  the  Levant,  the  Barbary  states  and  South 
America.  Carcassonne  also  manufactures 
paper,  leather,  linen,  soap,  ironware  and  pot- 
tery, and  there  is  also  a  considerable  trade  in 
win^  grain,  brandy,  fruit  and  leather.  The 
whole  department  is  represented  at  its  Novem- 
ber fair.  The  ancient  city,  Carcaso,  in  the 
province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Visigoths  about  72S;  it  was  ruled 
by  viscounts  from  the  lllh  to  the  I3th  century 
and  was  united  to  France  in  1209.  In  124/ 
King  Louis  the  Saint  founded  the  lower  town. 
It  was  pillaged  and  bumed  by  the  Black  Prince 
in  1355,  and  in  1566  a  Huguenot  massacre  took 
place  within  its  walls.  Consult  Fedie,  L.  'His- 
tory of  Carcassonne'   (Carcassonne  1888). 

CARCHEHISH,  karlubn-Ish.  an  andent 
city  on  the  Euphrates,  formerly  thought  to  be 
the  same  as  the  Roman  Ciroesium,  but  now 
more  generally  located  near  Jerabis,  a  village 
on  the  west  bank  of  tfaff  Euphrates.  The 
earliest  known  references  to  Carchemisb  are 
found  in  the  Cuneiform  texts  in  the  Btitidi 
Museum  (II  Bn.  88-5-12,  163;  II  and  88-5- 
1^  19,  8.)  It  was  the  northern  capital  of  the 
Hittitea.  Thotmes  III  met  the  people  of 
Carcbcmiah  in  battle  about  1501-1447  lc 
and  in  ll40-(£  ax. :  it  was  once  captured  by 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.  It  was  mad«  to  pay  tribute 
by  Asuniacirpal  III,  and  Sbalmaneser  III, 
iHiose  artists  ropreeoited  the  famous  fortress 
on  the  walls  of  Balawat,  but  was  not  finaUy 
subdued  by  the  Assyrians  until  takoi  in  717 
B.C.  by  Sargon  II,  who  d^iorted  the  inhabit- 
ants and  settled  Assyrians  in  the  city.  In 
608  B£,  it  was  captured  by  the  Egyptian 
Fitaraoh.  Nedio.  At  this  time  JoHih,  king 
of  Judah,  was  kSIed  (mentioned  in  2  Chron. 
xxxv) ;  but  tbe  city  was  retaken  by  Nebn- 
chadneziar  in  605.  Consult  Rawlinson,  G., 
'The  Five  Great  Monarchies'  (2d  ed.  Vol. 
II,  p.  67)  ;  Kmzi,  'Ricerche  per  lo  studio  dril' 
anticfaiti  Assiia'  (pp.  257ff.  1872);  Maspero, 
<De  Carcbemis  Ceppidi  Situ  et  Historia  An- 
tkjuissima*  (1873) ;  Schrader,  'KeilinschriftcB 
und  Gescbicbtsforschung'  (pp.  221ff.  1878); 
Delitzscb.  <Wo  lag  das  Paradies?'  (pp.  265ff. 
1881),  containing  extracts  from  the  notebooks 
of  (jeorge  Smith;  Hoffmann,  G.,  'Ausiiige  aus 
qvischcn  Aoten  peratsdNr  Martynr'   (p.  163) 


d  6,  Google 


CABCIHOMA— CARD  INDBKINO 


tainien>  (pp.  168f.  1883) :  Uiiller,  W,  ™». 
'Asicn  und  Eoropa'  (p.  2&1  1893) ;  Johns,  in 
Procttdmgs  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Arche- 
ology (p.  141.  1899)  ;  Saisowsilcy.  in  Zeilsekrift 
fur  Astynologit  (pp.  377  se<i.  1911);  Bm- 
linger,  m  Baedekers  'Palestine  atna  Sjrria* 
(1912). 

CARCINOMA.  A  tumor  of  the  epitbe- 
liat-tissue  type.    See  Tuuob. 

CAJtD  INDEXINOf  Comnwicial,  the 
adaptation  of  the  principle  of  the  modem 
library  rard  catalogue  to  the  multifarions  use* 
□f  industrial,  mercantile  and  conunerciat  life 
Following  the  practical  American  development 
and  improvement  of  the  various  Old-World 
principles  and  niles  laid  down  for  the  cata- 
loKuing  of  libraries,  and  the  establishment  after 
1876  of  library  bureaus  for  furnishing  standard 
supplies,  it  was  speedily  recogniced  that  card 
systems  for  facilitating  the  record  of  the  affairs 
of  business  life  and  their  multitudinous  details, 
were  henceforth  to  be  —  as  in  the  case  of  the 
telephony  the  typewriting  machine  and  acces- 
sones  —  indispensable  ad] tuicts  to  die  equip- 
ment of  every  well-appointed  office,  store,  fac- 
tory or  institution  tfaroti^out  the  world. 

The  invention  of  time  and  labor-saving  sys- 
tems and  devices  of  all  kinds  sitecdilj  followed 
and  now,  any  branch  of  any  kind  of  business, 
from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complex,  can  ad- 
vantageously install  and  use  a  card  system,  and 
procure  standard  supplies  of  blank  or  special 
printed  ruled  forms  with  full  information  as 
to  their  application  for  the  keeping  of  accurate 
records  01  all  affairs  in  the  most  practical  way. 

The  development  of  commercial  card  sys- 
tems also  led  naturally  to  a  corresponding  and 
commensurate  growth  of  office  furniture,  fix- 
tures and  accessories  for  their  accommodation, 
which  include:  box  trav  and  drawer  rases  for 
card  indexes;  various  lands  of  folders,  guide^ 
indexes,  storage  and  bindit^  cases  for  vertical 
files;  indexed  transfer  cases  for  flat  files,  elastic 
or  expanding  filing  and  other  cabinets  for  docu- 
ment, check  and  mercantile  reports,  etc. ;  spe- 
cially devised  Stands,  taUes,  desks,  etc 

For  .classifying  work  by  separating  miscel- 
laneous information  —  groujung  information  of 
the  same  kind  together  —  no  other  method  has 
been  found  to  equal  the  card-inde^  system,  the 
impossibility  of  keeping  different  facts  about 
the  same  business  or  profession  recorded  in  a 
boimd  book  with  any  desree  of  sequence  or 
order  being  now  universally  recognised.  The 
card  indexing  s^tem  has  prored  of  especial 
advantage,  and  is  now  extensively  utilized  in 
the  offices  of  government,  state  and  municipal 
departments,  of  railroad,  telegraph,  telephone, 
electric  light,  gas  and  waterwortcs  companies, 
real  estate  and  trust  corporations,  building  and 
loan  associations,  fire,  life  and  accident  insur- 
ance companies,  solicitors'  and  underwriters' 
agencies,  benevolent  societies,  lodges,  banks  and 
other  financial  institutions,  factories,  wholesale 
commercial  and  mail  order  houses,  publishers, 
advertising  agencies,  professional  men,  ckigy- 
men,  lawyers,  physicians,  oculists,  dentists, 
specialists,  etc. 

By  means  of  the  card  index  system,  names, 
facts,  figures  of  an^  description,  recorded  on 
cards  of  uniform  sue,  are  arranged  alphabet- 
ically, numerically,  territorially,  chronologically. 


,    rays 

design.  Various  plans,  ranging  from  simple  .. 
complex,  are  used  for  special  indexing.  All, 
however,  are  transparently  concise  in  arrange- 
ment and  of  facile  adaptation  for  reference. 
The  most  simple  form  of  card-indexing  is  the 
alphabetical- subject  plan  in  which  the  name  is 
indexed  alphabetically  and  the.  subject  indicated 
by  different  tab  cards.  In  territorial  card-in- 
dexes, the  names  are  first  classified  by  stales, 
with  alphabetical  guides  for  each  city  or  com- 
mercial community  in  the  state,  the  cards  bear- 
ing the  records  of  firms  or  individuals  being 
filed  back  of  the  alphabetical  guides.  Chrono^ 
logical  card-indexes  are  divided  into  monthly, 
daily  and  alphabetical  sections,  distinguished  by 
different  colored  cards,  and  back  of  each 
monthly  guide  is  arranged  a  set  of  blank  daily 
guides,  so  that  cards  may  be  filed  in  advance  for 
attention  on  any  day  of^any  month.  Each  card 
with  its  record  has  an  individual  existence  in 
its  rdaiions  to  others  of  the  system,  and  is 
always  to  be  found  in  its  place,  notwithstanding 
the  cumulative  and  expansive  principle  of  the 
index,  which  allows  cards  to  be  added  or  with- 
drawn as  needed.  Guide  or  signal  cards  of 
different  colors  with  projecting  edges  or  tabs 
fadiitale  the  immediate  finding  of  the  card  for 
rapid  reference;  the  liberal  use  of  these  signal 
cards,  carefully  inserted  in  long  Usls  of  the 
same  surnames,  also  obviates  a  considerable 
amount  of  handling  and  saves  time,  labor  and 
the  wear  and  tear  of  the  cards. 

One  of  the  most  ingenious  uses  of  the  card 
system  for  commercial  purpose  is  its  applica- 
tion lo  the  keeping  of  ledgers,  of  which  the 
loose-leaf  ledger  is  an  offshoot  in  the  develop- 
ing process  of  commercial  card- indexing.  The 
card  ledger  does  away  with  the  necessihr  of 
purchasing  books,  ledgers  or  binders  and  ac- 
counts can  be  posted,  checked  up,  trial  bal- 
ance taken  off  and  statements  mailed  in  ap- 
proximately half  the  time  required  for  a  book 
ledger.  Accuracy  is  also  promoted  by  each  card 
representing  one  account  only,  which  can  be 
laid  on  the  sales  sheet  or  other  original  record, 
thus  lessening  the  liability  to  error  in  ^sting. 
Each  account  being  on  a  separate  card  is  easily 
indexed,  and  no  separate  or  cross- index  is 
required;  more  perfect  indexing  is  thus  en- 
sured; as  the  number  of  accounts  increase 
year  by  ^ear,  sets  of  index  cards,  with  as  man^ 
subdivisions  of  the  alphabet  as  desired  to  facili- 
tate quicker  reference,  may  be  substituted  for 
the  original  set  Statements  can  be  taken  off 
promptly  at  the  first  of  the  month,  and  where 
necessary,  several  clerks  can  do  the  billing 
at  the  same  time,  which  is  impossible  with  the 
book  ledger.  Open  accounts  only  are  kept  on 
the  regular  file;  all  closed  accounts  are  removed 
and  indexed  in  a  separate  file,  the  only  practical 
method  of  providing  for  closed  accounts,  which 
can  be  easily  referred  to  as  open  ones.  The 
card  being  removed  from  the  files  when  the 
account  is  closed,  and  replaced  when  opened, 
also  obviates  the  former  necessity  of  trans- 
ferring accomits  from  one  ledger  to  another,  at 
the  end  of  each  year.  Finally  the  card  index 
ledger  can  be  profitably  used  for  mailing  and 
circular  lists.  Modem  business  houses  no 
longer  file  tbeir  correspondence  in  the  old  letter 
boxes.  There  are  various  catd  systems,  bat 
the  primal  schone  is  to  have  a  cahuet  in  place 


:,  Google 


CARDAUIHX  ^  CAltDAUHB 


of  the  separate  pasteboard  letter  boxes.  This 
cabinet  is  divided  into  drawers,  each  deep  and 
wide  enough  to  hold  the  largest  business  letter- 
heads when  standing  in  a  vertical  position. 
The  drawers  themselves  are  divided  into  com- 
partments for  classifying  the  letters  and  sepa- 
rated by  manila  dividers,  between  which  are 
,folders  of  heavy  paper.  Marginal  index  guides 
on  the  dividers  ajfford  a  medianism  for  quickly 
finding  any  name  or  classification  desired.  Sup- 
plementing this  are  various  schemes  iavolving 
different  kinds  of  cabinets  for  cross-indexing 
cards,  by  which  the  subject  matter  of  letters 
or  the  names  of  the  writers  as  well  as  of  the 
firma  from  which  letters  are  received  may  be 
indexed.  Consult  Byles,  B.  B.,  'The  Card 
Index  System'  and  articles  in  System  (Febru- 
ary 1912)  and  Engine ering  Magaeme  (Jnhr 
1913). 

CARDAMINE,  kir'd&-mfn,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  family  Bratsicatea,  containing 
about  60  species  with  a  very  wide  distribution. 
They  are  herbaceous  plants  with  usually  pin- 
nate leaves,  white  or  lilac  flowers  of  the  usual 
cruciferous  type,  and  the  siliquose  fruit  which 
characterizes  a  section  of  the  family.  One  of 
the  best-known  European  and  American 
species    is    the    cuckoo-flower    (C.    praUnsis), 

J  rowing  in  wet  places  from  Vermont  to  New 
ersey,  westward  to  Wisconsin,  and  northward. 
C.  hirsiita  is  a  common  weed  m  eastern  North 
America,  varying  in  size,  according  to  soil, 
from  6  to  18  inches  in  height.  The  leaves 
and  flowers  of  this  species  form  an  agreeable 
salad.  Numerous  other  species  also  occur  in 
North  America. 

CARDAMON,  the  seeds  of  several  species 
of  plants  of  the  family  .^inotb^roce*,  perennial 
plants  growing  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  fruit 
IS  used  as  a  stimulant  and  aromatic  Triangular 
capsules,  from  four  to  five  inches  in  length, 
contain  the  seeds,  which  are  of  a  brown  color, 
a  pleasant,  aromatic  odor  and  a  warm,  pepper- 
like taste.  The  cardamons  known  in  the  shops 
are  produced  by  Amomum  augustifol'wm,_  a 
Madagascar  plant,  and  A.  cardamon,  a  native 
of  Sumatra  and  other  Eastern  islands.  Those 
recognized  in  the  United  States  pharmacoptcia, 
called  true  or  officinal  cardamons,  and  known 
in  commerce  as  Malabar  cardamons,  are  the 

froduce  of  EUttaria  cardamomvm,  a  native  of 
rdia.  The  seeds  of  cardamon  are  widely  em- 
ployed in  medicine  as  the  basis  of  vehicles  for 


t  like  other  volatile  oils  ii 


CARDAN,  or  CARDANO,  GiroUmo, 
Italian  philosopher,  physician  and  mathemati- 
cian: b.  Pavia,  24  Sept.  1501;  d.  Rome,  21 
Sept.  1576.  He  was  educated  from  his  fourth 
year  in  the  house  of  his  father.  At  20  he  went 
to  Pavia  to  cam{4ete  his  studies,  and  after 
two  years  beaan  to  explain  Euclid.  In  1524 
he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at 
Padua  and  spent  the  following  seven  years 
practising  medicine  at  Sacco.  He  was  sub- 
sequently professor  of  mathematics  and  medi- 
cine in  Milan  (1534).  In  1552  he  journeyed 
through  Europe.  He  became  professor  of 
mediane  at  Pavia  and  at  Botosna,  vberv  be 


remained  eight  yesrs.  He  was  forced  to  re- 
sign from  the  university  after  bis  imprison- 
ment on  the  charge  of  teachii^  heretical  doc- 
trines. Pope  Gregory  admitted  him  to  the 
College  of  Ph^cians  at  Rome,  where  be  con- 
tinued until  hi]  death.  His  bio^r^hers  differ 
with  regard  to  his  religious  otHnioas,  but  he 
was  lost  in  cabalistic  dreams  and  paradoxes, 
and  pretended  to  have  a  familiar  demon  from 
whom  he  received  warnings,  etc.  All  this  ex- 
cited the  theologians  against  him,  who  even 
accused  bim  of  ageism,  though  the  charge  Was 
without  foundation.  He  believed  so  implicitly 
in  astrology  that  he  drew  his  own  horoscope 
several  times,  and  ascribed  the  falsehood  of  his 
predictions,  not  to  tfae  uncertainty  of  the  art, 
but  to  his  own  ignorance.  His  two  worla^ 
<De  Subtilitate  Renun>  (ISSI)  and  'De  Varie- 
iate  Rerum'  (1545)  contain  tfae  whole  of  bis 
natural  philosophy  and  metuih>;s)cs.  Cardan 
wrote  also  on  medicine,  and  his  fame  as  a 
physician  was  very  great.  His  highest  claims 
to  the  gratitude  of  the  learned  rest  on  his 
mathematical  discoveries.  Cardan,  it  is  said, 
was  told  that  Tartaglta  had  discovered  the 
solution  of  cubic  equations,  and  obtained  the 
secret  from  him  by  sirat^em  and  under  prom- 
ise of  silence,  but  published  the  method  in 
1545,  in  his  *Ar8  Magna.*    The  honor  of  giving 


hisn 


[.  the 


who  first  made  it  known,  and  it  is  still  called 
the  formula  of  C^dacL  It  il  universally  be- 
lieved that  Cardan  discovered  some  new  cases, 
which  were  not  comprehended  in  the  rule  of 
Tartaglia;  that  he  discovered  the  multiplicity 
of  the  roots  of  the  higher  equations,  and 
finally  the  existence  of  negative  roots,  the  use 
of  which  he  did  not,  however,  understand. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned 
there  remain  also  'Practica  Arithmetics  Uni- 
versalis>  (1539);  'De  Vita  Propria'  and  *De 
Libris  Propriis'  n571-75) ;  'Encomimn  Geo- 
metric' (1S3S) ;  "De  Regula  Aliza,  Exoereton 
Mathematicorum,  Sermo  de  Plus  et  Minus* 
(1540-50).  The  standard  collection  of  Car- 
dan's worics  i*  that  of  Spouus  (Lyons  1663). 
Consult  Morley,  'Jerome  Cardan'  (London 
1854);  Rixner  and  Siber,  'Leben  und  Lehi^ 
meinungen  beruhmter  Physiker  am  Ende  des 
XVI  tmd  am  Anfange  des  XVII  lahrhun- 
derts'  (Sulbach  1820);  Firmiani,  'Girolamo 
Cardano,  la  vita  e  I'opere'  (Naples  1904). 

CARDAUNS,  kar'downs,  Hermaim,  Ger- 
man Catholic  writer :  b.  Cologne,  8  Aug.  1847. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Bonn. 
Munich  and  Gottingen,  lectured  an  history  at 
Bonn  in  1872-76  and  from  1876  to  1907  was 
editor-in-chief  of  the  Koiniicke  V olks»titnng. 
After  1907  he  was  eng^ed  in  literary  work  at 
Bonn.  He  also  served  as  general  secretary 
of  the  Gorresgesellschaft  after  1891;  was  presi- 
dent of  the  German  Catholic  Congress  at 
Mannheim  in  1902.  He  has  published  'IHe 
Reformatione  Bemensi'  (1868);  'Papst  Alex- 
ander IIP  (1874);  'Der  alle  Fuhrmaon> 
(1875);  'CHiraniken  der  Stadt  K51n>  (3  vols., 
1875-78);  'Erzbbchof  Kojirad  von  Hostaden> 
(1880);  'Der  Slurz  Maria  Stuarts'  (18S3); 
'Friedrich  von  Spee'  (1884)  ;  'U.  Stuart, 
156&^  Memoiren  ihres  Sekr.  Q.  Nau> 
(1884);  'Die  Erzahlung  Walters  des  Eri- 
poeten,>  a  novel  (1887;  1699);  'Die  Abcnicuer 
des   Johantica    Reusch.'    novel    (1888;    1908}: 


Digit  zed 


=,  Google 


CARDBOARD — CARDIFF 


oee 


<Dte  Hirchen  □etnens  Brentanos^  (1895); 
'Geschichte  aus  dem  alten  Ko1n>  (1899)  -,  <Der 
Sadtschreiber,'  novel  (1900;  1908);  'Alte  G^^- 
schidite  vom  Riein'  (1901);  <Die  Briefe  der 
Dichterin  Annette  von  Droste-Hulshoff' 
nW9)  ■^  <Di<:  EntdeckuD^  des  Suckiols'  (1909)  ; 
'Funfzig  Jahre  Kolnischer  Volkaieituni* 
(1910) ;  'DcT  Kampf  urn  den  Nordpoi> 
(1910);  <Aus  dem  Leben  eines  deutschen  Re- 
•hiaeurs'  (1912)  ;  'Funfzig  Jahrc  KarteUver- 
band*  (1913);  and  cantributiona  to  newspasers 
and  periodicals.  Since  1S86  he  has  pdited 
ytreini-Gaben  der  GorresgeseUschaft 

CARDBOARD,  a  thick  paper,  or  aggrega- 
tion of  paper  or  paper-stoclc  made  by  pasting 
several  ^eets  of  paper  togetner  and  compress- 
mg  ihe  product  Mtween  rollers.  The  finest 
cardboard,  or  Bristol  board,  such  as  b  used 
for  visiting-cards  and  in  the  arts,  is  so  made 
of  white  paper  only,  the  enamel  being  produced 
by  brushing  China  or  Kremiti  white,  a  fine 
variety  of  white  lead,  over  the  surface,  drying 
and  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  flannel  previously 


four-,  six-  or  eight-sheet  board,  according  to 
the  number  of  layers  of  paper.  A  cheaper 
grade  of  white  cardboard  is  composed  of 
coarse  white  paper  for  the  inner  layers  and  a 
Rner  facing  paper  on  the  outside.  Another 
variety  of  cardboard  is  that  used  by  boxmakers. 
and  b  made  from  coarse  brown  paper  elued 
and  rolled,  and  faced  with  white  or  colored 
paiwr,  or  un faced,  according  to  the  use  to 
which  it  is  to  be  put  A  coarser  grade  yet  is 
known  as  millboard.  This  is  used  by  book- 
tunders  for  the  covers  of  books,  by  boxmakers 
and  for  other  work  in  wbich  strength  is  of 
more  value  than  appearance.  Fine  qualities  of 
millboard  are  aJso  made  to  some  extent    See 

PAPEB, 

CARDBN,   Sib   Uonel   Kdward  Qredcy, 

British  Ambassador:  b.  15  Sei>t.  1S51.  After 
education  at  Eton  College,  he  went  to  Havana 
in  1877  as  vice-consul,  and  in  1883  accomnanted 
Sir  5.  St.  John's  special  mission  to  uexico, 
In  18S5  he  was  appointed  British  consul  in  the 
city  of  Mexico,  and  until  1889  was  British 
commissioner  on  the  Mexican  Mixed  Chiims 
Commission.  From  189B  to  19tG  he  was  con- 
sul-general and  from  1902  to  1905  British 
Minister  to  Cuba.  In  1911  he  was  ap^inted 
Envoy  extraordinary  and  Minister  plempoten- 
tiary  to  the  republics  of  Central  America;  in 
1912  was  created  K.C.M.G. ;  and  in  1913  went 
to  Mexico  as  British  Minister.  His  recognition 
of  the  Hucrta  jovemmcnt  was  regarded  in 
some  quarters  as  indicative  of  an  anti- American 

CASDEN,  Sackrille  Himllton,  British 
admiral:  b.  1857;  entered  the  navy  in  \&Q, 
served  in  the  Egyptian  War  of  1882,  in  Suaktm 
in  1884  and  with  the  Benin  Expecfitton  in  1897. 
After  bidding  various  commands  afloat  and 
ashore  he  became  admiral  HUperintendent  of 
Malta  dockyard  in  1912.  in  the  European  War 
he  commanded  the  British  naval  force  that 
made  the  first  attempt  to  break  throuoh  the 
Dardanelles  in  February  1915,  assisted  b^  a 
French  squadron  nnder  Rear- Admiral  Gu^ 
pratte.  After  operating  for  a  whole  month 
the  great  attack  on  the  Narrows  failed,  with 


a  loss  of  three  battleships  and  more  than  2,000 
men.  The  failure  clearly  demonstrated  that 
ships  alone  could  not  force  the  passage.  Vice- 
Admiral  Garden  was  compelled  by  ill  health  to 
relinquish  his  command  in  March  1915.  See 
Wah.  European  — Dardanelles  CAUfAiGN. 

CXRDBNAS,  kir'di-oas,  Cuba,  a  seaport 
in  the  province  of  Matanias,  situated  on  C&r- 
denas  B^,  due  east  of  Havana  on  the  north 
coast  of  the  island.  It  is  coimected  with  Ha- 
vana by  rail,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  sugar 
and  molasses.  On  U  May  1898  the  Spanish 
shore  batteries  and  gunboats  at  C&rdenas  at- 
tacked the  United  States  vessels  blockading 
the  port  and  in  the  engagement  the  United 
States  torpedo-boat  Wimttow  was  disabled,  and 
Eosigb  Worth  Bagley  (q.v.)  and  four  sailors 
were  killed.     Pop.  32,028; 

CARDI,  ka/d^  Lodovico,  sumamed 
OooLi,  Italian  painter  and  architect:  b,  on  an 
estate  in  the  Amo  Valley  known  as  Castel- 
vecchio,  12  Sept.  1559-  d  Rome,  8  June  1613. 
The  name  hy  which  ne  is  commonly  known, 
Cigoli,  is  that  of  tfie  village  near  his  birth- 
place. He  studied  painting  under  Allori  in 
Florence  and  architecture  mider  Buontalenti, 
who  introduced  him  to  Sante  di  Tito  of  the 
same  city.  His  first  important  work  dates  from 
about  1581 ;  it  is  a  representation,  in  fresco, 
of  (Zhrist  that  ttie  young  artist  made  for  the 
grand  cloister  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  at 
Florence.  His  most  celebrated  picture,  'The 
Lame  Man  Cured,'  which  unfortunately  no 
longer  exists,  formerly  adorned  Saint  Peter's 
at  Rome.  Sacchi  thought  that  it  was  entitled 
to  hold  the  first  place  among  the  pictures  in 
Romt  after  'The  Transfiguration'  of  Raphael 
and  the  'Saint  Jerome*  of  Domenidiino.  His 
'Martyrdom  of  Saint  Stephen,*  executed  for 
the  convent  of  Monte  Domini,  his  'Tobias  the 
An^l,>  in  the  Hermitage  at  Petrograd,  the 
'Saint  Francis,'  in  the  Borghese,  Rome,  his 
own  portrait  in  the  Uffiii,  Florence,  and  'The 
Ffight  into  Egypt,'  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  arc 
aQ  noteworthy.  'His  influence  was  extraor- 
cfinary,"  according  to  Thieroe- Becker,  because 
he  was  the  founder,  in  Florence,  of  the  baroque 
style  as  exemplified  in  painting. 

CARDIA,  the  upper  or  cardiac  orifice  of 
the  stomach,  where  the  gullet  or  ccsophagus 
enters  it,  as  distinguished  from  the  intestinal 
opening  or  the  pylorus. 

CARDIAC  HBDICINB5,  mcdidnes  which 
act  upon  the  heart.    See  Heart. 

CARDIALGIA,  an  intense  pain  over  the 
general  heart  region.  It  is  usually  due  to 
stomach  disturbance,  heartburn,  and  is  often 
accompanied  by  pains  in  the  cesophagus.  Heart- 
burn is  nearly  always  due  to  the  presence  of 
large  amoimta  of  gas,  causing  pressure.  These 
gases  usually  accompany  and  cause  an  in- 
digestion.   See  Heart. 

CARDIFF,  Ira  D„  American  botanist:  b. 
Stark  County,  III,  20  June  1873.  After  study 
at  Knox  College,  at  the  University  of  Chicago 
and  at  Colum^  University  he  was  appointed 
1906-<ff  assistant  professor  of  botany,  and 
1907-OB  professor  at  the  University  of  Utah. 
In  1908  he  became  professor  of  botany  at 
Washburn  College,  Topeka,  Kan.,  and  in  1909 
director  of  the  Washbnm  Summer  Sdlool.   He 


d=,  Google 


600  CAR! 

was  professor  of  botany  in  the  University  of 
Kansas  summer  school  1911-12.  His  contribu- 
tions to  Ptanl  World,  the  Botanical  Gasftle  and 
the  Torrey  Botanical  Clffi  Bulletin  made  him 
well  known  to  fellow  botanists. 

CAROIFF,  Wales  (Welsh^  Caerdydd,  per- 
haps the  fortress  on  the  Taff  but  derivatioa 
uncertain),  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough,  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  dty  (with  the 
title  of  lord  mayor  for  its  chief  ma^strate) 
by  rt^al  charter  iti  1905,  a  seaport  on  the  Bristol 
channel,  the  capital  of  Glamorgan  and  Ae 
larsest  town  in  Wales.  The  dty  is  built  on 
both  banks  of  the  river  Tall,  a  mile  above  its 
junction  with  the  estuary  of  the  Severn  (known 
as  the  Bristol  Qiinnel)  and  extends  to  the 
rivers  Rh^nn  on  the  east  and  EUy  on  the 
west  It  IS  135  miles  west  of  London,  on  the 
Great  Western  main  line  from  London  io  New 
Milford  and  Fishguard  (for  Ireland). 

Geology. —  Almost  every  seological  forma- 
tion from  the  Silurian  up  to  Uie  coal  measures 
is  found  in  the  ring  of  hi^er  ground  sur- 
roundinK  the  plain  of  recent  alluvial  deposits 
on  which  the  city  stands. 

Trade  and  Development. —  The  ra^  in- 
crease of  the  last  half  century  is  due  to  the 
development  of  the  coal  trade  consequent  upon 
the  construction  of  the  Bute  docks.  The  first 
dock,  completed  in  1839,  was  built  by  the  sec- 
ond Marquess  of  Bute,  and  five  great  docks 
have  since  been  constructed  at  a  cost  of 
£5,500^000.  Their  total  water  area  is  over  200 
acres,  and  the  shipments  of  coal  exceed  20,000,- 
000  tons  per  annum.  There  are  also  docks  at 
the  adjoining  ports  of  Penarth  and  Barry.  The 
coal  is  worked  in  collieries  to  the  north  (near- 
est colliery  nine  miles)  and  shipped  at  the  docks 
below  the  city,  which  is  singularly  free  from 
any  evidence  of  the  staple  trade.  The  fine, 
wide  streets,  abundance  of  trees,  freedom  from 
smoke  and  other  evidences  of  progressive ness 
are  a  surprise  to  visitors.  Be^des  the  dock 
operations,  the  most  important  works  are  the 
Cardiff  Dowlais  steel  works,  the  Tharsis  Cop- 
per Works,  numerous  ship  repairing  yards, 
extensive  flour  mills,  biscuit  works,  ice  and  cold 
storage  (with  large  import  trade)'  and  steam 
trawlers  for  the  fishing  industry.  The  import 
trade  has  been  developed  of  late  years  and 
Cardiff  is  now  the  chief  wholesale  centre  for 
supplying  the  teeming  populations  of  the  min- 
ing valleys  of  Glamorgan  and  Monmouth. 

JUilwaya^Tfae  Great  Western  Rjtihvav 
and  its  connections  provide  a  good  and  quick 
service  to  distant  places^  while  the  local  rail- 
ways constructed  primarily  for  mineral  traffic, 
the  Taff  Vale^  Rhymney  and  Barry  respect- 
ively, communicate  with  the  districts  adjacent. 
The  Midland  and  London  and  North  Western 
companies  have  good  depots. 

Government  and  PubHc  Works. —  The 
government  of  the  city  is  vested  in  the  lord 
mayor,  aldermen  and  councillors.  The  oldest 
survivmg  charter,  granted  lometime  before 
1147,  evidences  the  existence  of  ri||^ts  and 
privileges  extending  to  a  much  earlier  time. 
Other  charters  were  given  by  the  feudal  lords, 
and  later  by  the  Crown.  Cardiff  returns  one 
member  to  the  House  of  Commons. 

Pablic  Buildiiigs. —  The  public  buildings 
are  being  grouped  in  a  park  of  50  acres.  The 
town-hall  and  taw  courts  (cost,  £330,000)  are 


mentary  schools  are  modem,  and  efBdently 
e(|uipped  and  administered,  and  special  pro- 
vision IS  made  for  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  and 
defective  children.  Other  public  buildings  in- 
clude the  post-<^ce,  custom-house,  offices  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  and  Mercantile  Marine, 
hospitals,  etc  The  castle,  restored  and  ex- 
tended at  great  cost  by  the  third  Marquess  of 
Bute,  is  maintained  as  one  of  the  residences 
of  his  successors. 

Libnu-ies.!— The  public  libraries  contain 
I56,(X)0  volumes  and  include  the  largest  collec- 
tion of  Welsh  books  and  manuscripts  in  exist- 
ence. The  school  library  system  of  the  city  is 
one  of  the  best  in  existence.  The  museum  and 
art  gallery,  about  to  be  merged  in  the  National 
Museum  of  Wales,  contains  modem  paintings 
and  sculpture;  Swansea,  Nantgarw  and  other 
porcelain,  and  examples  of  pre-Norman  sculp- 
tured stones  and  crosses. 

Churches. —  The  only  ancient  church  is 
Saint  John's  with  a  fine  decorated  tower,  built 


Richard  Nevill,  Earl  of  Warwick  ("the  Idng- 
maker*)  and  mother  of  Ann,  wife  of  Richard 
III.  Tnere  are  numerous  modem  Episcopalian, 
Roman  Catholic  and  Nonconformist  churches. 
The  ancient  cathedral  of  LlandaS  is  just  out- 
side the  city  boundary- 

HiBtory,— The  Romans  had  an  important 
station  here,  extensive  remains  of  their  fortifi- 
cations having  recently  been  discovered  in  the 
castle  grounds.  According  to  tradition,  Cardiff 
was  an  important  place  under  the  Welsh 
princes  before  the  Roman  occupation;  it  was 
certainly  a  stron^old  of  the  Welsh  after  the 
departure  of  the  Romans,  and  was  ravaged  by 
Danes  and  Norsemen.  Alter  die  Norman  con- 
quest the  district  was  subdued  by  Robert  Fiti- 
hamon  and  his  followeri,  who  established  a 
powerful  Marcher  Lordship  with  Cardiff  as 
the  capital.  The  Castle  Keep  was  erected  in- 
side the  Roman  fortificaticMi  b^  the  Hotmaa 
lords.  The  town  and  district  were  io  the 
hands  of  the  feudal  lords  for  centuries,  and 
the  scene  of  several  bitter  contests  between  the 
Welsh  and  their  alien  masters.  Cardiff  was  at 
this  time  surrounded  by  a  hi(|^  and  mas»ve 
wall  and  a  moa^  while  the  casU^  with  its  law 
courts  and  other  appanages  of  feudalism,  was 
a  very  strong;  place,  guarded  by  relays  of 
soldiers  supplied  in  rotation  from  the  fortes 
of  the  under  lords,  who  had  castles  in  the 
surrounding  districts.  The  lordship  reverted 
to  the  Kin^  in  1495  and  was  in  1550  granted, 
stripped  of  Its  feudal  privileges,  to  Sir  William 
Herbert,  afterward  first  Earl  of  Pembroke, 
from  whom  it  has  descended  to  the  Marquess 
of  Bute. 

During  the  civil  war  Cardiff  was  an  im- 
portant centre  of  operations,  and  was  hdd  by 
the  forces  of  the  King  and  of  Cromwell  in 
turn.  It  was  visited  by  Charles  I  in  16*5,  who 
there  sou^t  to  revive  the  loyalb^  of  his  fol- 
lowers, but  with  poor  success.  The  decay  of 
feudalism  stripped  the  town  of  its  importance 
and  it  continued  to  decline  uDtil  the  dawn  of 
the  era  of  coal  and  iron.  Sir  Thomas  Bnttoo, 
the  navigator,  was  a  native  of  Cardiff. 


=,  Google 


CARDIGAN — C  ARDIO  AHSHIRS 


PopulatioD. —  In  1801  the  population  was 
1,870,  and  50  years  later,  18,351.  In  1911  It 
was  182,259. 

Biblio|[T«phy.—  'The  Cardiff  Records*  (6 
vols.,  published  by  the  city  council);  'Cardifi,' 
an  illustrated  handbook,  edited  by  BaDii^r 
(1896). 

John  BAUittGot, 
Librarian  of  the  PMblie  Libraries. 


J  the  daughter  of  Spencer  de  Horsey,  M.P., 
a  notable  man  of  fashion  in  his  day,  and  her 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  Ist  Earl  of 
Stradbroke.  One  of  her  brothers  was  a  gen- 
eral in  the  army,  and  another  an  admiral  in  the 
British  navyj  while  a  son  of  the  latter  is  a  rear- 
admiral.  Miss  de  Horsey  was  highly  educated 
in  several  languages,  ancient  and  modem,  and 
was  reported  an  expert  in  fencing,  riding,  danc- 
ing and  music.  In  1858  she  married  the  Earl 
of  Cardigan  (q.v.),  who  died  in  1868.  She 
married,  secondly,  the  Count  de  LancastrC 
Saldanha,  a  Portuguese  nobleitian,  who  died  In 
1898.  She  was  a  celebrated  beauty  in  her  day, 
and  had  known  Tennyson,  Wellington,  Talley- 
rand, Theodore  Hook  and  Tom  Moore.  In 
1909  she  startled  British  society  circles  with  a 
volume  of  'Recollections,'  a  collection  of  an- 
ecdotes of  prominent  people  she  had  met  in  her 
early  life.  Some  of  the  tales  were  of  a  scan- 
dalous nature  and  not  all  of  them  were  true, 
which  raised  a  storm  of  protest  from  the 
descendants  and  relatives  of  tne  people  referred 
to.  She  was  in  her  91st  vear  when  she  died, 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  old-age  garrulity 
and  confused  memory  were  responsible. 


Oct.  1797 ;  d.  S  May  1868.  He  was  educated  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxforc^  and  was  gazetted  6 
May  1824,  as  comet  in  the  8th  Royal  Irish 
Hussars,  under  the  courtesy  title  of  l.ord  Bru- 

'       "       "■      '-     ■'      ■■■"  1   wealth   in 


a  few  years  he  had  attained  the  rank  of 

major.  Lord  Brudenell  was  next  3  Dec,  1830, 
made  lieutenant -colonel  of  the  I5lh  Hussars. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons 
from  the  period  of  his  coming  of  age  in  1813, 
until  14  Aug,  1837.  when  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  he  became  Earl  of  Cardigan,  After  his 
re^ment  returned  from  India  Lord  Cardigan 
got  himself  into  difBculties  with  the  officers, 
who,  one  by  one,  had  to  sell  out  until  the  feel- 
ing of  the  regiment  broke  into  mutiny  in  what 
was  known  as  the  "black  battle  quarrel*  This 
quarrel  arose  in  1840,  while  Lord  Cardigan's 
regiment  was  stationed  at  Canterbury,  One  of 
his  oflicers,  Captain  Reynolds,  having  caused 
wine  to  be  placed  on  the  table  in  a  ■black  bot- 
tle," Lord  Cardigan  accused  him  of  degrading 
■      the   level   of  a  pothouse._    This 


out  this  privilege  v 


s  withheld  from  him,  : 


misunderstanding  with  another  officer,  also  of 
the  name  of  Reynolds,  had  hardly  subsided, 
when  he  fought  a  duel  with  Capt.  Harvey 
Tuckett  because  diis  officer  had  censured  tus 


conduct  in  the  Mormmg  Chnmiett.  Captain 
Tuckett  was  wounded,  and  Lord  Canaan 
tried  before  the  House  of  Lords,  but,  although 
acquitted,  public  opinion  was  against  him.  His 
reputation,  however,  as  an  accomplished  cav- 
alry officer,  and  the  satisfaction  which  the  Duke 
of  Wellington  expressed  in  1848  with  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  11th  Hussars'  Regimen^  which 
was  under  Lord  Cardi^n's  charge  lea  to  lus 
promotion.  On  the  outbreak  of  toe  Crimean 
War  Lord  Cardigjan  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-geoeral  ana  appointed  brigadier  in  com- 
mand of  the  light  cavalry  brigade.  This  bri- 
gade constituted  the  celebrated  "Six  Hundred,* 
whose  charge  at  Balaklava  will  long_  be  remem- 
bered as  one  of  the  bravest  yet  wildest  feats, 
perhaps,  ever  told  in  the  history  of  war.  On 
that  occasion  (25  Oct  1854),  Lord  Cardigan  is 
said  to  have  received  from  Lord  Lucan,  his 
brother-in-law,  an  order  to  capture  certain  guns 
from  the  Russians,  A  mile  and  a  half  had  to 
be  traversed,  under  fire,  before  the  enemy  could 
be  met,  and  the  Russian  forces  stood  in  formt' 


and  through  the  cavalry,  and  then  back  again, 
under  the  play  of  the  Russian  batteries,  but 
with  fearfully  diminished  numbers,  the  sur- 
vivors not  exceeding  150.  As  the  hero  of  this 
daring  exploit.  Lord  Cardigan  was  received 
with  great  enthusiasm  on  his  return  to  England 
and  appointed  inspector-general  of  the  cavalry. 
'The  charges,  however,  subsequently  alleged  by 
the  Crimean  commissioners,  tended  to  reduce 
the  high  estimate  placed  uijon  his  services.  He 
published  'Cavalry  Brigade  Movements' 
(1861).    See  Cardigan,  Countess  or. 

CARDIGAN,  Wales,  a  seaport  town  and 
municipal  borough,  capital  of  Cardiganshire,  on 
both  banks  of  the  Teili,  about  three  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  42  miles  northwest  of  Carmar- 
then by  rait.  The  most  noteworthy  buildingl 
are  the  ancient  chancel  of  Saint  Mary's  Church, 
a  fine  specimen  of  early  Perpendicular  archi- 
tecture^ the  shire  hall,  Cardigan  county  school, 
etc.  Cardigan  Castle,  originally  built  in  the 
1  Ith  century  and  famous  in  Welsh  history, 
■     at  tne   foot  of  f  '        ' 


__  „  _  _..  Brid^  tile  and  pottery  works  are 
here,  and  two  iron -foundries  are  employed 
chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  agricnitural  im- 
plements. The  salmon  fishery  is '  extensively 
carried  on  in  the  neighborhood,  and  man;  of 
the  male  po^lation  are  engaged  in  the  mercan- 
tile navy.    Pop.  3,57a 

CARDIGANSHIRE,  Wales,  a  maritime 
county,  having  Cardigan  Bay  on  the  west  and 
on  the  land  side  chiefly  Carmarthen,  Brecknocl^ 
Radnor  and  Montgomery;  area  443,189  acres. 
The  northern  and  eastern  parts  are  mount^n- 
ous,  the  southern  and  western  districts  more 
level.  The  soil  in  the  vales  is  chiefly  peat,  ca- 
pable of  growing  either  grain  or  grass,  by  the 
application  of  lime;  the  hi^dier  grounds  consist 


I  light  sandy  loam,  and  the  mountains  are 
composed  chiefly  of  clay-slate.  The  agricul- 
tural produce  is  comparatively  small.     Cattl^ 


wheat  being  grown.    The  lead  n 


.Google 


000 


CARDXNALTISH — C  AKDINALS 


largely,  and  linc  is  obtained  in  several  places. 
The  coast-line  is  long,  and  many  of  the  male 
population  are  sailors  ajid  fisnennen.  The 
pnncipal  towns  are  Cardigan,  the  county  capi- 
tal, Aberystwith,  Lampeter,  Tregaron  and 
Aberaeron.  There  are  manufactures  of  gloves 
and  woolens.  The  county  returns  one  member 
to  Parliament.    Pop.  59,870. 

CARDINAL-PISH,  a  fish  of  the  family 
Cheilodipteridef,  characteriied  by  two  dorsal 
fins,  the  anterior  of  which  consists  of  from  six 
to  nine  spines.  The  anal  fin  is  short  and  has 
only  two  spines.  The  scales  are  large  and  the 
color  is  often  bright  red,  whence  the  name. 
They  are  especially  abtindant  in  the  East  Indian 
seas;  but  several  species  are  found  in  America, 
one  of  which  is  known  as  Icing  of  the  mullets.* 

CASDINAL  FLOWES,  the  name  com- 
monly given  to  Lobelia  cardinaiu,  because  of 
its  large,  very  showy  and  intensely  red  flowers. 
It  is  a  native  of  eastern  North  America,  grow- 
iOK  on  the  muddy  banks  of  streams.  The  stems 
are  two  or  three  feet  high,  the  flowers  in 
racemes.  It  admits  of  cultivation  and  is  much 
prized  abroai^  particularly  in  En^and. 

CARDINAL  GROSBEAK,  or  RZD- 
BIRD,  a  large  sone-bird  (Cardinaiis  cardv- 
nalis)  of  the  finch  family,  very  numerous  in 
the  southern  United  States.  It  migrates  north- 
ward in  spring,  but  never  farther  than  Massa- 
chusetts. It  IS  particularly  distinguished  for 
its  loud,  clear,  sweet  song,  whose  quality  makes 
it  popular  as  a  ca^e-bird.  It  is  a  brilliantly  red 
bir(^  with  a  vermillion  head,  its  bill  surrounded 
with  a  small  band  of  glossy  black,  and  having 
.  the  long  feathers  of  the  crown  erected  into  a 
conical  crest.  The  female  builds  her  nest, 
which  is  made  of  twigs,  grasses,  roots,  etc.,  in 
bushes,  and  frequently  breeds  twice  in  a  sea- 
son, her  bluish,  brown-spotted  eg^s  numbering 
■bout  four.     liiis  bird  is  migratory  only  ' 


ally  passing  the  winter  in  village  gardens  even 
in  New  England. 

CARDINAL  NUMBERS.     See  Algebba. 


the  [ 


:  prime  vertical  circle.  They  coincide  with 
the  lour  cardinal  regions  of  the  heavens,  and 
are,  of  course,  90  degrees  distant  from  each 
other.  The  intermediate  points  are  called  col- 
lateral points.    See  Coufass. 

CARDINAL  VIRTUES,  in  morals,  a 
name  applied  to  those  virtues  to  which  all  the 
rest  are  subordinate,  or  which  comorebend  all 
the  others.  The  distribution  of  tne  virtues, 
which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  this  notion, 
had  its  origin  in  the  old  Grecian  philosophy, 
and  the  same  number  is  found  here  as  in  the 
elements  of  nature.  These  principal  virtues,  as 
enumerated  by  Plato,  are  prudence  temperance, 
fortitude  ano  justice.  The  first  three  seem  to 
relate  to  the  duties  of  man  toward  himself  and 
to  correspond  with  the  triple  division  of  the 
•oul  into  the  intellectual,  the  irrational  (the 
seat  of  the  sensual  desires)  and  the  seat  of 
the  affections.  Justice  either  relates  to  our 
duties  to  others  (God  and  men),  or  is  the 
union  of  the  three  first  virtues.  This  division 
appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  old  Pythagoreans. 


Aristotle  divided  them  still  furdter.  The 
Sttucs,  too,  made  the  same  division  in  th«r 
system  of  morals  and  Gcero  introduced  il  into 
tus  'De  Ofiidis.'  Plotinus  and  many  New 
Platonists  divide  the  virtues  into  four  classes 
—  civil  or  political,  philosophical  or  purifying, 
religious,  and,  lastly,  divine  or  pattern  virtues; 
a  division  coinciding  with  the  rest  of  his  philo- 
sophical views.  In  Roman  Catholic  theological 
S stems,  the  cardinal  virtues  follow  Plalo.  But 
ere  is  a  prior  division  into  theological  and 
moral  virtues,  the  former  being  faith,  hope  and 
charity.  The  imapnation  of  artists  has  rep- 
resented the  cardinal  virtues  under  sensible 
images.  In  modem  times  this  division  is  re- 
garded as  useless  in  treating  of  ethics. 

CARDINAL  VON  WIDDERN,  kar'de- 
nal  foa  vid'dem,  Georg,  German  military  his- 
torian: b.  Wollstein,  12  April  1841.  He  en- 
tered the  army  in  1859;  was  engaged  in  the  war 
of  1866  and  the  Franco-Prussian  War;  and  was 
professor  of  the  military  school  at  Neisse-  He 
retired  in  1890  and  has  since  lived  in  Berlin. 
He  wrote  'Der  Khein  und  die  Rheinfeldziige' 
(1869);  'Bclgien.  Nordfrankreich,  der  Nieder- 
rheia  und  Holland  als  Kriegsfeld* ;  'Die  Russis- 
chen  Kavallerie-divisionen  und  die  Armeeopera- 
tionea  im  Balkan feldzuge'  (1878);  <Das  76 
Armeekorps  und  die  7  Kavallerie-di vision  wah- 
rend  ihrer  Kelfaslandigen  Operationen  im  Mosel- 
feldius  bei  Meti>  (1886);  'Das  Gefecht  an 
Flussiioergangen,  und  der  Kampf  an  Flussli- 
nien'  (I^) ;  'Kritische  Tagc>  (1900);  'Ver- 
wendung  und  Fiihrung  der  Kavallerie  1870-71' 
<1903) ;  ' Eroberungsziige  der  Polen  im  heuti- 
gen  Deutschland'    (!912>. 

CARDINALS,  CoUege  of,  an  ecclesias- 
tical body  consisting  of  the  highest  dignitaries 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  name  car- 
dinal is  applied  to  one  of  the  principal  advisers 
of  the  Supreme  Pontiif  as  it  is  to  the  principal 
virtues  or  to  the  four  points  of  the  compass; 
etymologically  cardinal  is   from   cardo,  hinge, 

{ivot,  tenon,  point  around  which  anything  turns, 
n  the  Uth  century  the  term  cardinal  appears 
to  have  come  into  use  to  desienate  the  'bish- 
ops collateral  to  the  Pope,*  tnosc  whose  sees 
are  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome,  and  to  the 
clergy  of  the  principal  churches,  parishes  or 
(idirt  of  the  city;  but  probably  cardinalis  was 
at  first  said  of  a  principal  church  rather  than  of 
its  ministers.  Nor  was  the  term  cardinal  at 
first  restricted  to  designation  of  churches  and 
their  clergy  in  Rome  and  its  viciniiy;  for  a 
long  time,  even  down  to  1585,  dale  of  (he  bull 
Pustqitam  of  Sixtus  V,  which  forbade  the  ap- 
plication of  the  term  to  any  but  members  of 
the  sacred  college,  it  was  customary  to  call 
the  ecclesiastics  attached  to  mother-churches 
or  to  all  cathedrals  even,  cardinales.  The  use 
of  the  word  cardo  or  its  equivalent  to  express 
the  relation  of  a  bishop  to  his  clergy  and  peo- 
ple is  very  ancient :  Saint  Ignatius,  bishop  of 
Antioch  (d.  about  202),  speaks  of  the  bisboa 
of  a  church  as  the  pivot  on  which  it  tumc<L 
Till  the  issuance  of  the  bull  Postquam  the  title 
of  cardinals  was  currently  bestowed,  but  not 
by  authority  from  the  centre,  upon  the  clergy 
of  cathedral  chapters  in  countries  beyond  the 
Alps,  as  those  of  the  sees  of  Bourges,  Metz, 
Cologne^  CompQStella  and  other  cities  in  Ger- 
many, Spain  and  France;  even  in  Italy  the 
same  usage  was  common;  for  it  was  witti  the 


:,  Google 


CARDII|0--:CARI>OON 


name  Cardinaiit  as  with  the  naiac  Ptipa:  th^ 
both  wei«  oiigiiiBlly  applied  to  church  digm- 
Uries,  to  pastors  and  Church  ofhcat  ecneiauyj 
later  their  appttcatioD  was  restricted^ 

Ever  since  the  reign  of  Nicholas  II  the  car* 
dinals  have  possessed  the  privileee  of  electing 
the  Pope.  The  decree  of  Pope  Nicholas  (1059) 
provides  that  on  the  death  of  the  Po^  the 
cardinal-bishops  shall  assemble  in.conncil  and 
then  the  rest  of  the  sacred  college  shall  join 
them.  In  naming  the  Pope  the  college  must 
lake  into  account  the  choice  of  the  dcrgr  and 
peoftle;  only  in  case  no  Roman  priest  is  found 
eligible  in  evcty  way,  shall  the  choice  fall  upon 
one  that  is  not  a  Roman.  In  the  12th  centuiv 
the  sacred  college  comprised  seven  cardinal- 
bishops  of  the  ^suburbicarian"  churches,  Ostia. 
Rufina,  Porto,  Albano,  Tusculum,  Sabina  and 
Palestrina;  [he  cardinal-priests  were  28,  and 
were  the  rectors  of  as  many  churches  in  the 
city;  there  were  IS  cardinal- deacons,  of  whom 
14  belonged  to  the  clerical  staff  of  diurches  in 
the  city  and  4  to  the  papal  court  or  household. 
The  members  of   the   sacred  college 


churches  or  parishes.  And,  like  other  Church 
□tlices  and  Church  dignities,  the  cardinalate  be- 
came an  object  of  ambition  or  of  cupidity; 
Kpes  bestowed  the  honor,  princes  and  popes 
stowed  the  di^^ity  and  the  emoluments  of 
episcopal  and  primatial  sees,  with  the  cardi- 
nalate annexed  upon  minors  and  infants  j  thus, 
John  de  Medici  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate 
at  the  age  of  14  years,  being  already  vested 
with  a  number  of  higtiest  Oiurch  aignities; 
and  as  late  as  1740  a  prince  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon  was  archbishop  of  Toledo  and  cardinal 
at  the  age  of  eigtit  years. 

According  to  the  present  constitution  of  the 
sacred  college  that  body  consists  of  70  mem- 
bers—thougli  very  rarely  indeed,  if  ever,  are 
all  the  places  filled.  Of  the  70  six  are  cardinal- 
bishops,  and  they  are  the  ordinaries  of  sees  in 
the  nei^borhood  of  Rome;  50  cardinal-priesta 
and  14  cardinal- deacons.  In  1916  the  cardinal- 
lushops  numbered  4,  all  Italians;  the  cardinal- 
priests  4S,  and  of  these  5  were  Spaniards,  5 
were  Frenchmen,  2  German,  1  Bel^an,  3  Amer- 
ican, 3  British  and  Irish,  3  Auslrians,  2  Hun- 
garians, 1  Bohemian,  1  Portuguese,  1  Cana- 
dian, 1  Brazilian;  the  rest  were  Italians.  There 
were  S  cardinal- deacons,  among  them  1  Dutch, 
I  German ;  the  rest  were  Italians. 

The  scarlet  hat  is  distinctive  of  the  cardinal- 
itial  dignity,  and  above  the  double  cross  in  the 
arms  of  the  archbishop  who  is  a  cardinal  is  the 
figure  of  the  scarlet  hat  with  its  tasseled  pend- 
ants. The  gown  of  the  cardinal  is  scarlet  (pur- 
fura,  commonly  rendered  pur^e,  but  our  'pur- 
ple* in  the  language  of  the  litiral  is  violet, 
violactua).  Hence  "to  receive  the  hat'  means 
to  be  made  a  cardinal ;  and  to  aspire  to  the 

Eirplc  is  to  aim  at  the  cardinaliual  dignity, 
tiquette  requires  that  a  cardinal  be  addressed 
as  Eminence;  in  English  usually  "your  Emi- 
nence,* and  every  cardinal  is  tminentUsinmt. 
A  bishop  or  archbishop  who  is  a  cardinal  uses 
such  a  formula  as  the  following  in  official  in- 
itruments  (the  example  is  taken  from  the  ap- 
probation of  a  book  Iv  aif  archbishop  of  Uech- 
lin  or  Malines  in  Belgium)  : 

■Engelbert,  by  the  divine  mercy,  cardinal- 


priest  of  the  holy  Roman  Church,  of  the  title 
of  Saint  Bartholomew  in  the  Island,  archbisnoi) 
of  Mechlin,  primate  of  Belgium,*  etc 

CAKDING,  the  process  which  wool,  cot- 
ton, flax,  etc.,  are  made  to  undergo  previous  to 
■piiming,  to  lay  the  fibres  all  in  one  direction 
and  to  remove  all  foreign  substances.  The  card 
formerly  consisted  of  a  niunbcr  of  iron  teeth 
arranged  in  a  piece  of  leather  of  various 
lengths  and  the  material  was  combed  by  hand. 
For  many  years  this  work  has  been  done  by 
machinery,  invonted  in  1738  by  Lewis  Paul,  a 
Birminf^um  mechanic  The  cards  have  fin^ 
long  teeth  fixed  on  leather  strips  called 
card-cIothiDg,  which  are  arranged  on  a  series 
of  cylinders  so  placed  that  the  material  is 
carried  from  one  to  another,  until  runoved  tqr 
still  another  and  much  smaller  cylinder  called 
the  doffer,  from  which  it  is  stripped  bv  a  mov- 
ing coml^  and  tlien  by  a  series  of  rolls  is  de* 
livered  in  the  form  of  a  ribbon  into  a  can, 
when  it  is  ready  for  the  drawing-frame,  on 
which  it  is  prepared  for  spinning.  Consult 
Murphy.  'The  Textile  Industry'  (Vol.  II,  Lon- 
don 1912). 


chords  from  a  single  ^tAat  of  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  circle,  prrdongin^  each  beyond  (he 
further  crossing  of  the  circumference  to  a 
distance  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle 
and  joining  the  free  ends  by  a  smooth  curve. 
It  is  a  special  case  of  the  lima^on,  in  which 
the  extension  of  the  chords  is  of  any  uniform 
length,  llie  Umagon  was  invented  by  Pascal, 
early  in  the  tStfa  century. 

CAKDmS,  kar-dftls,  an  inflammation  of 
the  heart.  The  word  is  not  now  used,  since 
more  delinite  terms  are  accessible  to  designate 
particular  types  of  inflammation.  Thus  myo^ 
carditis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  heart  mils' 
cle,  endocarditis,  of  the  lining  membrane, 
the  endocardium;  pericarditis,  of  the  external 
membrane,  the  pericardium. 

CARDONA,  kar-dd'na,  Spain,  town  in  the 
province  of  Barcelona,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Cardoner,  50  miles  north-northwest  of  Bar- 
celona. It  is  a  picturesque  town  of  great  an- 
tiquity, surrounded  by  Moorish  walls  and  cas- 
tle, and  a  church  dating  from  the  14th  cen- 
tury. In  its  vicinity  is  a  hill  of  rock  sah  265 
feet  high  and  three  miles  in  circumference, 
which  affords  inexhaustible  supplies  of  salt 
Pop.  4,002- 

CARIX>ON,  a  garden  vegetable  {Cynara 
eardunculus) ,  of  the  natural  order  Combosilce. 
It  so  closelv  resembles  the  artichoke  {Cynara 
icoly'tnusy  tnat  some  botanists  consider  the  two 
species  merel}-  as  horticultural  varieties.  The 
plant,  which  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe 
and  the  northern  part  of  Africa  b  a  thistle- 
like, tender  perenmal  which  is  cultivated  as  an 
annual.  Seed  is  usually  sown  in  spring  in  a 
hotbed-  the  young  plants  are  transplanted  to 
the  rich  soil  of  the  garden  about  four  feet 
apart  each  way  and  kept  cleanly  cultivated  until 
the  leaves  are  nearly  full  grown,  when  the 
plant  is  tied  up,  covered  with  straw  and  earth, 
to  blanch  for  two  or  more  weeks.  The  thick 
teaf-statks  and  the  mid-ribs  are  the  parts  de- 
sired. In  America  the  plant  is  not  very  popular 
except  with  the  foreign  population. 


d=,  Google 


eo4 


CARDS,  pieces  of  cardboard,  oblong  In 
shape,  beann^  certain  figures  and  spots;  spe- 
cifically, playing-cards  used  in  various  games 
of  chance  and  skill.  Playing-cards  are  prob- 
ably an  invention  of  the  East,  and  some  assert 
that  the  Arabs  or  Saracens  learned  the  use  of 
cards  from  the  ^pstes  and  spread  them  in 
Europe.  The  Chinese  dictionary  'Ching-tze- 
tung*  (1678)  states  that  they  were  invented 
for  the  amusement  of  S£un-ho's  concubines  in 
the  year  1120  a.d.  The  course  that  card-play- 
ing took  in  its  diffusion  through  Europe 
shows  that  it  must  have  come  from  the  East, 
for  it  was  found  in  the  eastern  and  southern 
countries  before  it  was  in  the  western.  The 
historical  traces  of  the  use  of  cards  are  found 
earliest  in  Italy,  then  in  Germany,  France  and 
Spain.  The  first  cards  were  pamted,  and  the 
Italian  cards  of  1299  ara  found  to  have  been 
so.  The  art  of  printing  cards  was  discovered 
by  the  Germans  between  13S0  and  1360.  The 
Germans  have,  moreover,  made  maiw  changes 
in  cards,  both  in  the  figures  and  the  names. 
The  LanEknechtsspiel,  which  is  re^rded  as  the 
first  German  game  with  cards,  is  a  German 
inventioa  Of  this  game  we  find  an  imitation 
in  France,  in  1392,  under  the  name  of  lans- 
i^uene^  which  continued  to  b«  played  there 
till  the  time  of  Moli^re  and  Regnard,  and  per- 
haps still  longer.  The  first  certain  trace  of 
card-playing  in  France  occurs  in  the  year  1361, 
and  Charles  VI  is  said  to  have  amused  him- 
self with  it  duringhis  sickness  at  the  end  of 
the  14th  century.  The  modern  figures  are  said 
to  have  been  invented  in  France  between  1430 
and  1461.  It  has  been  said  that  cards  were 
known  in  Spain  as  earljr  as  1332;  but  what  is 
certain  is  that  card-playins  must  have  become 
prevalent  in  the  course  of  the  century,  seeing  it 
was  prohibited  by  the  King  of  CastHe,  John  I, 
in  1387.  Mr.  De  la  Rue,  the  most  extensive 
manufacturer  of  cards  in  England,  obtained  in 
1832  a  patent  for  various  improvements  in  man- 
ufacture. The  figures  on  cards  had  been  gen- 
erally produced  by  the  outlines  first  being 
printed  from  copper  plates,  and  the  colors  then 
filled  by  stenciinng.  Mr.  De  la  Rue's  process 
was  to  print  them  from  colored  types  or  blocks 
exactly  in  the  same  way  as  calico-printing,  but 
all  the  colors  being  in  oil. 

As  early  as  the  15th  century  an  active  trade 
in  cards  sprung  up  in  Germany,  and  was  chiefly 
carried  on  at  Nuremberg,  Augsburg  and  Ulm, 
the  demand  from  France.  England,  Italy,  Spain 
and  other  countries  proaucing  great  prosperity 
among  the  manufacturers.  In  England  the 
manuiaciure  of  cards  flourished  especially  under 
Elizabeth.  But  no  sooner  had  cards  come  to 
be  generally  used  in  Europe,  than  they  were 
prohibited  by  several  governments,  partly  from 
moral  considerations,  the  first  ^mes  being 
games  of  chance;  partly  from  considerations  of 
political  economy,  as  in  England,  where  the  im- 
portation of  foreign  cards  was  considered  in- 
jurious to  the  prosperity  of  home  manufactur- 
ers. The  prohibition,  howesrer,  only  tended  to 
increase  the  taste  for  cards.  In  England,  under 
Richard  III  and  Henry  VII,  card-playing  grew 
in  favor.  The  latter  monarch  was  very  fond 
of  the  game,  and  his  daughter  Margaret  was 
found  playing  cards  by  James  IV  of  Scotland, 
when  he  came  to  woo  her.  The  popularity 
which  cards  gradoally  obtained  in  England  may 


be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  political  pam- 
idilets  under  the  name  of  'Bloody  Games  of 
Cards,*  and  kindred  titles,  appeared  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  dvil  war  against  Charles  1. 
One  of  the  most  striking  publii;ations  of  thit 
kind  was  one  in  1660  on  the  royal  game  of 
ombre.  Pepys,  in  his  'Diary,'  under  the  date 
of  17  Feb.  l667,  states  that  on  Sabbath  evenings 
he  found  "tbc  Queene,  the  Ducfaesse  of  Yoik, 
and  another  or  two,  at  cards,  with  the  rooms 
full  of  ladies  and  great  meo." 

The  modem  padt  of  cards,  used  in  most  of 
the  familiar  games,  is  52  in  number,  containing 
four  suits;  clubs  and  spades  (black)  and  hrartj 
and  diamonds  (red).  Thirteen  cards  compose 
■',  consistihK  of  king,  queen,  knave  or  jack. 


tended  for  symbolical  representations  < 
four  great  classes  of  men,  and  the  names  at- 
tached to  these  figures  in  England  arose  from 
a  misapprehension  of  the  names  origiitally  as- 
signed to  them.  Thus,  by  the  hearts  are  mrant 
the  gens  de  cfaceur  (coeur),  the  choir-men  or 
ecclesiastics,  and  hence  these  are  called  copas, 
or  chalices,  by  the  Spaniards,  whose  word 
espada,  sword,  indicating  the  nobility  and  war- 
riors of  the  state,  has  been  corrupted  into  the 
English  spade.  The  clubs  were  originally  tre- 
fles  (trefoil  leaves),  and  denoted  the  peasantry; 
while  the  citizens  and  merchants  were  marked 
by  the  diamonds  (carreaux,  square  tiles).  The 
word  knave  (German,  knab,  boy),  was  used,  of 
course  in  its  older  sense  of  servant,  or  attend- 
ant on  the  knights.  The  natural  rank  of  the 
cards  in  each  suit  is,  king  highest,  and  so  oa 
down  to  ace  lowest ;  but  in  many  games  this 
rank  is  varied,  as  in  whist,  where  the  ace  is  pal 
highest  of  all,  above  the  king;  in  tcArti,  where 
it  is  put  between  the  knave  and  the  10;  and  in 
bteque,  where  it  is  made  the  highest,  but  where 
thfc  10  is  put  between  it  and  the  kin^;  in  qia- 
drilte,  the  rank  of  some  of  the  cards  is  variable 
in  every  hand.  Sometimes  the  pack  of  cards  is 
reduced  to  32,  by  excluding  the  six,  five,  four 
three  and  two  of  each  suit;  it  is  then  called 
a  'piquet  pack.*  An  immense  variety  of  games 
may  be  played  with  cards,  some  involving 
chance  only,  others  combining  chance  and  skill, 
the  best  furnishing  intellectual  amusement. 
There  are  round  ^mes,  in  which  any  number 
of  persons  may  join,  as  poker,  hearts,  loo,  etc.; 
games  for  four  persons,  as  whist,  in  its  differ- 
ent forms,  and  euchre;  for  two,  as  piquet, 
£cart^  b^iqUGj  cribbage  and  pinochle,  closely 
resembling  b^ique,  and  at  present  .much  played 
in  the  United  states;  and  there  is  one  game, 
solitaire,  played  in  many  ways,  at  which  a  sin- 
gle person  often  finds  both  restful  diversion 
and  pleasant  occiipatioa  for  the  mind. 

Consult  Singer,  'Researches  into  the  History 
of  Playing  Cards'  (London  1816);  Cliatto, 
'Origin  and  History  of  Pbying  Cards'  (Lon- 
don 1848);  Willshirc,  'Descriptive  Catalogne 
of  Playing  and  Other  Cards  in  the  British 
Museum'  (London  1876):  Taylor,  *The  His- 
tory of  Playing  Cards'  (London  1848);  Mer- 
lin. R.,  <Origine  des  cartes  i  jouer'  (Paris 
1869);  Van  Rensselaer,  'The  Devil's  Picture 
Books'  (New  York  1890);  id.,  <Propheticfil, 
Educational  and  Playing  Cards'  (Philadelphia 
1912)  ;  Jessel,  <Bibriography  of  Works  to  Eng- 


d=y  Google 


HA  on  Plying  Cards  and  Gasibling*  (Lon- 
don 1905) ;  lyAUemagne,  'Les  cartes  i  jouer> 
(Paris  1906),  a  very  detailed  account 

CASDUCCI,  kar-doo'che,  Giosue,  Italian 

r:t:  b.  Valdicastelio.  Tuscany,  27  July  1835: 
Bologna,  15  Feb,  1907.  During  his  boyhood 
which  was  spent  in  Tuscany,  his  father,  a  dis- 
Mpated,  hot-headed  doctor,  was  his  only 
teacher.  An  ardent  admirer  of  Manzoni,  Latin 
literature  and  the  French  Revolution,  he  in- 
spired bis  son  with  his  own  love  of  literature 
tfius  giving  h'm  early  those  ideas  and  senti- 
ments that  were,  later  on,  to  make  him  one 
of  the  great  leaders  of  his  country,  and  the 
mosl  distinctive  Italian  innovator  in  literature 
of  all  time.  '1  Promessi  Sposi'  the  boy  read 
and  re-read  until  the  characters  of  Manzoni's 
great  work  became  living,  breathing  human 
beings  to  hb  viTid  bojKsh  imagination.  'CJeni- 
salemme  Liberata,'  RolHn's  'History  of  Rome,* 
TTiters'  'History  of  France,'  the  "Iliad'  and 
the  *^neid*  were  also  his  constant  compan- 
ions. In  1849  Dr.  Carducd,  owing  to  his  revo- 
lutionary sympathies,  was  forced  to  take  refuge 
in  Florence,  together  with  his  family;  and 
there  Giosue  was  sent  to  school,  where  he 
proved  an  excellent  student  and  inddentally 
read  the  works  of  the  foremost  French,  Ger- 
man, Italian  and  English  writers.  His  youthful 
poems  attracted  the  attention  of  the  rector  of 
the  Normal  School  at  Pisa,  then  attached  to 
the  university,  and  he  was  admitted  to  this  in- 
stitution, receiving  board  and  tuition  free.  He 
worked  with  furious  energy,  read  omnivorously, 
wrote  for  the  press  and  compiled  an  anthology 
of  poetry.  Graduating  from  the  Normal 
School  in  1856  he  became  teacher  in  the  San 
Miniato  Lycie,  which  he  was  forced  to  leave 
the  following  year  on  account  of  his  liberal 
tendencies.  In  1857  his  first  volume  of  poems 
appeared  under  the  title  of  'Rime.'  He  went 
to  Florence  with  the  intention  of  making  litera- 
ture his  life  work,  but  the  suicide  of  his  brother 
Dante  and  the  death  of  his  father  in  1858 
tlirew  upon  him  the  sui>port  of  the  family. 
Then  began  a  kmg  and  bitter  struggle  against 
poverty.  He  wrote  for  magazines,  tutored 
and  lived,  with  the  family,  in  a  small,  ill-fur- 
nished  garret.  For  the  Edition*  Diamante  be 
wrote  articles  covering  almost  every  imagi- 
nable subject,  and  CTcrything  he  did  with  the 
utmost  care,  deroting  bis  days  and  nights  to 
research ;  so  that  his  work  ever  exhilnted  the 
ear-marks  of  the  scholar.  During  his  10  years 
-with  the  Editiont  he  produced  literary  mate- 
ria] suilicient  in  volume  and  quality  for  the  life 
work  of  most  men.  In  18S9,  after  10  years'  en- 
gagement, Carducct  married  his  cousin,  Elvira 
Minicucci.  The  war  with  Austria,  which 
broke  out  in  the  same  year,  inspired  his  poetic 
muse,  and  he  began  contributing  stirring  poetic 


radical  enthusiasm  and  authority.  His 
to  'Vittorio  Emanuele'  and  'Alia  Crocne  di 
Savta*  received  enthusiastic  welcome,  and  the 
latter  was  set  to  music,  sung  in  die  theatres, 
recited  in  the  schools  and  salons,  whistled  on 
^e  streets  and  repeated  among  the  hosts  of  the 
army  of  hberty.  Orducct  was  appointed  pro* 
fessor  of  Greek  in  the  Lycie  of  Fistola,  a  posi- 
tion he  resided  in  a  few  months  to  accept  the 
profetsorship  of    literature  in   the  University 


of  Bologna  whidi  he  was  destinsd  to  hold  for 
44  years.  He  continued  working  with  the  same 
prodigious  energy,  writing  poetry  and  prose, 
editing  works  £or  the  pubushing  house,  prepar- 
ing university  lectures  and  making  extensive 
researches.  His  earoestneas,  brilliant  imagery, 
strong  originalitjr  and  oratorical  powers  at- 
tracted to  his  classes  studoits  from  all  over 
Italy  and,  later,  from  all  over  Europe,  and  Car- 
ducd became  a  name  to  conjure  by.  His  grad- 
uated students  formed  Carducci  sodelLes  for 
tbe  propagation  of  his  ideas  round  which  the 
literary  battle  of  the  century  in  Italy  had  al- 
ready begun.  Never  before  bad  such  lectures 
on  hteralurc  been  given  in  any  university  in 
Italy  as  Carducci  furnished  in  Ms  conferences 
Ml  the  'Dcvdopment  of  the  National  Litera- 
ture' and  its  relation  to  the  social  history  of 
tbe  Italian  people  from  the  earliest  days  to  his 
own  time.  In  them  be  became  the  prophet  of 
Italy  whose  glorious  past  he  depicted  as  it  had 
never  before  been  painted.  In  her  he  saw 
Rome  living  over  again  in  all  the  majesty  and 
ploty  of  Roman  tradition.  His  intense  patriot- 
ism brought  all  liberal,  ^ro^ssive  Italy  to  his 
feet,  and  his  ardent  admiration  of  ancient  Italy 
and  Rome  revived  the  "glorious  p^anistn*  of 
classical  days.  He  attacked  bitterly  the  liter- 
ary, political  and  artistic  views  then  generally 
accepted  in  Italy;  and  the  more  the  battle  raged 
the  lar^r  grew  his  dasses  and  his  followers 
which  induded  most  of  the  younger  generation. 
He  fought  tbe  suzerainty  o£  Austria  over. 
Italy,  tbe  temporal  power  of  the  Catholic 
Church  and  the  apathy  of  Italy  herself.  In 
turning  away  from  Romanism  he  set  bis  face 
against  Christianity,  as  he  knew  it  in  Italy,  and 


showed  itsdf  in  his  <Ode  to  Satan'  (1865), 
the  'immortal  foe  of  autocracy  and  the  ban- 
ner-bearer of  the  great  reformers  and  inno- 
vators in  all  ages.'  In  'Giambi  ed  Epodi'  he 
struck  a  new  and  passionate  note  that  roused 
all  Jtaly  and  finally  led  to  bis  .suspension  from 
his  classes  in  the  university  (1868-70).  'Nuovc 
Poesie>  (1873),  a  collection  of  44  new'  poems, 
added  very  greatly  to  bis  reputation  at  home 
and  abroad  and  made  bis  position  secure.  The 
'Odi  Barbare'  (1877)  had  still  greater  success, 
the  first  edition  being  sold  out  in  a  few  weeks. 
In  these  he  discard  rhymes  and  adopts  the 
various  metres  of  Horace  with  success,  in 
lyrics  of  great  beauty,  force  and  originality- 

Gradually,  in  his  later  days,  Carducci,  tiie 
ardent  Republican,  became  a  convert  to  mon- 
arcbism  and  he  was  dected  member  of  the 
Senate  in  1890.  His  last  volume  of  poems 
'Ritmi  e  Rime>  appeared  in  1899.  He  re- 
signed bis  professorship  in  1904  and  two  years 
later  he  received  the  Nobel  prize  for  literature. 
His  published  works,  which  treat  of  hbtory, 
biograpbjr,  political  and  other  controversy,  lit- 
erary criticism,  philosophy,  lyrical,  erotic,  de- 
scriptive, pastoral  and  dramatic  poetry  are 
among  the  most  extensive  in  the  history  of 
Italian  literature.  Consult  Zanichelli,  'C5pere 
de  Giosue  Carducci'  (Bologna  1909) ;  Chiarini, 
G.  L.,  'Carducd'  (1913);  Granett,  R.,  'Italian 
Literature'  (1908);  Holland,  Maud,  'Poems  of 
Giosue  Carducci'  (20  poems  translated,  1907); 
Williams,  Orlo,  'Giosue  Carducd*  (1914). 
John  Hubekt  0)rnvk, 
Bdilorial  Staff  of  The  Amtriama. 


,  Google 


CARD  WU,L — CAREY 


CARDWXLL,  Australis,  town  of  CardweU 
County.  Queensland,  on  RoddnRbatn  Bay,  800 
miles  direct  northwest  of  Brisbane,  Its  fine 
harbor  has  a  depth  varying  from  24  to  60  feet, 
accessible  in  all  weathers.  Dugong  fishing  and 
oil   ertmcting,    cedar   lumber,   canning  meats, 

E reserve  and  sauce  raanufacturn  are  thriving 
idustries.  and  mtnerah  including  gold  and  tin 
are  founa  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  3,500. 

CARE  SUNDAY,  sometimes  taken  to  be 
the  Sunday  immediately  preceding  Good  Fri- 
day; but  generaliy  used  to  si^ify  the  fifth 
Sunday  in  Lent.    Same  as  Passion  Sunday. 

CARAiAE,  ki-ram,  Marie  Antoine,  French 
cook:  b.  Paris,  8  June  1784;  d.  there,  12  Jan. 
1833.  He  was  chef  dc  cuisine  to  many  celp- 
brated  persons,  including  Talleyrand,  King 
George  IV  and  one  of  the  RothschJms.  He 
cooked  for  the  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Vienna  and  Laibach.  He  wrote  *Le  patissier 
pitloresque'  (2d  ed.,  1842)  ;  'Le  mutre  dliotel 
francais'  (2d  eA,  1842);  'Le  patissier  royal 
parisien'  (1828) ;  'L'art  de  la  cuisine  fran- 
chise au  XIX  siecle'  (1833). 

CARET,  kara,  a  turtle.    See  Hawkssiu. 

CARBW,  k9-roo',  Richard,  En^iah  an- 
tiquarian and  poet:  b.  East  Aniony,  CJomwall, 
17  July  1555;  d.  there,  6  Nov.  1620.  He  wu 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  higfa 
sheriff  of  Cornwall  in  1S86,  and  the  author  of 
a  much  valued  'Survey  of  Cornwall'  (1602); 
-and  an  English  translation  of  a  portion  of 
Tasso's  *  Jerusalem  Delivered*  (1594),  and 
from  an  Italian  version  of  Huarte  de  San  Juan, 
*Tlie  Examination  of  Men's  Wits.' 

CAREW,  Thomu,  English  poet:  b.  1598; 
d.  1639.  He  was  educated  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford.  Cultivating  polite  literature 
in  the  midst  of  a  life  of  afiluence  and  gaiety, 
he  was  the  subject  of  much  eulogy  by  Ben 
Jonson,  Davenant  and  other  writers  of  the  pe- 
riod. He  was  made  gentleman  of  the  privy- 
chamber  to  Charles  I.  The  King  bestowed  on 
him  the  royal  domain  of  Sunning  Hill,  a  part 
of  Windsor  Forest.  In  him  was  exhibited  the 
not  unusual  transformation  of  the  courtly  and 
libertine  line  gentleman  into  the  rM>entant  devo- 
tee. Carew  is  coupled  with  Waller  as  one  of 
the  improvers  of  English  versification.  The 
first  collection  of  his  poems  was  printed  in  1640, 
and  the  last  in  1824.  His  elegant  masque  of 
'Gxlum  Britannicum'  was  printed  both  in  the 
eariy  edition  and  separately  in  1651,  and  the 
whole  were  included  in  Oialmers'  'British 
Poets.'  Carew  was  much  studied  hy  Pope,  and 
Dr.  Percy  also  assisted  to  restore  him  to  a  poi^ 
tion  of  the  favor  with  which  he  has  come  to 
be  regarded.  Specimens  both  of  the  sublime 
and  the  pathetic  may  be  found  in  his  works; 
the  former  in  his  admirable  masque,  and  the 
latter  in  his  epitaph  on  Lady  Mary  Villien. 
Recent  editions  are  tv  Haililt  for  the  Rox- 
burghe  Library  (London  1870);  by  Ebsworth 
<London  1893) ;  andfe"  Vincent  for  the  Muses 
Library  (London  1899).  'Poems,*  edited  by 
Arthur  Vincent  in  1399,  is  the  best  edition  of 
Carew. 

CAREX,  kSr'Sks,  a  genus  of  plants,  be- 
longing to  the  family  Cyperaeea,  or  sedges, 
and  containing  numerous  species,  which  are 
found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  where 
vegetation  can  exist,  on  the  driest  upland  as 


well  as  the   wettest  manh.     Hie  phnts  are 

EEFennial,  often  creeping,  with  mostly  sharp- 
eeled  leaves  and  vAA  iriangular  stems.  The 
flowers  are  without  perianu  and  unisexual, 
being  grouped  in  spikelets.  The  male  flowers 
have  usually  three  stamens,  the  female  having 
a  single  style  with  two  or  three  stigmas.  The 
number  of^  known  spedes  is  above  8D0i  and  of 
these  the  United  States  has  about  300.  Hardly 
any  of  them  have  any  agricultural  value,  but 
C.  artnaria,  the  sand-sedge,  is  of  use  in  bind- 
ing the  sand  on  many  seashores.  In  parts  of 
the  United  States  a  poor  quality  of  hay  b 
made  from  some  of  the  sedges.  C.  morrowi 
b.  an  elegant  variety  with  white-edged  leaves 
cultivated  by  florists. 

CAREY,  Henry,  En^isb  composer  and 
poet:  b.  London  1696;  ±  there  1743.  He  is 
siqiposcd  to  have  been  a  natural  son  of  George 
Savillc,  Marquis  of  Halifax.  Hb  first  in- 
structor in  mosic  was  a  German,  named  Lin- 
ueit,  but  he  was  afterward  more  thorou^ily 
trained  under  Roseingrave  and  GeminianL  He 
was  inexhaustible  in  the  invention  of  new, 
pleasing  and  often  deeply  pathetic  melodies,  to 
which  ne  not  infrequently  furnished  the  words. 
His  'Sally  in  Our  Alley^  is  still  a  well-known 
song.  He  has  also  been  said  to  be  the  author 
of  'God  Save  the  Kin^*  hot  this  appears  to 
have  been  doubtful  until  substantiated  by 
Chiysander.  He  supported  himself  by  public 
and  private  teaching^  but  his  whole  life  was  * 
continued  struggle  with  poverty,  and  it  has 
been  said  that  at  last,  in  a  fit  of  despair,  he 
committed  suicide  (1743).  His  collected  soiws 
were  published  in  1740.  Among  other  works 
are  'Teraminta'  (1732)  and  other  operas; 
'  Chrononhotonthologos,  *  'the  most  tragical 
tragedy  ever  yet  tragedized*  (1734),  a  bur- 
lesque; 'The  Wonder,  or  An  Honest  York- 
shireman'  (173S)  ;  'The  Dragon  of  Wantley' 
(1737):  ano  the  'Musical  Century,  or  a  Hun- 
dred English  Ballads'   (1737;  3d  cd.,  1743). 

CARBY,  Henry  Charles,  American  polit- 
ical economist:  b.  Philadelphia,  15  Dea  1793; 
d.  there,  13  Oct.  1879.  He  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Mathew  Carey,  and  in  1814  became  a  part- 
ner in  hu  fathers  bodcselling  and  publishing 
firm,  where  he  ccMitinued  until  1835.  In  that 
year  be  published  an  essay  on  'The  Rate  of 
Wages,'  which  he  afterward  expanded  into 
'The,  Principles  of  Political  Economy'  (1837- 
40).  His  other  important  works  are  'The 
Credit  System  in  France,  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States'  (1838);  'The  Past,  the 
Present  and  the  Future'  (1848);  'The  Prin- 
ciples of  Social  Science'  (1858-59);  'Letters 
on  Political  Economy'  (1860  and  1865)  ;  'The 
Unity  of  Law'  (1872_).  Originally  a  free- 
trader, he  became  an  aavocate  of  protection  on 
the  ground  of  temporary  expediency;  held  that 
the  growth  of  population  was  self-regulating; 
and  was  opposed  to  the  theories  of  Rkaroo 
and  others  on  the  law  of  diminished  returns 
from  the  soil  and  on  rent  He  was  also  op- 
posed to  any  arrangement  on  the  subject  of 
international  copyright.  Some  of  hu  wodcs 
have  been  translated  into  other  languages,  and 
bis  writings  have  had  considerable  mfluence 
on  ecfHiomic  writers  such  as  Ftidtric  Bastiat 
and  Duhring. 

CAREY,  Jamei  F.,  American  SodalisI 
leader:  b.  Haverhill,  Mass,  19  Aug.  1867.    He 


v  Google 


CABBY— CARH  ART 


•or 


received  a  conunon  school  edncatioD  and 
learned  shoemakii^.  In  1895  he  was  chair- 
man of  a  convention  at  Boston,  which  amal' 
gamated  three  national  organitations  of  shoe- 
makers into  one  union.  In  1894  he  was  one  of 
the  leaders  in  the  agitation  of  the  anemployed 
on  Boston  Comnion,  and  the  governor  ap- 
pointed him  a  commissioner  of  the  unemployed, 
but  he  was  not  confirmed.  He  was  later 
elected  president  of  the  Haverhill  common 
council.  In  1898,  1899  and  1900  he  was  elected 
to  the  Massachusetts  house  of  r^resentatives, 
twice  defeating  a  combination  of  the  Demo- 
cratic and  Republican  parties.  He  was  the 
first  Socialist  ever  elected  to  political  office  in 
New  England. 

CAREY,  Uathew,  Irish- American  writer 
and  bookseller:  b.  Dublin,  2S  Jan.  1760;  d. 
Philadelphia,  16  Sept  1S39.  An  address  to 
the  Irish  Roman  Catholics  emphasizing  the  o^ 
pression  by  the  penal  code  brought  about  his 
expulsion  from  Ireland.  Later  he  relumed 
and  established  Tlie  Volunteer's  Journal.  But 
bis  radical  views  invited  Parliament's  distrust 
and  he  was  imprisoned  until  the  session 
was  over.  He  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1788,  and  in  Philadelphia  began  to  pub- 
lish the  Penmylvania  Herald.  He  was  sub- 
sequently connected  with  the  Coliunbion  Mag- 
a:Mie  and  the  American  Museum.  A  few 
years  later  he  became  a  bookseller  and  an 
extensive  publisher.  When  the  yellow  fever 
epidemic  was  especially  virulent  _  in  1793,  he 
spent  great  energy  in  combating  it  and  wrote 
a  history  of  the^sease.  In  the  same  year  he 
founded  the  Hibernian  Society  and  in  1796, 
with  Bishop  While,  established  the  first  Sun- 
day-School society.  The  best  known  of  his 
political  writings  was  his  '  Olive  Branch ' 
(1814).  It  was  an  effort  to  promote  harmony 
among  political  parties  during  the  War  of  1812, 
It  passed  through  10  editions.  In  1819  he  pub- 
lished his  'Irish  Vindications'  and  in  1822 
•Essays  on  Political  Economy.' 

CAREY,  Rosa  Nooch<!tt«,  English  novel- 
tat:  b.  London  1840;  d.  1909.  She  began  writ- 
ing novels  in  1868,  and  her  fictions  (of  which 
she  wrote  nearly  40),  in  which  the  htersry 
element  is  not  a  very  strong  feature,  were 
very  popular  with  girls,  to  whom  they  were 
excellently  adapted.  They  include  <Wee  Wifie' 
(1869):  'Wooed  and  Married*  (1875);  'Not 
Like  Other  Girls'  (1884);  'Uncle  Max' 
(1887);  'Only  the  Govemese'  (1886);  and 
'The  Sunny  Side  of  the  Hill'  (her  last  nove), 
1908),  etc. 

CAREY,  Wflliwn,  En^ish  Orientalist  and 
missionary:  b.  Paulerspury,  Northamptoit- 
shire,  17  Aug.  1761;  d.  Serampore,  India,  9 
June  1834.  He  was  early  apprenticed  to  a 
shoemaker,  and  continued  to  work  at  his  trade 
till  he  was  24.  With  what  assistance  he  could 
procure  he  acquired  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
and  studied  theology.  In  1786  he  became  pas- 
tor of  a  Baptist  congregation  at  Moulton,  and 
in  1787  was  appointed  to  a  similar  situation  in 
Leicester,  In  1793  he  sailed  for  the  East 
Indies  as  a  Baptist  missionary,  but  became 
overseer  of  an  indigo  factory.  He  studied 
languages  and  natural  history,  and  collected  a 
rich  store  of  Oriental  knowledge.  In  1800,  in 
conjunction  with  Marshman,  Ward  and  others, 
be  founded  the  missionary  college  at  Seram- 


pore; the  fcar  fc4knring  he  became  professor 
of  Sansknt,  Bengali  and  M^ratta  at  the 
newly-erected  Fort  William  Colles«,  Calcatta. 
In  Serampore  he  had  a  printing-press  (or  more 
than  40  different  Indian  languages,  and  issued 
various  translations  of  the  Scriptures.  His 
first  work  WHS  a  Uahratta  grammar.  It  was 
followed  by  other  works,  including  a  Bengali 
'Lexicon,'  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Felix 
Carey,  bis  son.  Under  bis  direction  the' whole 
Bible  was  translated  into  6  and  the  New  Tes- 
tament into  21  languages  or  dialects  of  Hin- 
dustan- and  considerable  progress  was  made 
with  the  translation  of  the  whole  Scriptures 
into  Chinese.  He  also  edited  Shroeder's  lexi- 
con of  the  Thibetan  language  and  Roxburgh's 
'Flora  Indica,'  in  which  a  genus  of  plants 
which  he  discovered  is  named  after  him, 
Careya.  He  established  an  agricultural  society 
at  Calcutta,  and  a  botarticat  garderi,  at  his  own 
expense,  at  Serampore.  For  biography  consult 
Culross  (London  1882)  and  Smith,  G.  (London 
1885). 

CAREY  ACT.     See  Recuiutiom  Laws. 

CARGILL,  Donald,  Scotti^  covenanting 
preacher:  b,  Rattray,  Perthshire,  about  1619; 
d.  Edinburgh,  27  July  1681.  He  was  educated 
at  Aberdeen  and  Saint  Andrews,  and  became 
minister  of  the  Barony  Church  in  Glasgow 
in  1655.  At  the  Restoration  he  refused  to  ac- 
cent collation  from  the  archbishop  and  was 
exiled  beyond  the  Tay.  In  1679  he  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  BoUiwel!  Bridge,  where  he 
was  wounded,  but  succeeded  in  escaping  to 
Holland.  In  1680  be  published,  along  with 
Richard  Cameron,  the  'Sanquhar  Declaration,' 
In  September  of  the  same  year  be  formally  ex- 
communicated King  Chariea  II,  Duke  of  York 
and  other  great  personages.  After  avoiding 
pursuit  for  several  months,  in  May  1681,  he 
was  captured  and  at  Edinbur^  tried  and  sen- 
tenced, and  27  July  was  beheaded  , 

CARGO,  in  law,  the  entire  amount  of  goods 
carried  by  a  shin;  also,  loosely,  persons  col- 
lectively carried  by  a  snip.  The  term  is  oc- 
casionally applied  also  to  the  invoice  of  the 
cargo.  The  bill  of  lading  (qv.)  contains  a 
list  of  the  goods  constitutmg  the  cargo.  The 
goods  on  deck,  although  constituting  a  part 
of  the  cargo,  are  usually  not  covered  by  the 
Insurance  policy.  The  master  of  a  coasting 
vessel  is  required  by  law  to  keep  a  record  ot 
the  pDods  constituting  the  cargo,  the  shipper^ 
consignees  and  various  other  particulars,  all 
of  which  is  entered  in  the  cargo  book.  See 
Freioht. 

CASUART,  Henry  Smith,  American  sci- 
entist: b.  Coeymans,  N.  Y.,  27  March  1844. 
He  was  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in 
1869,  and  since  then  has  taught  physics  and 
chemistry.  In  1886  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
where  he  remained  until  his  retirement  as 
professor  emeritus  in  1909,  Professor  Car- 
hart  devoted  himself  largely  to  the  study  of 
electricity,  particularly  the  subject  of  standard 
cells  and  primary  batteries,  one  of  the  best 
t]fpes  of  tne  former  having  been  devised  by' 
him  and  known  as  the  Carhart-Clark  cell.  He 
has  been  a  delegate  from  the  United  States  to 
several  international  electrical  congresses.    He 


Google 


CASHKU.— CABXB 


iii«ita>  (1895);  'High  Scbool  Pbysics>  (1901); 
•College  Physics'   (1910),  and  other  books. 
CARHEIL,   ka-ri-e,  tflienne  de,  French 

{esuit  missionary  in  North  America ;  d.  after 
721.  He  labored  for  more  than  half  a  ceti- 
mry  among  the  Canadian  Hurons  and  Iroquois, 
ana  was  long  stationed  at  Mi[;failin)ackinac. 

CARIA,  in  ancient  geography,  the  country 
forming  the  southwest  comer  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Lydia  or  Usonia, 
from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  Mxander; 
on  the  east  by  Phry^ia,  on  the  southeast  by 
Lycia  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Medi- 
terranean. Some  confusion,  however,  exists  in 
regard  to  its  boundaries.  Part  of  it  was 
settled  by  Greek  colonies  of  lonians  and 
Dorians,  who  dispossessed  the  ori^nal  inhab- 
itants. It  was  included  in  the  dominions  of 
Crcrsus,  King  of  Lydia,  and  on  his  overthrow 
by  Cyrus  was  transferred  to  the  Per^n 
monarchy,  under  whose  protection  a  dynasty 
of  Carian  princes  was  established.  Halicar- 
nassus  was  the  residence  of  these  sovereigns, 
among  whom  were  the  two  celebrated  queens, 
the  first  and  second  Artemisia.  The  progress 
of  the  Roman  conquests  ultimately  extin-' 
guished  the  independence  of  Caria,  and  about 
129  B.C.  it  was  incorporated  in  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Alia. 

CARIACO.  ka-rS-alcd,  Venezuela,  a  sea- 
port in  the  state  of  Beimudez,  situated  to  the 
east  of  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco,  near  the  mouth 
of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  adjoining  a  large 
plain  covered  with  plantations.  Its  trade  is 
chiefly  in  cotton  and  sugar.  The  Gulf  of 
Cariaco  is  38  miles  long,  from  5  to  10  broad, 
from  80  to  100  fathoms  deep,  surrounded  by 
lofty  mountains.     Pop.   7,000. 

CARIACOU,  kirl-i-koo,  the  name  ^ven 
to  American  deer  of  the  genus  Canacus, 
found  in  all  parts  of  North  America  up  to  lat. 
43°  N.  It  is  smaller  than  the  common  stag, 
and  its  color  varies  with  the  seasons  from 
reddish-brown  to   slaty-blue. 

CARIAMA,  sB-re-a'mq,  a  bird  {.Cariama 
eristata),  a  native  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay, 
where  its  loud  scream  is  a  familiar  sound  on 
the  campos,  and  where  it  is  domesticated  and 
trained  to  guard  fowls.  With  an  allied  Argen- 
tine bird  (Chimga  burmeisleri)  it  constitutes  a 
family  {Cariamidtg')  of  great  eoological  inter- 
est, combining  as  it  does  characters  of  the 
bustards,  caracara  eagles  and  cranes,  with  each 
of  which  it  has  been  at  times  associated.  It  is 
larger  than  the  common  heron ;  the  pluma^  is 
brown,  finely  waved  with  darker  brown,  whitish 
on  the  lower  parts.  It  uses  its  legs  raincr  than 
its  wings  in  seeking  safety.  According  to  W.  H. 
Hudson,  the  Argerrine  naturalist,  it  is  of  the 
family  of  one  of  the  f;reat  extinct  birds  of 
Patagonia,  Phorophacos  tnfiatus.  Consult  Pro- 
eerdmgs  Zoological  Society  of  London  for  1889 
and  1899. 

CARIB,  kirtb,  a  native  American  race 
which  attained  its  highest  development  in  the 
West  Indies.  Originating  in  the  valley  of  the 
Orinoco,  this  race  spread  aiong  the  coasts, 
northward  and  southward,  to  a  great  distance, 
and  especially  from  island  to  island  of  the 
Lesser  and  Greater  Antilles  and  the  Bahamas. 
At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America  its 
language  was  spoken,  with  dialectic  variations. 


from  the  coast  of  Florida  to  lower  Brazil. — 
wherever  large  canoes  could  carrv  the  swarm- 
ing, warlike  tribes.  The  Caribs  were  the 
vikiiigs  of  South  America.'  The  race  name 
survives  in  *C^bbean*  Sea,  *Caribbee*  Islands, 
the  word  "cannibal,*  etc;  the  race  itself  is  still 
well  represented  at  various  points  in  South 
America.  In  the  West  Indies,  however,  the 
large  native  population  disappeared  rapidly 
after  the  Spanish  conquest,  Caribs  and  other 
tribes  of  the  same  stock  (Arawaks,  Lncayos, 
Boriquciios,  etc.),  either  succumbing  under  the 
new  conditions  or  losing  their  distinctive  char- 
acteristics by  blending  with  Europeans  and 
Africans.  Surviving  groups  of  West  Indian 
Caribs  may  be  studied  to-day  in  the  island  of 
Dominica.  A  few  remained  in  Martinique  and 
Saint  Vincent  up  to  the  time  of  the  volcanic 
eruptions  in  1902.  Great  Britain  deported  5,000 
Caribs  from  Saint  Vincent  to  the  island  of 
Ruatan  in  the  Gulf  of  Honduras  in  1796;  thence 
they  migrated  to  the  Central  American  coast, 
where  their  numerous  descendants  have  become 
a  not  inconsiderable  element  in  the  population 
of  the  mainland.  In  the  'Proceedings  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science'  (Vol.  LI,  1902),  Mr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes 
of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  calls 
attention  to  the  different  characteristics  which 


mas,  Cuba,  Haiti  and  Porto  Rico  were  mild, 
agricultural  people  who  had  lost  in  vigor,  while 
gaining  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of  the  arts  of 

Eeace,  by  their  sedentary  life.  On  the  other 
and,  constant  incursions  .from  the  home  of  the 
race  (the  Orinoco  region  in  Venezuela)  kept 
alive  the  savage  customs  and  ferocious  spirit  of 
the  Caribs  of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  Such  incur- 
sions took  place  even  after  the  date  of  the 
Spanish  settlements.  The  houses  of  the  more 
peaceful  Carib  communities  did  not  differ 
greatly  from  those  of  the  peasantry  in  the  same 
regions  at  the  present  time.  In  lieu  of  clothing, 
Carib  men  and  girls  covered  thdr  bodies,  as 
well  as  their  faces,  with  paint,  to  protect  them 
from  the  bites  of  insects  and  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  A  woven  cloth  of  palm  fibre,  called  nagua, 
—  a  breech-cloth  with  long  ends,-*- was  worn 
by  die  chiefs  and  the  married  women.  For 
purposes  of  decoration,  and  to  distinguid 
members  of  one  family  or  community  from 
those  of  another,  designs  of  animals  and  plants 
were  painted  on  the  body.  Their  soda!  organ- 
ization closely  resembled  that  of  the  North 
American  Indians,  the  unit  of  oi^anizatioa 
being  the  clan,  ruled  by  a  caciqHe  (chief). 
Com  Dilutions  were  sometimes  formed  by  a 
number  of  caciques  for  mutual  defense,  and 
extensive  territories  were  subjected  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  more  ambitious  leaders.  Among  the 
insignia  of  the  cacique's  rank  were  the  gold 
disc  called  guarim,  worn  on  his  breast,  and  a 
stone  amulet  tied  to  his  forehead  His  numer- 
ous wives  were  practically  slaves.  Ex  ofhdo, 
he  was  a  member  of  the  priesthood.  Columbus 
at  first  received  the  impression  that  the  Caribs 
lacked  spiritual  insight;  lon^^er  sojourn  among 
them,  however,  convinced  hun  that  they  wor- 
shipped manv  supernatural  beings  whom  they 
represented  ay  idols,  called  semis;  they  had 
temples  for  this  purpose,  in  which  rude  idols 


1  up   .-    -— 

priests.    It  is  probable  that  belief  i 


f  the 


d=v  Google 


dly  i 
authorities  assert,  was  generally  taught  bv  the 
priests;  and  it  is  quite  cercaiu  that  the  latter 
possessed  greftt  influence,  being  p%sicians  to 
the  people  as  well  as  roinisiers  to  the  2<^fiu. 
like  othex  savage  races  of  the  region  from 
which  they  came,  the  Cariba  were  anthro- 
pophao;  yet  the  evil  prominence  siven  to  them 
throupi  ate  coining  of  the  word  autmbal  (n 
Latimied  form  of  Carib)  is  not  wholly 
fncritetL  The  discoverers,  finding  a  p-eat  nrnn- 
bcr  of  human  skulls  in  the  Canb  houses, 
jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  each  skull  was 
the  trophy  of  some  revolting  feast  In  point 
of  fact,  the  Caribs,  being  ancestor- worshippers, 
preserved  these  relics  in  honor  of  def  mict  mem- 
bers of  their  family.  Consult  Adam,  'Le 
Oinube  du  Honduras  et  le  Caiaibe  <ks  Isk«* 
(in  Internat.  Amerik.-Kongr..  Vol.  XIV,  19M): 
Rat,  J.  N,  'The  Carib  Language  as  now 
Spoken  in  Dominica'  <in  JouTMot  Antkrop. 
Intt..  VoL  XXVII,  London  1897-98);  Ke«h- 
GrQmxre's  'Die  Hianakoto-Umana*  (in  An- 
tkropoi.Vol  III,  1906)  ;  id.,  'Zwei  Jahre  unter 
den  Indianem*    (Berlin  1909-10). 

r  Wilcox. 


CAKIBBSAN.  kir-T-be'an,  SEA,  a  part  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  occupying  a  basin  750,000 
square  miles  in  area,  bounded  by  South  and 
Central  America  and  the  Greater  and  Lesser 
Antilles.  Its  perimeter  b  wholly  mountainous. 
Mountain  folds  (continued  in  submarine  ridges 
from  the  Greater  Antilles  to  Honduras)  mark 
its  limits  on  the  north  and  south;  but  the  vol- 
canic chain  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  rises  on  the 
east,  and  the  volcanoes  of  Central  America  in 
the   remote   past   formed   a   wall   separating 


of  which  the  Lesser  Antilles  are  the  summits, 
A  portion  of  the  broad  equatorial  stream,  which 
flows  from  east  to  west,  from  the  coast  of 
Africa  to  thai  of  Brazil,  enters  the  Caribbean 
between  the  islands  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
Antillean  chain:  the  waters  of  this  sea,  there- 
fore, move  from  east  to  west  and  northwest, 
and  seek  an  exit  through  the  Yucatan  Channel 
—  a  passage  120  miles  wide  between  Cuba  and 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan.  On  its  South  Ameri- 
can coast  are  the  gulfs  of  Paria,  Triste,  Darien, 
Venezuela  Cariaco;  on  the  west  are  the  Uos- 
quito  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Honduras.  But  the 
latter  is  too  smalt  to  allow  an  outflow  equal  to 
the  inflow  into  the  Caribbean ;  so  that,  after  the 
trades  have  forced  the  equatorial  water  iato  the 
Caribbean  basin,  it  must  remain  there  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time,  thus  becoming  super- 
heated, before  it  passes  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
where,  owin^  to  similar  differences  between 
the  rate  of  inflow  and  outflow,  the  water  be- 
comes still  more  superheated  before  passing 
through  the  Florida  Strait  as  the  Gulf  Stream. 
The  main  westerly  current  in  the  Caribbean, 
after  passing  throuKfa  the  Banks  Strait^  between 
the  Mosquito  Reef  and  Jamaica,  is  joined  by 
the  current  of  the  Windward  Channel.  The 
trade-winds,^  blowing  with  a  steady  velocity 
across  the  Caribbean  region,  from  east  to  west, 
make  the  surface  of  this  sea  much  rougher  than 
that  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  they  mitigate  the 
tropical  heat  at  all  points  where  their  influence 
is  felt;  and  die  moisture  they  bring  from  the 
Atlantic  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  abundant 


rams  against  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains, both  on  the  islands  and  the  mainland 
Hence  the  distinction  between  "windward"  and 
'leeward'  regions,  insisted  upon  especially  in 
the  West  Indies.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico,  shel- 
tered bdiind  the  Antilles  and  Yucatan,  is  prac- 
tically a  *leeward*  expanBc;  but  the  summer 
dimate  of  Texas  and  the  great  plains  is  some- 
what modified  by  Caribbean  trade-winds. 

Recent  sln<Ues  of  the  Caribbean  basin 
hava  disclosed  Its  interesting  submarine  topog- 
raphy—  'a  configuration  which,  if  it  could  be 
seen,  would  be  as  picturesque  in  relief  as  the 
Alps  or  Hhnalayas.  Nowhere  can  such  con- 
trasts of  relief  be  found  within  short  distances. 
Some  deeps  vie  in  profundity  with  the  altitudes 
of  the  near-by  Andes.  .  .  .  Some  of  the  de- 
pressions, I3ce  the  Barttett  Deep,  are  narrow 
troURhs,  only  a  few  miles  in  width,  but  hun- 
ircdi  of  miles  in  length,  three  miles  in  depth, 
and  bordered  by  steep  precipices.  .  .  .  There 
are  long  ridges  beneath  the  waters,  which  if 
elevatecf  would  stand  up  like  islands  of  to-day. 
.  .  .  Again,  vast  areas  are  underiain  by  shal- 
low banks  .  .  .  often  approaching  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  like  that  extending  from  Ja- 
maica to  Honduras.  .  .  .  The  greater  islands 
and  the  mainlands  are  bordered  in  places  by 
submerged  shelves."  (From  'Cuba  and  Porto 
Sico*:  see  authorities  below).  All  the  islands 
are,  then,  to  be  regarded,  from  a  physiographic 
point  of  vieWj  as  the  "tops  of  a  varied  con- 
figuration, which  has  its  greatest  relief  beneath 
the  sea* ;  and  some  of  these  submarine  valleys 
and  mountains  have  yielded  a  surprising  num- 
ber of  animal  forms  previously  unicnown, 
Dredgings  in  depths  of  over  2,000  fathoms 
have  Drought  to  hgfat  new  species  of  crustacea, 
and  forms  nsembling  the  fossils  of  past  geo- 
logical epochs  are  taken  alive  in  those  profound 
marine  valleys.  Many  phosphorescent  creatures 
are  found;  m  certain  places  'dense  forests  of 
pentacrini  undulate  on  the  bottom  Tike  aquatic 
plants';  on  the  submerged  banks  and  in  the 
shallows,  coral  polyps  and  mollusks  are  em- 
ployed as  actively  now  as  ever,  in  extracting  the 
lime  carried  in  solution  by  the  sea-water,  to 
build  its  shells  and  corals  which  are  so  large 
a  part  of  the  rock-making  material  in  all  this 
re^on,  from  Yucatan  to  Porto  Rico.  The  most 
important  marine  highways  for  Caribbean  com* 
merce  are  those  on  the  north :  the  Windward, 
Anegada  and  Mona  passages  and  the  Yucatan 
Channel.  The  Caribbean  has  attained  a  new 
importance  since  the  completion  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  It  is  now  traversed  by_  several  world 
trade-routes  directed  to  the  Pacific  through  the 
canal.  The  United  States  has  a  naval  base  at 
(juantanamo  Bay,' Cuba;  (he  British  have  bases 
at  Bermuda  and  Jamaica ;  the  Virgin  Islands  ac- 
quired by  the  United  States  from  Denmark  in 
1916  and  occupied  31  March  1917,  form  another 
naval  base  for  the  defense  of  the  canal.  Sev- 
eral steamship  lines  make  winter  cruises  from 
New  York.  (For  the  origin  of  the  name,  see 
Cabtbs).  Consult  A^ssii,  <The  Gulf  Stream' 
(in  annual  report  Smithsonian  Institute  to  July 
1891.  Washington  1893) ;  Hill,  of  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  'Cuba  and  Porto  Rico' 
(1898). 

Marriott  Wilcox. 


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610 


CARIBBBE — CASIBB 


States  has  had  a  long  bistorical  interest  in  the 
Caribbean  and  its  problems.  This  interest  was 
early  expressed  by  the  long  struggle  to  obtain 
tracfe  with  the  British  West  Indies,  the  western 
desire  for  a  trade  outlet  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  sympathy  for  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies in  their  stni^le  for  independence  and  the 
American  annexation  of  territories  fronting  on 
the  Gulf.  In  the  decade  and  a  half  after  1845 
its  continuattoa  and  increase  was  indicated  by 
the  Panama  transit  treaty  with  Colombia  (then 
New  Granada)  in  1846,  the  ship  canal  agree- 
ment with  Nicaragua  in  1849,  the  famous  An- 
glo-American ClaytoD-Bulwer  treaty  of  1850,  a 
series  of  negotiations  for  the  acquisiti(»i  of 
Cuba  and  certain  West  Indian  naval  stations 
and  various  efforts  to  prevent  the  daiiger  of 
European  interference  in  Central  America  and 
the  West  Indies.  In  the  Civil  War  American 
attention  was  attracted  toward  the  Caribbean 
by  the  problem  of  blockading  Confederate  ports 
against  blockade  runners  operating  from  cer- 
tain West  India  bases;  and  after  the  war,  the 
earlier  propositions  for  greater  influence  in  the 
region  were  kept  alive  by  the  memoiy  of  the 
difficulties  and  limitations  of  the  American 
navy  in  maintainine  the  blockade  of  the  Con- 
federate ports,  ana  also  b^  the  unsatisfactory 
conditions  of  bpanish  rule  in  Cuba. 

The  Spanish- American  War,  resulting  in  the 
American  possession  of  Porto  Rico  and  the 
assumption  of  new  international  duties  in  Cuba, 
brought  the  vision  of  new  economic  and  politi- 
cal advantages  in  the  Caribbean  and  the  real- 


American  national  position.  By  the  li^c  of 
events   the    United    States   was    forced   into   a 

Elace  of  increasing  importance  in  international 
:adership  in  the  Caribbean.  The  construction 
of  the  Isthmian  canal  under  American  control, 
the  lo^cal  conclusion  of  a  long  series  of  events 
and  the  immediate  result  of  a  wise  diplomacy 
and  policy  which  terminated  a  long  period  of 
irritating  discussion  and  delay,  attracted  the 
attention   of   the   United   States   to   the 


world's  needs. 

Under    the    administrations    of     Roosevelt, 
Taft    and   Wilson,    the   general   policy    of    the 


sumption  toward  weaker  neighbors  of  increasing 
responsibilities  which  might  involve  inter- 
vention to  keep  order.  A  positive  policy, 
preventative  rather  than  remedial,  gradual ly 
supplanted  the  former  negative  or  passive  policy 
which  involved  intervention  only  after  a  wrong 
was  done.  In  1903,  under  President  Roosevelt, 
the  government  extricated  Venezuela  from  a 
humiliating  experience  with  Germany  and 
other  European  powers.  In  1905  it  assumed 
control  of  customs  collection  in  the  Dominican 
Republic^  and  soon  thereafter  exercised  its 
treaty  nght  to  interfere  in  Cuba  to  preserve 
order.  Later,  under  President  Taft,  it  actively 
intervened  to  terminate  a  revolution  in  Nicara- 
gua, and  negotiated  with  Nicaragua  and  Hon- 
duras treaties  for  the  extension  of  agreements 
similar  to  the  one  in  force  in  the  Dominican 
Republic.  Later,  under  President  Wilson,  it 
retained  forces  in  Nicaragua  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  order,  and  sent  a  force  of  American 


officials  to  the  Dominican  Republic  to  supervise 
the  elections,  and  (in  1916)  ratified  convention 
arrangements  for  establishment  of  fiscal  protec- 
torates over  Nicaragua  and  over  Haiti.  In 
1917  the  policy  of  increased  police  duties  in  the 
Caribbean  also  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of 
the  Danish  colonies. 

The  object  lesscm  of  Porto  Rican  deyelop- 
ment  under  American  control,  and  of  Americas 
supervision  in  Cuba  and  San  Domingo  —  a 
practical  demonstration  that  public  order  and 
security  of  life  and  proper^  is  an  essential 
condition  for_  economic  oevelopment  —  has 
made  a  deep  impression  upon  all   Caribbean 

As  a  result  of  the  construction  of  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  the  international  importance  of  the 
Caribbean  has  greatly  increased  by  the  develoij- 
ment  of  new  trade  routes  which  will  make  it 
the  trade  centre  of  the  American  tropics  —  the 
cross-roads  of  the  western  worid;  and  the 
United  States  more  than  any  other  great  power 
is  concerned  in  the  political  ownership  of  the 
territory,  the  fiscal  policies  of  their  govern- 
ments, the  extent  and  direction  of  thdr  foreign 
trade,  tbe  problems  arising  from  the  peculiari- 
ties of  their  population,  their  financial  status, 
llie  exploitation  of  their  natural  resources,  their 
foreign  investments,  the  protection  of  health, 
and  other  problems  which  have  a  bearing  on 
forei^  policy  and  necessitate  more  intimate 
American  relations  with  these  communities. 

Bibliography,— Blafceslee,  Georwe  H.  (ed- 
itor), 'Latin  America'  (1913)  ;  Callahan,  J.  M^ 
'Cnba  and  International  Relations'  (1899) ; 
Jones,  Chester  Lloyd,  'Caribbean  Interests  of 
the  United  States'  (1916)  ;  Latant  J.  H.,  'Dip- 
lomatic Relations  of  the  United  States  and 
Spanish  America>  (19(X)). 

James  iS.  CZallaham, 
Professor    of    History    and    Political    Science, 

West  Virginia  University. 

CARIBBEE,  ka-rl-be',  or  SAINT  LUCIA 
BARK,  a  bark  sometimes  snbstituted  for 
cinchona  (q.v.),  though  not  containing  its 
characteristic  alkaloid.  It  is  procured  from 
the  Exostemma  Carituntm,  a  tree  growing  in 
the  West  Indies.  This  bark  is  in  conv^  frag- 
ments, covered  with  a  yellow  e^dermis  and 
has  a  very  bitter  taste  and  very  famt  smell. 

CARIBBBE  ISLANDS,  a  name  com- 
monly given  to  that  portion  of  the  diain  of 
Lesser  Antilles  between  the  Virf^  and  South 
American  groups.     See  Antillxs. 

CARIBB,  any  of  a  group  of  small,  robust, 
voracious  fishes,  often  of  smgular  form,  and 
allied  in  sirtreture  to  salmon,  which  abound  in 
South  American  tropical  rivers.  They  have 
numerous  teeth,  well  fitted  to  biting  out  pieces 
of  flesh,  and  instantly  seize  upon  any  disabled 
or  soft-bodied  creature  in  the  water  and  de- 
vour it  or  worry  it.  Hook-and-line  fishing  is 
almost  useless  ^ere  these  little  bandits  are 
mimerous,  as  they  rob  tbe  hooks  of  bait,  or 
tear  to  pieces  anything  caught  before  it  can  be 
lifted  out  of  their  reach.  They  will  even  attack 
and  badly  wound  htmian  bathers.  One  of  the 
best  known  and  most  dreaded  is  the  piraya  of 
the  Amazon,  which  is  said  to  come  in  crowds 
wherever  blood  is  shed  in  the  water.  These 
fishes  constitute  the  sub-family  Serrascdmoni- 
tttt,  of  the  family  Characinida.  and  are  inters 
mediate  between  the  cyprinoids  and  the  sahnon- 


d=,  Google 


CARIBOU  — CARICATURE  AND  CARICATURISTS 


611 


(rids.  A  disdngoishing  characteristic  is  (he 
fact  that  the  abdomen  is  serrated  with  sharp 
Klines.  Consult  Gniither,  'Introduction  to  the 
Study   of   Fishes'    (Edinburgh   1880). 

CARIBOU,  kS-ri-boo'.  the  name  of  two 
or  more  species  of  reindeer  inhabiting  Canada, 
which  are  of  ^reat  importance  as  a  source  ot 
food  and  cloth [ng  lo  the  natives  of  Arctic  and 
sub- Arctic  regions,  and  also  arc  of  much  inter- 
est to  sportsmen.  The  caribou  is  so  completely 
a  reindeer  (g.v.)  that  there  seems  little  prac- 
tical reason  for  separating  it  specifically  from 
that  of  Europe,  whence  no  doubt  it  came  by 
migration  in  carl^  Pleistocene  time ;  and  still 
jess  for  the  division  of  this  very  variable  deer 
into  the  many  species  and  subspecies  that  have 
been  described  *by  those  who  believe  that  the 
infinite  variations  of  nature  must  be  followed 
by  an  infinity  of  names.*  It  will  be  convenient, 
nevertheless,  to  follow  the  general  practice  and 
recogniie  two  groups  —  the  Arctic  or  Barren- 
Grounds  caribou  (Kanffifer  arciicus),  and  the 
Woodland  caribou   (Rangifer  caribou). 

The  Arctic  carioou  is  to  be  found  from 
Greenland  to  Alaska  wherever  tundras  and 
a  few  plains  exist  north  of  the  limit  of  Iree- 
growthj  and  on  all  the  islands  of  the  Polar 
Sea.  This  is  in  summer,  when  herbage  springs 
up  along  the  coasts  and  watercourses,  and 
reviving  lichens  and  mosses  fumi^  abundant 
fare.  The  does  and  fawns  scatter  in  little 
parties  by  themselves  at  this  season,  separated 
from  the  widely  wandering  sta^s.  Their  coats 
are  gray  or  light  brown,  varying  locally,  and 
(he  summer-coat  is  acquired  in  July  when  the 
old    winter-coat    is    shed.      This   n 


hair  is  long  and  soft,  and  is  white  at  the  root^ 
but  tinted  toward  the  end.  As  it  grows  and 
thickens  the  hair  becomes  brittle,  the  white 
base  lengthens  as  fast  as  the  brown  tips  wear 
or  break  oS,  and  finally  the  color  of  the  coat 
disappears  and  it  is  virtually  white  all  over  the 
body.  Thus  is  acquired  the  white  winter-coat 
characteristic  of  this  species.  As  autumn 
approaches  these  caribou  gadier  toward  the 
south  from  the  outlying  coasts  and  islands, 
until  huge  herds  are  brought  together  and 
travel  south  to  the  northern  edges  of  the 
Canadian  forests,  in  whose  shelter  they  pass 
the  winter,  shedding  and  renewtno'  their  anders 
at  that  season.  In  the  spring  ttiey  go  north 
as  soon  as  the  snow  permits. 

These  semi-annual  migrations  are  the  har- 
vest times  of  the  Eskimos  and  northern  Indians, 
and  a  successful  attack  on  a  helpless  herd  pro- 
vides them  with  a  supply  of  flesh  and  useful 
materials  that  ensures  a  comfortable  winter; 
but  the  slaughter  has  been  so  inconsiderate 
that  even  on  the  Barren  Grounds  these  herds 
are  now  small  and  scattered  as  compared  with 
a  century  ago,  and  local  famines  are  more  and 
more  suffered,  or  districts  have  been  perma- 
nently abandoned  by  the  inhabitants  in  conse- 
quence. Every  edible  part  of  the  animal,  even 
to  the  entrails  and  marrow  of  the  bones,  is 
eaten.  From  the  bones  and  horns  various  im- 
plements are  made,  while  the  hide  furnishes 
the  best  of  clothing  and  bedding.  The  Arctic 
folks  are  as  dependent  on  their  caribou  as  are 
die  desert-people  on  the  camel. 

The  Woodland  cariboti  has  never  been  so 
necessan-,  although  always  valuable,  to  the  In- 
dians of  central  and  southeastern  Canada,  ex- 
cept perhaps  in  Labrador,  because  there  was 


plenty  of  other  game.  This  species  is  in  gen- 
eral of  larger  size  and  darker  color,  and  has 
heavier  antlers  with  more  points,  than  the  Arctic 
species  just  described.  It  is  variable  in  all  re- 
spects ;  and  two  or  three  forms  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  westward  have  been  called  sep- 
arate species;  but  the  distinctions  are  obscure. 
The  largest  specimens  recorded  come  from 
southwestern  Alaska.  This  species  avoided  the 
open  plains,  but  in  summer  once  roamed  through 
all  the  wooded  region  of  Canada  south  to  the 
Great  Lakes  and  central  New  England.  It  IS 
now  to  be  seen  in  the  United  States  only  in 
northern  Maine  and  along  the  rough  northern 
border  of  Minnesota,  and  in  Canada  has  been 
so  threatened  with  extinction  that  it  has  long 
been  protected  by  law.  This  decrease  is  owing 
main^  to  the  acquirement  of  fire-«rms  by  afi 
the  Indians  of  the  interior,  and  to  the  exten- 
sion of  settlements  far  toward  the  north;  but 
it  is  largetv  due,  also,  to  the  work  of  sports- 
men. To  these  men  caribou  hunting  in  autumn 
and  early  winter  yields  sport  of  a  high  order. 
This  deer,  sensitive  in  sight,  hearing  and  smelL 
and  exceedingly  wary,  affords  an  object  of 
stalkin^-tactics  so  difficult  as  to  make  the  get- 
ting within  riSe  range  of,  and  finallv  obtain- 
ing[  a  'good  head,'  a  feat  to  be  proud  of.  An 
easier  and  more  deadly  way  is  to  track  and 
overtake  a  band  on  snowshoes,  but  this  also 
requires  great  skill  and  endurance,  and  good 
shooting.  The  writings  of  sportsmen- travelers 
in  all  parts  of  Canada  and  Alaska  abound  in 
narratives  of  this  sport,  and  describe  the  habits 
of  this  fine  deer.  Consult  Elliot,  'The  Deer 
Family'  (in  'Sportsman's  Library,'  New  York 
1502) ;  Ingersoll,  'Life  of  Mammals'  (New 
York  1909);  Seton,  'Northern  Mammals* 
(New  York  19(») ;  Tyrrell,  'Report  Canadian 
Geological  Survey  for  ISW  (Ottawa  1897). 
Ekmest  Ingessoll. 

CARICA  (from  caria,  a  district  of  Asia 
Minor,  whence  it  was  supposed  to  have  come), 
a  genus  of  plants,  the  ^pical  one  of  the  order 
of  Papayads    iPapayacea).     See  Papaw. 

CARICATURE  AND  CARICATUR- 
ISTS. A  tendency  to  buriesijue  and  caricature 
is  a  feeling  deeply  implanted  in  hnraan  naturt 
and  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  talents  displayed 
by  [wople  in  a  rude  state  of  society.  An  ap- 
preciation of,  and  sensitiveness  to,  ridicule, 
and  a  love  of  that  which  is  humorous,  are 
found  even  among  savages,  and  enter  largely 
into    their    relations    with    their    fellow-n 


luuijucu  uy  uia  wdiLiuJa,  iijcy  dinuacQ  Eucm- 
selves  by  tumingtheir  enemies  and  opponents 
into  mockerv.  They  laughed  at  their  weak- 
nesses, joked  at  thetr  defects,  whether  physi- 
cal or  mental,  and  gave  them  nicknames  in 
accordance  therewith, —  in  fact,  caricatured 
them  in  words,  or  by  telling  stories  which 
were  calculated  to  excite  laughter.  When  the 
agricultural  slaves  were  indulged  with  a  holi- 
day from  their  labors,  they  spent  it  in  unre- 
strained mirth.  And  when  these  same  people 
began  to  erect  permanent  buildings,  and  to 
ornament  them,  the  favorite  subjects  of  thdr 
ornamentation  were  sach  as  presented  ludicrous 
ideas.  The  warrior,  too,  who  caricatured  his 
enemy  in  his  Speeches  over  the  festive  board, 
soon  sought  to  give  a  more  permaiKnt  form 


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CAXICATURX  AND  CASICATURIfiTO 


to  his  ridicule,  which  he  endeavored  to  do  by 
rude  delineations  on  the  bare  rock  or  on  any 
other  convenient  surface  which  presented  itself 
to  his  hand.  Thus  originated  caricature  and 
the  grotesque  in  art.  In  fact,  art  itself,  in  its 
earliest  forms,  is  caricature ;  for  it  is  only  by 
that  eacagge ration  of  feature  which  belongs  to 
caricature  that  unskilful  draughtsmen  could 
make  themselves  understood.  The  field  of  the 
history  of  comic,  satiric  literature  and  art  is 
very  large,  and  rnany  nations,  ancient  and  mod- 
em, Egypt,  Greece,  Rome,  India,  pagan  and 
Christian  are  represented.  During  the  period 
of  transition  from  antiquity  to  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  Roman  vtimi  continued  to  exist,  and 
the  evolution  of  the  religious  and  secular  cari- 
cature of  the  period  and  of  the  caricature* 
preceding  the  Reformation  was  associated  with 
the  miMi  performers  who  sung  songs  and  told 
stories,  accompanied  with  dancing  and  music, 
an  ever-popular  form  of  amusement.  In  the 
4tb  century  Saint  Av«usline  calls  these  per- 
formances B  f /a  rio,— detestable  things— and  says, 
that  they  were  performed  at  ni^t.  The  soncs 
as  they  are  called  continued  to  consist  not  only 
of  general,  but  of  personal,  satire  and  con- 
tained scandalous  storie^  frequently  accom- 
panied  by  rou^  illustration  or  caricature,  of 

Ecrsons  uving  and  well  known  to  those  who 
card  and  saw  them.  The  Reformation  and 
Puritan  periods  furnish  many  amusing  and 
historically  illuminative  specimens  of  carica- 
ture, domestic  and  political,  as  represented  in 
the  Flemish  school  of  Breughel,  the  Italian 
school  of  Salvator  Rosa  and  the  French  school 
of  Callot  of  the  16th  century.  The  com- 
manding figure  of  the  17th  century  >n 
caricature  is  William  Hcwarth,  the  En^ish- 
man,  whose  new  style  of  design  raised  hun  to 
a  degree  of  fame  as  an  artist  few  men  have 
ever  attained.  A  little  known  fact  is  that 
Benjamin  Franklin,  the  friend  of  Hogarth,  to 
whom  the  dying  artist  wrote  his  last  letter, 
also  was  a  capital  caricaturist,  and  used  his 
skill  in  this  way  as  he  did  all  his  other  gifts 
and  powers  in  behalf  of  his  country  and  his 
kind.  lames  Gillray  was  the  prominent  figure 
in  English  caricature  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
18th  century,  Gavanni  in  France;  George Cruik- 
shank  and  John  Leech  in  England  were  the 
noted  caricaturists  of  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century.  The  two  great  cartoonists  of  recent 
times  have  been  Sir  John  Teuniel  and  Thomas 
Nast,  the  former  being  to  all  Europe  what  the 
latter  was  to  all  America^  and  in  connection 
with  these  two  can  be  satd  all  that  need  be 
said  of  caricaturists  of  our  time.  True,  Nast 
was  practically  alone  in  his  field,  and  he  did 
not  work  as  long  as  did  TennicL  still,  to  judge 
him  at  his  best,  tliou^  the  period  was  compara- 
tively short,  he  stood  high  as  a  picture-maker 
of  tnat  class.  Nast  was  as  brave  as  his  sub- 
ject, Tweed,  the  New  York  city  boss,  was 
crooked,  and  the  two  furnished  the  best  series 
of  caricatures  bv  far  that  have  ever  been  seen 
in  this,  or,  it  might  be  said,  in  any  other  coun- 
try. Nas^  however,  was  not  the  draughtsman 
that  Tenniel  was,  but  what  he  lacked  in  artistic 
finish  he  made  up  in  power  and  force  of  ex- 
pression. 

Since  the  day  of  Tenniel  and  Nast,  cari- 
caturing seems  to  have  fallen  into  less  virile 
hands.  Tenniel  and  Nast  each  drew  a  cari- 
cature once  a  weel^  while  now   caricaturists 


draw  seven  or  eight  in  that  time.  Formeriy 
the  best  caricaturists  were  employed  on  the 
weekly  papers,  while  now  the  better  class  are 
employed  on  the  great  dailies.  But  the  times 
have  brought  this  about,  not  necessarily  the 
caricaturists.  Workingmen  have  no  time  to 
read,  and  a  picture  which  may  tell  all  at  a 
glance  means  more  to  them  man  the  ablest 
editorial  that  the  combined  e<Utors  of  the 
country  could  write.  A  picture  can  be  under- 
stood by  all,  whereas  we  have  many  languages 
and  we  speiuc  but  few,  and  read  fewer.  Words 
we  forget,  but  pictures  stay,  filed  away  in  our 
minds,  and  we  refer  to  them  on  a  moment's 
notice.  Every  day,  as  the  pace  quickens,  and 
the  press  for  time  increases,  we  find  our  time 
for  reading  diminishes,  thus  the  moving-fnc- 
ture  excels  the  finest  description  ever  written 
of  the  same  thing. 

We  sometimes  see  so-called  comic  art,  which 
is  not  comic,  and  that  called  caricature  whidi  is 
not  true  caricature.  A  man  who  draws  a  pic- 
ture of  a  man  with  a  broad  grin  and  winlong 
with  one  ejrc,  or  cross-eyed,  or  perhaps  a  man 
standing  with  one  foot  on  his  other,  is  not 
necessarily  a  caricaturist  any  more  than  is  the 
man  who  puts  big  feet  and  big  noses  on  every 

Ecrson  he  draws.  A  young  caricaturist  who 
ad  submitted  a  picture  to  a  critic  for  bis 
judgment  and  had  received  a  severe  lecture 
on  the  bad  drawing  it  displayed  made  an 
attempt  to  hide  behind  the  fact  that  it  was 
a  caricature,  and  therefore  shouldn't  be  con- 
sidered as  the  critic  was  considering  it.  Where- 
upon he  replied :  *No,  never  try  to  hide  behind 
that.  Remember  oile  thing:  that  poor  draw- 
ing is  not  caricature,  and  another,  that  all  the 
bad  artists  in  the  country  are  not  caricaturists. 
On  the  contrary,  those  who  exaggerate  the 
salient  features  must  draw  them  even  better, 
as  more  attention  is  called  to  a  big  nose  or 
large  ears  if  they  are  made  conspicuously  large, 
than  would  be  the  case  otherwise.* 

But  there  is  something  else  that  a  success- 
ful carii::aturist  must  possess.  That  one  thing; 
whatever  it  may  be  called,  is  of  more  import- 
ance than  the  art  of  drawing  properly,  and  is 
a  certain  force  of  character,  or  of  individuality 
which  at  once  suggests  strengUt  of  purpose  and 
power.  It  can  convey  the  feeHng  of  sadness,  of 
brute  force,  or  excruciating  mirth,  yet  many 
very  fine  drau^tsmen  who  are  styled  carica- 
tunsts  never  draw  with  that  spint  predomi- 
nant, and  without  it  their  productions  are  not 
true  caricatures. 

Thus,  in  trying  to  be  caricaturists,  such  men 
are  robbed  of  the  chance  of  being  serious  illus- 
trators, in  which  work  they  mi^t  succeed;  and 
they  never  succeed  as  caricaturists. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  good  caricatures: 
First,  the  strong,  powerful,  almost  brutal ;  sec- 
ond, the  humorous,  the  one  instantly  compelling 
laughter;  and  last,  but  not  the  least  in  effect,  the 
pathetic :  a  picture  catjable  of  causing  men  to 
weep.  'The  most  effective  are  thepowerful  and 
the  pathetic.  The  humorous  is  indeed  attrac- 
tive, if  not  overdone,  but  you  soon  forget  its 
meaning.  It  can  attack  any  and  ^I  tlungs, 
from  the  weather  to  the  President,  without  of- 
fense. But  the  most  effective  caricature  is  one 
that  the  subject  of  it  would  rather  you 
would  not  print.  Probably  none  can  be  made 
more  powerful  than  the  pathetic  when  it  is 
timed  and  tempered  just  right,  as  lU  appeal  to 


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C  AIOSS — CAJCIHTHIA 


the  sympathy  is  the  surest  way  to  Ac  eraodons. 
Mo  caricaturist  ever  drew  a  caricature  that 
wouM  cause  people  to  shed  tears  on  seeing  il, 
tmless  the  artist  shed  tears  when  he  drew  it 
any  more  than  one  could  draw  an  angry  political 
boss  unless  at  the  time  of  drawing  one  wore 
the  £ame  ann^  and  hateful  expression  on  one's 
own  face.  So  with  the  hnmorist.  One  must 
wear  a  broad  smile  when  he  draws  a  man 
laughing,  unless  one  is  drawing  him  from  life; 
and  unless  one  is  smiling  when  drawing  smiling 
people,  the  subjects  will  seem  to  look  and  laugh 
only  in  mectuuiical  fashion. 

If  the  caricaturist  is  strong  enough  in  his 
Hne  to  be  called  one,  the  first  person  he  wins 
is  himself.  Once  he  has  settled  in  his  own  mind 
that  he  is  worldog  for  a  just  cause,  it  will  be 
noticed  at  once  that  his  work  improves,  and  i£ 
he  continues  to  study  and  put  his  heart  and 
soul  into  it,  others  wiU  be  converted  and  he  will 
acquire  a  following.  If  a  cartoonist  in  his  poli< 
tics  keeps  side  by  side  with  his  pictures  he  will 
be  much  more  of  a  caricaturist  than  one  who 
will  work  on  a  Democratic  paper  one  day  and 
the  next  on  the  Republican  side.  A  young  man 
in  starting  out  should  study  and  choose  for  him- 
self and  in  that  way  he  will  find  that  he  can 
lend  more  power  and  force  to  his  work.  It 
would  be  hard  to  imagine  Thomas  Nast  bi^ng 
in  private  life  a  sympathizer  with  Tweed.  The 
dimculty  with  caricaturists  is  that  they  are 
sometimes  like  the  politician  after  the  election, 
when  he  says;  'No  wonder  the  other  side  won; 
•they  bought  us.'  *  What  interest  could  one 
lake  outside  of  the  mechanical  reproduction  if 
one  knew  that  the  caricaturist  who  had  one 
year  dr^wn  powerful  caricatures  for  one  part* 
would  turn  around  the  next  year  and  work 
for  the  opposition.  The  power  of  a  caricatnre 
becomes  power  onlv  when  the  reader  of  \he 
picture  is  convinced  that  that  which  is  repre- 
sented in  the  picture  really  did  happen,  and 
that  cannot  be  done  by  a  caricatunst  if  one 
day  he  is  with  the  poor,  and  the  next  day  with 
the  rich ;  or  in  the  same  relation  with  any  case 
that  comes  up. 

The  late  John  J.  Ingalls  said  that  the  carica- 
ture did  harm  that  good  misht  follow.  Cari- 
catures, to  be  effective,  should  be  founded  on 
fragments  of  truth,  though  you  are  permitted 
to  dig  below  the  frost  line.  Without  truth  at 
the  bottom  they  are  powerless,  and  with  truth 
at  the  bottom  they  are  powerful  and  everlast- 
ing. Thou^  Tweed,  the  man,  is  dead,  Tweed, 
in  the  caricature,  still  lives,  a  prisoner  in 
stripes,  with  ball  and  chain  to  his  leg.  A  good 
caricature  may  be  called  an  exaggeration  of 
the  truth.  In  these  times  there  are  great  oppor- 
tunities for  the  cartoonist.  The  billionaire  will 
have  to  deal  kindly  and  justly  with  his  fellow- 
men,  or  else  he  will  be  more  of  a  target  than 
ever  before,  but  the  honest  man  need  never 
fear  a  caricature;  on  the  contrary,  he  can  laugh 
and  go  about  his  business,  and  if  he  is  attacked, 
^e  attacks  will  react  in  his  favor.  But  they 
cannot  be  recommended  as  the  steady  diet  for 
a  dishonest  person,  since  whether  he  has  a 
conscience  or  not,  if  they  don't  bring  him  to 
justice  they  will  give  hira  many  a  sleepless 
ni^t. 

BibSompby^— Flogel,  E.,  'Geschichte  des 
Grotesk-Komischen '  (Leipzig  1778);  Champ- 
flenry,  F.,  (Histoire  g^irale  de  la  carica- 
tDre>  (Paris  1865-«0) ;  Wright,  R,  (Histoiy  of 


Caricature  and  Grotesque'  (London  1875) ; 
Parton,  J.,  'Caricature  and  other  Comic  Arts' 
(New  York  1877) ;  Grand-Carteret.  J.,  *Lea 
nMEurs  et  la  caricature  en  Allemagne,  en 
Atitriche  et  en  Suisse'  (Paris  1B85)  ;  Everitt, 
W^  <Ei^ish  Caricaturists  of  the  19th  Century' 
(London  1886). 

CARIBS,  Idir^-e^  a  form  of  local  death  hi 
bone  due  to  a  varies  of  agents.  Caries  is 
usually  distinguished  from  necrosis,  another 
type  of  local  death  in  bone,  by  the  slower  dis- 
integration of  the  bone  affected  bj[ 'the  carious 
process.  Necrosis  usually  results  in  the  death 
of  large  ineces  of  bone,  with  the  formation  of 
sequestra.  Caries  is  a  gradual  disintegration 
without  sequestration.  Caries  is  the  result  of 
inflammation  of  the  softer  tbsues  in  the  bone 
spaces,  and  is  due  usually  to  some  definite 
form  of  irritant  It  may  be  diat  of  a  gas, 
such  as  chlorine,  or  phosphorus,  the  latter 
causinE  in  match-works  a  form  of  caries  of  the 
jaw ;  out  bacteria  of  tuberculosis  and  syph- 
ilis are  the  most  frequent  causes.  Tubercu- 
lous caries  is  the  most  frequent  form  of  the 
disease.  See  Hip  Joint  Disease;  Tubercu- 
ijosis.    For  caries  of  the  teeth,  see  Teeth. 

CAKIGARA,  ka-re-ga'r^  Philippines,  a 
town  of  the  province  of  Leyte,  situated  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  island,  22  miles  west  of 
Tadoban.  It  has  a  harbor  formed  by  a  bight 
extending  11  miles  inland,  carries 'on  a  con- 
siderable  coast  trade  and  is  an  important  hemp 
port    Pop.  about  16,00). 

CAKIONAl^O,  ka-rte-yi'nft,  Italy,  a  city 
in  the  province  of  Turin,  11  miles  south  of  die 
latter  on  the  left  bank  of  die  Po.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  old  walls,  and  has  a  handsome 
square  ornamented  with  arcades,  some  fine 
churches,  some  silk-spinning^  mills  and  sugar- 
refineries.  From  this  town  is  named  a  branch 
of  the  house  of  Savoy.     Pop.  7,000. 

CARILLON.  ka-re-y6n.  a  kind  of  chime, 

Elayed  either  by  hand  or  clodcwork  on  a  num- 
er  of  bells,  fomdag  a  complete  series  or  scale 
of  tones  or  semi-tones,  like  those  of  the  organ 
or  kaipsichord.     See  Chiiies. 

CARIHATA,  ki-re-ma'tt,  or  KARI- 
HATA,  a  name  applied  to  the  strait  between 
Borneo  and  Billiton;  also  to  a  cluster  of  a 
hundred  islets  and  reefs  (area,  57  square  miles; 
pop.  500)  in  that  strait;  and  lastly,  to  the  prin- 
cipal member  of  the  group,  whose  highest 
point  reaches  2,600  feet,  and  is  in  lat.  1°  36'  S. 
and  long.  108'  54'  E. 

CARINI,  ka-re'n£  Italy,  city  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Palermo,  island  of  Sicily,  17  miles  north- 
west of  the  city  of  Palermo.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  four  miles  from  the  sea,  in  a  fertile 
region.  It  has  a  Gothic  castle  of  the  14th 
centun.  In  the  vicinity  are  caves  in  which 
animal  fossils  are  found  The  Sicilian  revolu- 
tionists were  defeated  hert^  18  April  186C^  by 
the  Bourbon  troops.  North  of  the  town  was 
the  amdent  Hyccara,  from  which  the  Athenians 
carried  off  the  12-yeai>oM  Lais,  who  grew  up 
to  be  90  famous  a  couResan,  Fishing  is  die  chief 
occupation.  The  district  produces  much  com 
and  wine.     Pop.  about  14,000. 

CARINTHIA  (Ger.  KJUnthen),  a  duchy 
and  crownland,  between  lat.  46°  24'  and  47*  T 
N.,  and  long.  12°  35'  and  15'  Iff  E^  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Salzburg  and  S^ria,  on  the 


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C  ARIHUS — CAKLAN 


east  by  Stjria,  on  the  south  W  by  Caniiola  and 
on  the  west  by  Italy  and  Tyrol ;  area,  3,986 
square  miles.  It  is  extremely  mountainous,  gen- 
erally sterile,  and  one  of  the  most  thinly  popu- 
lated provinces  of  Austria.  The  arable  land 
does  not  exceed  290,000  acres,  but  there  are 
some  fertile  valleys,  and  a  considerable  extent 
of  rich  pasture  land.  It  has  several  livers  and 
lakes.  Of  the  former  the  principal  is  the  Drave. 
All  of  them  abound  with  &sh.  The  country 
does  not  yield  corn  enough  for  the  consump- 
tion of  the  inhabitants,  who  import  the  defi- 
ciency from  Hungary.  The  cereals  most  exten- 
sively cultivated  are  rye  and  oats.  Some  wine 
is  produced  in  Lower  Carinthia,  but  it  is  of 
inferior  quality.  Cattle,  sheep  and  horses  are 
raised  in  considerable  numbers,  but  the  mines 
of  Carinthia  are  the  main  sources  of  its  wealth. 
The  chief  of  these  are  lead,  iron  and  calamine. 
Various  kinds  of  ^ems  are  met  with.  Its 
operative  industry  is  chiefly  confined  to  the 
working  of  its  metalUc  ores,  thou^  there  are 
also  manufactories  of  woolens,  cottons,  silk 
stuffs,  etc.,  most  of  which  are  in  Klagenfurt, 
the  capital.  Bessemer  steel  rails,  vvire,  wire 
nails  and  bar-iron  are  produced  in  great  quan- 
tities. Some  machinery,  firearms  textiles, 
leather  goods,  cement  and  wood  pulp  are  ex- 
ported. Klagenfurt  is  the  centre  of  the  rail- 
way lines,  of  which  there  are  about  385  miles. 
The  Diet  .consists  of  37  members  and  the 
crownland  sends  nine  members  to  the  Lower 
House  of  the  Austrian  Reiehsrat.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Klagenfurt  and  Villach. 
Carinthia  formed  part  of  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne,  and  afterward  belonged  to 
the  dukes  of  Frtuli.  It  subsequently  passed 
dirou^  various  hands,  and  finally  be- 
came an  appendage  of  the  Austrian  Crown,  in 
1321.  In  1609  it  was  annexed  to  the  empire  of 
Napoleon,  but  was  restored  to  Austria  in  1814. 
Nearly  alt  the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics. 
The  population  of  Klagenfurt,  the  capital,  is 
24,284;  that  of  the  crownland  396,20a 

CARINUS,  Marciu  AurelltUI,  Roman  Em- 
peror: d.  285  A.D.  He  was  the  elder  of  the  two 
sons  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Cams,  who  con- 
jointly succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
their  father,  284  a.d.  His  brother  was  supposed 
to  have  been  murdered  on  his  return  from  the 
East,  and  Carinus,  ruling  alone,  became  one  of 
the  most  profligate  and  cruel  of  the  Roman 
emperors.  The  -  soldiers  having  rebelled  and 
proclaimed  Diocletian  emf>eror,  Carinus  col- 
lected the  troops  that  were  m  Italy  and  marched 
into  Mcesia  to  meet  Diocletian  and  quell  the 
revolt.  A  decisive  battle  was  fought  near  Mar- 
^s,  in  which  Carinus  gained  the  victory,  but 
m  die  moment  of  triumph  he  was  slain  by  one 
of  his  own  officers,  whom  the  vices  of  the  Em- 
peror had  outraged. 

CARIPB,  ka-ri'pi,  Venezuela,  town  situ- 
ated in  a  valley  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
trovince  of  Bermudez.  It  was  formerly  tlie 
eadquarters  of  the  Capuchins,  and  contains 
the  ruins  of  their  church  cloister.     In  the  vicin- 


_)  feet  high)  in  which  lives  the  bird  known  as 
guacharo,  a  kind  of  nighthawk.  Pop.  about 
5,000. 


Wight,  and  overlooked  by  the  ruins  of  its  aih- 
cient  castle,  where  Charles  1  was  imprisoned 
13  months,  previous  to  his  trial  and  execution. 
The  castle  and  grounds  cover  30  acres.  Within 
the  walls  is  a  well  200  feet  deep.  The  parish 
church  of  Saint  Mary  is  a  venerable  structure, 
with  a  fine  perpendicular  tower  containing  a 
chime  of  bells.  It  was  formerly  attached  to  a 
Benedictine  priory  founded  uncfer  William  the 
Conqueror,  but  the  priory  no  longer  exists.  In 
1859  a  Roman  villa  was  discovered  at  Caris- 
brooke^  and  the  place  seems  to  have  been  a 
fortress  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  occupation. 
Pop.  5,139. 

CARISBROOKE,  Marquis  of.    See  Bat- 

TENBEKG,    PSIMCE    HBNKY    MaUUCX. 

CARISSIMI,  ka-res'se-me,  Qiacomo,  Ital- 
ian composer:  b.  Uarino  1604;  d.  Rome,  12 
Jan.  16?4.  In  1624-28,  he  was  Kapellmeister  at 
Assisi,  and  then  became  musical  director  of  the 
church,  of  Saint  Apollinaris  in  Rome,  and  con- 
tinued in  that  position  until  his  death.  Me 
wrote  many  oratorios,  cantatas  and  motets, 
and  has  been  praised  for  his  characteristic  ex- 
pression of  feeling  and  his  easy,  flowing  style. 
He  deserves  most  honor  for  the  improvement 
of  the  recitative,  having  given  it  a  more  ex- 
pressive and  natural  language,  and  he  ^eatly  de- 
veloped the  sacred  cantata.  His  ofatono  'Jonah* 
has  been  revived  in  recent  times.  It  anticipates 
in  the  descriptive  passages  some  of  the  etFccb 
since  elaborated  by  the  modem  classical  com- 
posers, and  it  is  altogether  distinguished  fay 
freedom,  boldness  and  striking  antiphonal 
imitations.  Other  works  are  'Jephthah' ;  'Judi- 
cium Salomonis' ;  'Baltaiar';  'Jonas*  (in  VoL 
11  of  Chrysander's  'Dcnkmalcr  der  Tonkunst* 
1856);  'Motets>  (1664  and  1667);  'Masses* 
(1663  and  1667);  'Arie  da  camera*  (1667); 
and  <Ars  Cantandi*  (3d  ed.  1696).  As  a  teacher 
Carissimi  was  greatly  esteemed,  Alessandio 
Scarlatti,  Buononcini,  Cesti,  Kerll,  Krieger  and 
Charpentier  being  among  his  pupils. 

CARL,  William  Crane,  American  ors^^t- 
b.  Bloomfieli  N.  J.,  2  March  1865.  He  was 
educated  in  Paris  under  Alexander  Guilmant; 
received  the  degree  of  Mus.D.  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  New  Yoric  1911  — OfEder  de  ITn- 
struction  PubUnue,  and  member  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Music    (conferred'  by  the   French 

Sovemment).  He  ts  organist  and  musical 
[rector  of  the  old  First  Presbyterian  Church. 
New  York,  and  has  given  over  150  free  organ 
concerts  there ;  is  director  of  the  Guilmant  Oi^n 
School,  New  York;  inaugurated  many  of  the 
large  organs  in  America^  including  a  series  in 
Dawson  City  (Klondike) ;  has  appeared  with 
the  leading  orchestras  at  expositions,  and  at 
music  festivals.  He  toured  Japan  and  made 
successful  study  of  the  music  of  the  Orient 
Author  'Master^eces'  (1898);  "Ecclesis 
Organum' ;  'Festival  Music  for  Organ'  (5 
vols.)  ;  'Master-studies* ;  'Novelties  for  Organ' 
(2  vols.)  ;  also  anthems,  songs  and  articles  on 
musical  subjects.  A  founder  of  tbe  American 
Guild  of  Orgatiists ;  membre  de  VAlUance 
Francaise;  member  of  the  National  Association 
of     Organists     and     Fraternal     Society     of 


CARL^N,  kar-lan'.  Emilia  Smith  Fbnre, 
Swedish  novelist :  b.  Stromstad,  8  Aug.  1807 ;  d. 
Stockholm,  5  Feb.  1892.  In  1827  she  married  a 
physician  naiaed  Flygare.    In  1838  she  published 


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her  first  novel,  'Waldemar  Kldn,'  and  amonc 
the  best  of  her  subsequent  works  are  the  'Pro- 
fessor' (1840):  'A  Year'  (1846);  'The 
Brother's  Bet';  and  <The  Guardian'  (1851). 
Several  of  her  novels  have  been  translated  into 
English.  After  his  death  in  1833,  she  decided 
to  devote  herself  to  literature.  In  1341  she 
married  J.  G.  Carl£n,  a  law/er  and  pMt 
After  his  death  in  1875,  her  literary  activity 
ceased  altogether,  although  her  salon  bad  been 
the  centre  of  literary  life  at  the  capital.  In 
1878  she  published  a  volume  of  'Reminiscences 
of  Swedish  LJteiaty  Life.'  She  had  clear  in- 
sight into  the  conditions  of  human  Life,  es- 
pecially of  life  in  the  middle  class,  and  she 
describes  it  with  admirable  fidelity.  Character- 
istic are  *GusUv  Lindorm'  (1839) ;  'The  Rose 
of  TUtelon'  (1842);  <The  Maiden's  Tower' 
(1848),  all  translated  into  English.  Consult 
Svanberg,  <E.  F.  Carlin';  'En  studie'  (Stock- 
holm 1912) ;  Sehoeldstroen,  'E.  F.  CarMn' 
(ib.  1888), 

CARLBTON,  Gay,  1st  Lord  Dorchester, 
British  eeneral  and  colonial  governor:  b.  Ire- 
land 3  Sept.  1724;  d.  Maidenhead,  England,  10 
Nov.  1808.  He  served  under  General  Amherst 
at  the  second  siege  of  Louis  burg  1758,  and 
under  Wolfe  in  1759  at  Quebec,  where  he  was 
wounded.  In  1762  he  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  British  attack  on  Havana.  Sent  out 
as  licuterant-govemor  of  Quebec  in  1766,  he 
remained  closely  identified  with  Canada  for 
well-nigh  40  years.  He  inspired  the  Quebec 
Act  (1774) ;  when  the  Revolutionary  War 
broke  out  he  was  commander  of  the  British 
army  in  Canada,  defended  Quebec  with  great 
skill,  and,  reinforced  by  a  British  squadron  in 
May  177o,  forced  Benedict  Arnold's  army  to 
retire.  In  1782  he  became  commander-in-chief 
of  the  British  army  in  North  America  and  dur- 
ing his  command  peace  was  finally  concluded. 
Again  appointed  governor  of  Quebec  in  1786 
he  was  soon  rewarded  with  a  peerage  as  Baron 
Dorchester.  He  helped  to  frame  the  Consti- 
tutional Act  of  1791,  which  divided  Canada  intp 
two  provinces.  He  remained  at  Quebec  until 
1796,  and  died  in  England  in  1808,  aged  84.  By 
defeating  Arnold's  attack  on  Canada,  Carleton 
really  saved  British  North  America  to  Great 
Britain.  He  was  a  stem  but  humane  officer,  and 
was  especially  loved  by  the  newly-conquered 
French  whom  he  ruled  in  Canada. 

George  M.  Wmiig. 

CARLETON,  James  Henry,  American 
Soldier:  b.  Maine  1814;  6.  San  Antonio,  Tex., 
7  Jan.  1873.  In  February  1839  he  took  part  in 
the  'Aroostook  War,*  relative  to  the  northeast 
boundary  of  the  United  States^  and  later  was 
commissioned  2d  lieutenant  in  the  1st  United 
States  Dragoons.  In  1846  he  took  part  in 
Kearny's  expedition  to  the  Ro<^  Mountains, 
senrcd  on  (General  Wood's  staff  in  the  Mexican 
War,  received  the  brevet  rank  of  major  for 
galluitiy  at  Buena  Vista;  and  later  was  chiefly 
employed  in  o^loring  expeditions  and  against 
hostile  Indians.  In  1861  he  was  ordered  to 
aoutbem  California,  raised  the  famous  'C^i- 
fomia  column,*  and  marched  across  the  Yuma 
and  Ciila  deserts  to  Mesilla  on  the  Rio  Grande. 
As  commander  of  the  Department  of  New  Mex- 
ico he  was  active  in  a  number  of  severe  en- 
gagements. For  his  services  he  was  brevetied 
major-general,  13  Mardi  1865;  became  lienten- 


EETOH  eifi 

ant-colonel  of  the  4th  Cavalry,  31  July  1866; 
and  was  promoted  colonel  of  the  2d  Cavalry, 
June  186&  and  ordered  with  his  regiment  to 
Texas.  He  wrote  'The  Battle  of  Buena  VisU' 
(1848). 

CAKLBTON,  Mark  Alfred,  American 
grain  expert:  b.  Jerusalem,  Ohio  1866.  After 
studying  at  the  iGinsas  Agricultural  College  he 
was  appointed' in  1894  cerealist  in  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  1898-99 
he  proceeded  to  Russia  and  Siberia  to  investigate 
agncultural  conditions,  and  on  his  return  intro- 
duced among  several  other  new  crops  durum 
wheat.  Durum  wheal  has  now  taken  the  place 
of  the  soft  spring  wheat  varieties  in  Texas, 
Nebraska,  Oklahoma  and  Kansas,  vlitb  an 
annual  yield  estimated  at  $40,000,000.  His  writ- 
ings, cluefly  bulletins  of  the  United  Slates  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  include  'Cereal  Rusts 
of  the  United  Slates,  1899';  'The  Basis  for  the 
Improvement  of  American  Wheats'  (1900): 
'The  Commercial  Status  of  Durum  Wheat* 
(1904);  "Barley  cnlture'  (1908);  'Ten  Years 
experience  with  Swedish  Select  Oaf  (1910); 
'Winter  Eymp^r'    (1911). 

CARLBTON,  Thomu,  English  soldier 
and  administrator ;  b.  Newry,  County  Down, 
Ireland,  1735:  d  1817.  He  entered  the  20th 
R^meot  in  his  18tli  year,  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Minden  and  served  in  Canada  under 
his  brother  Sir  Guy  Carleton,  during  the 
American  Revolutionary  War.  He  was  first 
governor  of  New  Brunswick,  1784-1817.  In  his 
administration  of  that  province  it  was  said 
that  he  showed  'a  generous  contempt  of  bis 
own  private  wealth,  and  an  exact  fn^ality  in 
the  management  of  that  which  belonged  to  the 

CARLETON,  Will,  American  poet:  b. 
Hudson,  Mich.,  21  Oct.  1845;  d.  1912.  Soon 
after  his  graduation  at  Hillsdale  in  1869  he 
traveled  widely  as  a  lecturer  in  the  northern 
and  western  states,  Great  Britain  and  Canada. 
He  is  best  known  in  literature  by  his  ballads  of 
home  life,  many  of  them  having  gained  great 
popularity.  His  books  include  'Poems'  (1871)  ; 
'Farm  Legends'  (1875)  ;  'City  Ballads'  (1888)  : 
'City  Legends'  (1889);  'City  Festivals' 
(1892);  fRhymes  of  Our  Planet'  (1895); 
•The  Old  Infant,  and  Similar  Stories' ; 
'Young  Folks'  Centennial  Rhymes' ;  'Songs  of 
Two  Cfenturies'  (1902);  'Dnfted  ln>  (1908); 
<A  Thousand  Thoughts'  (1908).  He  was  also 
for  a  time  editor  of  Everywhere,  an  illustrated 
magazine. 

CARLETON,  Williwn,  Irish  novelist  and 
short-story  writer:  b.  Prillisk,  County  Tyrone, 
20  Feb.  1794;  d  Sandford.  30  Jan.  1869.  His 
father  was  a  farmer  on  a  small  scale.  The  son, 
intended  for  the  priesthood  from  a  tender  age, 
spent  his  boyhood  in  pursuit  of  an  education, 
and  managed,  in  spite  of  Afliculties,  to  acqiUTc 
a  fairiy  creditable  one.  With  no  other  equLft- 
ment,  and  without  a  penny  in  his  pocket,  he  set 
out  On  foot  from  his  native  county,  at  about  the 
age  of  24,  to  seek  his  fortune,  for  he  had  lone 
aoandoned  all  ambition  for  the  sacerdotal 
dignity.  Arrived  in  Dublin,  he  dedded  to 
clnnRe  his  religion,  and  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Established  Irish  Protestant  Church.  He 
subsisted  for  a  time  on  some  tuitions,  and  when 
he  obtained  a  clerkship,  witii  a  salary  of  £60  a 


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«1«  CARL 

year,  in  the  Sunday  School  Society,  he  thought 
that  he  was  provided  for  for  life.  On  the 
strength  of  this  clerkship  and  the  income  de- 
rived from  some  evening  tuitions,  he  married 
Jane   Anderson,   his    faitnful   and    loyal    com- 

Cion  for  the  remainder  of  hia  life;  but  before 
first  child  was  bom  he  was  ousted  from  bis 
position  in  the  Society.  A  period  of  school- 
mastering,  first  at  Mullingar  and  afterward  at 
Carlow,  followed;  but  he  eventually  gravitated 
back  to  Dublin,  At  that  time  (1828),  the 
United  Kingdom  was  rocked  to  its  base  by  the 
climax  of  the  agitation  for  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion. The  Evangelicals,  an  aggressive  party 
which  had  taken  the  Church  oflreland  under 
its  special  protection,  were  then  powerful  in 
Dublin.  For  the  propagation  of  thrir  views 
they  had  a  monthly  publication.  The  Christian 
Examiner,  and  to  this  magazine  Carkton  was 
invited  to  contribute  stories  and  sketches  based 
on  the  superstitions  of  the  Catholic  Irish 
peasantry,  a  subject  with  which  he  was  thor- 
oughly  acquainted.  He  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  its  pages  in  April  1828  with  the 
first  part  of  *A  Pilgrira^e  to  Patrick's  Purga- 
tory,' in  which  several  Catholic  tenets  and 
tjractices  were  savagdy  ridiculed.  He  con- 
tinued to  write  for  the  Exaimner,  along  much 
the  same  lines  until  December  1831.  In  the 
meantime,  he  brought  out,  in  1830,  the  first 
series  of  his  inimitable  'Traits  and  Stories  of 
the  Irish  Peasantry,'  and  he  followed  this  up, 
in  1833,  with  the  second  series.  Both  collec- 
tions are  brimful  of  humor  and  pathos,  die 
second  containing,  among  other  pieces,  ^The 
Poor  Scholar'  and  'Tubfisr  Derg,'  two  of  the 
finest  things  he  ever  wrote.  For  some  years 
Carleton  contented  himself  with  producing 
rfiort  stories  and  sketches,  so  that  it  became  ^ 
bj^-word  among  his  friends  that  a  long  novel, 
with  an  intricate  and  sustained  plot,  was  be- 
yond his  range.  'Jane  Sinclair'  (1836)  did  not 
do  much  to  dissipate  this  belief,  but  when 
'Fardorougha  the  Miser'  came  out  in  1837-38, 
it  became  evident  that  a  new  star  bad  risen 
above  the  literary  horizon.  This  pathetic  novel 
excels  in  the  portraiture  of  the  vice  of  avarice: 
Fardorougha  has  been  compared,  and  not  un- 
favorably, with  Moliere's  Harpagon  in 
*L'Avare'  and  with  BaUac's  Pere  Graodet  in 
^Eugenie  Grandet.'  In  Honor  O'Donovan 
Carleton  has  presented  to  us  one  of  those 
heroines  in  humble  life  in  whose  delineation  he 
admittedly  excels. 

The  success  of  the  Nation  newspajjer, 
founded  in  Dublin  in  1842,  gave  a  new  direction 
to  Carleton's  thou^ts.  ifitherto  his  attitude 
had  been,  on  the  whole,  one  of  satirical  censure 
on  the  religion  of  the  great  majority  of  his 
fellow-countrymen  and  of  more  or  less  open 
hostility  to  Irish  national  aspirations.  He  now 
saw  that,  if  he  -wished  to  be  popular,  he  must 
espouse  the  popular  side.  AccortUngly,  in 
'Valentine  McCltitchy'  (1845),  he  made  a  regu- 
lar rigjit-about-face,  and  let  himself  go,  almost 
without  restraint,  in  attacking  Orangeism,  the 
Grand  Jury  system,  the  methods  by  whidi  the 
Union  was  carried,  the  Charter  Schools, 
absentee  landlords  with  their  conscienceless 
agents,  the  corruptions  of  Irish  Protestantism, 
and  even  the  practices  and  pursuits  oE  the 
Evangelical  party.  'Valentine  McQutchy,'  al- 
thou^  loosely  constructed,  is  yet  instinct  with 
the  power  of  genius.  ,  Two  of  its  characters. 


Solomon  UcSlime,  the  bypocritical  attorney, 
and  Darby  O'Drive,  the  apostatiiing  bailiff,  are 
great  ori^nal  creations.  This  was  Carleton's 
most  prohAc  period.  In  rapid  succession  work 
after  work  flowed  from  his  pen:  'Art  Uaguirc,' 
'Tales  and  Stories  of  the  Irish  Peasantry* 
(not  to  be  confused  with  'Traits  and  Stories'), 


best  works,  with  two  wonderfully  contruted 
heroines,  "rhis  was  followed  in  1847  by  the 
pathetic  'Emigrants  of  Ahadarra.'  'The 
Tithe-Proctor'  (1849)  showed  another 
kaleidoscopic  change.  It  gave  mortal  offense 
to  many  of  his  readers,  both  from  the  stand  it 
takes  regarding  the  Anti-Tithe  War  of  the 
thirties,  and  from  the  aspersions  deliberately 
cast  in  the  preface  on  the  diaracter  of  the  Irish 
people  ana  the  popular  movements  of  the 
forties.  'The  Squanders  of  Castle  Squander' 
(1^2)  is  also  full  of  rancorous  and  bitter 
political  and  religious  discussion.  He  is  seen 
to  .greater  advantage  in  'The  Black  Baronet,' 
originally  pubUshed  in  1852  as  'Red  Hall.' 
This  is  a  story  depicting  love,  ambition,  and 
revenge,  and  has  a  most  intricate  and  bafHing 
plot,  not  discoverable  until  the  very  end.  One 
of  its  great  characters  is  Father  U^cMafaon, 
the  prototype  of  many  of  those  clerical  oddities 
who  have  since  contributed  to  the  gaiety  of 
nations.  The  popularity,  which  Carleton  won 
with  'Valentine  McClutcny'  and  lost  with  'The 
Tithe- Proctor,'  he  regained  in  full  measure 
with  'WiHy  Reilly  and  his  dear  Colleen  Bawn> 
0855).  'The  scene  is  laid  in  the  days  of  the 
Penal  Laws,  and  the  obvious  sympathy  dis- 
played with  the  cruelly  oppressed  Catholics  re- 
stored the  author  to  the  affections  of  bis  warm- 
hearted and  forgiving  fellow-countrymen.  The 
novel  itself  is  poorly  constructed,  and  the  plot 
hinges  on  a  series  of  improbabilities,  but  its 
subject  has  made  it  the  most  popular  of  Carle- 
ton's works.  Other  novels  arc  'The  Evil  Eye' 
(1860),  'The  Double  Prophecy'  (1861),  and 
'Redmond  C^unt  O'Hanlon,  the  Irish  Rapparee' 
(1862).  Carleton  wrote  some  verse  and  one 
play.  His  verses  are  generally  of  a  pensive  and 
meditative  cast.  His  best  and  best-known  poem 
is  the  ballad  'Sir  Turlough,  or  the  Churchvard 
Bride'  (1830),  which  has  been  pronouncea  the 
most  successful  legendary  bailad  of  modem 
times.  His  solitary  play,  'The  Irish  Manufac- 
turer, or  Bob  Gawley's  Projeci'  produced  at 
the  Theatre  Royal,  DubUn_,  in  March  1841,  was 
not  a  success,  and  was  withdrawn  after  a  few 
nights.  On  some  of  his  novels  plays  have  been 
founded  by  other  hands,  and  several  of  his 
books  have  been  translated  into  French  and 
German.  From  the  time  of  his  return  to  Dub- 
tin  in  1828^  Carleton's  life  was  singularly  un- 
eventful. He  was  a  devoted  husband  and 
father,  and  loved  to  spend  his  time  in  the 
bosom  of  his  faitiily.  He  was  always  poor, 
and  nearly  always  in  debt,  and  even  a  literary 
pension  of  £200  a  3rear,  which  was  granted  to 
him  in  1848,  and  which  he  drew  for  the  re- 
maining 21  years  of  his  life,  did  not  help 
materially  to  mitigate  his  financial  troubles. 
Cancer  of  the  tongue  was  the  cause  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  Sandford,  ConaQr 
Dublin,  on  30  Jan.  1869.  He  died,  as  he  had 
lived,  in  the  profesdon  of  the  Protestant  faith. 
(Carleton  made  some  incursions  into  middJe- 
<iaat  life,  and  even  into  the  domains  of  higher 


d=,  Google 


CARLETON  COLLBOS—CARUN6 


^ , , ,,  -,  -1  in  hi* 

element  and  entirely  at  Home.  No  one  ever 
understood  oi  described  the  Irish  peasant  of 
75  or  100  years  ago  as  he  did.  The  faction 
fi^ht,  the  party  fight,  the  courtship,  the  wed- 
ding, the  christening,  the  death-bed,  the  wake, 
the  funeral,  the  hedge  school,  the  secret  so- 
ciety, the  workings  of  landlordism,  the  practices 
of  the  unjust  and  rapacious  land  agent,  the 
eviction,  tne  revenge,  the  [uety,  superstitions, 
customs,  peculiar  cicpressions,  modes  of 
thought  and  outlook  on  hfe  of  the  people -- he 
brings  them  all  before  us  clearly,  vividly,  un- 
mistakably. Consult  O'Donoghue,  D.  J.,  'Life 
of  Carlelon*    (1896). 

Patsick  J.  Lennox. 
Professor  of  EngUsh  Language  and  Literature, 
Catholic  University  of  America. 
CARLETON  COLLEGE,  Minn.,  at 
NorthGeld  was  founded  in  1866,  and  named  in 
iionor  of  William  Caileton  of  Chailestown, 
Mass.,  who  bequeathed  for  the  purpose  JSOjOOO. 
While  conducted  under  Cougregational  auspices, 
its  instruction  is  undenominational.  The  prop- 
erty valued  at  $600,000  includes  a  campus  and 
grounds  of  over  120  acres.  The  endowment  is 
over  £1,000,000.  There  are  weU'Cquipped  chemi- 
cal, physical,  biological  and  astronomical  labora- 
tories, a  conservatory  of  music  and  growing 
library.  There  is  a  general  annuBl  attendance 
of  over  400  pupils,  with  a  college  faculty  of 
34  professors  and  instructors. 

CARLETON  PLACE,  Canada^  town  of 
Lanark  County,  Ontario,  on  a  na viable  tributary 
of  the  Ottawa  called  the  Mississippi  River,  at 
the  foot  of  Mississippi  Lake,  and  on  the  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  Railway,  28  miles  southwest  of 
Ottawa,  46  miles  northwest  of  Brockville.  It 
has  a  fine  water  power,  lar^e  lumber  and  Single 
mills  and  woolen  and  iron  manufactories ; 
water  and  sewerage  systems;  and  is  lighted  by 
gas  and  electricity.  The  neighborhood  is  a 
favorite  camping  ground  for  summer  pleasure 
parties.     Fop.  3,621. 

CARLI,  kar  le,  Giovanni  EInaldo.  Count. 
Italian  economist  and  antiquarian:  b.  Capo 
d'lstria,  11  April  1720;  d.  22  Feb.  1795.  He  was 
of  an  ancient,  noble  family,  and  early  manifested 
an  inclination  for  the  study  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
with  which  he  connected  the  study  of  beUes- 
lellres  and  of  poetry.  In  bis  24th  year  the 
senate  of  Venice  made  him  professor  of  astron- 
omy  and  naval  science.  He  published  his  works 
(1784-*4>  in  15  volumes^under  the  title  'Opere 


include  bis  work  on  the  coins  of  Italy  *Delie 
Moaete*  (3  Vols.,  1754-60);  and  'Delle  An- 
tichiti  Italidie>  (5  voU.,  1788-91).  His  com- 
plete works  appeared  in  18  volumes,  1784-94. 


Clarksburg,  W.  Va.,  1878.  After  admissi 
the  bar  in  1840  he  settled  at  Beverly  RandohA 
County,  and  began  the  practice  of  law.  From 
1847  to  1651  he  served  in  the  State  senate. 
He  ivas  also  a  delegate  to  the  Virginia  Con- 
stitutitMial  Convention  of  1850-51,  and  repre- 
sented his  district  in  Congress  1855-57.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he  was  an 
avowed  Unionist.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Wheeling    Convention    which    established    the 


Reorganiied  Gavemncnt  of  Virginia  and  ur«d 
quick  action  in  the  erection  of  a  new  State.    He 


elected  to  Congress  in  1861  to  represent  the 
Wheding  district  of  the  Reorgatiircd  Govern- 
ment of  Virginia,  but  soon  thereafter  was  pro- 
moted to  the  senate,  where  he  served  until 
1865. 

CARLILB,  Richard,  English  freethinker 
and  publisher:  b.  Ashburton,  Devonshire,  8 
Dec.  1790;  d  Londoii,  10  Feb.  1843.    First  ap- 

?renliced  to  a  chemist,  then  to  a  tinman,  he 
ound  employment  in  the  latter  line  as  a 
journeyman  worker  in  London,  where  after 
reading  Paine's  ^Rights  of  Man,'  he  became 
a  bold  freethinker,  and  a  publiuicr  and  pur- 
veyor of  its  forbidden  literature.  He  re}>rinted 
William  Home's  'Parodies'  and  an  imitstion 
^titled  'The  Political  Litany*  (1817),  for 
which  he  underwent  18  weeks'  imprisonment 
In  1819  he  was  fined  (7  500  and  imprisoned  for 
three  years  for  publishing  the  woiks  of  Paine 
and  other  freethought  writers.  While  in 
prison  be  conducted  me  publication  of  the  first 
12  volumes  of  The  Republican  (1819-26),  for 
which  his  wife  was  seoteoced  to  two  years' 
imprisonment.  Started  by  the  Duke  of  Well- 
ingtoiij  a  fund  of  $30,000  was  raited  to  prose- 
cute Carlile's  assistants,  his  property  was  con- 
fiscated, his  sister  was  fined  $2,500  and  with 
lived  terms  of  imprisonment, 
lonths  to  three  years.  Public 
government  discontinue  the 
prosecutions.  On  his  release  Carlile  started 
The  Gorgon,  a  radical  weekly  periodical,  Be- 
fore his  death  he  was  again  imorisoned  for 
terms  of  three  years,  and  oT  10  weiJcs  for  refus- 
ing to  pay  church  rates.  He  was  the  boldest 
■  agitator  and  the  greatest  factor  for  freedom  of 
public  speech  ana  printing  of  his  period. 

CARLIN,  Tbomaa,  American  politician: 
b.  Kentucky  1790;  d.  2  Feb.  1852.  He  removed 
to  Illinois  in  1813,  and  gradually  accumulated 
wealth,  and  became  known  and  respected 
among  the  scattered  p<>puiation  about  him.  He 
ed  governor  in  1838*  and  retained  that 


ranging  fror 


ing  engaged  largely  m  iniernal  unprovcments, 
suffered  severely  from  the  commercial  revul- 
sion which  was  then  paralyzing  the  whole  coun- 
try. She  was  much  in  debt,  and  had  within 
her  borders  no  specie,  and  no  available  means 
of  payment  The  discussion  of  the  slavery 
question,  too,  was  then  furious,  and  had  just  led 
to  the  tragic  death  of  E.  P.  Loveioy.  At  ihc 
same  time  the  Mormons  took  up  tticir  position 
at  Nauvoo,  and  politicians  were  beginning  those 
movements  for  partisan  ends  wliich  seemed 
likely  to  throw  the  State  into  anarchy,  and 
whidi  ended  ere  long  in  the  violent  death  of 
the  Mormon  leader.  That  Governor  Carlin, 
amid  such  a  condition  of  affairs,  was  three 
times  re-elected  to  the  chief  magistracy  affords 
a  sure  indication  both  of  his  popularity  and  bis 
force  of  character. 

CARLINE  THISTLE.    See  Thisue. 

CARLING,  Sm  John,  Canadian  statennan: 
b.  Middlesex  County,  Ontario,  1828;  d.  .1911. 
He  received  earl^  education  in  pubEc  schools; 
in  1839  he  remold  to  London,  Ontario,  <irtiere 
he  joined  his  father  in  the  brewing  and  malting 
business.  After  serving  in  the  public  edacities 
of  *chooi  trustee  and  aldennan,  hciras  elcctod 


=,  Google 


•10 


C  ARUNVILLB  —  CASLISLB 


in  1^7  Conservative  member  for  London  in  the 
Canadian  l^^tive  astembly.  From  1867-72 
be  represented  London  in  both  the  House  of 
Commons  and  the  Ontario  legislature,  resifni- 
ing  his  seat  when  dual  representation  was 
abolished.  In  1862,  he  was  Receiver-General; 
in  1867-71  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and 
FubUc  Works;  1882-85  Postmaster-General; 
1885-91  Minister  of  Agriculture.  In  1891 
elected  to  the  senate,  he  resigned  in  1892  but 
was  reappoioted  in  1896.  He  received  the 
honor  of  knighthood  in  1893,  His  efforts  on 
behalf  of  Canadian  agriculture  were  of  in- 
calculable value. 

CARLINVILLE,  111.,  a  dtjr  and  county- 
seat  of  Macoupin  County,  60  miles  southwest 
of  Springfield,  on  the  Chicago  &  Alton  and 
other  railroads.  It  has  a  prosperous  local  trade 
and  manufactures  of  bricks  and  tiles,  agricul- 
tural implements,  etc.  There  are  coal-mines, 
oil  and  natural  gas  wells  in  the  vicinity.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Blackburn  University,  a  Prcsby' 
terian  institution.  Its  courthonse  is  considered 
one  of  the  finest  public  buildings  in  the  State. 
It  was  settled  in  1833  and  incorporated  in  1865. 
Pop.  3,616. 

CARLISLE,  kar-m',  CharlcB  Arthur, 
American  business  man ;  b.  Chillicothe,  Ohio, 
3  May  1864.  He  received  a  public  school  ed- 
ucation, and  early  in  lite  began  work  on  the 
Marietta  &  Cincinnati  Railway  as  messenger 
boy.  From  1884-86  he  was  connected  with  the 
Ohio  State  Journal;  and  in  the  latter  year  re- 
turned to  railroad  work  in  the  freight  depart- 
ment of  the  «Nickel  Plate'  road;  in  1890  he 
was  made  purchasing  agent  of  the  ■Burke  Sys- 
tem' of  railroads ;  later  became  director  of  the  . 
Studebaker  Brothers  Manufacturing  Company 
at  South  Bend,  Ind.,  and  in  1904  was  elected 
president  of  the  American  Trust  Company  of 
South  Bend.  He  is  vice-president  of  the 
National  Association  of  Manufacturers;  is  a 
member  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  and  of  the  American  In- 
slitute  of  Civics,  and  is  prominent  in  charitable 
work  and  puMic  affairs  in  his  home  city. 

CARLISLE,  George  WUliam  Frederic 
Howard,  English  statesman  and  author,  7th 
earl:  b.  London,  18  April  1802;  d.  Castle 
Howard,  4  Dec.  1864.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxfori  where  in 
1821  he  won  the  Chancellor's  and  the  Newdi- 

Ste  prizes  with  a  Latin  and  an  English  poem. 
5  became  earl  7  Oct.  1848,  previous  to  which, 
as  Lord  Morpeth,  he  had  traveled  extensively 
in  the  United  States.  He  was  a  long  time 
attach^  to  the  British  embassy  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg. In  the  reformed  House  of  Commons  he 
represented  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and 
under  the  Melbourne  ministry  was  secretary  o£ 
state  tor  Ireland.  In  1841  he  was  defeated  in 
the  West  Riding  by  his  Conservative  opponents, 
in  1846,  under  the  administration  of  Lord  John 
Russell,  he  was  appointed  commissioner  of 
woods  and  forests,  and  chancellor  of  the  duchy 
of  Lancaster.  He  was  the  first  of  the  Whig 
noblemen  of  the  official  class  to  give  in  his 
adhesion  to  the  views  of  the  Anti'Corn  Law 
League.  In  1856  he  delivered  before  the 
Mechanics'  Institute  at  Leeds  two  lectures, 
since  published,  on  the  life  and  writings  of 
Pope,  and  on  die  United  States.  Previous  to 
(he  Crimean  War,  he  made  a  tour  in  tlA;  east 


of  Europe,  and  puhliihed  his  *Diar^  in  Turkish 
and  Greek  Waters.'  On  the  accession  of  Lord 
Palmcrston  in  1855,  be  was  nominated  lord 
Ucutmant  of  Ireland,  which  othce  he  held  till 
the  resignation  of  the  Palmerston  ministry  in 
1858.  His  works  include  'The  Life  and  Writ- 
ings of  Pope>  (1851)  ;  a  tragedy,  'The  Last  of 
the  Greeks*;  and  a  volmne  of  'Poems'  issued 
posthmnously.  His  'ViceregaJ  Speeches,'  ed- 
ited by  J.  Gaskin,  appeared  m  1866. 

CARLISLE,  John  Griffin,  American  states- 
man :  b.  Kenton  County,  Ky,  5  Sept  1835 ;  d.  31 
July  1910.  He  received  a  common-school  ed- 
ucation, studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1858.  He  served  several  terms  in  the 
State  legislature.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
actively  opposed  secession,  and  in  1866  and  1869 
was  a  member  of  the  Slate  senate.  He  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  Kentucky,  1871-75 ;  was 
elected  to  Congress,  1876,  and  five  times  re- 
elected. His  ability  soon  made  him  one  of  the 
Democratic  leaders.  In  the  48th,  49th  and  50th 
congresses  he  was  chosen  speaker.  In  1890  he 
was  elected  United  States  senator,  hut  resigned 
in  March  1893,  to  accept  the  portfolio  of  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  in  President  Oeveland's 
Cabinet.  At  the  close  of  his  term  he  settled  in 
New  York  to  practise  law.  In  1896  he  opposed 
Bryan  and  made  able  "sound  money*  speedies. 

CARLISLE,  England,  city,  c^tal  of  Cum- 
berland County,  on  the  nver  Eden,  eight  miles 
from  the  Solway  Firth,  and  eight  miles  from 
the  Scottish  border,  300  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  London.  Ore  of  the  oldest  cities  of 
England,  important  during  the  Roman  occjipa- 
tiott,  its  nearness  to  the  border  made  it  a 
prominent  military  station  in  the  wars  between 
the  English  and  the  Scotch.  The  Norman 
castle  built  in  1092  is  well  preserved  and  is 
still  used  as  a  garrison  fortress.  In  the  Civil 
War  Carlisle  sided  with  the  King  against  Crom- 
well, and  in  1745  declared  tor  the  pretender. 
The  bishop's  see  dates  from  1133;  the  cathedral, 
built  in  the  Middle  Ages,  has  no  great  archi- 
tectural interesL  The  city  is  well  supplied  with 
municipal  institutions  and  its  chief  industries 
are  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  iron  foundries,  railway  workshops,  tan- 
neries and  breweries.    Pop.  *5,500. 

CARLISLE,  Pa.,  borouf^  and  county-seat 
of    Cumberland    County,    on_  the    Cumberland 


and  manufacturing  trade  centre  of  Cumberland 
County,  and  is  the  site  of  DickiiisDn  College, 
founded  1783,  Metager  Female  CoUe;^  and  the 
Uliited  States  Indian  Training  School.  It  has 
a  national  bank,  large  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, Hamilton  Library,  Todd  Hospital,  and 
an  assessed  property  valuation  of  $3,000,000, 
The  industries  uidnde  machine  shops,  chain 
and  switch  worics,  axle  factory,  cotton-weaving 
and  silk-throwster  mills,  body  and  gear  works, 
ribbon  mills,  shoe  factories,  flour  nulls,  ho^eiy, 
paper-box  and  carpet  factories.  Mount  Holly 
Sprii^,  in  the  mountains  just  outside  the  city, 
is  a  popular  sununer  resort.  The  govemment 
is  administered  by  a  burgess  elected  for  three 
years  and  a  borough  council.  It  was  the  head- 
quarters of  Washington  during  the  Whisky 
Rebellion  In  1794,  and  was  bombarded  by  the 
Confederates    in    1863.      Pop.    10,303.      Coo- 


d=v  Google 


CARLISLE  IHDIAM  SCHOOL— CARLOS 


619 


■ull  Wing,  'Htstoiyof  Cuinber]aiidCouaty,Pa,> 
(IK^). 

CARLISLE  INDIAN  SCHOOL.  Sm 
Unitsd  States  Indian  Tiaininc  and  Indus- 
TUAj.  School. 

CARLIST8,  a  Spanish  political  faction 
which  advocated  the  claims  of  Carlos  of  Bour- 
bon and  his  descendants  to  the  Spanish  throne. 
In  1833  the  Carlists,  whose  chief  strength  lav  in 
the  Basque  provinces,  and  who,  because  of  toeir 
Catholic  traditions  and  tendencies,  were  se- 
cretly favored  by  the  Pope  and  the  Eastern 
powers,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  Thejr 
had  the  advantage  until  1836,  when  Espartero 
inflicted  on  them  a  terrific  defeat  at  Ludona. 
In  Ai%ust  1839  their  commander,  Uaroto, 
treacherously  made  peace,  and  the  remaining 
Carlists  soon  fled  to  France.  In  1873  the  giand- 
soo  of  the  first  pretender  raised  another  re- 
volt in  the  Basque  provinces  of  Navarre  and 
Biscay,  but  after  several  sharp  conflicts  the 
rebels  were  hemnied  in  along  the  north  coast, 
and  in  1376  the  pretender  and  his  chief  sup- 
Kirters    fled    into    France.      See    Caklos    Bt 

BOUKBON. 

CARLONE,  Idr-lo'nl,  the  name  of  an 
Italian  family  of  distinguished  artists,  who 
flourished  in  the  16th,  17th  and  18lh  centuries. 
The  most  celebrated  of  them  are:  1.  Tapdeo, 
a  native  of  Rovio,  who  excelled  in  sculpture 
and  architecture,  and  was  employed  principally 
in  Genoa  I  b.  lS43;  d.  1613.  2.  Giovanni  An- 
dsea.  eldest  son  of  Taddco;  b.  Genoa  1590;  d. 
1630  in  Milan.  He  made  great  progress  in 
painting  under  the  tuition  of  Pietro  Sorri  in 
Stena,  and,  having  afterward  studied  under 
Passignano,  distinguished  himsell  particularly 
by  his  frescoes,  in  which  the  freedom  and  spirit 
of  desijp,  the  depth  of  expressioo,  grandeur  of 
conception  and  richness  of  coloring  are  ad- 
mired! 3.  Giovanni  Battista,  brother  of 
Giovanni  Andrea:  b.  Genoa  1592:  d.  in  Turin 
1677.  He  was  also  a  scholar  of  Passignano. 
and,  like  bis  brother,  painted  for  years  in 
Genoa,  but  ultimately  entered  the  service  of  the 
Duke  of  Savoy.  He  excelled  particularly  in 
frescoes.  4.  Andrea,  son  of  Giovanni  Battista: 
b.  22  May  1639  in  Genoa;  d.  there,  4  April  1697. 
He  studied  in  Rome,  in  Venice  (where  he  was 
powerfully  influenced  by  the  style  of  Ver- 
onese);  hved  for  several  years  in  Per\igia  and 
founded  an  academy  of  art  there.  The  ancestor 
of  this  branch  of^  the  family  was  Giovanni 
Cirlone,  who  came  from  Rovio  to  Genoa  about 
1570.  Another  branch  is  traced  back  to  Scaria, 
near  Eovio.  Carlones  of  more  or  less  artistic 
distinction  are  more  than  SO  in  number,  as 
shown  in  Thieme- Becker,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  3-10. 

CARLOS,  Don,  d6n  kar'los.  Infant  o£ 
Spain,  son  of  Philip  II  and  Maria  of  Portugal: 
b.  Valladobd,  8  Tulv  1545;  d.  1568.  He  was 
sickly,  and  one  of  nis  legs  waa  shorter  than 
the  other.  The  extreme  indulgence  with  which 
be  was  educated  by  Joan,  sister  of  the  King, 
confirmed  his  violent,  obstinate  and  vindictive 
disposition.  Recent  historical  research  has 
proved  that  he  was  afflicted  with  hereditary  in- 
sanity, which  an  accident  (occurring  in 
1562)  involving  skull  fracture,  emphasized. 
In  1560  Philip  caused  him  to  be  ac- 
Iraowledged  heir  of  the  throne  by  the  Estates 
assembled  at  Toledo,  and  in  1562  he  sent  him 
to    the   University  of    Alcala  de   Henares   in 


stani 


bMies  that  the  study  of  the  sciences  would 
soften  his  turbulent  character.  Contemporary 
historians  differ  in  the  description  of  the  Prince. 
According  to  some  he  had  a  thirst  for  glory, 
an  elevated  courage,  pride  and  a  love  of  power. 
According  to  others  be  was  fond  of  whatever 
was  strange  and  uncommon;  an  accident  or 
opposition  irritated  him  to  frenzi^;  address  and 
submission  softened  him.  He  is  also  repre- 
sented as  a  favorer  of  the  insurgents  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  in  particular  as  an  enemy  of 
the  Inquisition ;  yet  he  possessed  neither  knowl- 
edge nor  principles,  nor  even  sufficient  under- 
iding  to  be  capable  of  liberal  views.  With 
_.  all  was  passionate  excitement,  which  re- 
sistance converted  into  fury.  Llorente,  the 
historian  of  the  Inquisition,  has  corrected  the 
accounts  of  the  character  and  fate  of  this 
Prince  from  authentic  sources  in  his  work  on 
the  Spanish  Inquisiticm  (q.v.).  According  to 
him  Don  Carlos  was  arrogant,  brutal,  ignorant 
and  ill-educated.  So  much  is  certain,  that  at 
the  Congress  of  Gateau  Cambrfsis  (1559)  the 
marriage  of  Don  Carlos  with  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Henry  II  of  France,  was  proposed: 
but  Philip,  being  left  a  widower  by  the  death  o( 
Mary  of  England,  took  the  place  of  his  son. 
Don  Carlos  is  said  to  have  loved  Elizabeth, 
and  to  have  never  forgiven  his  father  for  hav- 
ing deprived  him  of  her.  Llorente  proves,  how- 
ever, that  Don  Carlos  never  had  fallen  in  love 
with  the  Queen,  and  that  she  was  never  too 
intimate  with  him.  In  1563  Philip,  who  had  no 
other  heir  than  Don  Carlos,  considering  him 
unfit  for  the  throne,  sent  for  his  nephews,  the 
archdukes  Rodolph  and  Emestus,  to  secure  to 
them  the  succession  to  his  dominions,  Don 
Carlos,  who  lived  in  continual  misunderstand- 
ing with  his  father,  resolved  in  1565  to  leave 
Spain,  and  was  on  the  point  of  embarking  when 
Ray  (jomez  de  Silva,  a  confidant  both  of 
Philip  and  Carlos,  dissuaded  him  from  his 
resolution.  In  1567,  when  the  rebellion  in  the 
Low  Countries  disquieted  Philip,  Don  Carlos 
wrote  to  several  grandees  of  the  kingdom  that 
he  had  the  intention  of  goinr  to  Germany. 
He  disclosed  his  plan  to  his  uncle,  Don  Tuan  of 
Austria,  who  tola  Philip  what  Don  Carlos  had 
confided  to  him.  It  is  believed  that  he  was 
touched  by  the  sufferings  of  the  people  of  the 
Netiierlands.  Philip  himself  seemed  to  believe 
that  his  son  intended  to  go  to  the  Netherlands. 
The  Infant  had  often  shown  a  vehement  desire 
to  participate  in  the  government.  But  Philip, 
jealous  of  his  own  authority,  treated  his  son 
coolly  and  with  reserve,  while  he  gave  his  con- 
fidence to  the  Duke  of  Alva,  to  Ruy  Gomez  de 
Silva,  Don  Juan  of  Austria  and  Spinola.  Don 
Carlos  conceived  an  invincible  aversion  to 
them.  The  architect  of  the  Escnrial,  Louis  de 
Foix,  narrates  the  following  story  relating  to 
Don  Carlos,  which  has  been  preserved  to  us 
by  De  Thou.  The  Prince  had  always  under 
his  pillow  two  naked  swords,  two  loaded 
pistols,  and  at  the  side  of  his  bed  several  guns, 
and  a 'chest  full  of  other  firearms.  He  waa 
often  heard  to  complain  that  his  father  had  de- 
prived him  of  his  bride.  On  Christmas  even- 
ms  he  confessed  to  a  priest  that  he  had  re- 
solved lo  murder  a  man.  The  priest,  therefore, 
refused  him  absolution.  The  prior  of  (he 
monastery  of  Atocha  artfully  drew  from  him 
expressions  from  which  it  could  be  inferred 
that  be  meditated  an  attempt  Upoa  his  own 


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CASL08  I— CAKLOS  DB  BOURBON 


father.  Tbe  story  was  then  communicated  to 
the  King,  who  exclaimed,  'I  am  the  man  whom 
my  son  intends  to  mur/ler;  but  I  shall  take 
measures  to  prevent  it'  Thus  Philip,  impelled 
by  hatred  or  fear,  by  policy  or  superstition,  re- 
solved on  the  destruction  of  his  only  son,  in 
whom  he  saw  only  a  criminal,  unworthy  of  the 
crown.  On  the  night  of  18  Jan.  1568  while 
Don  Carlos  was  buried  in  a  deep  sleep.  Count 
Lerma  entered  his  chamber  and  removed  his 
arms.  Then  appeared  the  King,  preceded  by 
Ruy  Gomez  de  Silva,  &e  Duke  of  Feria,  the 
grand  prior  of  the  order  of  Saint  John,  brother 
of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  several  officers  of 
the  guard  and  state  councillors.  Don  Carlos 
Still  slept  They  awoke  him :  he  beheld  the 
King,  fais  father,  and  exclaimed,  *I  am  a  dead 
man.»  Then,  addressing  Philip,  he  said,  'Does 
your  Majesty  wish  to  kill  me?  I  am  not  mad, 
but  reduced  to  despair  by  my  sufferings.*  He 
conjured  with  tears  those  who  were  present 
to  put  him  to  death.  *I  am  not  come,*  an- 
swered tbe  King,  *to  put  you  to  death,  but  to 
punish  you  as  a  father,  and  to  brii^  you  back 
to  your  duty.*  He  then  commanded  him  to 
rise,  deprived  him  of  his  domestics,  ordered  a 
box  of  papers  under  his  bed  to  be  seized  and 
committed  him  to  the  care  of  the  Duke  of  Feria 
and  six  noblemen,  enjoining  them  not  to  permit 
him  to  write  nor  to  speak  with  any  one.  These 
guards  clothed  Don  Carlos  in  a  mourning  dress, 
took  from  his  chamber  the  tapestry,  the  furni- 
ture and  even  his  bed.  Don  Carlos,  full  of 
rage  and  despair,  caused  a  large  fire  to  be 
kindled,  under  nl-etext  of  the  extreme  cold  of 
the  winter,  and  threw  himself  suddenly  into 
the  flames.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  he  was 
rescued.  He  attempted  by  turns  to  finish  his 
life  by  thirst,  by  hunger,  by  eating  to  excess. 
After  Philip  had  endeavored  to  justify  his 
measures  to  the  Pope  and  the  principal 
sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  had  also  given  notice 
to  the  superior  clergy,  the  courts  of  justice  and 
the  cities  of  his  empire,  of  what  had  passed,  he 
referred  the  case  of  the  Prince,  not  to  the  In- 

Juisition,  but  to  the  council  of  state,  under  the 
irectioQ  of  Cardinal  Espinosa,  who  was  state 
councillor,  grand  inquisitor  and  president  of  the 
Junta  of  Castile.  This  court  is  said,  after  a 
minute  examination  and  hearing  many  wit- 
nesses, to  have  condemned  him  to  death.  Other 
accounts,  however,  state  that  he  died  of  a  maliR- 
nant  fever  before  any  judgment  was  passed, 
after  having  taken  tbe  sacrament  with  much 
devotion,  and  having  asked  his  father's  pardon, 


'Don  Carlos,  nouvelle  historique'  (Paris 
1672);  Schiller.  <Don  Carlos';  Alfieri,  'Philip 
the  Second' ;  de  Campistron,  J.  G.,  'An- 
dronic';  Otway,  T.,  'Don  Carlos,  Prmce  of 
Spain' ;  N&fief  de  Arce,  <Hai  de  Leita.'  For 
a  discussion  of  plays  on  this  subject,  by 
Xim6nez  de  Enciso  and  Juan  Pfrez  de  Mont- 
lavan,  consult  Bacon,  G.  W.,  'The  Life  and 
Dramatic  Works  of  Doctor  Juan  Pita  de 
Montlavin'  (1602-38)  fin  Revue  Hispanique, 
Vol.  XXVI,  pp,  1-474.  1912).  For  the  histori- 
cal  account  consult  Ranke.  in  'Wiener  Jahr- 
bueher    der    Lilteratur'    (Vol.  XLVI,  Vienna 


,  1899,  reprinted  1905) ;  Hume,  'The  Spamish 
People'    (London  1901). 

CARLOS  I,  King  of  Portugal  19  Oct 
1889-1  Feb.  1908:  b.  28  Sept  1863;  assassinated 
Lisbon,  1  Feb.  1908.  He  was  son  of  King  Luii 
I  and  Queen  Maria  Fia  who  was  the  daufiliteT 
of  King  Victor  Emmanuel  l!  of  Italy;  and  was 
a  descendant  of  King  John  IV,  sometimes  called 
•The    Restorer*— that    Dom    Jo4o,     Dnke    of 


Portugal  from  Spain.  In  190S  when  Carlos 
visited  King  Edward  VII.  the  historic  friend- 
ship of  Portugal  and  England  was  strengthened. 
Carlos  married  Princess  Uarie  Amelia,  dau(^- 
'  r   of    Philip   d'Orleans,    Comte    de    Paris 


CARLOS  DB   BOURBON,   Don   Maiia 

IsiEDR,  second  son  of  Charles  IV  of  Spain  and 
brother  of  Ferdinand  VII:  b.  29  Marth  1788; 
d.  Trieste,  10  March  1855.  In  1808  he  was  com- 
pelled by  Napoleon  along  with  his  brother,  who 
had  now  succeeded  to  the  throne,  to  renounce 
all  claims  to  the  succession,  and  was  detained 
with  Ferdinand  in  captivity  at  Valency  in 
France  till  1814.  In  1816  he  married  Maria 
Frandsca  d'Assis.  daughter  of  John  VI  of  Por- 
tugal, his  brother,  the  King  of  Spain,  having  at 
the  same  time  espoused  another  daup^ter  of 
John  ax  his  second  wife.  This  last  marriage, 
lijce_  Ferdinand's  first,  having  turned  out  un- 

S>ductive  of  issue,  a  prospect  opened  to  Don 
rios  of  succeeding  to  the  crown,  whidi  al- 
most assumed  the  snape  of  absolute  certainty 
when  a  third  marriage  contracted  by  Ferdinand 
proved  equally  unsuccessful  with  the  two  for- 
mer in  producing  an  heir  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy. On  the  death  of  Ferdinand  s  third  wife 
in  1829  he  again  married,  and,  by  a  pragmatic 
sanction,  the  contingency  of  a  female  heir  was 
provided  for  by  the  repeal  of  the  Salic  law, 
which  excluded  such  from  the  throne.  On  10 
Oct.  IS30,  Maria  Isabella,  afterward  Queen  of 
Spain,  was  bom.  In  1832  Don  Carlos'  party 
succeeded  by  taking  advantage  of  the  King's 
imbecile  condition  in  obtaining  a  repeal  of  me 
pragmatic  sanction;  but  this  advantage  was 
temporary,  as  Ferdinand  disowned  his  act  on 
recovering^lhc  use  of  his  reason.  The  follow- 
ing year  Don  Carlos  was  exiled  with  his  wife 
to  Portugal ;  and  having  refused  to  return  to 
be  present  at  the  taking  of  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  young  Queen,  he  was  commanded 
by  Ferdinand  to  retire  to  the  Papal  States.  On 
29  Sept.  1833  Ferdinand  Vll  died,  and  a  few 
days  afterward  his  consort,  the  Queen-regent 
repeated  the  order  to  his  brother  to  quit  the 
country.  The  latter,  however,  now  annoimced 
himself  as  legitimate  King  of  Spain,  and  was 
recognized  as  such  b^  a  considerable  par^  yAio 
excited  a  civil  war  in  his  favor,  and  thence- 
forward were  designated  by  the  title  of  Carlists. 
After  a  course  of  hostilities  extending  over 
several  years  with  varyii^  success,  he  found 
hhnself    obliged    in    1839    to    take    sbdter  is 


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CARLOTA  —  CARLSBAD 


6S1 


France.  In  the  meantime  he  and  his  descend- 
ants had  been  formally  excluded  from  the 
juccession  by  a  vote  of  die  Cortes  in  1836.  On 
arriving  in  France  the  castle  of  Bourges  was 
assigned  him  as  a  residence,  and  be  was  also 
detuned  a  prisoner  there  for  a  considerable 
time  owing  to  bis  refusal  to  make  the  Tenuncia< 
tions  demanded  of  him.  In  1S45  he  resigned 
his  claims  in  favor  of  his  eldest  son,  and  in 
1847  was  permitted  to  take  up  his  abode  in 
Trieste,  where  he  died.  Consult  Baumgarten, 
•Geschichte  Spanicns'  (Leipzig  1861)  ;  Butler- 
Garke,  'Modem  Spain*  (Cambndge  1906) 
with  a  useful  bibliography;  Hume,  'Modern 
Spain*  (London  19ft),  an  account  by  one 
wQOse  family  took  a  considerable  part  in  the 
events  of  the  first  half  of  the  book,  and  who 
himself  witnessed  much  of  what  is  related  in 
the  last  half. 

CAKLOTA,  kar-Jd'ta,  Philippines,  (1)  a 
town  of  Negros  Occidental,  situated  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  island  of  Negros,  20  miles  south 
of  Bacolod.  Pop.  13,097.  (2)  A  town  in  the' 
eastern  part  of  Ute  island  of  Negros  (Negros 
Oriental).    Pop.  6,386. 

CARLOTTA  (Uabib  Cailotta  Autux), 
Empress  of  Mexico :  b.  near  Brnssels,  7  June 
1840.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Leopold  I,  King 
of  Belgium,  and  married  Maximilian,  Ardiduke 
of  Austria,  27  July  1857.  In  1863  she  went  with 
her  husband  to  Mexico  and  remained  there 
till  1866>  when  the  dissatisfaction  against  the 
empire  forced  her  husband  to  send  ber  from  the 
land  of  their  adoption  to  ask  help  in  France. 
She  could  obtain  no  assistance  from  Napoleon 
III  and  went  to  Rome  to  appeal  to  tbe  Pope. 
Before  negotiations  there  were  completed,  her 
health  gave  way  under  the  strain,  ana  after  tbe 
end  of  the  emiure  and  tbe  execution  of  her 
husband  (19June  1867)  she  became  totally  in- 
sane. She  was  taken  at  6rst  to  the  Chateau  of 
Laeken,  and  afterward  to  the  Chateau  de  Bou- 
choute,  near  Brussels,  Belgium,  where  she  was 
still  living  in  seclusioa  at  the  time  of  the  in- 
vasion of  her  native  land  and  the  beginning  of 
the  war  in  Europe. 

CARLOVINGIANS,  or  CAROLIN- 
GIANS,  the  second  dvnasty  of  the  French  or 
Prankish  Kings,  which  supplanted  the  Me- 
rovingians, deriving  the  name  from  Charles 
Martel  or  his  grandson  Charlemagne  (that  is, 
Karl  or  Charles  the  Great).  Its  origin  is  usu- 
ally traced  to  Saint  Amulf,  bishop  of  Metz 
(d.  641),  whose  grandson,  Pepin  of  Heristal, 
held  the  oSice  of  mayor  of  the  palace  in  Bur- 
gundy, Nenstria  and  Austrasia.  This  Pepin  of 
Heristal,  who  died  in  714.  left  as  his  successor 
a  young  grandson ;  but  the  actual  inheritor  of 
his  abiuty  was  Charles  Martel,  a  natural  son. 
Charles  Martel  became  mayor  of  the  palace  in 
714  to  the  Merovingian  rot  fainlaHt  Childeric, 
and  in  this  ofEce  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Pepin 
le  Bref,  who  in  751  deposed  the  merely  nominal 
King  and  himself  assumed  that  title.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Charlemagne  and  his  brother 
Carloman  (768-71),  Charlemagne  became  sole 
king  in  771,  and  extended  greatly  the  dominions 
of  the  family.  In  800  Leo  III  crowned  him 
Emperor  of  the  \yest.  On  his  death  in  814  he 
was  succeeded  \iy  his  son  Louis  the  Pious,  who 
divided  his  empire  among  his  sons,  and  at  bis 
death,  in  840,  his  son  Charles  the  Bald  became 
King    of    Neiutria,    the    Spanish    Mark    and 


Aquitania,  and  is  therefore  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  French  dynasty.  He  died  in  877. 
and   was    succeeded   by   a    number   of    feeble 

Irinces.  The  dynasty  came  to  an  end  with 
ouis  V  who  died  in  987.  The  house  of  Capet 
followed  it,  and  the  Capets  also  traced  their 
descent  from  Charlemagne,  but  only  because 
they  were  connected  1^  marriage  with  the 
Carlo  vingians. 

CARLOVITZ,  or  CARLOWITZ.  See 
Raelowitz. 

CARLOW,  Ireland,  an  inland  county  in 
tbe  province  of  Leinster,  surrounded  by  Kildare, 
Wicidow,  Wexford,  Kilkenny  and  Queen's 
County.  It  is  generally  level  or  undulating  ex- 
cept in  the  southeastern  parts.  The  chief  rivers 
are  tbe  Slaney  and  Barrow.  From  tbe  remark- 
able fertility  of  its  soil  it  is  almost  entirely  an 
agricultural  coun^,  producing  a  great  de^  of 
butter,  com,  flour  and  other  agricultural 
produce  for  exportation.  Agriculture  is  here 
carried  on  with  as  much  skill  and  knowledge 
of  recent  improvements  as  anywhere  in  Ire- 
land, and  there  is  less  poverty  than  in  most 
parts.  There  is  abundant  limestone,  and  granite 
IS  quarried.  Area  346  square  miles.  Pop. 
fWIl)  36,252,  of  which  89.2  per  cent  are  Roman 
Catholics. 

CARLOW,  Ireland,  the  capital  of  the 
county  of  Carlow,  on  the  Barrow,  56  miles 
southwest  of  Dublin  by  rail,  with  which  it  is 
also  connected  by  canal.  It  has  two  principal 
streets  intersecting  at  right  an^es.  A  bridge 
of  five  arches  leads  over  the  Barrow  to  the 
suburban  village  of  Grai^e,  in  Queen's  Comity. 
The  principal  public  bmldings  are  the  fioman 
Catholic  cathedral  and  college  and  the  Prot- 
estant parish  church.  It  is  Hgnted  by  electricity, 
and  has  an  excellent  water  supply.  Clarlow  is 
the  principal  mart  for  the  agricultural  produce 
of  (he  surrounding  country,  has  brewing  and 
com  milling  industries,  and  anthracite  coal  is 
worked.  On  rising  ground  to  the  south  stand 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Carlow,  still 
presenting  a  very  imposing  appearance.  In  the 
Rebellion  of  1798  Carlow  was  unsuccessfully 
attacked  by  tbe  insurgent  forces.  Pop.  (1911) 
6,619. 

CARLSBAD,  karls'bat,  Bohemia,  a  town 
on  tbe  Tepl,  near  its  influx  into  the  Eger,  116 
miles  west  by  north  of  Prague  by  raiL  It  is 
widely  celebrated  for  its  hot  mineral  springs, 
and  is  perhaps  the  most  aristocratic  of  tne 
watering  places  of  Europe.  In  the  season, 
April  to  October,  the  visitors  may  number 
from  50,000  to  60,000.  Set  in  most  lovely  scen- 
ery 1,165  feet  above  sea-level,  the  town  is  well 
built  and  offers  good  accommodation  for  its 
guests.  The  temperature  of  the  hot  springs 
varies  from  47°  to  165°  F.  The  principal 
spring,  the  Sprudel,  has  a  very  large  volume, 
and  is  forced  up  to  a  height  of  three  feet  from 
the  ground.  Altogether,  the  daily  flow  of  the 
springs  of  Carisbad  is  estimated  at  2.000.000 
gallons.  Somewhere  approaching  2,000;000 
bottles  of  water  are  exported  annually.  The 
principal  ingredient  in  the  water  is  suljdiate  o( 
soda.  The  whole  town  of  Carlsbad  appears  to 
stand  on  a  vast  caldron  of  boiling  water,  which 
is  kept  from  bursting  only  by  the  safety-valves 
the  springs  provide.  Ascribing  its  foundation 
-  I  Ae  Emperor  Charles  IV  0347),  Cirlgbad 
n  by  Joseph  I.    Here  were 


was  made  a  free  ti 


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CARLSBAD — CARLSON 


CARLSBAD,  CoDgress  of,  a  conference 
of  ministers  representing  Austria,  Prussia  and 
many  small  German  states,  which  met  at  Carls- 
bad in  August  1819  to  concert  measures  to  ar- 
rest the  democratic  tendencies  then  manifesting 
themselves  in  Germany.  Its  members  recom- 
meoded  to  their  governments  and  to  the  Ger- 
man Diet  the  famous  'Carlsbad  Decrees,'  which 
were  adopted  by  the  Diet,  20  Sept  1819.  Among 
the  most  important  of  the  decrees  were  those 
recommending  severe  press  censorship,  the  es- 
tablishment at  Maim  of  a  central  commission 
for  the  investigation  of  political  intrigues,  the 
suppression  of  the  secret  student  organization, 
the  Btirschenschaft,  and  government  inspection 
of  the  universities, 

CARLSBAD  DECREES,  the  resolutions 
adopted  in  the  summer  of  1819  at  the  con- 
ference of  the  German  ministers  at  Carlsbad, 
for  the  suppression  of  the  so-called  Demagogic 
Movement,  The  fear  of  a  far-spreading  con- 
spiracy against  the  German  princes,  winch  had 
been  excited  by  the  murder  of  Kotzebue  by 
Karl  Sand,  was  skillfully  employed  by  Metter- 
nich  as  an  excuse  for  combming  the  German 
pnvermnents  for  the  extermination  of  Liberal- 
ism. The  representatives  of  Austria,  Prussia, 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Wurtemberg, 
Baden,  Mecklenburg,  Nassau  and  Saxe-Weimar 
participated  in  the  meeting.  It  was  decided, 
that  iLe  censorship  of  the  press  should  be 
rendered  more  strict,  that  the  universities 
should  be  forbidden  to  spread  liberal  doctrines, 
that  secret  societies  should  be  suppressed,  and 
that  a  commission  to  sit  at  Mainz  should  b: 
appointed  to  extirpate  the  revolutionary  con- 
spiracy which  was  supposed  to  exist.  An  at' 
tempt  to  determine  more  precisely  the  nature 
of  the  constitution  permissible  for  the  states  of 
the  German  Confederation  led  to  a  stalemate 
between  the  conservative  Austrians  and  the 
Wurtembergers  who  already  had  a  liberal  con- 
stitution. This  was  only  solved  at  the  con- 
ference of  Vienna  the  following  year.  (See 
MrrrFRificM ) .  Consult  de  Martius,  'Nouveau 
recueil   giniral   des   trait^s'    (Gottingen   1846). 

CARLSBURG,  karls'boDrg,  or  KARLS- 
BURG,  A ustro- Hungary,  a  royal  free  city 
(ancient  Apulum)  on  the  ri^t  bank  of  the 
Maros,  46  miles  south  of  KJausenbur^.  It 
consists  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  town,  situated 
on  apposite  sides  of  the  river,  and  communicat- 
ing E^  a  long  bridge.  It  is  defended  by  a 
citadel,  and  has  a  cathedral  (dating  from  1443) 
with  a  number  of  ancient  monuments,  a  mint 
where  the  gold  and  silver  obtained  in  Transyl- 
vania are  purified  and  coined,  an  observatory 
with  a  ^ood  collection  of  instruments,  an  ex- 
cellent library,  a  theological  college,  a  gym- 
nasium, arsenal  and  barracks.  Fop.  about 
12,000. 

CARLSCRONA,  karlslcr6-na,  or  KARLS- 
KRONA  ("Charles'  Crown*),  Sweden,  a  sea- 
port at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsuljL 
on  the  Balti<L_ capital  of  the  Ian  or  province  of 
Blddnge  or  Carfscrona,  55  miles  cast  by  north 
of  Christiansand.  It  stands  on  several 
rocky  islets  connected  with  one  another  and 
with  the  mainland  by  bridges,  has  broad,  clean 
but  somewhat  steep  streets,  with  houses  mostly 


built  of  wood.  The  harbor  is  safe  and  spadons 
and  the  entrance  is  protected  by  forts.  It  was 
founded  by  Charles  XII  in  1680.  As  the  chief 
Swedish  naval  station  the  town  largely  de- 
pends on  the  trade  thereby  occasioned,  but  it 
UBS  also  a  cottsideraUe  export  trade  in  timber, 
tar,  potash,  fish,  etc.  Pop.  27,434. 

CARLSEN,  Emil,  American  artist ;  b. 
Copenhagen,  Denmark.  19  Oct.  1853.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1872  and  studied  art  in 
Boston.  Since  1891  he  has  lived  in  New  York 
and  has  exhibited  frequently  there.  His  especial 
field  is  still  life  painting,  but  he  is  also  favor- 
ably known  as  a  landscape  artist.  His  land- 
scapes are  sincere  and  direct  in  presentation, 
and  his  marines  are  particularly  good  in  the 
movement  of  the  water.  He  excels  es^i^Iy 
in  Tine  and  in  arrangement.  Among  his  best 
known  works  are  'Sooty  Kettle*;  'A  Connecti- 
cut Hilltop';  'The  Rising  Storm';  'Night- 
Old  Wynifiiam'  f  1905,  Webb  prize,  Society  of 
.American  Artists) ;  'Wind  in  the  East' ;  'A 
Lazy  Sea';  'A  Stormy  Afternoon'  (1909); 
'The  Sky  and  the  Ocean»  (1914).  He  is  repre- 
sented in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  Yoric, 
by  a  stilt  life  and  two  marines,  of  which  'Surf 
Breaking'  is  especially  fine;  also  in  the  Btook- 

S'  1  lostitute  Museum  and  the  Worcester 
useum.  He  received  a  gold  medal  at  the 
Saint  Louis  E^mosition  in  1904,  and  is  a  member 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  and  of  ibe 
National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 

CARLSHAHN,  karls'ham  (■Charles'  Ha- 
ven"), Sweden,  a  seaport  town  27  miles  west 
of  Carlscrona,  in  a  beautiful  valley  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mie-A.  It  is  regubrly  builtj  and  its 
square  market-place,  planted  on  all  sides  with 
trees,  has  a  fine  appearance.  It  has  an  elegant 
townhouse,  a  good  harbor  and  an  active  trade. 
Timber  and  articles  of  timber,  granite,  ehartoal 
and  fish  constitute  the  chief  exports.  The 
manufactures  are  sail-clotb,  sacking  tobaccc^ 
leather,  etc. ;  and  there  is  also  some  ship-build- 
ing.   It  was  founded  in  1664.    Pop.  about  7,000. 


at  Augustana  College,  lU.,  and  Leland  Stanfo 
University,  he  became  instructor  and  assislaot 

firofessor  in  physiolo^  in  1904  at  Woods  Holt 
aboratory.  In  1909  ne  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  professor  of  i:JiysioloKy  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago.  He  is  the  author  of  <Phys- 
iolcM^  of  the  Nervous  System  of  the  Snake  and 
the  California  Hagfish'  (1904)  and  of  numerous 
articles  in  physiological  journals  on  saliva  and 
saliva  secretion,  on  the  thyroids,  parathyroids 
and  pancreas,  lymph  and  lymph  formation,  heart 
and  circulation. 

CARLSON,  Pndiik  PcrditMnd.  Swedish 
historian:  h.  Upland.  13  June  1811;  d.  Stock- 
holm, 18  March  1887.  After  leaving  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala,  he  became  tutor  to  the  royal 
family  at  StocWiohn  (1837-46).  He  returned 
to  the  university  as  professor  of  history 
(1849}  and  became  rector  (I860).  He  repre- 
senlea  the  university  in  the  National  Diet; 
later  he  sat  for  the  Swedish  Academy  of 
Sciences  (1858);  and  represented  Gefleborg  in 
the  first  chamber  from  1873.  He  was  ap- 
pointed head  of  the  Department  of  Public  Ww- 
ship,    which  post  be  held   from    1863-^  t^i 


Ci.-i 


,  Google 


CAKLSRUHS— CARLYLB 


again  from  18^S-^.  He  was  promioeni  in 
public  matters  for  many  year^  being  Minister 
of  Ecclesiastical  ASairs,  1863-70  and  again, 
1875-78.  He  compleled  Geijer's  'History  of 
Sweden'    (7  vols..  Stockholm  1855-65). 

CAKLSRUHE,  karls'roo  il,  or  KAKLS- 
RUHB  C«Charies'  Rest"),  Germany,  the 
capital  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  39  miles 
north-northwest  of  Stuttgart.  It  was  laid  out 
in  1715,  and  is  one  of  the  most  reguiariv  built 
towns  in  Europe.  The  castle  of  the  Grand  Duke 
stands  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  from  this 
point  a  nomber  of  streets  radiate  fan  fashion, 
at  ree;atar  distances  from  each  other.  Other 
streets  intersect  these  in  parallel  circles.  The 
roads  leading  to  the  city  correspond  to  this 
regular  disposition,  whid^  as  is  apt  to  be  the 
case  in  strictly  re^lar  cities,  often  leaves  upon 
the  traveler  the  impression  of  monotony  rather 
than  that  of  agreeable  order.  The  city  is  or-- 
namented  with  several  beautiful  public  build- 
ings, including  the  palace,  in  front  of  which  is 
a  bronie  statue  of  the  founder  of  the  city,  the 
Margrave  Charles  William,  the  Parliament 
house,  town-hall,  etc.  The  court  library  con- 
tains 150,000  volumes ;  there  are  also  here  sev- 
eral valuable  museums  and  cabinets,  a  botanic 
garden,  several  institutions  for  the  promotion 
of  literature  and  the  fine  arts.  The  city  has  a 
largely  developing  trade  in  engines,  carriage 
works,  furniture,  paper  and  plated  goods.  Fop. 
(1911)   m,313. 

CARLSTAD,  karl-slat.  Sweden,  town  and 
the  capital  of  the  Ian  of  Vermland,  on  an 
island  in  Lake  Wener  formed  by  the  two 
mouths  of  the  Klar,  and  connected  with  the 
mainland  bv  a  bridge  across  either  stream.  It 
is  beautifully  situated,  regularly  built,  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  calhedral,  gym- 
nasium, townhouse,  etc,  and  some  trade  in  cop- 
per, timber,  iron,  machinery,  tobacco,  matches 
and  grain,  and  also  exports  wooden  ware  and 
iron.  The  city  was  founded  in  1584  and  rebuilt 
after  the  fire  of  1865.  A  conference  between 
Sweden  and  Norway  was  held  here  in  1905  to 
decide  on  the  discontinuance  of  the  union  be- 
tween these  countries.     Pop.  17,000. 

CARLSTADT,  Andreas  Rudolf  Boden- 
fttein,  German  theologian :  b.  Carlstadt,  Fran- 
conia,  1480 :  d.  Basel,  Switzerlan4  25  Dec.  1541. 
He  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  the  Reforma- 
tion for  his  fanaticism  as  well  as'  his  mbfor- 
tunes.  He  studied  at  Erfurt  (1500-03).  Cologne 
(1S03)  and  Wittenberg  (1510).  where  he  was 
finally  appointed  professor  of  theology  in  1513. 
In  1515  he  went  (o  Rome  to  stud^  law  and 
took  the  degree  of  IX.D.  His  learning  enabled 
him  to  render  great  support  to  Luther  in  his 
first  steps  for  the  introduction  of  a  reforma- 
tion. In  1520  he  was  included  in  the  bull  which 
condemned  Luther ;  and  his  spirited  appeal 
from  the  Pi^e  to  a  general  council,  of  which 
be  gave  the  first  example,  as  well  as  his  opin- 
ion openly  expressed,  in  favor  of  the  marnage 
of  the  priesthood,  was  among  the  many  proofs 
vfhich  he  gave  of  his  zeal  for  the  Reformation. 
While  Luther  was  at  Wartburg  Carlstadt's  zeal 
urged  him  to  acts  of  violence.  He  even  insti- 
gated the  people  and  students  to  the  destruction 
of    the    altars   and   the    images   of    the    saints, 

Seaily  to  the  displeasure  of  Luther,  who  lost 
e  fnendship  of  Carlstadt  by  his  opposition  to 
his  excesses.    He  publicly  declared  himself  the 


opponent  of  Luther,  and  the  Elector  Frederick 
banished  him  from  the  country  in  September 
1524.  Carlstadt  then  commenced  the  contro- 
vers>[  respecting  the  sacrament,  denying,  in  op- 
position to  Luther,  the  bodily  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  saci«mcntal  elements,  and  recog- 
nising in  the  rite  a  token  of  remembrance  sim- 
ply. This  controversy  was  carried  on  with 
the  bitterest  animosity;  and  Zwinglius  having 
declared  himself  in  favor  of  Carlstadt's  doc-, 
trine,  a  dispute  ensued  between  the  Swiss  and 
Wittenberg  theologians  which  ended  in  the  sep- 
aration of  the  Calvinists  and  Lutherans.  Carl- 
stadt in  the  meantime  being  suspected,  not  with-  . 


wander  through  Germany,  and  being  ultimately 
reduced  to  extreme  distress,  sought  relief  of 
Luther  who  procured  him  an  asvlum  at  Kem- 
berg,  on  condition  that  he  should  refrain  from 
the  expression  of  his  opinions.  Here  _  he 
lived  nearly  three  years.  His  restless  mind, 
however,  soon  led  nim  to  break  his  promise, 
by  the  publication  of  some  writings  in  1528;  and 
he  even  went  so  far  as  to  plot  against  Lumer's 
person.  To  escape  from  the  consequences  of 
his  conduct  he  repaired  to  Switzerland  at  the 
end  of  the  same  year,  where  he  was  appointed 
vicar  of  Altstadt.  in  the  valley  of  the  lUiine ;  in 
1530,  deacon  al  Zurich;  and  in  1534,  vicar  and 
professor  of  theology  at  Basel.  Consult,  for 
his  biography,  Jager,  J.  C.  (Stuttgart  1856) 
and  Lindsay,  'History  of  the  Refomiation> 
(Vol.  L  New  York  1906).  Many  of  his  letters 
are  in  Olearius,  'Serinium  Antiquarium'  (Halle 
1698). 

CARLSTADT.  Austria,  a  town  in  Croatia, 
34  miles  southwest  of  Agram,  agreeably  situ- 
ated in  a  perfectly  level  and  richly  cultivated 
plain  near  the  junction  of  the  Kulpa,  Korana 
and  Dobra,  which  are  here  navigable.  It  con- 
sists of  the  town  proper  and  the  citadel,  to- 
gether with  the  suburb  of  Dubovacz.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  Greek  bishopric,  is  tolerably  well 
built  and  has  an  important  trade.  It  also  has 
a  higher  gymnasium  and  military  school  aod 
has  a  distillery  and  a  turbine  roIUug  mill.  Pop. 
16,000. 

CARLSTADT,  N.  J.,  borough  of  Bergen 
Ccuntw-,  10  miles  north  of  jersey  City,  on  the 
Erie  Railroad.  It  has  brass,  onyx  and  marble 
works,  silk  mills,  cotton  cloth  mills,  sable  cloth 
works  and  air  valve  manufactories.  It  is  gov- 
erned by  a  mayor  and  council,  the  former  be- 
ing chosen  for  a  period  of  two  years.     Pop. 

CARLYLE,  kar-m'.  Alexander.  Scottish 
clergyman :  b.  Prestonpans,  26  Jan.  1722^  d.  In- 
veresk,  28  Aug.  1805.  He  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and 
afterward  studied  at  the  University  of  Leyden. 
Licensed  as  a  preacher  in-.  1747  he  became  min- 
ister of  the  parish  of  Inveresk,  in  Midlothian, 
where  he  continued  to  the  end  of  his  life.  He 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Moderate  party 
in  the  Scottish  Church,  the  party  which,  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  18th  century,  ruled  with 
such  predominating  swa^.  and  included  the 
names  of  Robertson,  Blair  and  Home  among 
its  members.  As  an  eloquent  debater  and  skil- 
ful ecclesiastical  leader  in  the  General  Assem- 
bly he  had  no  rival.  He  was  of  such  striking 
personal  appearance  that  he  was  called  *JtQiter 


.Google 


Carlyle?  He  strenuously  resisted  all  attempu 
to  give  additional  inflnence  to  th?  popular  ele- 
ment in  ecclesiastical  matters.  He  left  behind 
him  a  well-known  autobioKraptay,  which, 
thou^  commenced  in  his  79th  year,  is  a  lin- 
gularly  interesting  production,  both  from  the 
vigor  and  spri^tliness  of  its  style,  and  the 
pictures  whiui  it  presents  of  Scottish  society  in 
the  18th  century,  and  the  more  or  less  intimate 
account  it  gives  of  such  noted  character)  at 
Home,  the  dramatist,  Adam  Smith  and  David 
Hume.  After  remaining  long  in  manuscript  it 
was  published  in  1860^  under  the  editorship  of 
.J(^n  Hill  Burton. 

CARLYLE,  Jane  BalUle  Welsh,  ScotUsh 
letter  writer:  b.  Haddington  Scotland,  14  July 
1801 ;  d.  London,  21  April  1866,  She  was  the 
daugjiter   of   John   Welsh,   a   Haddington   sur- 

Teon,  and  was  married  to  Thomas  Carlvle 
q.v)  17  Oct  1826.  Her  letters,  edited  by  her 
husband,  were  published  in  1883.  Consult 
Ireland.  'Life'  (^London  1891)  ;  and  'New  Let- 
ters and  Memonals'    (London  1903), 

CARLYLE,  John  Aitken,  English  ohvsi- 
cian,   brother   of    Thomas   Carlyle ; 


where  he  took  his  deeree  of  M.D.  in  1825,  . .  _ 
later  completed  his  education  in  Germany.  He 
practised  for  a.  short  time  at  London,  where  he 
was  unsuccessful.  He  attempted  literature  for 
a  while,  assisting  his  brother  in  translating 
Legendre's  'Geometry.*  He  then  received  an 
appointment  as  traveling  physician  to  Lady 
Clare  (1831-37),  and  later  to  the  duke  of 
Bucdeuch  (1838-43).  Reiiring  to  a  place  near 
the  Chelsea  residence  of  his  brother,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  literary  labors  and  in  1849 
published  a  translation  of  Dante's  'Inferno,'  a 
very  scholarly  and  finished  work.  A  very 
friendly  relation  existed  between  the  brothers, 
as  evinced  by  letters  and  the  will  of  Thomas. 
Dr.  Carlyle  edited  also  Irving's  'History  of 
Scottish  Poetry*  (1861). 

CARLYLE,  Joseph  Dacre,  English  Orien- 
talist: b.  Carlisle  1759;  d.  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  12  April  1804.  He  was  graduated  from 
Cambridge,  became  chancellor  of  Carlisle  in 
1793,  professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  in  1795 
and  was  subsequently  appointed  to  the  Turkish 
embassy.  He  publishea  'Specimens  of  Arabic 
Poetry>  (1796)  ;  'Poems'  (1805),  and  a  trans- 
lation of  an  Arabic  history  of  Egypt.  His 
Arabic  Bible  was  published  in  1811,  completed 
and  edited  by  H.  Ford,  professor  of  Arabic 
at  Oxford. 

CARLYLE,  Thomas,  Scotch  essa^st,  his- 
torian land  miscellaneous  writer ;  b.  Ecclefe- 
chan,  near  Aimandale,  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scot- 
land, 4  Dec.  1795;  A  London,  4  Feb.  1881. 
Carlyle's  ancestors  were  said  to  have  come  to 
Annandale  from  Carlisle,  England,  in  the  time 
of  David  II,  but  at  the  author's  biHh  the  im- 
mediate family  was  Kving  in  very  straitened  cir- 
cumstances at  Ecclefechan,  where  the  grand- 
father, Thomas,  was  village  carpenter  and  his 
five  sons  masons.  The  second  of  these,  James, 
a  man  of  'largest  natural  adornment,*  assertive, 
choleric,  honest  and  pious,  with  an  uncommon 
gift    of    forcible    expression,    married    as    his 


the  eldest  was  Thomas.  The  dtird  son,  John 
Carlyle  (q.v.),  became  distinguished  as  the 
translator  of  Dante.  Thomas,  like  the  other 
children,  was  brou^t  up  with  much  aSectionate 
care.  His  ^rents  intended  him  for  the  Church 
and  gave  him  all  the  education  in  their  power. 
He  early  learned  his  letters  and  soon  became  a 
voradoQs  reader.  At  10  he  was  sent  to  the 
grammar  school  at  Annan,  where,  as  a  moody, 
sensitive  child,  he  was  much  bullied  by  the 
other  bqys,  and  probably  suffered  acutely.  At 
the  age  of  13  he  was  ready  to  enter  Edinburgh 
University,  which  he  attended  from  1809  to 
1814,  without,  however,  taking  a  degree.  His 
individuality  did  not  readily  allow  itself  to  be 
molded  to  the  academic  routine.  Findii%  him- 
self tmable,  because  of  religious  doubts,  to 
enter  the  ministry,  he  went  to  Annan  Academy 
as  tutor  in  mathematics,  iu  1814.  Later  he 
.tau^t  at  Kirkcaldy,  where  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Edward  Irving  (q.v).  one  of  his 


of 


warmest  friends.  Irving's  friendship 
great  value  to  Carlylt^  and  his  library  enaoiea 
the  latter  to  gratify  his  love  of  readiuK  and  to 
mitigate  the  distaste  which  he  felt  for  teaching. 
In  October  1818  the  work  became  so  repellent 
that  he  resigned  from  his  school,  saying  that 
*it  were  better  to  perish  than  to  continue 
school -mastering,*  Then  he  went  to  Edinburgli 
to  try  to  earn  his  living. 
The  nej       ' 


degree  by  his  lifelong  enemy,  dyspep- 
sia, aiiu  as  a  result  was  greatly  depressed  m 
spirit.  Uncertain  what  career  to  follow,  tryii^ 
his  hand  at  many  vocations  and  cutlerenl 
studies,  miserably  poor,  finding  his  onbr  em- 
ployment for  a  time  in  writing  hack  articles, 
he  was  'mentally  and  physically  adrift*  in  the 
sense  that  is  described  in  his  'Everlasting  No' 
of  'Sartor  Resartus,*  Toward  the  middle  oC 
1821,  however,  he  seems,  by  much  resolution 
and  energy  of  will,  to  have  shaken  off  mucfa 
of  the  depression,  to  have  attained  the  position 
of  the  'Everlasting  Yea."  The  men  who  at 
this  time  most  iniftienced  him  were  the  Ger- 
mans, particularly  Goethe,  the  mystic  Richter, 
and  the  philosopher  Fichte,  German  literature 
was  now  his  most  absorbing  study,  and  later 
this  study  bore  fruit  in  his  'Life  of  Schiller' 
(1823-24),  his  translation  of  Goethe's  'WUhehn 
Meister'  (1624)  and  in  several  essays.  These 
books  mark  "his  formal  entrance  into  literature. 
Up  to  the  time  of  their  publication  Carlyle'i 
published  writing  had  been  a  series  of  articles 
for  Sir  David  Brewster's  'Encyclopedia,*  a 
translation  of  Legendre's  'Geometry,*  to  which 
fae  prefixed  an  'Essay  on  Proportion,'  and 
miscellaneous  hack  work.  The  'Life  of  Schil- 
ler' and  the  translation  of  'Wilhelm  Mristcr' 
met  with  favorable  reviews,  and  the  transla- 
tion is  usually  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  of 
all  renderings  into  English.  While  he  was  at 
work  on  these  books  he  was  (1822-24)  tutor 
in  a  well-to-do  family,  the  Bullers,  from  whom 
he  received  £200  a  year  for  not  disagreeable 
work.  In  spite  of  the  kindness  of  his  patrons, 
he  managed,  as  was  usual  with  him  during 
life,  to  f^nd  much  fault  with  his  surroundings 
and  to  utter  copiplaints  with  very  little  fair- 
ness or  reserve.  A  trip  (1824)  to  London  and 
Paris  broke  the  monotony  of  his  existence,  and 
gave  him  many  new  impresMons  and  opinions 
in  what  was  a  critical  period  of  his  growth. 


.Google 


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Digitized  =,  Google 


Retumiiig  to  Scotland  in  I^  Iw  established 
himself  at  Hoddain  Hill,  a  farm  near  the  Sol- 
tray,  where  he  farmed  and  wrot«.  On  17  Oct 
16%  Carlyle,  after  a.  somewhat  prolonged. 
vacillating  and  rather  stormy  wooing;  succeraed 
in  tnairyiag  Jane  Baillie  Welsh;  a  woman  in 
many  ways  as  remarkable  as  himself  and  dis- 
tinguished as  a  descendant  of  John  Knox.  The 
humors  and  distempers  of  tneir  married  life 
have  become  proverbial  and  ar«  to  be  found 
most  iaUf  recorded  in  Froude's  biograjdijr. 
Both  seem  to  have  beta  extremely  and  tm- 
intelligentK-  self-willed  and  so  vain  as  to  be 
wholly  ladling  in  reticence  about  their  dome** 
tic  life.  For  two  years  they  lived  at  Scotsbrig 
near  Ediabui^,  where  ^ey  had  the  advan< 
tage  of  the  intelligent  societ^r  of  the  capital, 
and  where  Carlyle  supported  himself  ly  wnting 
for  the  reviews.  In  the  Edinburgh  Revieor, 
under  the  editorship  of  his  friend  Jefirey 
(q.v.),  he  published,  in  1827,  hb  well-lmown 
esssy  on  'Richter'  and  'The  State  of  German 
Literature,'  an  article  which  led  to  the  famons 
correspondence  with  Goethe.  For  several  yean 
the  Edinimrgk  and  other  reviews  were  his 
only  medium  of  puHication,  He  essayed  a 
novel  but  failed,  and  was  disappointed  m  his 
attempts  to  secure  the  chair  in  moral  philos* 
ophy  at  Saint  Andrews  and  a  professorship  in 
London  University,,^^ 

In  May  1828  the  Carlyles  removed  to  a 
lonely  fano,  Craigenputtodi,  overlooking  the 
Solwav.  Here  he  wrote  his  'Essay  on  Bnrns,' 
one  of  his  most  sympathetic  pieces  of  criticism 
(Edinburgh  Review,  1828).  several  other  essays 
of  much  importance,  as  'Voltaire,'  'Novalis> 
and  bis  ^Sartor  Resartiu,'  the  boc^  for  which 
he  is  perhaps  most  famous.  Refused  by  sev- 
eralpubli^ers,  'Sartor  Resartus'  first  saw  lic^t 
ip  prttset's  MagattHe,  between  December  1833 
and  August  1834,  where  it  exdted  such  a  storm 
of  protest  that  no  separate  English  edition 
appeared  tiU  1838.  Meanwhile  (1836)  it  first 
appeared  in  book  form  in  America,  where  it 
was  especially  commended  bv  Emerson.  This 
most  characteristic  book  of  Carlyle  poriMMls  to 
be  a  review  tr^  an  English  editor  of  a  treatise 
by  a  learned  German  professor,  Herr  Teufels- 
drdckh,  with  whose  lite  and  opinions  it  deals. 
The  book  is  written  around  the  famous  Phi- 
losophy of  Clothes,  deagned  by  Swift  (q.v.), 
and  is  in  the  main  symbolical  of  Carlyle's 
creed  at  this  time  —  that  as  clothes  express 
the  ^ste  of  the  wearer,  so  life  in  ail  its  foims 
may  be  re^rded  as  the  vesture  of  the  mindi 
The  idea  is  not  a  very  original  one,  hut  is 
expressed  with  such  oddity  of  phrase  and  image 
that  it  appears  as  profound  as  forcible.  The 
most  interestii^  fcnture  is  the  account  of  the 
tnoml  and  spiritual  attire  of  Tettfelsdrjickh, 
who  is  Carlyle  himself.  It  is  the  quenlloul, 
stormy  tale  of  early  differing,  lack  of  sym- 
pathy from  fellowmen,  disappointment  ailike 
In  the  business  of  the  head  and  the  affairs  of 
the  heart,  despondency  and  despair  over  the 
great  qtiestioo  why  man  is  io  the  univcrs^ 
doubt  and  wavering,  and  final  acc^tance  oi 
the  facts  of  existence  with  the  hope  of  solu- 
tion throu^  stem  endeavor.  The  Dook  mitibt 
be  called  a  prose  epic  of  the  inner  life,  and  it 
is  w4ioUy  egoistic  and  anthropocentric 

In  1834  the  Carlj'les  removed  to  London, 
where  they  settled  m  Cheyne  Row,  Chelsea, 
and  here  were  their  headquarters  for  the  re- 


Ktaindei'df  their  lives.  Soon  after  the  ciiange 
he  began  his  'French  Revolution,'  which  was 
comjdeted  in  1837  and  which  gave  him  much 
more  reputation  than  he  had  heretofore  en- 
io};ed.  During  the  same  period  he  wrote  the 
'Diamond  Neodace'  and  the  articles  on  'Mira- 
beau'  and  <Sir  Walter  Scott,'  the  honorariiun 
from  which  was  of  great  benefit  in  his  im- 
pecunious sbte.  The  success  of  the  history 
enabled  him,  in  die  four  following  years,  to 
nin  audience  for  four  series  of  lectures, 
'German  Literature,'  the  'Hisioiy  of  Europeaa 
Literahire,'  'Revolutions'  and  the  more  diar- 
Bcteristic  'Heroes  and  Hero- Worship.'  Pub- 
lished in  book  fona  in  1341,  this  series  remains 
to-day  one  o£  the  most  widely  read  of  Carlyle's 
works  and  is  perhaps  the  clearest  expression 
of  his  philosophy  of  history.  "As  I  take  it,' 
he  says,  'universal  history,  the  history  of  what 
man  has  accomplished  in  this  world,  is  at 
bottom  the  historv  of  the  great  men  who  have 
woiked  there.'  The  moral  animus  of  the  book 
b  expressed  fardier  on  in  the  same  introduc- 
tion; *We  cannot  lool^  however  imperfectly, 
upon  a  great  man,  without  gaining  something 
by  him.  He  is  the  living  lifi^t- fountain  which 
it  is  jgood  and  pleasant  to  be  near.'  Again, 
speakmg  of  the  Hero  as  a  man  of  letters,  he 
tdls  us  the  purpose  of  all  his  own  writing; 
■The  writer  of  a  bool^  is  he  not  a  preacher, 
preaching  not  to  this  parbh  or  that,  on  this  day 
or  that;  but  to  all  men  in  all  times  and  places?' 

The  book  may  eonverdendy  mark  an  tnt- 
portant  time  in  Carlyle's  life.  The  pamphlet 
OD  'Chartism'  of  1840  had  enunciated  a  doc- 
trine, of  a  political  sort,  that  'Uight  is  right,' 
-—•one  of  the  few  string,'  says  Nichol,  ■on 
which,  with  all  the  variations  of  a  political 
Paganini,  he  played  tbrougfa  life.'  About  this 
time,  in  short,  his  ideas  oi  history,  of  morals, 
of  polidcs,  ot  his  own  misdmi,  seem  to  have 
crystallized.  Furthermore,  his  circumstances 
had  definitively  bettered.  His  name  was  well 
known  and  be  was  able  to  refuse  a  chair  of 
history  at  EdinfaurKh  University  and  later  an- 
odier  at  Saint  Andrews.  In  1^42  the  death  of 
Mn.  Carlyle's  mother  threw  an  income  of  at 
least  i200  in  die  hands  of  tfae'Carl>4es  and 
relieved  them  of  the  fear  of  penury. 

From  this  time  on  Carlyle's  vrork  falls 
tnainl^r  into  two  main  classes:  (1)  the  lives  of 
great  individuals  and  (2)  pamphlets  of  a  quan- 
poiidcal  sor^  powerful  lashings  of  modem  io- 
atitutions.  The  most  important  of  the  latter, 
■  Past  and  Present,'  written  in  seven  wedcs, 
appeared  in  1843.  Herein  Carlyle  commits  a 
common  and  characterisdc  fallacy  in  comparing 
a  charminK  picture  of  monastic  Enft^nd  with 
some  of  the  worst  things  of  modem  life,  to 
the  obvious  (Usadvanta^e  of  die  latter  and,  by 
extension  and  implication,  to  modem  civilisa- 
tion as  a  whole.  Nevertheless,  the  book  makes 
a  strong  appeal  to  our  hinnanity,  and  is  per- 
haps the  best  example  of  Carlyle's  many  prcf 
tests  against  modem  barbarism.  It  is  said  to 
have  been'  productive  di  good  in  factory  leps- 
lation.  Meanwhile  he  was  engaged  on  an  im- 
portant woric  of  the  first  class  spoken  of^- 
'Cromwell,'  wluch,  after  three  years'  prepara- 
tion, appeared  in  1845.  Carlyle,  with  charac- 
teristic thorougfanesv  spent  a  large  part  of  the 
summers  of  1842  and  1843  in  visitmg  the  battle* 
fields  of  the  Gvil  War.  It  is  significant  that 
the  *great  man'  was  now,  with  Cai^I^  not 


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neoeuarily  a  man  of  letter*,  as  hi  his  works 
previous  to  the  'French  RevoJution,^  but  a  man 
of  political  prowess  as  well,  and  this  tendency 
o  exalt  the  man  of  misht  reached  its  climax  in 


'Frederick*  are  marked  by  hb  notable  'Latter* 
Day  Pamiiilets'  (1849),  one  of  the  most  de- 
nunciatory of  his  books,  and  his  'Life  of  John 
Stirling>  (1851),  a  dear  friend  who  had  died 
nx  years  before  and  who,  like  Edward  Kinit . 
and  Arthur  Hallam,  is  chiefly  remembered 
through  the  work  o£  a  greater  man.  After  a 
trip  in  the  fall  of  1851,  with  the  Brownings,  to 
France,  where  he  met  the  chief  literary  celeb- 
rities of  the  time  —  and  passed  unfavorable 
comment  on  them  as  on  all  affairs  French  —  he 
settled  down  to  the  planning  of  the  'History 
of  Frederick  II.*  On  the  preparation  of  thn 
work  and  tlie  composition  of  it  he  was  enf^K^d 
for  the  next  13  years.  His  study  was  inde* 
fadgabte  and  he  made  two  trips  to  GenBany. 
in  1852  and  1858,  to  study  tlic  battlefields  ot 
Frederick,  in  1850  the  first  two  volumes  were 
published  with  great  success,  the  third  in  1862, 
the  fourth  in  1864  and  the  fifth  and  sijtth  in 
1865.      During   the   composition   he    had    done 

£  radically  no  side  work ;  a  somewhat  un- 
itelligent  dialc^ue,  'Ilias  Americana  in  Nuce,> 
on  the  American  War,  and  his  'Prinienmub' 
are  tiie  only  [Mces. 

The  compilation  of  'Frederick*  maila  the 
climax  of  Carlyle's  life.  It  won  for  him  recog- 
nition in  England  as  the  forcmoat  of  prose 
writers,  and  in  Geimaiqr,  too,  his  fame  was 
naturally  great.  Even  the  Scotch  decided  to 
honor  a  prophet  of  their  own  country;  he  was 
dected  lord  rector  of  £dinburf[h  University, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1866  delivered  the  in- 
augural address,  on  the  'Reading  of  Books.* 
While  on  his  trip  he  received  news  of  the  death 
of  Mrs.  C^rlyle,  which,  in  spite  of  their  dis- 
agreements, was  a  severe  blow  to  him  and  may 


'Frederick'  had  left  him  worn  and  weaty. 
Thereafter  he  wrote  only  three  books  of  ccm- 
parative  imporlance.  'Shooting  Niagara  — 
and  After,'  of  the  type  of  'Past  and  Present,* 
the  'Early  Kings  ol  Norway,'  of  die  hero 
type,  and  'Reminiscences  of  Jane  Carlyle  and 
of  Jetfr^  and  Edward  Irving,'  written  in  the 
MOntiis  following  the  death  of  his  wife,  hnt 
twt  published  until  after  his  death.  His  last 
public  utterance,  according  to  Proude,  was  a 
letter  which  be  wrote,  in  May  1877,  to  the 
TtMiet,  protesting  against  the  moral  support 
which  England  was  giving  to  Turkey  in  the 
war  with  RnsBta.  His  life  at  this  time  is  de- 
scribed as  one  surrounded  by  honors  atld  sup- 
potted  by  a  few  staunch  friends,  but  as  one  of 
growing  weariness  and  desire  to  be  at  rest, 
until,  after  two  years  of  physical  feebleness, 
he  died  quietly  in  his  86th  year. 

Cariyle's  character  and  place  In  literature 
have,  since  his  death,  as  during  his  life,  been 
subjects  of  much  comment  and  of  comment  of 
the  most  dtverse  sorts.  He  has  been  extolled 
on  the  one  hand  as  the  greatest  of  prophets, 
the  most  eloquent  of  sa^s ;  and  condemned,  on 
the  other,  as  the  noiMest  of  egoists.T^.  It  Is 
therefore  impossible  to  fix  with  any  approxima- 
tion his  value  as  a  character  or  as  a  man  of 
letters,  in  the  sense  that  Milton,  Addison,  Gray 


and  oibers  ttay  be  toleraUv  wdl  diaracterized. 
His  severest  critics,  like  Ur.  Robertson,  are 
undoubted^  right  when  tbey  accuse  him  of 
inconsistency  and  irrationali^  and  when  they 
point  out  in  his  character  certain  elements  of 
brutality  and  narrow  egoism,  and  yet  the  fact 
remains  that  he  has  been  the  awakening  force 
of  many  men  and  that  there  is  a  feeling  abroad 
that  he  is  one  of  the  great  names  in  EnKhsh 
prose.  Perhaps  the  most  sensible  of  mex 
oppofiing  views  may  best  be  sianmed  up  in 
Huxley's  word*  (letter  to  Lord  Stanley,  9 
March  1881)  :  'Few  men  can  have  dissented 
more  strongly  from  his  way  of  looking  at 
things  dian  I;  but  I  should  not  yield  to  the 
most  devoted  of  his  followers  in  gratitude  for 
the  bracing,  wholesome  influence  of  his  writings 
vdicn,  a*  a  very  ymmg  man,  I  was  e 
without  rudder  or  compass  to  strike 
course  for  myself.* 

In  view  of  such  diverse  opinions,  all  of 
which  contain  trutlL  it  seems  necessary  merely 
to  protest  against  loose  extremist  views  which 
have  just  been  referred  to.  Whether  one  re- 
gards him  as  the  wisest  of  men  or  the  noisiesl 
of  hypocrites  is,  after  al),  a  question  of  tempei 
or  of  wliat  one  regards  as  valuable  in  the  uni- 
verse, and  usually  has  value  on^  as  the  ex- 
preasKin  of  personal  opinion.  (Style's  influ- 
ence, like  that  of  Dr.  fohnson,  is  the  personal 
influence  of  a  powerful  and  uprigiit  man  rather 
than  that  of  a  philosopher  or  a  discovenr  of 
new  truth.  His  pcrsoiud  qualities  as  expressed 
in  hi>  writings — hit  integrity,  his  eamestnesa 
his  independence,  his  sincen^,  his  hatred  of 
sham,  cant  and  affectation,  his  vigor  —  are  what 
count  in  hia  hold  on  pet^e.  As  a  system,  his 
work,  as  his  critics  justly  remarl^  is  unsdencific 
and  untrue.  His  work;  so  volnminous  and,  on 
the  face  of  i^  consisting  of  translations,  liter- 
ary, biographical,  hianncal  essays  and  books, 
tracts  of  the  times  and  satires,  comes  down  to 
the  glorification  of  a  galaxv  ot  interesting  and, 
in  different  ways,  powerful  individuals:  Schil- 
ler, Goethe,  Cromwell,  Frederick,  himself  (in 
'Sartor  Resartus')  and  others,  and  to  the  doc- 
trine that  their  power  is  good.  There  is,  of 
course,  no  means  of  testing  the  general  truth 
of  such  views.  They  are  really  personal.  He 
is,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  as  a  seer,  a 
prophet,  a  preacher,  «4io  feels  deeply  a,  rather 
than  tkt,  meaning  of  life,  and  exhorts  his 
readers  to  feel  rightly  and  Uve  rightly,  to  *do 
the  duty  which  lies  next  them,*  to  'work  and 
despair  noL>  Theae  things  he  said  with  an 
imprctsiveness  equaled  by  few  men  and  to  a 
very  large  U>dy  of  listeners.  See  FwxncB 
REvoLUTToir,  Thi;  Hkko  AND  Hexo  WoasHip; 
Saktok  RzfiAXTus;  FREnmcK  the  Gkeat. 

Bfblio^raph^. —  Of  die  numerous  editions 
of  Carlyle's  wntings  the  best,  aside  from  his 
correspondence,  is  probably  the  Ashburton  Edi- 
tion, m  17  volnmes.  The  'Early  Letters  of 
Thomas  Carlylc'  (1886;  2d  series,  188B) ;  the 
'Correspondence  between  Goethe  and  Inomas 
Carlyle'  (1887);  and  the  'Correspondence  of 
Thomas  Carlyle  and  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson* 
<1883),  edited  by  C.  E.  Norton  are  the  best 
editions  of  his  letters.  Proude's  'Thomas  Car- 
lyle' (in  4vols.,  1882-84)  is  the  great  biography, 
and  is.  Incidentally,  4e  most  censured  twog- 
rajihy  of  recent  times,  because  of  the  frankness 
with  which  it  discloses  the  domestic  life  of  the 
Carlyles.     Excellent  short  Ures  arc  diose  of 


d=,  Google 


CARLTIS— CABMAH 


John  Niaril,  in  &e  'EnKlish  Men  of  Letten 
Series'  (1894),  Richard  Ganiett,  in  the  '■Gnat 
Writers  Series'  (1887)  (to  which  there  is  added 
■  very  full  bibliography),  and  Sir  Leshe  Ste- 
phen, in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 
The  critical  essays  of  Matthew  Arnold,  Emer' 
son  in  'Discourses  in  America,*  Augustine 
Birrell,  '0.>it«r  Dicta',  J.  R.  Lowell.  'Prose 
Works,'  VoL  II,  John  Morley,  'UiscelUnies,' 
Vol.  I,  J.  M.  Robertson,  'Modem  Humanists,* 
the  severest  of  Carlyle's  critics,  and  Steshen, 
'Hours  in  a  Library,'  Vol.  Ill,  may  be  cited 
as  representing  difEerent  views  among  the  most 
eminent  of  modem  critics.  Consult  also 
Froude's  'Letters  and  Memorials  of  Jane 
Welsh  Cadyle'  (1883);  Roe,  F.  W.,  'Cariyle 
as  a  Critic  of  Literature'  (1910);  Craig,  R.  S, 
<The  Waking  of  CarMe'  (1909);  Wilson, 
'Froude  and  Carlylc'  (1898);  Shepherd  and 
Williamson,  'Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writ- 
ings of  Ttomas  Carlyle'  (1881);  Wyli^ 
'Thomas  Carlyle  the  Man  and  his  Books' 
(1881). 

WnxiAU  T.  Brewstei^ 
Professor  Of  English,  Columbia  Unherstly. 

CARLYLE,  Wniiam  Arthur,  Canadian 
mining  engineer:  b.  Hamilton,  Ontario,  1862. 
A  graduate  ot  McSU  University  in  1887.  be 
afterward  was  appointed  at  his  altna  mater  spe- 
cial lecturer  in  mining  and  metallurgy  (1891-95), 
and  in  1895  professor  of  mining  and  engineer- 
ing. He  was  provincial  mineralogist  and 
cfirector  of  the  Department  of  Mines,  British 
Columbia,  for  three  years,  and  from  1898  to 
19(B  was  general  manager  of  the  Rio  Tinto 
Company's  mines  in  Spam.  In  1906  he  Mttted 
in  London,  England,  as  a  consulting  engineer, 
and  the  following  vear  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  professor  of  technoloer  and  metauurgy 
in  the  Imperial  College  of  Science. 

CARLYLK,  III.,  city  and  county-eeat  of 
Clinton  County,  45mile5east  of  Saint  Louis,  on 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwestern  Railroat^ 
and  on  the  Kaskaskia  River.  It  has  flour  mills 
and  paper  manufactories  and  a  large  trade  in 
flour  and  grain.  It  contains  a  county  court- 
house and  a  hospital,  Carlyle  was  in  pioneer 
times  a  station  on  the  Vincennes  trail.  The 
electric-lighting  plant  and  waterworks  are  the 
property  of  the  municipality.     Pop.  1,982. 

CARMACK,  Edward  Ward,  American 
politiciau:  b.  near  Castalian  Springs,  Sumner 
County,  Teun.,  S  Nov.  1858;  d.  Nashville,  Tenn, 
9  Nov.  1906.  He  studied  law  and  after  ad- 
mission to  the  bar  practised  his  profession  at 
Colombia,  Tenn.  He  was  member  of  the  State 
legislature  in  1884;  was  on  the  editorial  staff 
of  the  Nashville  American  (1886^),  and  io 
1892  became  editor  of  the  Memphis  Commercial. 
He  served  two  terms  in  Congress  as  Demo- 
cratic representative  from  the  10th  Tennessee 
district  1B97-I9D1,  was  United  Stales  senator 
1901-07,  and  later  editor  of  the  Nashville 
TenMtsstean.  In  1906  he  contested  the  Demo- 
cratic nomination  for  governor,  but  was  de- 
feated. He  was  assassmaled  9  Nov.  1908  by 
Robin  J.  Cooper,  son  of  his  long-time  bitter 
political  opponent,  Coi,  Duncan  Cooper.  He 
pubUshed  'Character;  or.  The  Ualdng  o£  the 
Man'    (1909). 

CARMAONOLA,  kir-man-ySla,  Fran- 
cesco, Italian  eondottiere :  b.  Garmagnolt, 
about  1390;  d.  Venice,  3  May  1432.    His  real 


name  was  Bussone,  but  he  adopted  as-bis  own 
the  name  of  his  birthplace.  The  son  of  a 
peasant,  he  was  a  herdsman  in  his  youth;  but 
enlistmg  in  the  service  of  the  DuJk  of  Milan 
(Filippo  Maria  Visconti),  he  rapidly  rose  in 
rank,  and  aided  his  master  in  regaining  a  great 
part  of  Lombar<b'.  and  in  extending  bis  pos- 
Mssions.  The  Di^e,  however,  became  suspicions 
of.  his  loyalty,  confiscated  nis  property,  cast 
his  wife  and  children  into  prison  and  banished 
him;  upon  which  Caimagnola  entered  the  serv- 
ice of  the  republic  of  Venice,  from  which  he 
received  the  appointment  of  geneialissimo.  He 
wrested  Brescia  fr(»n  fte  Duke  of  Milan,  and 
entirely  routed  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Macalo 
in  1427.  After  the  battle  he  released  his  prison- 
er^ which  was  frequently  done  at  that  time  by 
condoltieri,  but  incurring  the  suspicions  of  the 
for  doing  so,  and  his  subse- 


Venetian  j 


recalled  to  Venice,  under  the  pre- 
text that  his  advice  was  needed  for  afFalrs  o£ 
state,  placed  under  arrest,  accused  of  treasot^ 
put  to  the  torture  and  beheaded.  His  fate  has 
been  cekbrated  In  Manzoni's  tragedy,  'II  Conte 
di  Cafmagnola'  (1820).  Consult  Brown,  Horatic^ 
'Studies  in  Venetian  History'  (London  1907). 
CARMAGNOLE,  kar'm3n'y»',  a  name 
applied  in  the  early  times  of  the  French  repub- 
lic (1792-93)  to  a  song  which  was  accompanied 
by  a  dance.  The  song  contained  13  couplet* 
and  the  following  refrain : 


"  Daoioni  U  carnuniotfl 
Vin  to  BD,  Tivsl*  • 


The  author  and  comimser  of  die  song  are 
tmknown.  It  is  notab.e  simply  for  its  historical 
associations,  not  for  the  mtrinsic  merits  of 
words  or  music  The  song  and  dance  were 
first  used  at  Uie  time  of  the  indignation  of  the 
people  on  account  of  the  veto  allowed  to  the 
King  on  the  resolves  of  the  National  Assembly. 
The  Carmagnole  was  commonly  sung  and 
danced  at  popular  festivals,  execution*  and 
eruptions  of  popular  discontent  Afterward 
the  name  was  also  applied  to  the  national 
guards,  who  wore  a  dress  of  a  peculiar  cut, 
and  to  the  enthusiastic  supporters  of  the 
Revolution.  Several  members  of  the  National 
Convention  — Barirc,  for  instance —  by  wa^  of 

'  t    their   frww  mim jr=^  tTAff  I 

CARMAN,  Albert,  Canadian  Methodist 
bishop_  and  college  president :  b.  Iroquois, 
Ontario,  1833.  A  pupil  of  Dundas  Grammar 
School  and  of  Victoria  University,  Coboutg, 
he  was  graduated  in  185S.  He  received  the  ap- 
poinlment  of  professor  of  mathematics  in 
Albert  College,  Belleville,  in  I8S7,  the  follow- 
ing ^ar  being  selected  principal.  Ten  years 
later  in  1868  he  was  appointed  first  chancellor 
of  Albert  University,  to  which  standard,  with 
a  charter  in  all  the  faculties,  he  had  raised 
Albert  College  by  his  persistent  and  successfiit 
work.  From  1876  (o  1883  he  was  bishoft  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  having  been 
ordained  minister  in  1859.  When  the  various 
Methodist  bodies  united  in  18S3,  Carman  be- 
came general  superintendent  for  over  3D  years. 
He  was  also  3  senator  of  Toronto  and  Victoria 
nnivcrsities,  a  governor  of  Wesl^an  Theolori- 
cal    Cotlego,    Montreal,   sad  was   one  ot   the 


:,  Google 


CABMAN  '  CASKBUTB8 


founders  of  Altna  Ladies'  College,  Saint  Thomas. 
He  made  a  missiiMan'  tour  of  the  worid  in 
1906.    He  was   long  known  as    a    prominent 
force  among  the  ranks  of  prohibitionists. 
CARMAN,     Blisa,     Canadian     poet     atid 

Sumalisl :  b.  Fredericton,  N.  B.,  15  April  1861. 
e  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  New 
Bnmswick,  Edinburgh  and  Harvard,  In  1890 
he  became  ot&ce  editor  of  the  New  York  /n- 
rfr^mffraf,  where  he  remained  about  two  years; 
since  then  he  has  had  editorial  positions  on  The 
Literary  Worid,  The  Cosmopolitan  and  several 
Other  magazines.  In  1894  he  was  associated 
with  the  late  Herbert  S.  Stone  in  founding  die 
Chap-Book,  the  first  of  the  little  pocket  maga- 
zines. He  received  the  degree  of  1X.D,  from 
the  University  of  New  Brunswick  in  1906.  His 
verse  has  been  widely  read  and  his  successive 
volumes  include  'Low  Tide  on  Grand  Pri' 
(1893);  <A  Sea  Mark>  (1895);  'Behind  the 
Arras>  (1895);  'BalUds  of  Lost  Haven' 
(1897);  'By  the  Aurelian  WaU»  (1897); 
'Songs  from  Vasnibondia,'  joint  author  with  K. 
Hav^  (1894);  <Mare  Songs  from  Vagabondia' 
(withHovey)  (1896);  'Last  Songs  from  Vaga- 
bondia'  (1900);  <A  Winter  Holiday';  <St. 
Kevin,)  a  ballad  (1894);  <St.  Uichaelmas' 
. — ..     —      ^.  .  .     ..      "o„„>   (183;.     — 

(1898):  'TL    . 

Seance  of  Noel  Brassard>  (1899):  'Ode  on 
le  Coronatian  of  King  Edward'  (1902) : 
•From  the  Book  of  Myths'  (1902);  'Pipes  of 
Pan,'  No.  1  (1902)  ;  'Pipes  of  Pan,'  No.  2 
(1903)  ;  'Pipes  of  Pan  >  Nos.  3.  4.  5  (1904-05) ; 
'Poems'  (collected  ed.,  2  vols.,  1905);  'Kin- 
ship of  Nature'  (1903);  'Friendship  of  Art* 
(1»4)  !  From  the  Book  of  Valentines'  (1905)  ; 
'The  Making  of  PersonaUty'  (1907)  'The 
Gate  of  Peace'  (1907);  'The  Rou^  Rider* 
(1909)  ;  'A  Painter's  Holiday'  (1911)  :  'Edioei 
from  Vagabondia'  (1912);  'Daugiiters  of 
Dawn,*  with  Mary  Ferry  King  (1913) ;  'Earth 
Deities,'  with  M.  P.  King  (1914), 

CARMARTHEN,  or  CABRHARTHBN 
(Welsh,  Caer  Fyrddyn),  South  Wales,  a  sea- 
port town,  capital  of  Carmarthenshire;  nine 
miles  from  Carmarthen  Bay,  Bristol  Channel, 

'Lla. 

.  ,  e  principal 

the   county  hall,   Saint   Peters   Church,   with 


bank  of  the  Towy.    The  p 


.[  buildings  are 


some  interesting  monuments  —  one  an  altar 
tomb  of  the  16th  century — and  Saint  David's 
Church.  There  are  excellent  schools,  two  in- 
firmaries and  a  literary  and  scientific  institu- 
tion. There  are  some  tin  and  lead  ore  works, 
cloth  manufactories,  slate  quarries  and  iron ' 
foundries,  and  the  salmon  fishery  is  exten- 
sive. Carmarthen  was  the  Maridnnum  of  the 
Romans,  and  under  the  native  Welsh  Princes 
the  capital  of  South  Wales.  Pop.  10,221. 

CARMARTHBNSHIRS,  or  CABRHAR- 
THENSHIRE,  South  Wales,  a  maritime 
county  and  the  largest  of  all  the  Welsh  coun- 
ties; extreme  length,  45^  miles;  breadth,  36 
miles;  area,  588,4!^  acres.  It  is  mountainous 
generally,  but  not  so  rugged  as  some  other 
Welsh  counties.  Some  of  tte  vales  are  beauti- 
ful, particularly  that  of  Towy,  which  is  30  miles 
in  length.  This  river  and  the  Tave  are  the 
only  navigable  streams  in  the  county.  The  val- 
leys are  fertile,  and  numerous  herds  of  small 
blade  cattle  are  raised  on  the  hills.  The  min- 
eral products  arc  copper,  silver,  iron,  lead,  coal, 


marble  and  hnilding  ttone.  There  are  consd- 
erable  fisheries.  The  Rebecca  RioU  (1843-44). 
in  oppositioo  to  InmpikE  gate^  originated  in 
the  conahr.  Cannartbcnshire  returns  two  meny 
bers  to  ParliamentL     Pop.   16Gt40& 

CAKMAUX,  kir-me^  France,  a  dty  in  tibe 
department  of  Tarn,  nine  miles  northeast  of 
Altn  by  rail.  It  is  one  of  the  great  coal-mining 
centres  of  France,  the  !*"""?'  output  sometimes 
reaching  as  h^  as  600,000  tons.  Serious 
strikes  and  riots  to<dc  place  here  in  1892,  There 
are  also  glass  manufactures.    Pop.  (1906)  8,618 

CARMEL.  (I)  A  mountain  ridge  m 
Palestine,  constituting  part  of  Lebanon,  on  the 
southern  frontier  of  Galile^  in  the  pa^ialic  of 
Acca.  It  consists  of  several  rich  woody  heights^ 
separated  W  fertile  and  habitable  valleys  within 
a  circuit  of  about  28  miles,  and  terminates  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Kishon  in  a  lovely  plain, 
which  forms  the  southern  coast  of  the  Gulf  oE 
Ptolemais  or  Acca,  on  the  Mediterranean. 
U^n  different  parts  of  this  moimtain  there  are 
ruins  of  chuncKes  and  monasteries  from  the 
time  of  the  Qiristian  kiufcdom  of  Jerusalem, 
and  the  cave  which,  according  to  tradition,  wai 
inhabited  by  the  prophet  Elijah.  (2)  A  city  of 
Judah,  about  right  miles  southwest  of  Hebron, 
Eusebius  mentions  it  and  calls  it  a  very  great 
town.    The  modem  city  is  Khirbet  Kurmul. 

CASHBLITBS,  one  of  the  four  mendi- 
cant orders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church ;  its 
full  title  is  Friars  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Car- 
meL  The  order  has,  traditionally,  a  very  an- 
cient origin,  but  as  a  rdigious  order  approved 
tgr  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  contemporary 
with  the  Dominican  and  Frandscao  orders. 
According  to  the  legends  the  Carmelites  trace 
the  origin  of  their  order  back  to  the  early  days 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  the  time  of  the 
prophets  Ehjah  (Elias)  and  Elisha  (Elisaeus). 
Elias,  in  his  early  manhood,  says  the  legend 
retired  for  religious  contemplation  to  Mount 
Carmel,  and  there,  taught  by  an  angelj  gatiiered 
to  himself  a  number  of  men  of  like  disposition, 
and  instituted  a  society  of  contemplatives  for 
worshii)  of  the  true  God  and  the  attainment 
of  spiritual  perfection.  Among  the  disdples 
attracted  to  the  school  of  religion  were  the 
youdis  who  afterward  were  the  minor  prophets 
Jonah.   Micah   and   Obadiah ;    and   at   a    later 

e-riod  the  renowned  philosopher  of  Magna 
raKia,  Pythagoras,  was  numbered  among  the 
inquirers  after  the  tme  religion  and  the  sd- 
ence  of  divine  things  in  this  great  school  of  the 
prophets :  Pythagoras'  instructor  was  the 
prophet  Daniel.  Elijah's  wife  instituted  an 
order  of  female  recluses.  As  pointing  to  the 
existence  on  Mount  Carmel  of  some  such  insti- 
tution as  the  legend  postulates,  reference  is 
made  to  1  Kings  xviii,  19  and  follomng;  2 
Kings  ii,  25 :  and  2  Kings  iv,  25. 

The  world  outside  the  predncts  of  those  re- 
ligious communities  appears  to  have  been  en- 
tirely ignorant  of  this  andent  institution  till 
early  in  the  13lh  century,  when  Phocas,  a  Gredt 
monk  of  Patmos,  brought  to  the  Latin  Patn- 
arrh  of  Constantinople  intelligence  of  the  eadst- 
encc  in  olden  lime  of  a  great  monastic  or 
eremitic  establishment  on  Mount  Carmel,  of 
which  traces  still  remained.  The  learned  ed- 
itors of  tiie  Acta  Sanctorum  were  able  to  dem- 
onstrate that  the  present  order  owes  its  oripn 
to  the  Crusader  Bertfaold  who,  Itaving  becoine 


vGooglc 


a  monk  in  Calabria,  took  np  his  abode  oa 
Monnt  Cannel  in  11S5,  with  10  cotnjianions. 
For  these  Phocas  petitioned  Che  patriarch  to 
fonnulate  or  to  approve  a  rule  of  monastic  or 
eremitic^  life.  Thw  was  done,  and  afterward 
the  rule  was  approved  by  Pope  Honorius  III  in 
1224.  The  connection  of  this  order  with  die 
ancient  school  of  the  pfoiAets,  even  if  the  tra- 
ditional story  be  accepted,  seems  to  lack  proof. 
All  that  we  are  told  which  could  give  color 
to  the  claim  that  the  new  eremites  are  in  the 
line  of  succession  from  the  eminent  school  of 
prophets  is,  that  in  a  vi&ion  Elias  gave  orders 
to  die  monk  from  Calabria  to  found  a  religious 
utabhshmcnt  on  the  ancient  site.  The  com- 
munity was  expelled  by  the  Saracens  from  its 
seat  on  Mount  Caimel  and  took  refuge  in  the 
West.  One  of  the  earliest  houses  of  the  Car- 
melite order  in  the  West  was  founded  at  Aln- 
wick in  England;  and  about  the  same  time,  near 
the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  Saint  Louis  the 
King,  founded  at  Paris  the  first  Carmelite  house 
in  France  —  the  Cannei,  of  terrible  celebrity 
in  the  great  Revolution.  Pope  Innocent  IV 
modified  the  rule  of  the  order  and  assimilated 
it  to  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan  rule.  One 
of  the  traditions  represents  Jesus  and  his 
mother  as  initiates  of  the  ancient  order ;  and 
Saint  Simon  Stock,  sixth  general  of  the  order, 
an  Ei^lishman,*  received  from  the  hands  of  the 
Virgin  the  scapulaty  of  Mount  Carmel  with 
the  assurance  that  whoso  should  die  ^iPcaring 
that  scapulary  would  Surely  not  be  damned.  A 
relaxation  of  the  primitive  severity  of  the  rule 
was  permitted  by  EuKenius  IV  in  1431,  and 
this  led  to  a  scisston  ot  the  order  into  two  sub- 
orders, the  Conventuals  or  Calced  (wearing 
shoes)  and  the  Observants  or  Discalced  (shoe- 
less or  barefooted).  Pope  Benedict  XIII  in 
1725  pennitted  the  order  to  add  to  the  statues 
in  Saint  Peter's  Church  of  founders  of  rehgious 
orders  one  to  their  founder,,  which  was  erected 
with  the  inscription :  "Universus  Ordo  Carme- 
litarum  Fundatori  suo  Sando  Eliae  prophetas 
erexit'  ("The  whole  order  of  the  Carmelites 
erected  this  statue  to  their  founder.  Saint  Ettas 
the  prophet').  The  order  of  Carmelite  nuns 
dates  from  the  middle  of  the  ISth  century.  In 
1S62  the  great  mystic  Saint  Teresa,  who  was  a 
Carmelite  nun,  in  virtue  of  a  papal  brief  estab- 
lished a  serrate  branch  of  the  sisterhood,  under 
a  very  severe  rule :  these  are  the  Barefoot  Car- 
melite Nuns.  She  then  undertook  to  restore  in 
the  original  order  ot  Carmelite  Friars  the 
ancient  severity  of  discipline,  and  succeeded; 
the  result  is  the  order  or  suborder  of  the  Bare- 
foot or  Discatced  Cannetites.  The  Carmelite 
order,  in  its  several  form^  has  establishments 
all  over  the  world.  The  neadquarters  of  the 
order  in  America  are  at  Niagara  Falls. 

CARHBH.  M^rimte's  short  novel,  *Car- 
men,'  is  probably  less  known  than  the  opera  to 
which  it  gave  its  name.  This  story,  like  many 
of  Mirimie's  literary  productions,  appears 
merely  as  an  incident  in  the  course  of  more  seri- 
ous work.  Indeed,  it  begjns  with  an  ardueo- 
Ipgical  discussion  and  ends  with  a  disserta- 
tion on  gypqr  diadects  and  manners.  The  inter- 
vening 90  pjiges  contain  however  a  vivid  picture 
0^  sypsy  bfe  in  Spain  in  its  strangest  and  most 
picturesque  features.  Mirimfe's  travels  in 
Spain,  his  accpaintance  with  the  history  of  the 
country.  Its  literature,  its  laogusge  and  dialects. 


including  the  difficult  Basque  and  that  of  the 
Romani  or  gypsies,  furnished  him  abundant  ma- 
terial for  his  story.  This  materiai  he  handles 
in  his  impersonal  manner,  with  a  logical  devel- 
opment, a  precision  and  a  finish  of  style  which 
make  of  his  works  little  gems  ot  Uteraiy 
achievement  In  spite  of  his  detached  attitude 
toward  his  characters,  he  endows  them  with 
an  impressive  or  rather  oppressive  realism. 
Few  characters  in  French  literature  are  more 
skilfully  drawn  or  more  stron^y  alive  than 
those  found  in  Merim^e's  stones.  In  'Car- 
men,' the  heroine  is  a  romantic  conception  of 
the  classic  Gitanilla  of  Cervantes.  She  com- 
bines the  virtues  and  vices  of  her  race  carried 
to  extremes.  In  her  many-sided  roles,  either 
as  cigarette -maker,  a  fortune  teller,  a  secret 
agent  of  highwaymen  and  smuralers,  or  as 
the  fun-loving  dancer  and  the  devoted  nurse 
of  her  wounded  companions,  she  is  intensely  - 
passionate  or  revengeful,  greedy  or  extravagant 
selfishly  sensuous  or  ideally  self-sacrificing, 
but  always  exercises  a  strong  fasdnaLion  upon 
all  of  those  who  willingly  or  unwillingljr  come 
under  her  fateful  influence.  This  fasdnatioa 
has  transformed  the  hero,  Don  Josi,  from  an 
honest  sergeant  in  the  army  into  a  smu^ter, 
a  bandit  and  a  murderer,  wneiL  driven  by  jeal- 
ousy, he  stabs  Carmen  herself  after  he  had 
gained  undisputed  i>ossession  of  her  by  killing 
her  gypsy  husband  in  a  trumped-up  duel. 

Although  such  adventures  and  strang«  pic- 
tures may  startle  and  pnzzle  the  reader,  tney 
nevertheless  leave  a  strong  impression  because 
in  spite  of  an  exaggerated  individualism,  thqr 
show  a  solid  humanistic  foundation,  and  on 
the  part  of  the  author  an  accurate  sense  of  ob- 
servation even  if  tinged  with  a  certain  dilet- 
tantism and  indifference  bordering  on  cynicism. 
Dramatized  by  Meilhac  and  Hal^vy,  'Carmen* 
was  set  to  music  by  Bizet  and  played  for  the 
first  time  in  Paris  on  3  March  1675;  since  then 
it  has  been  one  of  the  most  popular  operas  of 


{New  York  1903). 


L.   A.  LoiSEAUX. 


CARBIBN,  an  opera  comique  in  four  acts 
by  Georges  Bizet  (Ubretto  by  Meilhac  and 
HaKvy,  lounded  on  a  tale  by  Prosper  M*ri- 
mht)  first  produced  at  Paris  on  3  March  1875. 
Not  only  Bizet's  masterpiece,  but  the  greatest 
opera  tut  has  come  out  of  France,  'Carmen' 
was  not  at  first  a  success,  and  the  coolness 
of  its  reception  is  generally  believed  to  have 
hastened  the  composer's  death,  which  occurred 
three  months  later.  The  story  of  the  beautiful 
c.>__:,i. a:^t^^ ~Ij    ci.i.     ii.. 


.  every  opera-goer. 
There  is  no  more  popular  song  in  the  modem 
repertory  than  that  of  the  Toreador  with  its 
graphic  portrayal  of  the  character  of  Esca- 
millo,  the  bull-fighter.  In  die  Habanera,  sung 
bv  Carmen  in  the  first  act,  use  is  made  of  an 
old  Spanish  song;  but  except  in  that  instance, 
the  music  is  all  Bixet's  and  not  the  least  note- 
worthy fact  is  its  convincing  Spanish  color,  as 
realistic  and  as  warm  as  a  So  roll  a  painting. 
The  riiythmic  lilt  of  the  Seguidilla,  with  which 
Carmen  subjagates  Don  Jos6,  and  of  her  duux 
with  mslaneis  in  the  second  act,  it  oot  eanly 


[ig 


v  Google 


630 


CARHBN  SSCVLAltB— CARHALL 


forgotten.  Indeed,  tbe  whole  score  is  a  mine 
of  rhythm  of  inexhaustible  variety.  The  ro- 
mantic diann  of  Michaela's  aria  in  the  third  act 
is  so  compelling  as  easily  lo  overcome  the  nat- 
ural relactance  of  the  most  celebrated  i»inia 
donna  to  taking  second  place.  While  the  Wag- 
nerian influence  is  in  a  general  sense  present 
in  the  orchestral  portion  of  Carmen,  harmonic- 
ally and  rh3'thmi<:ally  it  is  Biiet  alone;  and  his 
onginali^  and  dramatic  power  as  displayed  in 
lliis  work  (think  of  the  eloquent  Fate  motif) 
sugsest  that  he  might  have  nsen  to  the  great- 
estaeights  had  he  lived  beyond  die  short  37 

Sars  of  life  permitted  to  him.  It  was 
ietzsche  who  said:  "Bitet  was  the  last  genius 
to  discover  a  new  beauty. —  Bizet  discovered 
new  lands — the  Southern  lands  of  music* 
Carmen  has  always  enlisted  the  powers  of 
great  dramatic  singers.  The  original  was  Mm& 
Galli-Marie.  Minnie  Hauck  introduced  the 
r^e  in  London  and  New  York.  But  the  great- 
est of  all  Cam  ens  was  EJnma  Calv^  who 
made  her  American  d£but  in  1893.  Her  sensa- 
tional performance  was  long  before  the  public 
in  this  country  and  will  not  soon  be  forgotten. 
Lewis  U.  Isaacs. 

CARMEN  SECULARS.    See  Horace. 

CARMEN  SYLVA.  pen  name  of  Eliza- 
beth, Queen  of  Rumania   (q.v.). 

CARMI,  III.,  city  and  county-seat  of  White 
County,  150  miles  southeast  of  Sprinsfield,  on 
the  Louisville  and  Nashville  Railroaa  and  the 
Little  Wabash  River.  It  is  the  centre  of  an 
agricultural  region  and  exports  fruit,  grain, 
tiour,  tile  and  lumber.  It  has  flouring  and  saw 
mills,  brick  works,  machine  shops,  a  stave  and 
heading  factory,  an  ice  factory,  etc  Pop. 
W910)  2,833. 

CARMINATIVES,  remedies  that  cause  a 
warm,  pleasant  sensation  in  the  stomach  and 
act  as  stimulants  to  the  muscles,  causing  peri- 
stalsis, thus  relieving  flatus;  and  that  increase 
die  flow  of  the  gastric  and  intestinal  secretions. 
Most  of  the  drugs  containing  volatile  oils  arc 
carminatives ;  as,  the  mint  family,  parsley,  anise, 
fennel,  caraway,  cardamon^  ginger,  cinnamon, 
doves,  etc    See  Volatile  Oils. 

CARMINE,  the  most  splendid  of  all  the 
red  colors,  is  made  from  cochineal  insect,  or 
Coccui  cadi.  It  was  first  discovered  by  a 
Franciscan  monk  at  Pisa,  while  compounding 
some  medicine  containing  cochineal,  and  in 
1656  it  began  to  be  manufactured.  The  finest 
is  that  which  is  thrown  down  from  an  aqueous 
infusion  by  chloride  of  tin.  _  This,  after  de- 
^siting,  is  collected  and  dried.  The  opera- 
tions require  ihe  greatest  care,  for  the  brilliancy 
of  the  color  is  ailected  by  the  weather,  U^t 
and  temperature.  The  color  produced  by  alum 
has  a  darker  tint,  and  constitutes  lake.  Car- 
mine, or  carminic  acid,  is  also  the  name  given 


the  heavy  metals,  and  it  yields  various  prod- 
ucts when  acted  on  by  chlorine,  nitric  acid  and 
other  reagents.  Carmine  is  used  to  some 
extent  in  dj-eing,  in  water-color  painting,  to 
color    artificial    flowers,    confectionery,    etc, 

CARMONA  (ancient  Cakmo),  a  town  in 
Spain.  20  miles  from  Seville,  on  a  hei^t  over- 
looking a  large  [Jain  covered  with  <Jive-trees. 


It  is  well  buil^  containing  man^  huidsome  man- 
sions belonging  (o  the  nobility,  who  thourii 
usually  resident  in  Seville  spend  part  of  the 
year  there.  The  principal  square  is  well  planted, 
and,  among  other  edifices,  possesses  a  hand- 
some Gothic  church  with  lofty  spire.  Another 
conspicuous  object  is  a  Moonsh  castle,  flanked 
with  massive  towcra,  and  there  are  two  old 
Roman  gates.  The  manufactures  arc  chiefly 
woolen  hats,  leather  and  earthenware.  Recent 
important  excavations  on  the  site  of  the  andent 
necrcHiolis,  to  the  west  of  the  modem  town, 
have  brougfal  to  li^t  a  large  number  of  tombs 
and  funeral  tridima  in  almost  perfect  preserva- 
tion. Considerable  portions  of  the  Moorish  wall 
and  Alcazar  still  remain.  The  dtv  retained  its 
prominence  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
fell  into  the  power  of  the  Moors,  but  was 
recaptured  by  Saint  Ferdinand  of  Castile  in 
1247.  Consult  M.  Sales  y  Perr^,  'Esiudios 
argueologicos  6  hist6ricos>  (Madrid  1887). 
Pop.  18,S5. 

CARHONTEL,  kir-moii-til,  or  CAR- 
HONTELLE,  Louis  Curogia,  French  poet: 
b  Paris,  IS  Aug.  J717;  d.  there,  26  Dec  1806. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  ^Proverbes  drama- 
tiques>  (10  vols.,  Paris  1768-81,  new  ed,  4  vols, 
Paris  ]S22).  These  are  without  much  connec- 
tion in  themselves,  being,  in.  fact,  only  a  series 
of  dramatic  scenes,  but  are  well  adapted  for 
private  theatres.  The  fertility  of  Cannontel 
was  as  extraordinary  as  his  ease  in  writing 
His  'Thtitre  de  campagne,'  a  collection  of 
more  than  2S  comedies,  was  published  in  1775 
(4  vols.).  He  painted  portraits,  mostly  profiles, 
□f  some  of  the  most  eminent  persons  of  the 
18th  century.  'Proverbes  ct  comedies  posthu- 
mes  de  Carmontdle>  -  was  publidied,  with  a 
memoir  by  Mme.  de  Genlis  (3  vols..  Paris 
1825). 

CARNAC,  kar-nak,  France,  a  Breton  vil- 
lage in  the  department  of  Morbihan,  on  a 
height  near  the  coast  18  miles  southeast  of 
Lonent,  and  remarkable  for  the  so-called  Dru- 
idical  monuments  in  its  vidnity.  These  consist 
of  more  tban  1,100  rude  blocks  of  gray  granite, 
some  of  which  are  upward  of  18  feet  high, 
standing  on  end  in  the  midst  of  a  wide  heath. 
They  are  in  the  form  of  unpolished  obelisks, 
with  the  vertex  reversed,  atiQ  are  arranged  in 
11  lines,  forming  10  avenues,  with  a  curved 
row  at  one  end.  There  arc  many  gaps  in  the 
lines:  almost  evety  house  and  wall  in  the 
vidnity  is  seemingly  built  from  this  artificial 

auarry.  They  are  evidently  of  very  ancient 
ate,  but  their  origin  is  unknown.  At  a  dis- 
tance of  a  mile  and  a  half  from  Camac  there 
is  a  wonderful  group  of  inoimds  called  the 
Bossenno,  and  the  remains  of  a  Gallo-Roman 
town  were  uncovered  in  1874.  Pop.  3,250. 
Consult  Lukis,  'Chambered  Barrows  and  Other 
Historic  Monuments  in  Morbihan'  (1875); 
Miln,  'Excavations  at  Camac'  (1877-^1); 
Worsfold,  "The  French  Stooehenge'  (flrtfirA 
Archaalogicai  Association   JoumaL   18^). 


CARNALL,  Rudolph  von,  German  min- 
ing engineer:  b,  Glati  1804;  d.  1874,  He  began 
the  study  of  mining  in  Berlin  in  1821  was 
connected  with  the  minii^  industry  in  Uppei 
Silesia  and  rose  to  be  superintendent  of  mine 
and  director  of  the  general  mining  office  ir 
"      '         ....-.■     r — '- 7  ihe  German 


.Google 


CARNALLITB  —  CARHATION 


<31 


of  Beriin  on  the  sdcnce  of  zaimag  eDghieenBg, 
and  rendered  importiUit  service  to  the  develop- 
ment of  German  mining.  He  was  councillor 
in  the  mines  and  mining  section  of  the  Prus- 
sian Ministry  of  Commerce  from  18S5  to  1861. 
The  Zeitickrift  fur  das  Berg-,  HutUn-vnd  Sa!- 
inenuiesen  im  prtusnschen  Staate  was  founded 
by  him. 

CARNALLITB,  a  hydrous  double  chloride 
of  potash  and  magnesium,  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal potash-yielding  minerals  of  the  great  Ger- 
man potash  deposits  at  Stassfurt,  Gennany. 
In  composition  it  consists  of  potassium  chlor- 
ide, 26.8  per  cent,  and  magnesium  chloride,  34.2 
per  cent.a  Its  equivalent  in  potash  is  14.1  per 
cent. 


CARNARVON,  kar-nar'v5n.  Henry  How- 
ard Holyneux  (4th  Eaju.  op),  English  states- 
man :  b.  London,  24  June  1831 ;  d  28  June  1890. 
He  received  his  education  at  Eton  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  taking  his  degree  in  1852. 
After  this  he  spent  several  vears  in  travel  in 
the  Orient.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
earldom  in  1849,  and  was  secretan  of 
state  for  the  colonies,  June  1866  to  March 
1867.  He  was  chosen  hi^  steward  of  Oxford 
University  and  created  D.C.L.  (18S9).  During 
his  secretaryship  he  devised  a  scheme  for  the 
federation  of  the  British  North  American 
Colonies,  subsequently  approved  by  Parliament 
He  was  again  colonial  secretary,  1874-78,  and 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1885-86.  He  pub- 
lished 'The  Druses  of  Mount  Lebanon'  HSoO^  ; 
an  address  on  Berkshire  Arcluralogy  (I860) ; 
edited  ■  Reminiscenses  of  Athens  and  the  Morea 
by  the  late  Earl  of  Carnarvon,*  his  father,  and 
published  translations  of  the  'Agamemnon' 
(1879),  the  'Odyssey>  (1886),  and  <Prorae- 
fteus   Vinctus'    (1893). 

CARNARVON,  or  CAERNARVON, 
Wales,  a  seaport  town  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough, on  the  southeast  side  of  the  Mcnai  Strait, 
and  capital  of  the  county,  209  miles  northwest 
of  London.  The  ancient  walls  thrown  around  it 
by  Edward  I,  and  flanked  by  round  towers, 
are  still  fairly  entire.  The  magnificent  castle 
or  palace  of  Edward  I,  and  in  which  Edward 
II  was  born,  stands  at  the  west  end  of  the 
town,  almost  overlianging  the  sea,  and  is  ex- 
temaJly  entire.  Including  its  courtyards,  etc, 
it  covers  about  two  acres  of  ground.  There 
are  extensive  ironworks  in  the  town,  which 
supply  machinery  for  steamers,  etc.  The  chief 
cxi>orts  are  copper  ore,  coal  and  slates,  of 
*  which  the  town  is  a  centre  of  distribution  for 
the  neighborhood.  It  is  much  frequented  by 
summer  tourists.  Consult  Hartshome,  'Car- 
narvon Castle'  (in  the  Arckadogical  joumal. 
Vol.  VII,  London  1850). 

CARNARVONSHIRK,  or  CABRNAR. 
VONSHIRB,  a  maritime  county  of  North 
Wales,  having  Carnarvon  Bay  on  the  west; 
Denbigh  on  the  east;  the  island  of  Anglesea 
and  the  Irish  Sea  on  the  north  and  Cardigan 
Bay  on  the  south.  Its  extreme  length,  south- 
west to  northeast,  is  about  52  miles ;       '        ~ 


There  are  other  summits  varying  from  1,500 


feet  to  more  than  3,000  feet  E>air7  fanning; 
and  cattle,  horse  and  sheep  breeding  are  the 
principal  occupations  of  the  farmer.  The 
cattle  and  sheep  are  of  a  small  breed.  Lead, 
xinc  and  copper  ores  are  found  in  the  moun- 
tains in  the  south,  and  granite  is  worked;  but 
slate  is  the  principal  mineral  product  of  which 
there  are  extensive  quarries  at  Betbesda.  The 
county  returns  two  members  to  Parliament 
Pop.  125,043. 

CARNATIC,  kar-nStIc,  former  province 
of  British  India,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  pen- 
insula. Its  limits  were  ill  defined,  but  It  is 
commonly  thought  to  have  extended  from  Cape 
Comorin  to  lat.  16°  N.,  and  from  the  coast 
line  to  an  average  of  about  60  miles  inland 
It  was  formerly  included  in  the  dominions  of 
the  Nabob  of  Arcot,  and  the  contentions  arising 
from  a  disputed  succession  first  brought  the 
French  and  Eji^lish  into  collision^  and  ended 
by  the  subjugation  of  the  Camatic  under  the 
British  influence,  which  was  completely  effected 
in  1801.  The  Camatic  as  one  of  the  wealthy 
provinces  has  been  the  cause  of  endless  native 
'warfare  and  bloodshed  by  which,  whoever  was 
victor,  the  unhappy  cultivator  suffered  in  the 
end;  as  each  successive  ruler,  feeling  his  tenure 
uncertain,  cared  only  to  make  revenue  whUe 
the  power  lasted  an  example  which  was  but 
too  closely  imitated  by  his  unscrupulous  minis- 
ters and  officials.  The  Camatic  is  now  in- 
cluded within  the  administration  of  the  presi- 
dency of  Madras. 

CARNATION,  a  .  half-hardy  perennial 
herb  (,Dianthus  caryopkylltis)  of  the  fami^ 
Silenac€tp,  a  native  of  southern  Europe.  It 
has  more  or  less  erect  stems  with  enlarged 
joints,  linear  opposite  leaves  covered  with  a 
bloom,  and  solitary,  variously  colored,  terminal, 
perfumed  flowers,  which  naturally  appear  dur^ 
ing  summer,  but  which  are  produced  artificially 
in  certain  varieties  throughout  the  year.  The 
plant  has  been  in  cultivation  for  its  flowers  for 
more  than  2,000  years,  but  not  until  the  early 
years  of  the  16th  century  did  its  flowers  be- 
come greatly  differentiated  from  their  original 
fiesh  tmt,  which  suggested  the  popular  name 
( Latin  carttatio ) .  So  numerous  became  the 
varieties  that  systems  of  classification  were 
adopted  The  popular  European  system  of  to- 
day is:  (1)  *Selfs,»  flowers  of  one  color;  (2) 
'flakes,'  flowers  with  yellow  or  white  ground 
and  striped  with  either  rose,  scarlet  or  purple; 
(3)  'bixarres,'  resembling  flakes  except  that 
they  are  striped  with  more  than  one  color;  (4) 
■picotees.*  with  white  or  yellow  petals  maigined 
with  red,  etc.  The  summer-blooming  carna- 
tions which  suggested  this  classification  are 
little  grown  in  America,  but  are  very  popular 
in  Europe,  They  seem  to  demand  a  moist, 
cool  climate.  The  group  most  cultivated  in 
America,  known  as  perpetual-flowering  tree, 
or  monthly  carnations,  originated  in  France 
about  1840  as  the  result  of  crossing  and  selec- 
tion. The  first  of  these  varieties  imported  into 
America  is  said  to  have  arrived  in  1856.  since 

t  o'f^hrin- 
fluslry  IS  very  great  and  is  steadily  growing. 
According  to  the  census  re_port  of  1900  the 
vaJue  of  the  carnation  crop  in  1899  was  about 
$4,000,000,  produced  in  about  9,000  American 
commercial  greenhouses. 


d=,  Google 


CARNATIOH  —  CASHBOU 


Fropac^tion  of  the  irontfily  _..  . 
usually  effected  by  means  of  cuttings  of  young 
stems.  When  well  rooted  they  are  potted  in 
good  soil  and  kept  until  late  spring,  when  they 
are  transplanted  to  the  open  ground  or  to  the 
benches  where  they  are  to  blossom.  A  winter 
temperature  ranging  between  SO'  and  55°  at 
mght  and  preferably  only  10°  higher  during  the 
day  is  desirable.  At  the  end  of  the  winter  they 
are  thrown  away. 

The  most  common  insect  pests  of  the  Carna- 
tion are  the  red  spider  and  the  green  ^his. 
The  red  spider  thrives  best  in  dry  atmosphere, 
and  is  most  easily  controlled  by  syrin^ne  with 
water  and  evaporating  (not  burning)  sulimur  in 
the  greenhouse  once  a  week  for  about  five 
weel^,  when  the  insects  become  troublesome. 
The  green  fly  or  green  aphis  seems  to  thrive 
under  any  ordinary  conditions.  It  is  usually 
fought  with  tobacco  fumes  of  various  extracts 
of  tobacco.  Three  fungous  diseases  are  often 
troublesome,  rust  (Uromycet  caryopkyUiniu), 
Spot,  or  blight  (Septoria  diattthi),  and  anthraC' 
nose  (Volutella  Sp.).  These  are  largely  pre- 
vented by  judicious  management,  and  when 
they  occur  may  be  controlled  bjr  destroying 
diseased  plants  and  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux 


and  expose  brown  spores.  Spot 
brown  dots  with  black  centres  where  the  spores 
are  borne.  Antfaracnose  is  characterized  by 
grayidi-brown  spots.  (Bailey,  'Cyclopedia  of 
American  Horticulture,'  '  New  Yoric  1914). 
Thirty-seven  acres  of  land  are  devoted  to  the 
i^ising  of  carnations  at  a  nursery  in  Los 
Angeles,  C!al.  Nine  greenhouses,  each  200 
feet  long  and  15  feet  wide,  together  holding 
35  tons  of  gUss,  are  used  to  raise  the  young 
plants. 


•flesh*),  in  painting  the  representation  of 
color  of  flesh.  It  is  also  used  in  the  fine 
to  signify  the  nude  or  undraped  parts  of  a 
figure.  The  use  of  carnation  requires  very 
attentive  study  and  great  skill  in  the  artist 
It  varies  with  the  sex  of  the  individual,  with 
the  classes  and  countries  to  which  the  subjects 
belong,  with  the  passions,  the  state  of  the 
health,  etc.  The  cheeks  are,  in  a  healthv  sub- 
ject, of  a  lively  red;  the  breast,  neck  and 
upper  part  of  the  arms  of  a  soft  white ;  the 
belly  yellowish.  At  the  extremities  the  color 
becomes  colder,  and  at  the  points  assumes  a 
violet  tint,  on  account  of  the  transparency  of 
the  skin.  All  these  shades  require  to  be  softly 
blended.  Two  faults  in  carnation  are  chiefly 
to  be  avoided, —  hardness,  the' fault  of  the  mas- 
ters  of  the  I5th  century,  and  too  great  weak- 
ness. Guido  Reni  not  infrequently  painted  his 
flesh  so  that  it  appeared  almost  bloodless.  The 
French  school  has  gone  farthest  in  this  respect. 
The  flesh  of  the  followers  of  diis  school  often 
looks  like  porcelain  or  wax.  Titian  and  Kubens 
are  unrivaled 


CARNAUBA,  kar-na-oo'b?,  the  Brazilian 
name  of  the  pahn,  Coptmiea  cerifera.  which 
has  its  leaves  coated  with  waxy  scales  (whence 
the  name  wax-palm),  yielding  a  useful  wax 
by  boiling.  It  withstands  drought  excellently. 
A  slight  saline  composition  in  the  soil  pro- 
duces the  best  trees.    The  fruit  and  pith  are 


CASNEADBS,  Greek  philosonber :  b. 
Cyrene,  Africa,  about  214  a.c ;  d.  129  a.c  The 
date  of  his  birUi  is  uncertain.  Cicero  states  be 
was  90  years  old  at  the  time  of  bis  death,  which 
would  place  his  date  of  birth  in  219  a.c  He 
studied  first  under  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  but 
subsequently  attended  the  lectures  of  Egesinus, 
who  explained  the  doctrines  of  Arcesilaus ;  and 
succeeding  his  master  in  the  chair  of  the 
Academy,  he  restored  its  reputation  by  softening 
the  prevailing  pyrrhonism  and  admitting  prac- 
tical probabilities.  The  doctrine  of  Cameadcs 
specifically  was,  that  "as  the  senses,  the  under- 
standing, and  the  imagination  frequently  de- 
crive  u!,  diCT  cannot  be  the  infallible  judges  of 
truth,  but  that  from  the  impression  made  t^ 
the  senses  we  infer  appearances  of  truth,  which, 
with  respect  to  the  conduct  of  life,  are  a  sufB- 
dent  puide.*  He  was  a  strenuous  opjjoser  of 
Chrysippus,  and  attacked  with  great  vigor  the 
system  of  theology  of  the  Stoics.  He  was  an 
advocate  of  free-will  against  the  fate  of  the 
same  sect  and  urged  just  the  same  difficulties 
in  reconciling  divine  prescience  with  the  freedom 
of  human  actions  as  have  divided  some  con- 
tending sects  of  Christianity.  One  of  the  most 
distinguished  events  of  his  life  was  his  being 
joinea  in  an  embassy  to  Rome  with  Diogenes 
the  Stoic  and  Critolaus  die  Peripatetic,  in  order 
to  gain  the  mitigation  of  a  fine  levied  by  the 
Roman  Senate  on  the  Athenians.  This  extraor- 
dinary embassy  was  successful,  and  Came- 
ades  so  captivated  the  people  by  his  elo- 
quence, one  day  delivering  a  harangue  in  praise 
of  justice,  and  on  the  next  proving  it  to  be  an 
odious  institution,  that  Cato  the  censor,  fearful 
of  its  effect  on  the  Roman  youth,  persuaded  the 
Senate  to  send  the  philosophers  back  to  their 
schools  without  delay.  In  his  latter  years 
Cameades  became  totally  blind  and  continualb' 
complained  of  the  shortness  of  life,  lamenting 
that  the  same  nature  which  composed  the  human 
frame  could  dissolve  it.  Consult  Hicks,  'Stoic 
and  EiMcurean>  (New  York  1910). 

CARNEGIE,  Andrew,  American  iron- 
master, manufacturer  and  philanthropist;  b. 
Dunfermline,  Scotland,  25  Nov.  1635.  None 
even  of  the  mighty  makers  of  their  own 
fortunes  began  closer  to  absolute  zem;  cer- 
tainly none  who  Iwve  owed  success  not  to 
fortunate  speculations,  but  to  steady  labor, 
sagacity  ana  self-culture,  the  natural  walking ' 
of  Oie  hi^est  powers  on  opportunities  open  to 
all  and  less  to  him  than  to  most.  His  father 
owned  a  small  hand-loom  business,  which  was 
closed  in  1848  by  the  competition  of  steam.  He 
then  emigrated  to  the  United  States  and  settled 
in  Allegheny  City,  Pa.  The  10-year-old  child 
here  became  a  bobbin-boy  at  20  cents  a  day ;  his 
alertness  in  a  few  months  brought  hira  trans- 
ference to  an  engine-room,  lus  penmanship  and 
arithmetic  a  chance  to  do  clerical  work.  Next 
a  telegraph  messenger  boy  at  Pittsburgh  (with 
a  mother  and  younger  brother  to  support  from 
his  slender  wages),  he  promptly  mastered  tdeg- 
rapfay,  was  soon  given  a  place  as  operator, 
and  won  himself  extra  earnings  and  experience 
in  compositioTi  as  a  newspaper  telegraph  re- 
porter. Superior  fitness  brought  him  the  post 
of  telegraphic  train  dispatcher  to  the  Pennsyl- 


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vania  Railroad;  then  of  secretary  to  its  general 
superintendent,  Colonel  Scott ;  and  in  1860, 
when  his  chief  became  vice-president,  Mr.. 
Carnegie  was  made  superintendent  of  the 
Western    Division.       Meantime    his    business 


by  the  road,  through  his  agency,  of  the  Wood- 
ruff sleeping-car  system,  in  which  he  shrewdly 
embarked  some  borrowed  money;  his  expett 
knowledge  made  it  investment,  not  speculation ; 
and  his  dividends  went  partiaJly  into  oil  lands 
around  Oil  Gty,  selected  with  equal  judgment 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  Colonel  Scott  was 
made  Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  and  gave 
Mr.  Carnegie  charge  of  the  eastern  military 
railroads  and  telegraph  lines,  and  of  this  de- 
partment there  was  no  complaint  or  scandal, 
and  no  broiikdown  except  of  Mr.  Camesie's 
health  from  overwork.  He  was  also  the  third 
man  wounded  on  the  Union  side,  while  remov- 
ing obstructions  from  the  Washington  tracks. 

Already  a  small  capitalist,  in  1862  the  Penn- 
sylvania road's  experiments  in  replacing  wooden 
with  iron  bridees  led  him  to  forecast  the  future 
monopoly  of  the  latter,  and  organize  the  Key* 
stone  Bndge  Works,  which  buill  the  first  iron 
bridEC  across  the  Ohio.  To  increase  their 
profit  by  furnishing  their  own  iron,  he  entered 
the  field  which  has  made  him  one  of  the  indus- 
trial sovereigns  of  all  time.  The  first  step  was 
the  erection  of  the  Union  Iron  Mills,  furnaces 
and  rolling  mills ;  the  last,  after  inspection  of 
the  Bessemer  process  in  England,  to  establish  it 
in  this  country  in  1868.  The  story  since  is  one 
of  swift  aggregation  of  plant  to  plant,  till  they 
have  dominated  their  class,  and  become  one  of 
the  chief  industrial  factors  of  the  entire  busi- 
ness world  in  this  its  greatest  age.  By  1888  he 
had  acquired  a  conlrollina  interest  in  his  fore- 
most rival,  the  Homestead  Steel  Works,  and  in 
seven  other  immense  establishments  centred 
around  Pittsburgh;  in  1899  he  consolidated  all 
these  into  one  giant  structure,  the  Carnegie 
Steel  Company;  and  in  1901  he  retired  from 
business  life,  transferring  his  company  at  a 
valuation  of  $500,000,000  to  be  merged  into  one 
still  vaster,  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation, 
formed  by  J.  Pierpont  Morgan.  His  United 
States  residence  is  in  New  York;  his  summer 
establishment  at  Skibo  Castle,  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Scotland. 

Such  supreme  success,  fairly  won  in  a  strug- 
gle with  the  world,  is  of  course  the  result  of  a 
supretne  individual  genius  not  to  be  tau^t  or 
explained,  but  as  the  amount  of  work  any  one 
man  can  do  unassisted  is  a  trifle,  the  chief  in- 
strumentality is  always  the  faculty  of  organi- 
zation. Mr.  Carnegie  himself  once  said  that 
the    oreanization    woj    the    business ;    that    if 


,     1  four  years  he  would  have  re-estaolished 

himself.  But  the  organization  is  simply  the 
men  who  work  it,  wi.h  their  capacity  of  select- 
ing capable  subordinates,  and  understanding 
public  needs  and  the  means  of  supplying  them ; 
and  this  leaves  the  faculty  of  creatmg  and  sus- 
taining' it  no  nearer  solution  than  before.  In 
th«  last  analysis  it  means  a  nicely  accurate 
judgment  of   men,  resulting  from   an  intuitive 


Always  a  generous  and  helpful  man,  he  had 
definitely  begun,  a  few  years  before  his  retire- 
ment, a  new  existence  consecrated  to  public  serv- 
ice, and  to  which  he  will  owe  enduring  re- 
membrance. Another  generation  would  have 
forgotten  the  mere  business  man,  however 
great;  for  after  all  it  would  have  had  steel 
from  some  source,  if  perhaps  less  cheaply;  but 
it  could  not  have  had  from  lesser  men,  and 
would  not  have  had  from  any,  the  splendid, 
judicious  and  permanently  useful  gifts  with 
which  he  has  endowed  it,  and  which  no  change 
of  social  ideals  can  render  obsolete  or  harmful. 
No  one  has  ever  so  royally  returned  to  the 
public  what  he  had  (to  its  own  benefit)  drawn 
from  the  public.  This  is  his  own  expressed 
conviction  of  duty;  that  'surplus  wealth  is  a 
sacred  trust  to  be  administered  for  the  hi^est 
good  of  the  people,*  and  that  sometime  'the 
man  who  dies  possessed  of  millions  free  and 
ready  to  be  distributed,  will  die  disgraced.' 
But  he  is  equallj;  emphatic  in  declaring  that 
indiscriminate  giving  is  mostly  sheer  mischief, 
and  that  no  person  and  no  community  can  be 
permanently  helped  except  by  their  own  co- 
operation. Therefore,  every  gift  of  his  to  a 
community  is  conditioned  on  the  latter  support- 
ing it;  and  all  those  to  institutions  are  thought 
out,  and  so  bestowed  that  they  forward  the 
work  without  impairing  the  springs  of  public 
interest,  or  the  ties  to  the  public,  which  must 
after  all  be  their  permanent  stay.  These  gifts 
are  mostly  not  to  charities  in  the  current  sense, 
relief  of  material  distresses,  for  which  the  spirit 
of  human  brotherhood  should  be  adeijuate;  but 
for  that  mental  and  spiritual  cultivation  which 
should  raise  communities  out  of  the  lowest 
plane  of  social  evils.  An  apparent  exception, 
which,  however,  is  not  charily  but  justice  and 
business  sense,  is  the  endowment  of  $4,000,000 

B'ven  for  an  annuity  fund  to  the  workers  at 
omestead.  The  remainder  of  his  ■  benefac- 
tions may  be  divided  broadly  into  institutions 
for  research  and  the  discovery  of  fertile  new 
ideas ;  those  for  teaching  the  best  of  id^s  and 
their  practical  appliances  already  known;  and 
those  for  storing  the  results  of  knowledge  and 
creation  and  distributing  them  to  the  public  — 
in  a  word,  universities^  colleges  and  technical 
schools  and  libraries.  Even  the  oivans  he  has 
presented  to  several  hundred  chuiriies  may  be 
classed  in  this  category ;  as  he  genially  ob- 
served, he  is  willing  to  endorse  unreservedly 
all  the  utterances  of  the  organs,  but  not  of  the 
preachers.  The  greatest  single  foundation  will 
be  the  Carnegie  institute  at  Pittsburgh  an 
enormous  technological  school,  with  library,  art 
gallery  and  every  imaginable  accessory, —  the 
people's  college  of  what  he  thinks  the  coming 
type,— which  has  received  $25,000,000  in  alL 
Next  is  the  Carnegie  Institution  (q.v.)  at 
Washington,  to  promote  original  research  and 
enable  original  workers  to  use  their  whole 
time  for  study,  experiment  and  creation;  per- 
haps his  most  valuable  benefaction  ultimately, 
since  new  ideas  are  at  once  the  scarcest  and  the 
most  valuable  items  of  the  world's  income,  and 
the  work  of  one  great  man  outweighs  that  of 
10  generations  of  small  ones.  Of  the  others, 
perhaps  the  most  useful,  considering  the  work, 
and  the  chief,  is  the  gift  of  $600,000  to  the  Tus- 
kegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  in  Ala- 
bama, conditioned  on  the  trustees  using  enough 
of  its  income  annually  to   free  its  president 


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CARNEGIE— CARNEGIE  DESERT  LABORATORY 


from  money  cares  and  the  need  of  'drumming 
support  for  his  college.  Sixty-five  libraries  in 
New  York  have  received  $5,200,000,  one  in  Saint 
Louis  $1,000,000,  and  two  in  Detroit  and  San 
Francisco  $750000  each;  tibiaries  at  Homestead, 
firaddock  and  Duquesne  $1,000,000:  and  the 
nniversities  in  Scotland  $10,000,000:  In  1905  he 
established  the  Carnegie  Foundation  of  $10,- 
000,000,  the  income  from  which  provides  retjr- 
iag  pensions  for  teachers  in  collets,  universi- 
ties and  technical  schools ;  and  in  December 
1910  a  Peace^Fund  of  $10,000,000;  $5,000^000 
to  the  Carnwie  Hero  Fund  Commission,  Pitts- 
burgh ;  $1,500,000  to  the  Carnegie  Hero  Fimd 
Trust,  Dunfermline,  Scotland;  and  the  follow- 
ing amounts  to  various  Hero  Funds  i  France 
$1,000,000;  Germany  $1,500,000;  Belgium  $230,- 
000;  Denmark  $125,000;  Holland  $20^)00; 
Sweden  $230,000;  Switzerland  $130,000;  Italy 
1750,000;  Norway  $125,000. 

He  has  also  given  $3,500,000  to  the  Carnegie 
Dunfermline  Trust;  $1,500,000  for  the  Peace 
Temple  at  The  Hague ;  $1,500,000  to  the  Allied 
Engineers'  Society;  and  his  total  benefactions 
exceed  $300,000,000,  including  over  $60,000,000 
for  over  3.000  municipal  library  buildings;  also 
the  building  and  grounds  for  the  Pan-American 
Union.  Washington,  1906;  $16,150000  tor 
Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching 
in  United  States,  Canada  and  Newfoundland. 

He  is  a  Hfe  trustee  of  the  Carnegie  Corpora- 
tion of  New  York  ($125,000,000)  which  was 
founded  to  carry  on  the  various  works  in  which 
he  has  been  engaged  and  to  which  he  announced 
in  1912  that  he  had  given  all  his  fortune  except 
$25,000,000.  He  was  lord  rector  of  Saint  An- 
drew's University  in  1901-02  and  1906^  and  of 
Aberdeen  University  in  1912. 

Mr.  Carn^e  has  also  won  fame  as  bd 
author.  His  first  works,  'Notes  -of  a  Trip 
Around  the  World'  (1879)  and  'Our  Coaching 
Trip'  (1882)  were  printed  first  for  privaU  cir- 
culation, but  published  in  consequence  of  the 
great  pressure  for  private  copies.  <An  Ameri- 
cau  Four-in-Hand  in  Britain'  (1883)  and 
'Round  the  World>  (1884)  followed;  but  his 
greatest  success  was  attained  with  'Triumphant 
Democracy'  (1886),  which  sold  40,000  copies 
within  two  years.  'The  Gospel  of  Wealth' 
(1900);  'The  Empire  of  Business'  (1902. 
since  translated  into  eight  languages) ;  'James 
Watt*  (1906);  and  'Problems  of  To-day' 
(1909)  have  maintained  his  reputation  as  a 
dear,  forcible  and  interesting  writer  and 
thinker.  Consult  Alderson,  'Andrew  Carnegie: 
the  Uan  and  His  Work' 

CARNEGIE,  Pa.,  borough  in  Allegheny 
County,  five  miles  southwest  of  Pittsburgh,  on 
the  Pittsburgh.  Gncinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint 
Louis,  the  Pittsburgh,  Chartiers  and  Yous^io- 
gheny  and  the  Wabash  Pittsburgh  railroads. 
It  has  a  Carnegie  library,  an  Ellis'  Home,  a 
high  school  and  a  fine  orphan  asylum.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  coal-mining  re^on  and  has  ex- 
tensive steel  works.  There  are  also  lead  works 
and  manufactures  of  granite  ware  and  stoves. 
In  1914  there  were  432  persons  engaged  in 
manufactures  in  19  establishment^  the  salaries 
and  wages  amounted  to  $328,000,  the  capital  in- 
vested amounted  to  $2,202,000,  the  value  of  the 
materials  used  was  $902,000,  and  the  value  of 
the  products  amounted  to  $1,724,000.  The 
borough  was  formed  in  1894  by  the  consolida- 


tion of  Chartiers  and  Mansfield.  It  is  gov- 
erned by  a  burgess,  who  is  chosen  for  a  term  of 
three  years,  and  a  coundL  Pop.  (1910)  10.009; 
(1914)  llpCSoO. 

CARNEGIE  DESERT  LABORATORY. 
one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  many 
research  departments  allied  with  the  Carnegie 
Institution  at  Washin^on,  situated  near  Tuc- 
son, Ariz.  In  connection  with  the  department 
of  botanical  research,  this  laboratory  was  es- 
tablished b  1903  and  almost  at  once  took 
its  place  among  the  great  institutions  of  the 
world.  It  concerns  ilsclt  chiefly  with  the  plant 
life  of  the  desert,  seeing  how  the  impover- 
ished plants  which  grow  there  can  be  made  to 
thrive  and  improve  and  become  of  benefit  to 
mankind,  and  is  a  movement  of  great  agricul- 
tural import.  ^.  _ 

The  equipment  of  the  Carnegie  Desert  Lab- 
oratory is  in  proportion  to  the  elaborate  work 
undertaken  there.  The  area  of  ground  em- 
braced for  experimental  wort  comprises  860 
acres,  situated  just  west  of  Tucson.  Within 
this  tract  Tunamoc  Hill  rises  to  a  height  of 
800  feet  above  the  lower  mesas.  These  topo- 
graphical features  present  a  wide  range  of 
vancd  condilions  for  plant  growth.  The  tab- 
oratory  proper  is  located  half-way  up  the  hill. 
and  the  entire  grounds  are  fenced  in.  "The 
laboraioiy  forms  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle 
126  feet  long  with  a  short  axis  of  85  feet  Be- 
sides this  is  a  small  glass  house  for  experi- 
mental purposes  along  spedal  lines,  and  also 
a  workt^m. 

The  laboratory  is  conducting  interesting 
work  on  Alpine  and  Austral  plantations.  located 
on  the  mountains,  for  the  furtherance  of  which 
work  it  is  provided  with  a  complete  pack  equip- 
ment, induding  two  pairs  of  heavy  rawhide 
kjfacks  suitable  for  transporting  instruments 
without  damage.  Although  the  greater  part  of 
the  departmental  work  is  carried  on  here,  it  is 
essential  to  a  comprehensive  study  of  desert 
plant  life  to  explore  distant  as  well  as  adiacent 
arid  regions  and  much  important  work  has 
also  been  carried  on  in  the  Sallon  Basin,  where 
it  has  been  established  that  the  highly  spedal- 
iied  flora  is  of  comparatively  recent  ori^n. 
This  basin  and  its  accompanying  vegetation 
have  suggested  experiments  relative  to  the  in- 
fluence of  altitude  and  climatic  factors  uj>on 
vegetation.  To  carry  on  these,  plantations 
have  been  established  on  the  Santa  Catalina 
Mountain  at  various  altitudes,  ranging  from 
2,300  feet  to  8,000  feet  in  hei^t.  TTiermo- 
metric  observations  are  made  at  each  of  these 
plantations.  Culture  has  also  been  carried  on 
at  the  tropical  station  at  Cinchona,  island  of 
Jamaica,  for  comparisons.  In  order  to  obtain 
more  complete  comparisons  the  establishment 
of  a  station  is  now  being  contemplated  in  the 
San  Francisco  Mountain  in  northern  Arizona, 
having  an  elevation  of  about  12,000  feet.  Nota- 
ble experiments  have  also  been  made  in  demon- 
strating the  movements  of  vegetation  over 
desert  areas,  and  the  distribution  of  native  and 
alien  plants.  This  study  has  been  greatly  facili- 
tated by  a  topographical  survey  and  a  geological 
survey,  both  of  which  were  conducted  under  the 
direcbon  of  the  University  of  Arizona.  Twelve 
well-defined  plants  were  considered  by  the  staff 
in  this  field  of  sdence,  and  various  stations 
established,  to  demonstrate  correlate  plant  be- 


Digit  zed 


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ANDREW  CARnEGIE 


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CARNEGIE  ENDOWUEHT  FOR  INTERNATIONAL  PEACE 


63B 


havior  with  known  factors  of  environmeit); 
with  special  attention  to  water  supply,  condi- 
tions of  soil,  exposure  and  drainage. 

Other  notable  work  of  the  laboratory  has 
been  the  measurements  of  bodies  of  certain 
succulents  in  which  the  storing  of  water  has 
been  developed ;  experiments  in  the  ]>hysioloKy 
of  stomata,  covering  researdi  in  relation  to  ue 
colors  in  flowers.  In  this,  convincing  data  have 
been  collected  throi^  the  agenc);  of  the  dark 
room,  starvation  and  feeding.  Similar  investiga- 
tion has  been  made  in  regard  to  the  topogra^y 
of  chlorophyll  masses,  one  of  the  distinct  char- 
acteristics here  noted  bring  the  depth  to  which 
the  chlorophyll  has  been  d^sited  in  some 
desert  plants,  primarily,  it  is  beKeved,  because  of 
the  highly  intensified  light  of  the  desert  regions. 
Experiments  have  also  been  carried  on  in  regard 
to  the  habits  of  roots  in  the  desert  regions,  with 
comparative  results  obtained  in  the  New  York 
Botanical  Gardens  and  data  from  the  Jamaica 
institution.  A  great  deal  of  highly  interesting 
work  has  also  been  done  in  studying  the  water 
Storage  capacity  of  certain  desert  plants.  Many 
specimens  which  ^row  in  the  desert  have  de- 
veloped this  capacity  to  a  remarkable  extent  in 
order  to  tide  them  over  through  the  long 
droughts  which  often  occur  there.  The  work 
of  the  Carnegie  Desert  Laboratory  is  thorough 
and  exhaustive.  It  is  not  spectacular,  since 
years  are  often  required  before  even  a  single 
fact  can  be  absolutely  assured,  but  the  work  is 
cumulative  in  its  nature,  and  in  the  future  its 
importance  will  be  adequately  realized  by  the 
nation  at  large,  and  particularity  by  that  [wrtion 
of  the  popiuation  which  is  interested  in  the 
deserts  of  the  West  and  other  cultivation. 

CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENT  FOR  IN- 
TERNATIONAL   PEACE, 


set  apart  by  Andrew  Carnegie 
purpose  of  the  Endowment,  as  outlined  by  one 
of  Its  prominent  active  members.  Dr.  Nicholas 
Murray  Butler,  president  of  Columbia  University 
is  'to  work  for  the  promotion  of  peaceful  de- 
velopment of  civiliiation  by  aiding  and  develop- 
ing, supporting  and  directing  the  forces  needful 
to  bring  about  the  prevention  of  war,  the  per- 
fection of  means  for  the  establishment  of  arbi- 
tral justice  between  nations,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  a  world  congress  or  parliament,  a  high 
international  court,  and  an  international  police, 
and  to  take  such  steps  and  promote  such  under- 
takings as  shall  bring  about  the  substitution  of 
law  and  justice  for  war  as  a  means  of  settling 
international  disputes  and  difliculties.* 

The  trustees  selected  by  Mr.  Carnegie  to  re- 
ceive the  fund  and  administer  its  income  met 
at  Washington  on  14  Dec  1910.  At  this  meet- 
ing Mr.  Carnegie  read  a  letter  informing  the 
trustees  of  his  -gift  of  $10,000,000  in  5  per  cent 
first  mortgage  bonds,  the  revenue  of  which,  he 
stated,  'is  to  be  administered  by  you  to  hasten 
the  abolition  of  international  war,  the  foulest 
blot  upon  our  civilization.*  The  donor  made  no 
restrictions  of  the  gift,  but  left  discretionary 
with  the  trustees  the  expenditure  of  $500,000 
annually  accruing  from  the  fund ;  he  did  not 
attempt,  movcover,  to  outline  future  action  as 
regards  the  measures,  methods  and  policies  thai 
were  to  be  adopted  to  the  end  of  accomplishing 
the  purpose  specified.  The  only  stipulation 
made  was  that  the  trustees  were  to  *keep  un- 
ceasingly in  view,  imtil  it  is  attained,  the  speedy 


abc^tion  of  international  war  between  so-called 
civilized  nations.*  The  original  trustees  selected 
by  Mr.  Carnegie  were:  United  States  Senator 
Elihu  Root,  representative  of  the  United  States 
at  The  Ha^ue  Tribunal;  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler,  president  of  Columbia  Universitji; 
Henry  S.  Pritchett,  president  of  the  Carnegie 
Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching; 
Jose[)h  H.  Choate.  former  Ambassador  to  Great 
Britain;  Albert  K.  Smiley,  educator  and  hu- 
manitarian ;  Charles  W.  ^ot,  president-emeri- 
tus of  Harvard  University;  James  Brown  Scott, 
solicitor  tor  the  State  Department ;  John  W. 
Foster,  ex-Secretary  of  Slate ;  Andrew  J. 
Montague,  ex-governor  of  Virginia;  Congress- 
William    M.    Howard,    Lexington,    Ky. ; 


AndrewD^White,  ex-Amtassador  to  Germany 

"1  '^wy*'".  Saint  Louis,  ■" 
Samuel  Mather,  banker,  Cleveland,  Ohio; 


Robert  S.  Brooking^  lawyer.  Saint  Louis,  Mo. ; 
Samuel  Mather,  banker,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  J.  G. 
Schmidlais     railroad    man,     Cincinnati,     Ohi( 


Arthur  W.  Foster,  regent  of  the  University  of 
California;  Robert  A.  Franks,  banker,  Ho- 
boken,  N.  J.;  Charlemagne  Tower,  ex-Ambas- 
sador to  Germany  and  Russia ;  Oscar  S. 
Strauss,  Ambassador  to  Turkey;  Austen  G. 
Fox,  lawyer,  New  York ;  John  Sharpe  Williams, 
senator-elect  from  Mississippi ;  Charles  L. 
Taylor,  chairman  of  the  Carnegie  Hero  Cont- 
mtssion;  John  L.  Cadwalader,  lawyer.  New 
York;  George  W.  Perkins,  financier.  New 
York;  Cleveland  H.  Dodge,  philanthro{Mst  and 
financier;  Luke  £.  Wright  ex-Secretary  of 
War;  Robert  S.  Woodwart^  president  of  the 
Carnegie  Institution. 

At  their  first  meeting  these  28  trustees  ac- 
cepted the  fund  by  formal-  resolution,  and  ap- 
pointed a  committee  on  organization  which  at 
the  next  meeting,  held  in  Washington  on  9 
March  19U,  presented  the  following  statement 
of  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the  toidowment: 

'That  the  objects  of  the  corporation  shall 
be  to  advance  the  cause  of  peace  among  nation;, 
to  hasten  the  abolition  of  international  war, 
and  to  encourage  and  promote  a  peaceful  set- 
tlement of  iotemationaf  ditSculties,  and,  in  par- 
ticular—  (a)  To  promote  a  thorough  and 
scientific  investigation  and  study  of  the  causes 
of  war  and  of  the  practical  methods  to  prevent 
and  avoid  ii;  (b)  to  aid  in  the  develo[mient  of 
International  Law,  and  a  general  agreement  on 
the  rules  thereof,  and  the  acceptance  of  the 
same  among  nations;  (c)  to  diliuse  informa- 
tion, and  to  educate  public  opinion  regarding 
the  causes,  nature,  and  effects  of-war,  and  the 
means  for  its  prevention;  (d)  to  establish  a 
better  understanding  of  international  rif^bts  and 
duties,  and  a  more  perfect  sense  of  mtemar 
tional  justice  among  the  inhabitants  of  civil- 
ized countriEs ;  (c^  to  cultivate  friendly  feelings 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Ae  different  coun- 
tries, and  increase  the  knowledge  and  under- 
standing of  each  other  by  the  several  nations; 
(f)  to  promote  B  general  acceptance  of  peace- 
able methods  in  the  settlement  of  international 
disputes;  (^gj  to  maintain,  promote,  and  assist 
such  esiabhshmenta;  organizations,  associations, 
and  agencies  as  ^all  be  deemed  necessary  or 
useful  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  purposes 
of  the  corporation,  or  any  of  them.* 


dent,  Joseph  H.  Choate;  secretary,  James  Bfowa 


Google 


CARNBGIB  PO0NDATION 


Scott;  treamrer,  Walter  M. Gilbert  (temporal? 
appointment). 

At  the  same  time  the  by-laws  of  the  asso- 
ciation were  drawn  up,  and  provision  was  made, 
inUr-alia,  for  the  establishment  of  an  executive 
committee  (consisting  of  the  president  the  sec- 
retary and  five  trustees),  wbidi  at  its  first  meet- 
ing, held  likewise  on  9  March  1911,  decided  to 
divide  the  work  of  the  Endowment  into  three 
divisions:  (1)  The  Division  of  Intercourse  and 
Education,  to  promote  the  objects  specified  in 
sections  (c),  (e),  (g) ;  (2)  the  Division  of 
EconomKS  and  History,  to  promote  a  scientiuc 
investigation  and  study  of  the  causes  of  war 
and  of  the  practical  means  to  prevent  and  avoid 
it,  as  specified  in  section  (a) ;  (3)  the  Division 
of  Intentationat  Law,  to  promote  the  objects 


and  juristic,  departments  in  which  the  work  of 
the  Endowment  naturally  falls.  Thus  the  main 
activities  of  the  Endowment  were  established  on 
definite  lines,  and  a  world-wide  co-operation  in 
each  branch  of  its  work  was  planned.  It  was 
decided  to  inauRurate  a  series  of  conferences 
with  foreign  publicists,  economists  and  states- 
men, to  be  held  in  European  cities,  and  a  large 
number  of  eminent  and  influential  men  of  all 
nationalities  were  invited  to  take  a  more  or  less 
active  part  In  the  propaganda. 

While  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War 
ill  the  summer  of  1914  seriously  interfered  with 
the  carrying-out  of  the  program,  that  catas- 
trophe only  emphasized  the  incalculable  im- 
portance and  need  of  the  work  to  which  the 
Endowment  is  dedicated.  War  itself,  indeed,  is 
throwing  light  on  the  main  problem,  that  of 
preventing  war,  and  is  bringing  the  solution  of 
the  problem  nearer.  On  20  April  1917,  the 
trustees  of  the  Endowment  unanimously  adopted 
a  formal  resolution,  declaring  their  'belief 
that  the  most  effectual  means  of  promoting 
durable  intetuational  peace  is  to  prosecute  the 
war  against  the  Imperial  German  government 
to  final  victory  for  democracy,  in  accordance 
with  the  policy  declared  by  ttie  President  of 
the  United  States,*  On  the  same  da^,  more- 
over, a  stmt  of  $500,000  was  appropnated,  by 
formal  resolution,  *for  the  reconstruction  of 
devasted  homes  of  Belgium,  France,  Serbia  or 
Russia."  The  main  office  of  the  Endowment  is 
located  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  while  a  branch 
office  is  located  in  New  York,  where  the  direct- 
ors  of  the  divisions  of  intercourse  aod  educa- 
tion and  of  economics  and  history  have  their 
desks;  the  director  of  the  division  of  interna- 
tional law,  who  is  also  secretary  of  the  En- 
dowment, has  his  office  at  the  Washington 
headquarters. 

PAtjL  B.  Thomas. 

CARNBGIB  FOUNDATION.  The  Car- 
n^e  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of 
Teaching  had  its  inception  on  16  April  1905, 
with  a  fund  of  «iaOOO,000.  The  act  of  incor- 
poration was  passed  by  Congress  and  approved 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States  on  ID 
March  1906.  The  aim  of  this  mstitution  is  the 
establishment  of  an  agency  to  provide  retiring 
allowances  for  lESchers  in  colleges,  universities 
and  technical  schools  of  the  English-speaking 
countries  of  North  America,  and  to  serve  the 
canse  of  higher  education  by  advanciiig  and 
dignifying   Oie   profession  o£    the  tescher  in 


these  hi^er  institutions  of  learning.  In  order 
to  be  admitted  to  the  retiring  allowaitce  sys- 
tem of  the  Foundation,  the  essential  work  of 
an  institution  most  be  that  of  higher  education 
and  of  such  a  character  ibat  graduation  fcun 
a  four-year  hi^  school  cours^  or  equivalent 
training,  constitutes  a  prerequisite  therefor, 

A  technical  school,  to  be  ehgible,  must  have 
entrance  and  graduation  requirements  equivi- 
lent  to  those  of  the  college,  and  must  offer 
courses  in  ptire  and  applied  science  of  equiv- 
alent grade. 

Institutions  which  maintain  a  course  or 
courses  for  whidi  high-school  giadnation,  or 
e<]uivalent  training,  is  not  required  for  adinis- 
sion,  must  present  to  the  FonndaticMi  due  num- 
ber of  stuoents  and  the  names  of  the  teacbers 
in  such  course  or  courses ;  alM,  separately,  the 
number  of  students  of  whom  hi^-scho(d  train- 
ing, or  the  equivalent,  was  required  for  admis- 
sion, and  the  names  of  the  teachers  engaged 
exdosively  in  instructing  the  latter  class  of 
students. 

No  institution  will  be  accepted  which  is  so 
organiied  that  stodcfaolders  may  participate  in 


nixed  as  eligible,  1 


'  the  following  oondi- 


1,  Colleges,  aniversities  and  technical  schools 
of  requisite  academic  grade,  not  owned  or  con- 
trolled bf  a  reKgious  orffaniaation,  whose  char- 
ters roeafically  provide  that  no  denominational 
test  shall  be  ai>plied  to  trustees,  officers,  teach- 


2.  In  the  case  of  colleges,  naiveTBties  and 
technical  schools,  not  owned  or  controlled  1^ 
a  religious  organization,  the  imstees  of  such 
insiitutioDs  are  asked  to  certify  that,  notwith- 
standing tlK  lack  of  specific  prohibition  in  the 
charter,  *iio  denominational  test  will  be  im- 
posed in  the  choice  of  trusteesj  officers  or 
teachers,  nor  In  the  admission  of  students,  nor 
will  denominational  tenets  or  doctrines  be 
taught  to  the  students.*  Upon  the  passage  of 
such  resolution  by  the  governing  bodies  of 
such  institution^  th^  may  be  recogniied  as 
entitled  to  the  benefits  of  the  Foundation,  so 
far  as  considerations  of  sectarian  control  art 
concerned. 

An  institution  not  sumorted  by  taxation 
must  have  a  productive  endowment  of  not  less 
than  ¥2O0;OOO  over  and  above  any  mdebtedncss 
of  the  institution. 

A  tax-supported  institution  must  be  in  re- 
ceipt of  an  annual  income  of  not  less  than 
$100,000. 

Retiring  allowances  are  granted  in  the  ool- 
leget^  universitiea  and  teduical  schools  on  the 
accepted  list  of  the  Foundation  on  two  distinct 
grounds:  (1)  To  a  teacher  of  specified  service 
on  reaching  the  age  of  65;  (2^  to  a  teacher 
after  25  or  30  years  of  service  in  case  of 
physical  disability.  To  these  two  main  divisiivis 
the  trustees  have  added  tnany  extra  conditions. 

At  the  mstigation  of  the  &megie  Founda- 
tion, a  dan  for  an  exchai^[e  of  teachers  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Prussia  was  put 
into  effect  in  1908.  This  plan  has  been  in  active 
operation  ever  since.  During  the  year  1910  a 
aetuation  was  created  in  educational  circles 
through  the  rejection  by  the  Foundation  of 
several  western  colleges  whldt  did  not,  in  the 
ophdon  of  the  tnutees,  come  ttp  to  the  require- 


,  Google 


CARHSCHB  HratO  FVND 


menis  Kt  by  Mr.  Andrew  Carne^e  in  his  deed 
of  truit  In  the  same  year,  Mr.  Morris 
L)ewell}«  Cooke,  a  member  of  die  American 
Society  of  Mecluuiica]  Engineers,  undertook  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation  a 
detailed  study  of  some  of  the  American  institu- 
tions of  learning,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining 
whether  they  were  being  conducted  in  a  proper 
nbnner  and  whether  or  not  the  large  stnns  of 
money  being  expended  by  all  of  them  were  put 
to  the  best  and  most  practical  uses.  In  die 
course  of  his  investigation  Mr.  Cooke  examined 
at  length  the  departments  of  [ibysics  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Harvard,  Columbia,  Toronto.  Wis- 
consin and  Princeton,  at  Haverford  and  Wil- 
liams colleges,  and  at  tfie  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology.  His  opinion  was  considered  of 
great  importance,  it  being  the  first  time  that  a 
practical  business  man  had  officially  applied  the 
principles  of  practical  business  to  toe  system 
of  education  in  the  United  States.  His  ver- 
dict was  that  there  was  a  ver]^  dedded  waste 
apparent  at  all  of  the  institutions  he  visited. 
In  his   report  he  allowed  facts  to  speak  for 


occasion  to  score  the  life  t 


of  professi 
. _, ommittee  s,- 

ftnent  and  the  stress  laid  on  the 
research  work.  Mr.  Cooke  de^ 
dared  that  he  found  researches  being  pursued 
in  some  of  the  colleges  for  which  no  possible 
excuse  was  offered,  except  by  the  man  who 
happened  to  be  conducting  them,  and  he  be- 
lieved that  altogether  too  much  attention  was 
unifonnly   paid   to    this    branch   of   collegiate 

Owing  to  the  requirements  klready  men- 
tioned for  admission  to  the  benefits'  of  the 
Foundation  Fund,  the  list  is  somewhat  limited 
of  institutions  woich  can  apply  for  pensions. 
In  welcoming  eligible  institutions  to  this 
limited  list,  the  Foundation  has  sought  to  dis- 
tribute them  not  only  geographically,  but  among 
colleges  of  different  types.  In  1915,  73  institu- 
tions shared  in  the  jpension  fund.  Twenty  were 
small  colleges  of  the  type  of  Mtddlebury  Col- 
lege   in    Vermont    and    Fraoklio    CoU^    " 


and    Tulane   University   in     _  ...        _    . 

similar  gronp  of  the  strongest  universities  in 
die  country,  whether  privately  endowed  like 
Harvard  in  the  East  or  State-supported  like 
the  University  of  California  in  the  West.  Ac- 
cording to  the  ninth  annual  report  for  the  fiscal 
year  1914-lS,  the  income  received  from  the 
general  endowment  of  the  Foundation  was 
^96,Q38l6D;  from  the  endowment  of  the  divi- 
sion of  educational  inquiry.  nOw  kept  as  a  s^- 
aiate  budget  item,  $5(^358.34.  The  total  ex- 
penditures imder  the  general  endowment  wece 
(669,532.99,  of  which  $510,750.97  went  to  pay 
the  retiring  allowances  and  pensions  in  inMi- 
tutions  on  the  accepted  list  of  the  FoundatioD, 
and  ^124,112.80  to  allowances  and  pensions  to 
individual  officers,  teachers  and  widows  in  in- 
stitutions outside  of  this  list.  Forty-four  al- 
lowances were  granted  during  the  fiscal  year, 
invoking  an  expenditure  of  $70,900.  The  num- 
ber of  deaths  during  tbc  year  was  15,  making  a 


of  29  to  the  nmnber  of  allowances 
and  pensions  in  force,  which  at  the  end  of  the 
year  were  432,  with  a  total  grant  of  $687,370 
The  grants  made  during  the  year  represented  in 
all  32  institutions.  The  trustees  held  in  trust 
at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  under  the  general 
endowment  securities  of  the  face  value  of 
$14,129^)00;  under  the  divison  of  educational 
uquiiy  $1,250^000.  The  Foundation  and  its 
work  nave  received  considerable  adverse  criti- 
cism and  oMosition.  'The  spectre  of  a  baneful 
educatknal  influence'  writes  President  Henry 
S.  Fritchett,  'exercised  by  a  remote  agency 
upon  the  policy  of  struggling  colleges  and 
universities  is  one  that  has  been  successfully 
invoked  in  some  quarters.  The  awrehension 
that  college  professors  could  be  influenced  in 
their  attitude  by  the  pensions  they  are  to  re- 
ceive rests  iqioo  two  misconceptions-  the  first, 
as  to  the  metlmds  of  administratioa  The 
tcachn  in  tbc  associated  coUeges  does  not  deal 
with  the  Fooodation  at  all.  He  deals  entirely 
with  his  college  and  receives  his  pension  from 
the  college  exactly  as  be  receives  bis  salary- 
The  other  ntisapprdieiision  rests  upon  a  mis- 
conception of  the  character  of  the  American 
college  professor.  The  university  teacher  in 
America  has  a  fairly  stiff  backbone.  Nothing 
would  so  arouse  his  opposition  as  any  effort, 
however  indirect,  to  control  his  opinions  about 
education,  college  administration  or  any  other 
snbjecL  The  sole  opportuni^  the  Foundation 
has  to  influence  the  educational  judgment  of 

Erofessors  is  through  its  publications,  and  these 
ave  weight  only  as  they  are  sound  and  prove 
in  the  end  to  be  wise." 

CARNEGIE  HERO  FUND.  During 
1904,  through  the  munificence  of  Mr.  Carnegie, 
a  fund  called  the  Carnegie  Hero  Fund  was 


would  otherwise  receive  no  appreciation  heyonA 
a  possible  paragraph  in  a  daily  newspaper.  Mr. 
Carnegie  endowed  die  Fund  with  $5/XIO,O00t  the 
expenditure  of  which  was  to  be  directed  by  a 
commission  of  his  own  naming,  of  which  Mr. 
Charles  L.  Taylor  was  appointed  president.  In 
his  deed  of  trust  to  the  commission  Mr.  Car- 
negie expressed  himself  as  having  long  felt 
that  heroes  and  those  dependent  upon   them 


it  was  his  purpose  to  place  in  a  somewhat 
better  pecuniary  position  than  before  those  fol- 
lowing peacefiu  vocations  who  have  been  in- 
jured in  heroic  efforts  to  save  htunan  life,  and, 
in  case  of  their  death,  to  prqvide  for  the 
widows  and  children  as  long  as  that  should 
be  necessary  and  advisable.  He  made  the  stipu- 
lation, however,  that  no  grant  was  to  be  coa- 
tinued  unless  it  were  soberiy  and  properly  used 
and  unless  the  recipients  remained  sober,  re- 
spectable^ well-behaved  members  of  the  com- 
munity. In  all  cases  a  medal  of  gold,  silver 
or  bronz&  according  to  which  the  deed  in  ques- 
tion was  believed  by  the  commission  to  call  for, 
was  to  accompany  each  grant,  and,  in  cases 
where  no  monetary  aid  was  called  for,  an  ap- 
propriate medal  was  in  any  event  to  be 
awarded,  setting  forth  the  heroic  deed  it  c 


d  6,  Google 


CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OP  WASHIHOTOH  — CARNEGIE  YACHT 


general  lines  of  its  scope  remain  thoEc  which 
Mr.  Carneg[ie  recited.  It  has  been  widely 
praised  for  its  work  .on  all  sides,  and  has  been 
an  incalculably  powerful  factor  in  relieving 
people  in  want  whose  real  worth  was  fully 
revealed  for  the  first  time  perhaps  throu^ 
their  deeds  of  unselfish  heroism. 

The  field  embraced  is  the  United  States,  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  the  colony  of  New- 
foundland and  the  waters  thereof. 

Such  acts  must  have  been  performed  on  or 
after  15  April  1904  and  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  commission  by  letter  addressed  to 
the  manager,  Oliver  Building,  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
within  three  years  of  the  date  of  the  act.  Up 
to  1915  the  commission  had  awarded  ?23  bronze, 
387  silver  and  18  eold  medals;  $1,249,656  bad 
been  awarded  for  disablement  benefits  and  for 
educational  and  other  specific  purposes,  and  for 
the  dependents  of  heroes  who  lost  their  lives. 
Pensions  in  force  on  31  Dec  19IS  amounted  to 
$79,200  annually.  The  commission  had  also 
awarded  $169,462  for  the  relief  of  saflerers 
from  disasters;  Brockton,  Mass.,  $10,000;  Cali- 
fornia earthquake,  $54,462;  Idonon^h  Uines, 
W.  Va.,  $35,000;  Darr  Mine,  Pa.,  $25,000;  Uck 
Branch    Mine,    W.    Va.,    $lftOOO;    McCurtain 

Mine,  OkU,  $lS,Of '        '■' 

and  for  the  relie: 
sufferers,  $10,000. 

CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF 
WASHINGTON.  This  institution  was 
founded  by  Andrew  Carnegie  on  28  Jaa  1902, 
with  an  endowment  of  $10,000,000  of  registered 
5  per  cent  bonds;  to  mis  fund  he  added  $2,- 
000,000  on  10  Dec.  1907,  and  $10,000,000  on  19 
Jan.  1911.  The  Institution  was  on^nally  organ- 
ized under  the  laws  of  the  District  of  Columbia 
and  incorporated  as  the  Carnegie  Institulion, 
but  was  reincorporated  by  an  act  of  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  amtroved  28  April 
1904,  under  the  title  of  The  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion of  Washington.  The  articles  of  incorpora- 
tion of  the  Institution  declare  in  general  *that 
the  objects  of  the  corporation  shall  be  to  en- 
courage in  the  broadest  and  most  liberal  man- 
ner investigation,  research  and  discovery,  and 
the  application  of  knowledge  to  the  improve- 
ment of  mankind.*  Three  principal  agencies 
to  forward  these  objects  have  been  developed. 
The  first  of  these  involves  the  formation  of 
departments  of  research  within  die  Institution 
itself,  to  attack  larger  problems  requiring  the 
collaboration  of  several  investigators,  special 
equipment  and  continuous  effort.  Eleven  sudi 
departments  have  so  far  been  established.  The 
second  provides  means  whereby  individuals  may 
undertake  and  carry  to  completion  investigations 
not  less  important  but  requiring  less  collabora- 
tion and  less  special  eqinpment  The  third 
agency  aims  to  provide  adequate  publication  of 
the  results  of  research  coming  from  the  first 
two  agencies  and  to  a  limited  extent  also  for 
worthy  works  not  likely  to  be  published  under 
other  auspices.  The  Institution  is  placed  under 
the  control  of  a  board  of  24  trustees,  which 
meets  annualW-  in  December  to  consider  the 
affairs  of  the  Institution  in  general,  the  progress 
of  work  already  undertaken,  the  initiation  of 
new  projects   and   to   make   necessary  appro- 


commission  chosen  by  and  Irom 

the  board  of  trustees  and  acting  through  the 
president  of  the  Institution  as  cnief  executive 
officer.  A  view  of  the  history  of  the  Institu- 
tion may  be  gained  from  the  contents  of  the 
'Year  Books'  and  from  its  other  more  fonnal 
publications,  general  and  classified  lists  of 
which  may  be  had  on  apiJication.  The  publi- 
cations tbeniselves,  numbering  over  30ft  may 
be  found  in  nearly  all  the  greater  libraries  of 
the  world.  The  executive  offices  of  the  Insti- 
tution are.  in  its  Administration  Building,  I6di 
and  P  streets,  northwest,  Washington,  D.  C 

CARNEGIE  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS, 
Piltsbui^*,  Pa.,  a  co-educational  instilulior 
founded  by  Mr.  Andrew  Came^e  with  an  en- 
dowment of  $4,000i000.  The  schools  are  housed 
in  five  buildings.  The  United  Stales  Geological 
Survey  has  established  in  Machinery  Hall  the 
main  laboratory  of  the  Chemical  Divi5ion, 
Technologic  Branch,  where  investigations  of 
fuels  from  all  parts  of  the  country  are  con- 
ducted. The  courses  in  the  schools  are  ar- 
ranged for  day  and  night  students.  There  are 
four  departments;  1.  The  School  of  Applied 
Science,  offering  preliminary  and  speciaiiied 
courses  in  the  fields  of  engineering  and  chemical 

Sractice.  The  time  for  completion  of  the  course 
epends  on  the  aptitude  and  application  of  the 
individual  students;  (2)  the  School  for  Ap- 
prentices and  Journeymen,  which  gives  genetil 
training  to  supplement  the  usual  apprentice- 
ships in  order  to  counteract  the  dangers  of 
specialization  and  over- emphasis  of  the  practi- 
cal as  opposed  to  the  theoretical  sides.  Courses 
as  given  during  slack  seasons,  etc.;  (3)  the 
School  of  Apphed  Desi^  offering  courses  in 
architecture  and  intenor  decoration.  Tlie 
standards  for  admission  are  high  school  or 
eiuivalent  certificate  and  an  entrahce  examina- 
tion ;  (4)  the  Margaret  Morrison  Carnegie 
School  for  Women,  giving  training  in  the  home- 
making  arts,  dress-making  and  design  and 
secretarial  work.  Candidates  are  admitted  on 
personal  interview  if  they  are  over  18,  and  \!j 
examination  if  they  are  under  18. 

CARNEGIE  YACHT.  The  Camegu  is 
one  of  those  little  known  developments  which 
prove,  first,  how  far  from  perfection  the  science 
of  to-day  is,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  how  far 
it  has  advanced  even  within  a  quarter  of  a 
century.  The  peculiarity  of  this  yacht  is  ihat 
it  is  non-magnetic;  in  other  words,  the  only 
m^netic  steel  on  board  her  is  the  compass. 

The  compass  does  not,  as  common  Aouf^t 
conceives,  point  directly  to  the  pole.  It  is 
deflected  by  the  variations  in  the  nugiietic  in- 
fluence of  the  earth,  by  the  presence  of  larK 
masses  of  iron  on  board  ship  and  Iw  the  nd^- 
borhood  of  certain  mounfeins  and  islands  of 
volcanic  orij^n.  Along  the  inner  passage  from 
Seattle  to  Alaska  the  attraction  from  short 
affects  a  blip's  compasses  a  mile  away.  Navi- 
gation to-day  iirvolves  th^possession  of  correct 
information  as  to  these  variations  of  magnetic 
attraction.  '  This  information  the  Camtgu  is 


by  the  man  for  whom  she  is  named.  She  was 
built  from  the  funds  of  the  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion -of  Washington,  founded  by  Andrew  Car- 
negie, and  was  launched  on  12  June  1909,  In 
six  weeks,  with  the  appliances  on  board,  a  single 


d=,  Google 


CARNSIA— CARHIFBX  PXKRY 


craise  enabled  b«r  officers  to  discover  syste- 
matic errors  of  importance  in  the  best  charts 
now  available.  For  10  years  the  existence  of 
these  errors  bad  been  more  or  less  stispected, 

and  thousands  of  observations  had  been  taken 
by  skilful  and  experienced  navigators  without 
definite  results,  llie  information  gained  by  the 
Carnegie  is  accepted  as  correct  by  the  leading 
hydrographic  offices  of  the  world. 

The  best  that  the  commanders  of  iron  ves- 
sels have  been  able  to  do,  hitherto,  has  been 
to  entrust  the  examination  of  their  compasses 
to  a  professional  adiuster,  who,  when  his  work 
is  completed,  fumisned  what  is  called  a  devia- 
tion card  showing  the  corrections  or  errors  of 
the  compass  on  the  various  headings  of  the 
ship.  The  investigations  of  the  Carnegie  will 
enable  the  steamer  captain  to  check  up  these 
adjustments  with  full  knowledge  of  the  correct 
or  undisturbed  variation,  or  direction  of  the 
compass,  in  all  waters  he  is  likely  to  traverse. 
Hitherto  the  captain's  only  means  for  this 
'checking  up"  was  by  personal  astronomical 
observations  when  the  state  of  the  weather  per- 
mitted. From  the  aid  of  the  Carnegie,  he  will 
soon  be  able  to  know  exactW  how  the  compass 
would  point  were  it  mounted  on  a  non-magnetk 
vessel.  Comparing  this  with  his  compass  as 
adjusted,  he  has  the  satisfaction  and  security 
of  being  able  to  make  his  calculations  on  a 
mathematical  certainty. 

The  ingenuity  of  the  Carnegie's  construc- 
tion merits  the  attention  of  even  the  casual 
reader.  Her  dimensions  are;  Length  over  all, 
ISS'A  feet;  length  on  load  water-line,  128i4 
feet;  beam,  molded.  33  feet;  mean  draft,  12 
feet  7  inches;  displacement,  S68  tons;  regis- 
tered tonnage,  246.  The  materials  used  were 
mainly  white  oak,  yellow  pine.  Oregon  pine, 
and  teak.  The  fastenings  are  locust  treenails, 
copper  and  Tobin  bronze  bolts  and  composi- 
tion spikes.  The  anchors— four  in  number  — 
are  of  manganese  bronze  with  a  total  weight 
of  5,500  pounds. 

There  are  no  anchor  chains;  instead,  three 
11-inch  hem^  cables  are  used.  She  is  of  brig- 
antine  rig,  with  12,900  square  feet  of  plain  sail; 
riggings,  special  Russian  hemp;  metal  work  on 
spars,  nraing  and  blocks,  of  bronze  and  gun- 
metal.  The  auxiliary  power  consists  of  one 
150  indicated  horse-power  producer  gas  engine, 
built  practically  of  non-magnetic  metals,  such  as 
bronze,  copper  and  non-magnetic  manganese 
steel.  There  are  two  non-magnetic  20-foot 
whale-boats  and  one  16-foot  gig.  The  cooldng 
ranges  and  refrigerating  plant  arc  of  bronie 
or  copper.  The  cutlery  is  Mexican  silver.  The  ~ 
Carnegie  is  the  first  sea-^oing  vessel  equipped 
with  a  producer  gas  engine.  In  calm  weamer 
s  day's  mn  can  be  made  with  auxiliary  power 
alone,  of  144  nautical  miles,  at  a  cost  of  $7  for 
coal  consumed.  The  scientific  staff  consists  of 
7  men,  and  the  crew  of  14. 

Before  the  building  of  this  unique  little  ves' 
sel  (described  as  a  yacht  for  convenience  in 
entering  port,  and  nuking  arrangements  with 
customs,  etc.),  the  magnetic  observers  of  the 
Carnegie  Institution  had  sent  its  brigantine,  the 
G<Mee,  on  cruises  amounting  in  the  aggr^ate 
to  60,000  miles.  Its  magnetic  observers  had 
penetrated  to  nearly  every  part  of  the  earth, 
and  have  been,  and  still  are,  co-operating  with 
various  polar  expeditions,  securmg  magnetic 
data  in  those  regions.     The  result  is  a  set  of 


magnetic  charts  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
earth  at  least,  the  first  which  can  be  said  to 
be  based  upon  uniformly  and  systematically 
acquired  data.  The  good  will  and  co-operation 
of  every  civilized  country  have  been  mani- 
fested in  tills  great  work. 

The  usefulness  of  the  Carnegie,  and  of  the 
various  forms  of  work  akin  to  that  which  she 
has   done,   has   practically   no    limitations    for 


with  certainty,  but  it  is  constantly  changing. 
This  became  known  as  early  as  1634,  when 
Henry  Gellibrand  noted  that  since  1584  the 
easterly  direction  of  the  compass  had  changed 
by  seven  degrees.  Obviously,  this  affects  more 
or  less  every  survey  that  is  made.  Hence  the 
work  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  extends  not 
only  over  the  sea  but  also  on  land.  The  work 
by  sea  is,  however,  of  far  greater  significance 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  security  of 
human  life,  since  a  variation  of  a  minute  frac- 
tion in  the  compass  may  result  —  as  has  be«i 
the  case  once  or  twice  —  in  the  wrecking  of 
a  liner  on  rocks  supposed  to  have  been  cor- 
rectly charted.  On  8  June  1914,  after  refitting 
at  New  York  the  Carnegie  left  for  an  expedi- 
dition  in  the  North  Atlantic  After  visiting 
Norway,  Spitzbergen  in  the  latitude  of  79°  5^, 
and  Iceland,  and  covering  10,600  miles,  she  re- 
turned to  her  base  station  at  Greenport,  Long 
Island,  9  Oct.  1914.  She  refitted  at  Brooklyn 
for  a  longer  cruise  during  1915-16,  in  southern 
latitudes  (50°  to  75°),  where  magnetic  obser- 
vations required  supplementing, 

CARNBIA,  national  festival  of  the  an- 
dent  Spartans  celebrated  in  honor  of  Apollo, 
and  in  the  Spartan  month  Camejos.  The  festi- 
val lasted  nine  days,  during  which  the  Spartans 
were  not  allowed  to  enter  on  a  hostile  campaign. 
It  was  originally  a  herdsman's  festival,  but  at 
Sparta  haa  assumed  a  military  character.  The 
men  bivouacked  in  booths,  m  nine  divisions, 
and  all  the  exercises  were  governed  by  the  com- 
mands of  the  herald.  There  were  musical  con- 
tests, and  a  singular  foot  race,  in  whidi  one 
man  was  pursued  by  a  number  of  others.  If 
he  was  caught  it  was  a  sign  of  good  luck;  his 
escape  foreboded  evil. 

CARHEIRO,  kar-na'  ro,  Joaquim  da  SOva, 
Portuguese  engraver  and  writer;  b.  Oporto  in 
1727;  d.  Lisbon  1818.  When  12  years  of  age 
removed  to  Brazil,  where  he  lived  17  years.  As 
he  began  early  to  display  his  artistic  talents,  he 
was  placed  under  the  tuition  of  Joao  Gomei, 
the  celebrated  engraver,  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  In 
1756  he  returned  to  Europe  to  complete  his 
studies  where,  in  1769,  he  became  the  head  of 
the  royal  engraving  school  at  Lisbon,  and  later 
was  made  teacher  of  design  in  the  royal  ccj- 
Icge,  He  studied  art  for  a  time  in  Rome  and 
did  some  of  his  best  work  there.  He  was  also 
a  prolific  writer  and  translator  of  technical 
books  relating  to  the  engravers'  art,  and  author 
of  a  great  number  of  engravings  of  high  merit 
for  which  he  is  chiefly  remembered,  especially 
for  'The  Child  Jesus  carried  by  Saint  Joseph,* 
and  the  even  more  celebrated  picture,  '"The  An- 
nunciation of  the  Virgin  Mary.' 

CARNELIAN.    See  Cornelian. 

CARNIFEX  FERRY,  W.  Va^  place  at 
wluch  occurred  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War, 
10  Sept.   1861,     On  23  August  Gen.  John  B. 


v  Google 


640 


CASNIOLA — CARNIVAL 


Floyd,  who  had  inarched  from  Lewisburg, 
crossed  to  the  north  side  of  GaiJey  River  at 
Camifex  Ferry  with  five  regimems  of  Vii^nia 
infantry,  100  cavalry,  and  five  guns,  aggregat- 
tag  about  2,600  men.  The  7th  Ohio  had  been 
guarding  the  ferry,  but  had  been  recalled  to 
within  six  miles  of  Gauley  Bridge,  and  then 
ordered  to  return  to  Cross  Laoes,  two  miles 
from  Floyd's  position,  which  it  reached  in  the 
night  of  the  2Sth.  Early  on  the  morning  of 
the  26th  Floyd  advanced,  surprised  the  regi- 
ment while  at  breakfast,  and  routed  it,  killing 
and  wounding  45  and  capturing  96.  About  200 
men  escaped  to  GauW  Bridge  and  about  400 
were  collected  and  led  by  Major  Casement  to 
Charleston  on  the  Kanawha.  Floyd's  intention 
in  crosainglhe  Gauley  was  to  force  the  retreat 
o£  Gen.  J.  D.  Coic  from  Gauley  Bridge  down  the 
Kanawha  Valley,  whither  he  proposed  to  follow 
him  and  make  a  raid  of  50  miles  into  Ohio,  but 
Gen.  H.  A.  Wise,  who  commanded  one  of  his 
two  brigades,  had  refused  to  obey  his  order 
to  cross  the  Gauley,  upon  wtuch  Floyd  aban- 
doned his  idea  of  invadmg  Ohio,  and  intrenched 
his  position  in  a  bend  of    the    Gauley,    both 


of  the  Gauley  gave  General  Rosecmns  _  ._  . 
easiness,  and  turned  his  attention  from  the 
Cheat  Mountain  region  where  he  had  been  con- 
frontinK  Gen.  R.  K  Lee.  Leavii^  Gen.  J.  J. 
Reynolds  to  oppose  Lee,  he  drew  troops  from 
posts  in  Uie  rear  and  assembled  at  Bulltown 
seven  and  a  half  rOKiments  of  Ohio  infantry, 
two  batteries  of  artiUery  and  three  companies 
of  cavalry,  which  were  formed  into,  three 
brigades,  commanded  by  Gen.  H.  W.  Benham 
and  Cols.  E.  P.  Scammon  and  R.  L.  McCook. 
On  9  September  he  marched  from  Bulltown, 
crossed  Big  Birch  Mountain,  drove  the  36lh 
Virginia  and  a  company  of  cavalry  from  Sum- 
mersville,  on  the  mornmg  of  the  10th,  and  fol- 
lowed to  Cross  Lanes,  which  he  reached  at  2 
P.M.,  and  heard  that  Floyd  was  intrenched 
about  two  miles  distant.  Benham,  command- 
ing the  leading  brigade,  was  ordered  to  advance 
cautiously  and  feel  Floyd  closely,  but  not  to 
engage  mm  until  the  entire  column  came  up, 
unless  be  saw  a  good  opening.  Benham  drove 
in  Floyd's  pickets,  and  believing  that  he  was  in 
full  retreat,  pushed  rashly  forward  in  the  face 
of  a  severe  artillery  fire,  becoming  closely  en- 
gaged and  making  some  spirited  diarges  upon 
Floyd's  works,  which  were  repulsed.  He  then 
called  for  help.  Rosecrans  nastened  up  the 
brigades  of  Scammon  and  McCook,  and  going 
to  the  front,  was  surprised  that  the  reconnais- 
sance ordered  had  developed  into  a  severe  and 
tradly  conducted  engagement.  It  was  too  late 
to  withdraw  without  giving  the  appearance  of 
defeat ;  oiher  efforts  were  made,  in  which 
Scammon  and  McCook  participated;  but  it  was 
growing  dark,  the  men  were  exhausted  after 
their  march  of  17  miles,  and  Rosecrans  with- 
drew, intending  to  renew  the  firiit  in  the  morn- 
ing.    During    the    night    Floyd    recrossed    the 


Gauley,  destroyed  the  foot-bridge  behind  hir 
imnk  the  ferry-boat  ani  with  Wis^  retreat* 
)  Sewell  Mountain.     The  Union  troops,  fully 


exposed  and  not  well  handled,  had  17  killed  and 
141  wounded.  The  ConfederateSj  well  pro- 
tected bv  log-works,  had  none  killed  and  21 
wounded.  Consult  'Ofiicial  Records'  (Vol. 
V)  and  'Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War> 


<Vol.  1.  New  York  1887,  ed.  by  Jobaaon  and 
Buel). 

£.  A.  Cabmak. 
CARNIOLA  (German.  Krain),  Austria,  a 
province  with  an  area  of  3,356  English  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  by  Carinthia  on  the  north, 
Styria  on  the  northeast  Croatia  on  the  east, 
southeast  and  south,  and  Tstria  and  Gorz  on 
the  west.  It  is  covered  with  lofty  monntains, 
some  of  which  are  about  10,000  feet  high,  and, 
generally  speaking,  is  one  of  the  most  unfertile 
regions  of  the  empire.  Some  districts,  how- 
ever, produce  considerable  quantities  of  wheat, 
barley,  wine  and,  in  the  south,  fruits  of  various 
kinds  and  excellent  flax.  There  are  some  iron, 
lead  and  quicksilver  mines,  the  latter  exceed- 
ingly rich.  It  abounds  in  clays  and  valuable 
stones,  and  in  coal  and  marble.  There  are  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  iron,  fine  linen,  lace, 
woolen  cloth,  flannel,  worsted  stockings,  leather, 
wooden  articles,  etc.  Its  chief  exports  are  steel- 
wares,  quicksilver,  hats,  linens,  glasswares, 
wax,  wine,  lignite,  flour,  etc.;  principal  imports 
—  salt,  oil,  fruit,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  cloths, 
cattle,  etc.  Nearly  300  miles  of  railway  lines, 
with  Laibach,  the  capital,  as  the  centre,  facili- 
tate the  commerce  of  the  crownland.  'There 
are  about  380  elementary  schools,  attended  by 
over  75,000  children.  Carniola  is  represented  in 
the  Lower  House  of  the  monarchy  by  11  dele- 
gates, of  whom  two  are  drawn  from  the  landed 
aristocracy,  three  from  the  towns,  five  from  the 
rural  communities,  and  one  elected  by  die  peo- 

Ele  at  large.  Its  own  Diet  consists  of  36  mem- 
ers  drawn  from  the  same  classes  and  in  shout 
the  same  proportion.  Nearly  94  per  cent  of  tne 
people  are  Slovenes,  and  the  remainder  con- 
sists of  Germans,  Serbo-Croatians  and  Italians. 
Almost  the  entire  population  belongs  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Churcn.  Carniola  was  made  a 
dudiy  in  the  12th  century,  under  the  dominion 
of  the  counts  of  Tyrol,  who  became  extinct  in 
1335,  and  were  succeeded  by  the  earls  of  Gon. 
After  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1809,  it  was 
ceded  to  France,  and  incorporated  in  the  king- 
dom of  Illyria.  In  1814  it  came  a^n  into  the 
possession  of  Austria.  Capital,  Laibach  with  a 
population  of  36,547.    Pop.  525,083. 

CARNIVAL.  The  same  views  which  led 
men  to  propitiate  the  hi^er  invisible  powers 
by  gifts,  sacrifices  and  purifications,  also  intro- 
duced fasts,  abstinence  from  pleasure,  and  pen- 
ances. By  fast  is  meant  an  abstinence  from  the 
usual  means  of  nourishment,  in  order  to 
mortify  the  appetites,  and  thereby  to  propitiate 
.  die  Deity.  In  every  nation  of  importance  cus- 
toms of  this  kind  are  found  Their  historical 
origin  is  in  the  religious  customs  of  the  East, 
where  the  priests  were  originally  the  nhysiciaiis 
of  the  people,  and  prescnbed  these  fasts  as  a 
part  of  the  regimen  necessary  in  this  warm 
region,  as  well  as  from  religious  views.  Fasts 
are  observed  to  this  day  in  the  EasL  The  re- 
ligions of  the  Persians  and  the  Hindus,  those 
of  the  Mohammedans,  and  of  the  worshippers 
of  the  Lama,  insist  much  on  fasts.  Few  traces 
of  them  ate  found  in  the  religion  of  the  andeot 
people  of  the  North.  The  earliest  Christians 
fasted  on  the  vigils  (q.v.).  The  fasts  or  die 
iejttnia  quaitttor  tmporum,  which  continued 
(or  three  days  every  quarter  of  the  year,  were 
penances,  as  was  that  of  the  period  of  40  days 
(before  Easter,  or  rather  before  (jood  Friday, 


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CARmVOROUS         1  i 


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2  Uoneu  S  Skull 


ol  Uon  *  Tit«  •  JMtiuu  •  LeopMd 


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I  Skull  of  the  Cat  M  Lrnx  II  Skull  of  Ljai  U  Spatted  Hnna  U  Skull  ol  Byooc 


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«S1' 


Qtuutfigesimee},  which  was  called  by  way  of 
excellence,  the  fast,  and  which  commemorated 
the  40  days'  fast  of  Jesus  in  the  wilderness. 
With  regard  to  the  origin  of  Otristian  fasts, 
opifiions  differ.  The  most  common  is,  that 
Itiesphorus,  bishonof  Rome^  in  the  middle  of 
the  2d  century,  first  instituted  the  40  days* 
fast  as  a  rule  of  the  Church.  By  Pope  Greg- 
ory the  Great,  about  600,  Ash  Wednesday  was 
made  the  beginning  of  the  fast,  and  the  day 
before  .was  called  £^t  eve,  because  in  the  night 
of  this  day,  at  12  o'clock,  the  fast  began.  'Hus 
fast  was  preceded  by  a  f caat  of  three  ds^s,  very 
otmoxious  to  the  strict  zealots.  "Chnstians,' 
it  is  said,  'on  these  davs  deliver  themadvies  up 
to  vcduntarv  madness,  put  on  masks,  exchange 
sexes,-  clothe  themselves  like  spectres,  give 
thetoselves  np  to  Bacchus  and  Vennt  and  con- 
sider all  pleasure  allowable.*  This  is  the  origin 
of  the  present  carnival,  or  Faschaig,  aa  it  is 
called  in  the  south  of  Germany,  and  vmcfa  con- 
tinues in  that  country  from  Twelfth  Day  to 
Ash  Wednesday.  The  name  carnival  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  caro,  camit,  flesh,  and 


Ages,  fomLr  ievamen,  solace  of  the  flesh),  be- 
cause at  that  time  people  took  leave  of  fiesh, 
Previousty  to  the  commencemeat  ot  their  long 
abstinence  men  devoted  themselves  to  en}oy- 
ment,  particularly  during  the  last  three  days  of 
the  carnival.  The  carnival  is  nothing  but  the 
Lupercalia  of  the  Christian  Romans,  who  could 
not  forget  their  pagan  festivals.  At  least  it 
greatly  resembles  the  Saturnalia  which  weie 
celebrated  aaiiually  to  December,  with  aU  kinds 
of  mirth,  pleasure  and  freedom,  in  honor  of 
Saturn,  and  the  golden  age  when  he  governed 
the  world,  and  to  preserve  the  rcmcinbraiKe  of 
the  liberty  and  equality  of  man  in  the  yoifth  of 
the  world.  In  Rome,  the  carnival  brought  to 
view,  in  a  lively  manner,  the  old  Saturnalia  in 
a  new  form.  During  the  last  days  of  the 
carnival,  and  particularly  during  the  day  which 
preceded  the  long  fast,  mummeries,  plays, 
tricks  and  freedom  of  every  kind  abounded. 
From  Italy,  the  modern  Saturnalia  passed  to 
the  other  Christian  countries  of  Europe.  The 
wealthiest  class  commenced  their  amusements 
8  or  10  days  before  Ash  Wednesday,  the  middle 
classes  two  or  three  days,  the  poor  only  ob- 
served one  day  (the  FtutnachI  of  the  Germans!. 
In  the  amusements  of  this  period  the  dramatic 
poetry  of  Germany  had  its  origin,  after  the 
cities  had  attained-  a  flourishing  condition.  Its 
first  traces  appeared  in  the  13lh  century.  The 
mimimeries  of  the  carnival  produced  the  idea 
of  adoQlin^  some  character,  and  carrying  it 
■brougfa.  "To  please  the  multitude,  and  make 
the  laugh  more  certain,  the  manners  of  common 
life  were  caricatured.  There  exhibitions  after- 
ward became  more  culti^ted  and  developed. 
On  fast  eve  persons  in  disguise  sometimes  went 
from  one  house  to  another,  to  make  sport  with 
their  friends  and  acquaintances,  A  merry  so- 
ciety of  dds  kind  formed  a  plan  to  represent 
some  scene  in  their  dtsKuises,  and  hold  a  regular 
conversation  at  one  of  these  mummeries.  The 
unknown  pfciyers  received  praises,  entertain- 
ments or  presents.  Encouraged  by  this  success, 
the  CMiipany  grew  stronger,  their  fables  and 
speeches  became  longer  by  degrees,  until  they 
attained  to  regular  representations  of  human 
life.    It  was  in  Niiremberg,  renowned  for  Its 


wares  and  its  Wit,'  that  the  first  fast  eve's  play 
was  produced,  coarse  and  frolicsome,  to  suit 
the  taste  of  the  citizens.  The  earliest  of  these 
pieces  that  have  come  down  to  us  date  from 
1450-70;  they  have  a  near  relationship  to  Ae 
masques  of  the  English,  and  the  farces  of  the 
French,  as  have  the  spiritual  fast  eve's  ptays, 
religious  burlesques,  to  the  Mysteries  and 
Moralities.  In  Italy  the  carnival  is  now  cele- 
brated with  the  greatest  show  and  spirit  at 
Rome.  It  lasts  for  the  10  days  preceding  Ash 
Wednesday,  certain  observances  taking  placO 
on  certain  days.  Stone  days,  for  instance,  are 
devoted  to  the  throwing  of  comfits,  or  of  small 

Slastcr  pellets  that  take  their  place,  these  being 
ung  from  the  balconies  of  the  houses  upon 
the  persons  in  die  streets-" especially  in  the 
Corso-"Who  retaliate  in  the  same  way,  and  in 
order  that  they  may  do  this  many  of  them  are 
mounted  upon  lofty  cars  or  other  vehicles,  all 
being  masked.  On  other  days  the  Anest  ©qui- 
I^gee  move  along  in  procession,  and  flowers  in- 
stead of  comfits  are  thtiown.  Races  of  riderless 
horses  in  the  Corso  are  anolher  prominent 
feature  of  carnival  time.  After  sunset  on 
Shrove  Tuesdav  everybody  carries  a  lighted 
taper  (these  being  known  as  moccoletti),  and 
each  tnes  to  extinguish  as  many  others  as  he 
can  while  keeping  his  own  alight  Venice, 
Turin,  Uilan,  Naples,  Florence,  etc,  also  cele- 
brate the  carnival  with  more  or  less  ceremony, 
and  the  same  can  be  said  of  various  towns  oi 
the  touth  of  Fiance,  Nice  in  particular.  The 
carnival  at  Rome  has  been  excellently  de< 
scribed  by  Goethe.  In  Germany  the  carnival 
is  celebrated  with  brilliancy  only  in  the  Cath* 
olic  eilies  of  the  Rhine  Valley,  Maytinoe,  Bonn, 
but  above  all  Cologne.  In  Protestant  countries, 
giseraUy,  the  feast  is  not  obeeirved  to  any  exi 
tent  In  the  United  States  the  principal  observ- 
ance of  this  nature  is  that  held  annually  at  New 
Orleans.  Various  civic  organizations  take  part 
in  a  great  street  pageant,  in  which  are  elaborate 
tableaux,  brilliantly  illuminated  and  placed  on 
vehicles.  Historic,  poetic  and  other  scenes  are 
artistically  portrayed  often'  at  great  expense.  In 
Paris  a  fat  ox  (bctitf  gras)  was  led  in  the 
procession,  followed  tw  a  child  in  a  triumphal 
car,  who  is  named  'king  oi  the  butchers.* 
From  this  taking  place  on  the  Tuesday  (Mardi) 

C receding  Ash  Wednesday  the  festival  came  to 
e  known  under  the  title  Mardi  Gras,  which 
name  is  now  generally  applied  to  such  festivals 
in  America  and  elsewhere.     See  !Pageant, 

CARHTVORA,'  broadly,  those  animals 
^hich  prey  upon  other  animals;  but  in  a  re- 
strictea  sense,  that  order  of  mammals  more  or 
less  adapted  for  predatory  life  and  including 
most  animals  popularly  catted  beasts  of  prey. 
To  this  order  the  cat,  do^.  bear  and  seal  be- 
long. The  head  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
bulk  of  the  body,  and  the  skin  is  well  covered 
with  hair.  The  limbs,  four  in  number,  are 
fully  developed,  and  are  adapted  either  for 
walking  or  swimming.  Two  sets  of  teeth,  de- 
ciduous or  milk  and  permanent  are  always  de- 
veloped in  succession,  and  in  both  sets  incisors, 
canines  and  molars,  are  distinguishable.  The 
order  is  divided  into  two  groups,  the  Fiisipedia, 
which  include  such  animals  as  the  lion,  woK, 
bear,  etc,  whose  life  is  terrestrial;  and  dn 
Pinttipedia,  or  those  which  are  specially  adapted 
for  aquatic  life.    The  Camlvota  are  found  in 


d=,Googlc 


all  parts  of  the  world  except  AiistraJia  and  New 
Zealand,  where  flesh-eatins  marsupials  prevaiL 
The  ermine  is  [probably  the  smallest  specimen 
oi  this  order,  being  but  a  £cw  inches  in  len^. 
The  largest  i»  the  bnr,  some  of  the  latter  weigh- 
ing as  much  as  a  ton.  The  carnivores  serve  as 
a  check  on  the  too  rapid  midtipUcatioD  of  her> 
bivores,  rodents,  etc  From  this  class  man  has 
derived  two  valued  pets  -^  the  dog  and  the  cat. 
With  the  other  genera  of  the  order  his  relations 
are  those  of  constant  warfare.  Some  genera 
he  hunts  for  their  fur  or  flesh,  others  for 
sport,  others  he  kills  to  protect  his  domestic 
animals.  In  civilized  areas,  consequently,  the 
larger  carnivores  disappear  entirely  or  to  a 
great  extent,  and  the  result  is  the  mcrease  of 
various  pests,  as  rats,  mice,  etc.  In  lands  less 
civUiied  the  larger  camivora  hold  their  own 
even  against  man,  tigers,  lions  and  leopards 
killing  uousanda  of  human  beings  annually. 

1.  Fiaaipedia.--All  the  carnivores  of  this 
division,  except  the  sea-ottei  {Enhydra),  have 
six  incisor  teeth  in  each  jaw,  the  canine  teeth 
are  prominent,  and  one  of  the  molar  series  in 
each  jaw  is  usually  compressed  latemlly,  so  as 
to  present  a  cutting  edge.  The  toes  are  fur- 
nished with  daws,  and  the  anterior  limbs  are 
uaed  for  seizing  and  holding  prey  as  well  as  for 
walking.  The  skull  is  contracted  behind  the 
orbits,  so  as  to  give  an  hour-glass  form  when 
seen  from  above.  The  hollow  formed  bjr  this 
constriction  on  each  side  o(  the  head  is  bridged 
over  by  the  wide  zygomatic  arch,  and  thus  gives 
room  tor  the  powerfn!  muscles  of  mastication. 
The  lower  jaw  is  articulated  to  the  skull,  so 
that  it  can  cnl^  be  moved  up  and  down.  The 
incisor  and  canine  teeth  are  represented  by  the 

3-3      i-i 
formula     t — ,    e — .     The  teeth  behind  the 

canines  increase  in  dze  from  before  backwards, 

+-4  8-8 

and  varr  from    —  m  the  cat,  to  —  m  the 

3-3  8-8 

South  African  otocyon,  the  total  number  of 
teeth  of  alt  kinds  ranging  from  30  to  48.  The 
posterior  teeth  are  divided  into  premolars  and 
molars;  the  last  of  the  premolar  scries  in  the 
upper  and  the  first  of  the  molar  series  in  the 
lower  jaw  presenting  the  lateral  compression 
and  trenchant  margin  which  earns  for  tnem  the 
name  of  sectorial  or  carnassial  teeth.  Briiind 
the  carnassial  teeth  the  molars  havetuberculated 
crowns.  The  stomach  is  simple  and  undivided, 
and.  as  a  general  rule,  is  more  romdcd  in  the 
fliesh- eating  genera.  The  limbs  terminate  in 
digits,  which  are  never  fewer  than  four,  and  are 
furnished  with  sharp  claws,  which  in  the  Felida 
are  retractile  within  sheaths  of  the  integument 
on  tlie  dorsal  surface  of  (he  toes.  In  walking, 
the  extremities  of  the  toes  are  applied  to  the 
ground,  as  in  the  ■digitigrade'  cat  and  d<%;  or 
the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  b  p>at  down,  aa  in 
the  •plantigrade*  bear.  The  six  families  in- 
cbsded  under  the  fissipede  carnivores  are;  (1) 
Felida:  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  cat,  etc.  _  These 
present  the  bluest  type  of  the  cami 
stmcture.  The  claws  are  retractile. 
Com4a:  wolf,  dog,  jackal,  fox,  etc  The  claws 
are  not  retractile,  and  the  ^pe  is  longer.  The 
toes  in  this  and  the  previous  family  are  five 
on  the  anterior  and  four  on  the  posterior  ex- 
tremities.   (3)  Hyenida:  rayaena,  aardwolf,  tttc 


The  hyenas  lave  the  anterior  limbs  longer  than 
die  posterior,  and  both  terminate  in  four  toes. 
The  skull  and  dentition  approximate  to  those 
of  the  Felidx.  (4)  Vwerridtt:  The  supple 
elon^led  bodies  of  these  animals  arc  inter- 
mediate between  those  of  the  cats  and  the  mar- 
tens. Some,  as  the  dvet,  gennet,  zibet,  have 
the  claws  retractile;  in  others,  as  the  ichneumon 
and  rasse,  they  are  not  retractile.  'Hiose  men- 
tioned are  digitigrada  but  the  sunc!ate  of  Cen- 
tral Africa  is  planUgrade.  In  this  famit^.gland; 
are  found  under  the  tail,  the  secretions  of 
which  have  powerful  odors.  The  diet  of  this 
family  is  not  purely  animal.  (5)  MiutelitUt: 
The  members  of  this  family  have  doagated 
bodies  with  short  limbs,  temiinatmg  nsually  in 
five-toed  feet  wUh  retractile  or  non-retractile 
claws.  The  marten,  weasel,  polecait,  glutton  or 
wolverene,  constitute  one  sub-family  of  ex- 
clusively terrestrial  life.  The  badgers,  the 
skunks  and  the  like  constitute  another  division 
(6)  Uriida:  In  tins  family  die  carnassial 
tooth  is  no  longer  trenchant,  but  tiftercUlated, 
All  are  plantigrade,  but  the  habits  and  aspect 
vary  considerably,  and  include,  besides  the 
bears,  the  raccoons,  panda  and  several  lesser 
forms.  The  raccoon  and  its  allies  are  some' 
times  made  a  family  with  the  name  Proeyonida. 
See  Uahhalia;  Beav;  Cat;  Dog,  etc. 

2.  Kuilpedia.— The  aquatic  carnivores 
comprise  uiree  families,  represented  l^  the 
walrus  or  sea-horse,  the  eared  seals  and  the 
common  seals.  They  are  related  to  the  preced- 
ing families  through  the  otters  and  the  bears, 
and  agre«  in  having  the  extremities  modified 
into  swimming  organs  or  flippers,  and  the  teeth 
more  uniform  in  character.    See  Seals;  Wal- 

SVB. 

CARHIVORA,  FouiL  A  few  remains  of 
animals  regarded  as  belonging  to  die  Camivora 
have  been  found  in  rocks  of  Eocene  Age,  but 
th^  are  extremely  generalized  forms,  and  have 
a  doubtful,  if  any,  connection  with  the  earlier 
creodonts  (see  Crbodonta).  The  Miocene  rocks 
have  yielded  more,  but  still  of  very  generaliaed 
or  "synthetic*  n:pes,  suggestii«  the  ancestry 
of  the  dogs  and  civets;  one  is  the  European 
fossil  genus  CynodiclU,  called  a  'viverrine  oog,* 
because  it  combines  rudely  characteristics  of 
the  fox  and  civet  *This,'  says  Ernest  Ingersoll 
('Life  of  Mammab'  New  York  1909),  'shades 
off  into  the  many  species  of  GaUcymu,  and  of 
AmphicyoH,  plantigrade  animals  existing  in  all 
parts  of  the  Miocene  world,  and  vaiying  in  size 
frrxn  that  of  a  small  fox  to  that  of  a  lorw- 
bodied  bear, —  a  huge  combination  of  wolf, 
mungoos,  and  bear  I  Others  of  the  same  or  a 
later  time  are  more  nearly  typical  dvets,  or 
stand  between  such  and  the  hnsangs,  or  con- 
nect civets  and  weasels;  while  at  the  b^inning 
of  the  next,  or  Pliocene  period,  there  appears 
a  curious   animal,    the  ictithere,    which    com- 


pletely unites  the  civets  with  the  hyenas. 
Amphicyon  was  planti^ade  and  had  other 
bearlike  characteristics.    Besides  it,  as  we  know 


from  Miocene  fossils,  lived  another  animal 
(Hemicyon),  which  was  more  dog  than  civetj 
plus  belike  featiires ;  and  later  we  finu 
Hyenarctot  still  more  ursine,  so  that  lhes«  rep- 
resent a  line  of  change  from  bearlike  does  into 
doglike  bears,  and  connect  die  Amphicyon 
stock  with  the  true  bears  and  raccoons.  In  a 
similar  way  fossil  forms  of  Ae  Un»er  Eocene 


d=,  Google 


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CAftinVOROUS 


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flC-  'l  AaM  Wolf 


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S  Dbol*  or  CteInQ 


Digitized 


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7  BndBBB  Fox  S  Commoa  Voi  t  Pennee  M  ClT«t  II  OeoM  11  ^bat  It  IcbCBBOa 

18  PotBcat  It  Otur  20  SkoU  of  CHt«t 


d=,  Google 


CARNIVOROUS  .PLAlfTS — CARNOT 


048 


and  Lower  Miocene  comect  the  dvet   stock 
witb  the  aWJU'ent  ancestors  of  the  fur-bearers 

ineasds,  badgers,  otters,  etc.).  It  is  not,  iiv- 
eed,  until  the  late  Miocene,  near  the  end  of 
the  Tertiary  period,  that  the  groups  of  Camiv- 
era  as  we  now  see  them  became  distinctly  set 
apart  from  one  another  by  the  dying  out  of  the 
old  intermediate  stock  forms.*  Consult  Os- 
bora,  'Age  of  ManimaU>  (New  York  1910) ; 
Scott,  'History  of  Land  Mammals  in  the  West- 
em  Hemisphere>  (New  York  1913). 

CARNIVOROUS  PLANTS,  plants  of 
various  genera  which  subsist  jjarthr  upon  insects 
and  other  small  animals  which  tiiey  entrap  in 
various  ways.  The  apparatus  in  each  case  is  a 
modified  leaf  or  part  of  a  leaf,  and  in  some 
cases  the  modifications  are  so  curious,  so  well 
adapted  to  the  use  to  which  they  are  put,  and 
so  perfect  in  action^  that  the  planls  seem  al- 
most intelligent.  The  object  sought  by  these 
plants  seems  to  be  to  supply  themselves  with 
nitrogenous  food,  which  is  generally  in  meagre 
supply  where  they  usually  live  — undrakied 
swamps.  Probably^  too,  such  carnivorous 
plants  as  do  not  live  in  these  habitats  for- 
merly did,  but  have  not  yet  lost  the  use  of  the 
apparatus.  A  case  of  this  kind  is  exhibited  by 
the  genus  lltricularia  {see  BtAs^xwoKt).  In 
this  genus  various  species  provided  with  active 
bladders,  which  act  like  eel-trap^  live  sub- 
merged in  ponds;  other  species,  also  possess- 
ing active  but  less  perfect  and  useful  traps,  live 
in.  the  marshy  soil  of  swamps.  Still  others  live 
on  dry  c^ound,  but  these  have  usually  abortive 
traps.  The  conclusioti  is  that  as  the  ponds  be- 
came swamps,  and  the  swamps  were  converted 
into  dry  land,  the  supply  of  nitrogenous  food 
iiKreased  ana  hence  the  tr^s  became  aborted, 
because  they  were  no  longer  needed. 

Probably  the  most  nearly  intelligent  of  these 
carnivorous  plants  is  the  Venus'  fly-trap 
IDionaa),  found  in  North  Carolina.  The  trap 
(leaf- blade)  consists  of  two  pieces  hinRea 
together.  On  the  roar^ns  are  bristln,  and  in 
the  interior  a  few  sensitive  hairs,  which,  when 
touched,  act  like  a  tri^er,  and  the  apparatus 
closes.  Should  an  insect  cause  this,  action  the 
bristles  will  prevent  its  escape  and  the  trap  will 
remain  closed  until  digestion  is  complete,  when 
it  will  opeiL  cast  out  the  indigestible  portions 
and  be  teoAy  for  another  victim.  If  the  trap 
fails  to  catch  its  prey,  or  if  it  be  sprung  by 
something  it  cannot  utilize,  it  will  open  again 
in  a  short  time.  In  the  sundew  (Droiera)  the 
leaves  are  not  provided  with  ^andular  hairs, 
which  close  over  the  insect  that  alights  upon  the 
leaf,  and  a  glistening  sticky  substance  holds  it 
faM  imtil  its  digestible  parts  are  absorbed  by 
the  plant. 

In  the  pitcher-plants  {Sarracenia,  NepeH' 
thei),  the  pitcher  consists  of  a  tube-like  leaf 
either  with  or  without  a  tid  or  hood.  Around 
the  mouth  there  is  usually  a  sugary  secretion 
which  acts  as  a  lure.  The  insect  that  alights 
cannot  escape  because  the  tube  is  lined  with 
hairs  that  force  him  downward  to  the  bottom 
of  the  tube,  which  is  usually  partly  filled  with 
water.  Some  other  genera  in  which  the  carniv- 
orous habit  is  developed  are  Darlinglonia, 
Aldrovtmdra  and  Pingiuaila.  Consult  Darwin, 
'Insectivorous  Plants.' 


skilful  operations:  b.- Savannah,  Ga.,  4  July 
1817:  d.  New  Yorit,  Z8  Oct.  1887.  He  studied 
at  Edinburgh  and  at  various  European  uni- 
versities; and  began  his  practice  in  New  York 
in  1847.  In  18S1  he  became  professor  of  sur- 
gery at  the  New  York  Medical  College,  and 
surgetm-in-chief  to  the  State  Immigrant  Hos- 
pit^.  At  one  time  he  cured  neuralgia  bv  ejids- 
mg  the  whole  trunk  of  the  second  branch  ef  the 
fifth  pair  of  nerves.  In  1852  he  tied  the 
femoral  arteiy  to  cure  exaggerated  nutrition. 
He  also  tied  the  primitive  carotid  artery  on  both 
sides,  to  cure  elephantiasis  of  the  neck.  In 
18S3  he  exsected  the  entire  radius,  in  1854  the 
entire  ulna.    He  published  a.  treatise  on  <Con- 

B»iital  Dislocations'  (1850>  ;  a  translation  of 
c^tausky's  'Pathological  Anatomy,'  and 
'Contributions  to  Operative  Surgery'  (1858  and 
1877-86),  besides  numerous  monographs  of 
value  on  subjects  connected  witb  his  profes- 


French  statesman  and  journalist,  second 
the  following:  b.  Saint  Omer,  6  April  1801 ;  d. 
16  March  1888.  He  studied  for  the  taw  but 
was  debarred  from  practice  for  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Bourbons.  He 
was  of  libera]  opinions,  became  a  disciple  of 
Saint  Simon,  and  wrote  the  'Exposition  gfn- 
(rale  de  la  doctrine  Saint  Simonicnne,'  the 
authorship  of  which  was,  with  his  consent,  as- 
cribed to  Baxard.  He  became  editor  oi  Le 
ProducUur,  a  radical  journal  of  the  day.  But 
as  soon  as  Saint  Simonism  assumed  the  form 
of  a  religious  creed,  Carnot  parted  with  his 
friends,  and  became  a  journalist,  and  the  chief 
editor  of  the  Revue  encyclopiaique.  He  was 
also  entrusted  with  the  publication  of  Gregoirc's 
and  Barires  'Mtooires.'  He  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1839,  and  re-elected 
in  1842  and  1846.  After  the  revolution  of 
February  1848,  he  was  Minister  of  Public  In- 
struction until  5  July,  and  improved,  as  such, 
the  Condition  of  the  teachers,  rendered  the  nor- 
mal schools  free  and  established  free  lectures. 
In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Constituent,  and 
10  March  1850,  to  the  Legislative,  Assembly, 
After  the  coup  d'ttat  of  December  1851  he  left 
France;  during  his  absence,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  corps  Itgislatif,  but  refused  to 
take  the  oath.  He  was  re-elected  in  1857,  but 
again  refused  to  serve.  He  did  not  take  his 
seat  until  IS64,  and  was  made  a  life  senator 
\a  1875.  He  spoke  for  the  last  time  in  18^ 
a  few  weeks  after  his  son  Sadi  had  been 
elected  President  of  the  Republic,  and  was  the 
author  of   'Memoires  sur  Carnot  par  son  fils' 

S2  vols.,  1861-64) ;  'La  Revolution  fran^aise* 
2  vols„  1867) ;  'Laiare  Hoche'  (1874) ;  and 
with    M.    d' Angers,     'Mfanoires    de    Bertrand 

Bar4re>   "  ""      ~ 

consult  t 


les  Camots'  (Paris  1888). 

CARNOT,  Luare  Nicoka  Hargtierlte, 
French  soldier  and  statesman:  b.  Nolay,  Bur- 
gundy, 1753;  d.  M^deburg,  2  Aug.  1823.  From 
his  youth  he  exhibited  an  uncommon  talent  for 
the  mathematical  and  miUta^  sciences,  entered 
the  corps  of  engineers,  and  rose  in  office  by 
the  favor  of  the  Prince  of  (^di.  He  nuth- 
lished,  afterward,  'Mathenutica]  Essnys,'  wnidt 


:,  Google 


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caused  him  to  be  elected  a  member  of  several 
learned  societies.  His  eulogy  on  Vaubao  re- 
ceived the  prize  of  the  Acaowny  of  Dijon.  In 
1791  he  was  appointed  deputy  to  the  Constitaent 
Assembly,  but  at  first  took  part  only  i 


y  affairs.  On  his  proposal  the  officers  of  the 
nooility  were  removed  from  the  army,  and 
others  substituted  from  the  citizens.     He  also 


ropdsed  that  implicit  obedience   should 
'  ded  of  the  soldier  in  presence  ol 

t  other  times  be  should  have  all  the 


privileges  and  rights  of  the  citizen;  a  strange 
proposal  to  come  from  a  military  chief.  As  a 
member  of  the  convention  he  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis.  In  the  following  March  he  was 
sent  to  the  Army  of  the  North,  where  he  put 
himself  at  the  head  and  repulsed  the  enemy. 
On  his  return  to  the  convention  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  The 
influence  of  Camot  in  the  military  operations 
now  began  to  be  more  deeply  felt.  In  posses- 
sion of  all  the  plans  deposited  in  tbe  arcUves 
of  Louis  XIV,  he  organized  and  directed  the 
French  armies;  and  his  direction  undoubtedly 
contributed  very  much  to  their  success.  After 
the  fall  of  Robespierre  he  was  often  accused, 
but  always  acouilted,  because  his  duty  had  been 
to  take  care  of  the  defense  of  the  country,  and 
be  could  not  be  made  answerable  for  the  cruel 
decrees  of  Robespierre,  in  which  Carnot's  nam& 
as  he  was  a  member  of  the  committee,  was  of 
course  to  be  found.  At  the  cstabiismnent  of 
tile  Directory  in  1795  Camot  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber,  and  for  some  time  maintained  an  import- 
ant influence.  Barras  at  length  succeeded  him 
in  the  Department  of  War,  and  was  ever  after 
his  enemy.  His  plan  for  the  overthrow  of  Bar- 
ras  was  unsuccessful,  and  with  some  others  he 
was  sentenced  to  transportation  on  the  tScb 
Fructidor  (4  Sept.)  1797.  He  fled  to  Gemiany 
and  published  a  defense,  which  was  eagerly  read 
in  Paris,  and  by  the  exposure  of  the  conduct 
of  his  former  colleagues  hastened  their  over- 
throw  on  the  30th  Prairial  (18  June)  1799. 
After  the  18th  Brumaire  Carnot  was  recalled, 
and  appointed  insfecteur  aux  revttei,  and  two 
months  later,  in  April  1800,  Minister  of  War. 
He  soon  after  retired  into  the  bosom  of  his 
family,  but  was  called  to  the  tribunat^  9  March 
1802.  He  often  opposed  the  views  of  the  gov 
emment,  voted  against  the  consulship  for  life, 
and  his  was  the  only  voice  raised  against  the 

troposal  for  the  Imperial  dignity.  He  remained, 
owevcr,  a  member  of  the  tribunate  tilt  it  was 
abolished,  ^tassed  tbe  next  seven  years  of  his 
life  in  retirement  and  published  several  valu- 
able military  works.  In  1814  Napoleon  gave 
him  the  chief  command  at  Antwerp.  He  con- 
nected a  vigorous  defense  with  a  careful  re- 
gard for  the  interest  of  the  city,  which,  by  the 
command  of  Louis  XVIII,  he  afterward  sur- 
rendered to  the  British  General  Graham.  He 
■till  retained  his  titles  and  his  honors,  but  as 
a  firm  republican  he  could  never  expect  the 
favor  of  the  court;  particularly  as,  in  his  me- 
morial to  the  King,  he  openly  and  severely  cen- 
sured the  measures  of  government,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  vras  passed  over  in  the  new 
organization  of  die  Academy  of  Sciences, 
When  Napoleon  was  once  more  at  the  helm  of 
state  in  1815,  he  made  Camot  count  and  peer 
of  die  emtrire,  and  pressed  upon  him  the  Min- 
istn'  of  the  Interior.  Camot  discharged  the 
£mcult  duties  of  tins  office  with  his  usual  in- 


tegrity. After  the  Empetor's  second  fall  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  provisory  govern- 
ment  of  France,  and  was  afterward  the  only 
one  of  the  members  of  it  comprehended  in 
the  ordinance  of  24  July.  He  retired  to 
Certiey,  where  be  employed  his  pen  on  political 
subjects;  then  lo  Warsaw  with  bis  family;  and 
Anally  to  Magdeburg.  Aihong  Camot's  writ- 
ing the  most  valuable  are  his  *£ssai  sur  les  ma- 
dunes';  'Reflexions  sur  la  m^apfaysique  du 
calcul  infinitesimal* ;  'Sur  la  gfometne  de  posi- 
tion' ;  'De  la  ditose  des  places  fort«s' ;  'Ex- 
posi  de  la  conduite  politique  de  Camot,  dcpuis 
le  1  Tuillet  1814.'  In  Magdeburg  Camot  pub- 
lished 'Mimoire  sur  la  fortification  primitive'; 
and  a  volume  of  poems.  He  was  rigid  in  his 
love  of  virtue  a  scholar,  a  general  and  an  in- 
flexible republican.  He  was  universally  es- 
teemed, both  in  France  and  in  foreign  lands, 
and  was  honored  by  all  parties.  Consult  A rago, 
'Eulogy  of  Camot'  (in  Vol.  I  of  Aiago's 
'tEuvres  competes,'  Paris  1854), 

CARNOT,  Huie  Pnuicols  Sadl,  Presi- 
dent of  the  French  Republic,  grandson  of 
Lazare  Nicolas  Carnot  (q.v.)  i  b.  Limoges, 
11  Aug.  1837;. d.  Lyxms,  24  June  1894v  He  was 
educated  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  and  be- 
came a  civil  engineer.  His  construction  of  Ae 
large  tubular  bridge  at  Colognes- sur-Rhone 
brou^t  him  to  the  public's  attention.  He  was 
stationed  as  government  engineer  at  Annfcy  in 
ISro  and  in  IS71  M.  Gambetta  appointed  him 
prefect  of  the  Seine-Inf^rieure,  entrusting  him 
with  the  du^  of  seeing  to  the  defenses  of  bis 
department^  a  task  whidi  he  fulfilled  with  great 
ability.  After  Paris  capitulated,  he  resigned, 
to  iKxome  deputy  from  Cote'd'Or  in  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.  In  1876  be  was  elected  mem- 
ber of  the  new  Chamber  of  Deputies;  the  year 
following,  secretary  to  that  Chamber;  ana  oc- 
cupied a;id  important  post  with  the  Public  Works 
Committee,  becoming  its  minister  in  1880-81, 
and  was  re-etected  in  1885  in  M.  Brisson's  Cabi- 
"i  he  became  Minister  of  Finance,  re- 


Frcyanet 

die  French  RmjuWic  in  succession  to  M.  lulcs 
Gr<vy,  but  before  his  tenn  of  office  had  ex- 
pired he  was  assassinated  at  Lyons  by  an  Italian 
anarchist  named  Caserio.  Consult  Hubbard, 
'Une  famllle  r^ublicaine,  les  Camot'  <Paris 
1888). 

CASKOT,  Nicolu  Lteurd  Sadi,  French 
physicist:  b.  Paris,  1  June  1796;  d.  ther^  24 
Aug.  1832.  He  was  educated  at  tbe  pobtecbnic 
school;  in  1814  be  entered  the  engineer  corps; 
where  be  served  until  1828,  becoming  captain 
in  1826.  In  1824  he  published  his  book,  'Re- 
flexions sur  la  puissance  motrice  du  feu,'  in 
which  he  laid  down  the  principle  that  the  effi- 
ciency of  a  thermodynamic  engine  is  propor- 
tional to  the  amount  of  heat  transferred  from 
ihesourceof  heat  to  the  condenser;  and  that  heat 
pa^es  only  from  a  warmer  to  a  colder  body. 
This  is  called  the  second  law  of  thermodynam- 
ics and  is  known  also  as  Camot's  principle 
It  is  also  significant  that  he  observed  tbe  prin- 
ciple of  the  constant  quality  of  energy,  a  theory 
which  was  later  devdoped  as  that  al  the  *con- 
servation  of  energy.*  An  English  translation 
of  his  great  work  was  made  Iv  R-  H.  Thurs- 
ton; Kelvin's  elaboration  Is  appended  (New 
York  1890). 


=v  Google 


CABNOTITE — CAROL 


CAKHOTIl%  m  miMrat  first  described  hi 
1899,  and  now  one  of  the  most  important  orei 
of  uratiium.  It  is  a  hydrous  vanadate  of  ura- 
nium and  potassium,  its  fonnula  being,  perhaps, 
K.O.  2.UA.  VtC  3H.0.  Radium  has  been 
shown  to  be  present  in  it  and  radiographs  msj 
be  made  from  the  crude  mineral.  It  seems 
likely  that  it  will  become  an  important  ore  of 
radium.  It  is  a  canary-yellow  crystalline  pow 
der,  usually  occurring  disseminated  throu^^ 
sandston^  but  sometimes  in  earthy  masses  of 
considerable  richness.  Its  chief  locality  is  in 
Montrose  County,  Colo.,  but  it  has  recently 
been  reported  from  Utah. 

CARNUTES.  kitr-nu'tez,  or  CAKHUTI, 
an  ancient  tribe  living  in  central  Gaul,  &t 
war  with  Ceesar  in  52  B.C,  having  joined  Ver- 
dngetroix.  Oesar  burnt  their  diiecE  town,  called 
Cenabtun.  Augustus  made  the  Camutes,  a 
'dvitas  fcedeiata*  (an  allied  state)  and  ^per- 
mitted  them  to  retain  their  own  institutions. 
Their  chief  dty  was  also  called  Camntes.  Con- 
sult Hohnea,  'Ciesar's  Conquest  of  Gaul'  (2d 
ed.,  Oxford  1911). 

CAKO,  ka'T&,  Annibale,  Italian  author:  b. 
Civita  Nuora  1507;  d.  1566.  In  1S43  he  was 
appointed  secretary  to  Pietro  Ludovico  Famese, 
DuLe  of  Par^a  and  Piacenra.  who  entrusted 
him  with  several  miuioos  to  Charles  V.  After 
the  assassination  of  the  Duke  his  own  life  was 
in  considerable  danger.  He  took  refuge  in 
Parma,  and  was  treated  in  a  friendly  manner 
by  the  new  Duke,  Ottavio  Famcse,  vdiose  two 
brothers,  the  cardinals,  Ranucdo  and  Alessan- 
dto,  took  him  successively  into  thdr  service. 
With  the  latter  he  renamed  from  1548  to  his 
death  in  1566^  and  received  from  him  several 
ecdesiastical  preferments.  Caro  devoted  him- 
self  diiefly  to  the  studv  of  numismatics  and  the 
Tuscan  language,  and  ots  pure  and  elegant  style 
in  verse  and  prose  soon  became  generalfy  ad- 
mired. His  translation  of  the  JEneid  in  blank 
verse  is  excellent.  After  his  death  appeared  a 
translation  by  him  of  Lcmgug,  and  of  Aristotle's 
^Rhetoric' ;  also  'Rimc>  (1560),  and  'Lettere 
familiari>  (1572-75),  the  former  of  which  are 
admired  for  the  elegance  of  the  verse,  and  the 
latter  as  models  of  beautiful  Italian  prose.  The 
best  editions  of  Caro's  works  were  published 
in  Venice  n757),  in  Uilan  (1806),  and  a  vol- 
ume of  selected  works  appeared  in  Florence 
(1864). 

CARO,  Ebne  Harie,  French  philosopher: 
b.  Poitiers,  4  March  1B26;  d.  13  July  1687.  He 
studied  at  the  Stanislas  College  and  the  Scole 
Normale,  graduating  in  1848.  He  was  at  first 
professor  in  several  provincial  uni-Ycrsities,  and, 
having  received  the  degree  of  doctor,  was  ap- 
pointed master  of  conferences  at  the  ficole 
Normale  (1S58).  In  1861  he  became  inspector 
of  the  Academy  of  Paris ;  in  1864  professor  of 
'philosophy;  in  1874  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  married  Pauline  Cassin,  the 
author  of  *Picti£  de  Madeleine. '  He  was  a  very 
pmmlar  lecturer  on  Christianity.  He  con- 
tributed to  magazines-  and  wrote  'L'Idee  de 
Dicu'  (1864);  'La  Philosophic '  de  Goethe' 
(2d  ed.,  1680);  <Etudes  morales  sur  le  temps 
present' ;  'Melanges  ct  portraits'  (188S). 

CARO,  Jakob,  German  historian:  h. 
Gnesen,  2  Feb.  1836;  d.  1904.  He  was  educated 
at  Berlin  and  Leipzig;  traveled  in  Galicia  and 
southern  Russia,  and  in  1863  became  lecturer 


at  the  Univeruty  of  Jena  and  later  professor; 
in  1868  he  was  professor  at  Breslau.  He  has 
written  'Das  Interregnum  Polens  1856'  (1861); 
<Liber  Cancellarix  Stanislai  Cioiek'  (1871-74)  ; 
'Lessing  und  Swift,  Studien  iiber  Nathan  den 
Weisen'  (1869);  'Aus  der  Kanzlei  Kaiser 
Sie^munds'  (1879)  ;  <Das  Bundniss  zu  Canter- 
huiy>  (1680)  ;  <Beau  und  Halsika,  eine  Pol- 
nisdi-Russische  Geschichte  aus  dem  16.  Tahr- 
hundert'  (18S0);  and  a  continuation  of  Rd- 
pdl'a  'Geschichte  Polens.' 

CARO,  Mich.,  village  and  county-seat  of 
Tuscola  County,  on  the  Cass  River,  25  miles 
southeast  of  Bay  Gty,  on  the  Michigan  Central 
and  the  Detroit,  Bav  Gty  and  Western  rail- 
roads. It  contains  flour  mills,  gr^  elevators, 
lumber  mills,  foundries,  machine  shops,  beet- 
su^r  refinery,  telephone  works,  marble  yards, 
bnck  and  tife  work^  harness  factories  and  a 
fireless  cooker  manufactory.  Beans  and  sugar 
beets  are  extensively  cultivated  in  the  neighbor- 
bood.    Pop.  2,272.  ■ 

CAROB,  k^Ab,  a  tree,  Ceratonia  siliqua, 
of  the  faniily  Cttsalptmaeev,  native  of  the 
Mediterranean  region,  now  widely  cultivated  in 
warm  countries.  It  is  known  also  as  algaroba, 
karoub,  carouba  and  Saint  John's  brcid.  It 
has  shining  pinnate  leaves,  racemes  of  red 
flowers,  and  fiat  pods  4  to  12  inches  long  filled 
with  a  pulp  in  which  are  embedded  numcroti* 
seeds.  The  pods  are  an  important  fora^  crop 
in  some  countries,  being  eaten  by  all  kmds  of 
stock,  and  they  are  fTcquently  used  for  human 
food,  the  sweet  pulp  being  very  palatable. 
They  are  reputed  to  oe   the  locusts  and   wild 


of  tons  of  the  pods  are  imported  into  Enj^and 
annually  to  be  ground  and  used  for  stock-feed. 
In  the  ^United  States  they  are  sometimes  seen 
on  fruil-stands.  The  seeds  are  said  to  have 
been  the  original  carat  weight  of  goldsmiths. 
CAROb,  ka'rd-c,  WiUiam  Douglas,  Eng- 
lish architect  of  Danish  parentage:  b.  Liver- 
pool 1857.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  studied  architecture  with  the 
eminent  architect  John  L.  Pearson.  He  is 
architect   to   Southwell   Cathedral,  'to   the  dean 


siastical  i  „  .         . 

works  arc  the  archbisht^'s  palace  at  Canter 
bury;  bishop^s  palace  at  Bristol;  Saint  David's 
Church  at  Exeter;  Wycombe  Abb^  School; 
the  Jubilee  Monument  to  Queen  Victoria  at 
Mentone,  France.  He  has  also  restored  many 
buildiiigs  of  historic  interest.  He  was  president 
of  the  Architectural  Association  in  1895. 

CAROL,  a  song  of  praise  sung  at  Christ- 
mas or  Easter.  It  originally  meant  a  son^  ac- 
companied with  dandng,  in  which  sense  it  is 
frequently  used  by  the  old  poets.  It  appears  to 
have  been  danqed  by  many  performers,  by 
taking  hands,  forming  a  ring  and  singing  as 
they  went  round.  It  has  been  said  that  the 
oldest  carol  was  that  sung  by  the  heavenly  host 
when  the  birth  of  the  Saviour  was  announced 
to  the  shepherds  on  the  plains  of  Bethlehem. 
It  is  probable  that  the  practice  of  singing  carols 

Christmas-tide  arose  in  imitation  of  this,  as 


the  majority  of  the  carols  dedared  the  good 
tidinis   of  great  joy;   and   the   title  of   ifels. 
novelfes,  applied  to  carols,  would 


seem  to  bear  out  this  idea.    Carol  » 


d  by  Google 


CASOLAN— CAJtOLINA 


1  twve 


especially  familiar  with  these  sonn.  ^he  first 
authorization  for  a  collection  of  sucfa  carols 
to  be  made  was  issued  to  Thomas  Tysdale 
nS62).  For  a  while  th^  disappeared  under 
me  Puritan  regime,  but  with  the  Restoration  a 
new  book  appeared  called  *Th#  New  Carols 
for  the  Merry  Time  of  Christmas,  to  Sundry 
Pleasant  Tunes.'  In  England,  the  custom  of 
"waits,*  i^^  groups  of  boys  and  men  who  go 
about  singing  in  the  vill^e,  still  prevails  in 
some  sections.  'Hark  the  Herald  Angels  Siii&' 
0739)  and  'While  Shepherds  Watdied  Thar 
flodu  by  Night*  are  two  well-known  carols. 
Collectiona  have  been  made  by  H.  R.  Bramley 
and  Sir  J.  Stainer  under  the  title  'Christmas 
Carols,  Old  and  New'  (London  1874);  and  by 
Martha  £.  Rickert.  'Ancient  Christmas  Carols, 
14O(K1700>   (New  York  1910). 

CAHOLAN,  or  O'CAROLAN,  ldr'&-13n, 
Tnrlogh,  Irish  musical  genius :  b.  oear  Nobber, 
County  of  Westmeatb,  about  1670;  d.  173& 
Having  lost  his  sight  at  the  age  of  16^  be 
studied  the  .harp,  and  in  after  Ufe  not  only 

Sintained   himself   thereby,   but  even   became 
lous.    A  collection  of  hu  tallads  was  i 
lisfaed  durins  the  18th  centuiy,  but  others  1 
been  handed  down  by  the  peasantry. 

CAROLI.  Pietro  Franceaco,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Turin  1638;  d.  Rome  1716.  He 
studied  painting  at  Venice,  Florence  and  Rome, 
and  was  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Rome  at 
bis  death.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  careful 
execution  and  beautiful  coloring,  and  excelled 
particularly  in  perspective^  of  his  skill  in  which 
he  has  left  excellent  specimens  in  his  drawings 
of  the  interior  of  some  of  the  Roman  churches. 
Consult  de  Boni,  F.,  'Biografia  degli  artisti' 
(Venice  1840). 

CAROLINA,  P.  R.,  town  15  miles  south- 
east of  San  Juan,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  rail.  It  b  well  built,  has  a  fine  climate  and 
is  in  good  sanitary  condition.  It  contains  a 
city  hall,  public  schools  and  churches.  Dairy 
fanning  and  sugar-planting  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries.    Pop.  3,250. 

CAROLINA,  ka-to-le'na.  This  hame  is 
generally  given  to  a  famous  law  of  the  Geiman 
Empire,  of  the  year  1S32,  under  Charles  V, 
which  he  himself  called  an  ordinance  of  crim- 
inal procedure  (Peinticke  Cerichliordnung). 
From  him  it  was  a  later  period  called  Consti- 
lutio  criminalit  CaTolitia,_  or  shortly  Carolina. 
The  arbitrary  administration  of  justice,  the  dis- 
order and  cruelty  which  had  become  customary 
in  the  courts  of  Germany,  where  many  a  process 
was  begun  and  ended  with  torture,  and  persons 
were  sentenced  even  to  death  without  regular 
process,  gave  occasion  to  this  law.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  peace  of  the  land  the  necessity 
of  such  a  law  was  felt  throughout  the  country; 
but  it  was  difficult  in  this,  as  in  all  other  cases, 
to  make  the  different  members  of  the  empire 
agree  on  one  general  measure.  The  Baron  Jo- 
hann  von  Schwarzcnber^  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  introducing  this  ordinance.  He  be- 
came Minister  of  State  of  the  Prince-bishop  of 
Bamberg,  and  succeeded  in  procuring  an  ordi- 
nance of  criminal  procedure  for  Bamcierg  to  be 
drawn  up  and  published  in  1507.  The  same  was 
also  adopted  in  1510  by  the  Margrave  of  Bran- 


t  a  law  of 

...  ,   ___  —  — , ;  large  was 

passed  by  the  Diet  at  Ratisbcni,  in  1532.  The 
C^roUna  contains  219  articles,  whidi  regulate 
the  standing  and  oaths  of  judges,  the  character 
of  witneues,  the  penalties  of  different  crimes, 
and  tl|e  drcamstances  in  which  torture  at  that 
time  commoa  in  criminal  jnrisprudeDce  should 
be  applied.  Several  German  princes,  as  the 
Elector  of  Saxonj,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg 
and  of  the  Falatinat^  protested  against  it,  in 
order  to  protect  the  laws  of  their  states  and 
their  own  privileges  against  the  legislative 
power  of  the  Emperor;  but  at  last  the  Carolina 
was  established  in  almost  every  port  of  the 
cmmrc.  Piota  the  coonectian  of  Switzerland 
wioi  Geitnany,  and  the  fact  that  several  Swiss 
towns  were  Imperial  dtiea,  (^emtan  lawt  fre- 


Kaisers  Karl  V*  (Leipzig  1883);  Esmein, 
'Histoire  de  la  procMure  cnminelle  en  France' 
(Paris  \S82,  pp.  300ff.)  ;  Daguin,  F.,  'Intro- 
duction d'un  code  de  procedure  piiiale  alle- 
mande'  (Paris  1884,  pp.  30ff.). 

CAROLINA,  Oricinal  Conatitntioa  ot 
For  many  years  after  the  subversion  of  the 
old  En^ish  order  by  political  and  religious  in- 
subordination, 1642^  the  dommant  idea  of 
the  conservaUves  was  to  prevent  its  recurrence, 
as  with  the  conservatives  after  the  French 
Revolution;  and  their  chief  dread  was  of  re- 
publicans and  dissenters.  It  is  an  almost 
grotesque  incident  of  this  reaction,  that  by  far 
Its  narrowest  embodiment  came  frmn  a  liberal 
philosopher  and  an  unbelieving  inceruliaiy  poU- 
tidaiL — John  Locke  and  Lord  Shaftesbury 
(Antnony  Ashley  Cooper).  A  group  of  eight 
noblemen,  headed  by  the  famous  Lord  (Zlaivn- 


of  Carolina,  after  Charles  11;  ax  extended  30 
June  I66S,  it  included  the  present  North  and 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  in  theory 
stretched  west  to  the  Pacific.  'To  avoid  erect' 
ing  a  numerous  democracy,*  in  their  own 
words,  they  had  Locke,  who  was  Shaftesbury's 
secretaiy,  draw  up  (whether  on  his  own  lines 
or  Shaftesbury's  is  a  moot  point)  a  form  of 
^veniment  called  the  'Fnnikmcntal  Constitu- 
tions,* which  is  a  classic  for  in^ractical  ab- 
surdity even  among  Utopias.  The  mass  of  the 
people  (not  alone,  be  il  remembered,  the  future 
immigrants,  but  a  considerable  population  al- 
ready living'there  in  pure  democracy)  were  to 
be  hereditary  *leet-men,*  or  serfs  of  the  soiL 
Next  abqve  them  was  a  sort  of  upper  middle- 
class  commons  called  'lords  of  tne  manor,* 
who  could  let  out  10-acre  tenant  farms.  Over 
both  (as  the  charter  gave  the  proprietors  th« 
ri^t  to  create  titles  of  nobility  other  than 
English  ones)  were  a  fantastic  self -perpetuat- 
ing colonial  nobtettt,  of  *landgraves*  and 
■cadques."  Crowning  the  whole  were  the  pro- 
prietors; the  eldest  was  *palatine*  or  viceroy, 
the  otherswere  admiral,  chamberlain,  high  con- 
stable, chief  justice,  chancellor,  high  steward 
and  treasurer.  The  "leet-tnen*  held  three-fifths 
of  the  land;  the  nobility  and  'lords  of  the 
manor*  one-fifth,  not  to  be  alienated  after  1700; 
the  proprietors  the  remaining  fifth.    The  prov- 


:,  Google 


CAROLINA  ALLSMCB  ~-  CAKOLIHS 


ince  was  divided  checkerboard  fashion  into 
squares,  first  of  counties;  then  each  county 
into  ei^ht  ■seigneries*  for  the  proprietors,  eight 
■baronies'  for  the  nobility  <each  sc^noiy  and 
barony  to  contain  12,000  acres,  peipetually  an- 
nexed  to  the  title),  and  fonr  •precincts,"  and 
each  precinct  into  four  'colonies*  for  the  serfs. 
There  was  a  parliament ;  but  the  conitnons  were 
carefullv  kept  powerless  by  giving  them  only 
10  memDers  out  of  50,  makmg  only  freeholders 
of  500  acres  eligible  to  seats,  and  electing  them 
for  life ;  with  the  further  proviso  that  land' 
graves  could  sit  in  either  botise  at  will,  and  vote 
on  the  same  measures  in  both.  All  initiative 
was  in  a  supreme  executive  council,  which  pre- 
pared and  submitted  all  legislation  to  Parlia- 
ment; and  the  proprietors  had  a  veto  on  all. 
Each  proprietor  had  a  superior  court  at  whicl^ 
he  preside<f  in  person  or  Sy  proxy;  each  noble- 
man.held  a  court-leet  for  his  barony,  and  there 
were  precinct  courts.  The  laws  were  worthy 
of  this  closet  constitution.  The  English  Church 
was  estabUshed  and  su^orted  t^  public  taxa- 
tion, in  a  province  inhabited  largeljr  oy  Quakers, 
and  the  rest  by  Scotch  Presbyterians,  Hugue- 
nots, Lutherans,  etc  No  one  could  live  or  hold 
property  in  or  be  a  freeman  of  the  province 
who  did  not  acknowledge  God,  and  that  he  is  to 
be  publicly  worshipped.  Every  person  above  17 
not  a  member  of  some  church,  or  who  did  not 
subscribe  the  'Fundamental  Constitutions*  and 
promise  in  writing  to  defend  and  maintain 
them,  should  be  an  outlaw.  There  was  a  severe 
censorship  of  the  press,  of  ceremonies,  of 
fashions  and  of  sports,  in  the  hands  of  the 
nobility.  Paid  lawyers  were  prohibited;  thus 
compelling  the  commons  to  [lut  themselves  un- 
der a  relation  of  "clientage,'  in  Rotnan  fashion, 
to  the  nobilit)^  to  avoid  ruin.  All  commenuries 
on  the  constitution  or  laws  were  forbidden. 
This  constitution  was  to  replace  one  under 
which  the  people  were  ruled  by  a  council  of  12, 
chosen  half  by  the  proprietors  and  half  by  the 
assemUy ;  that  assembly  consisting  of  12 
elected  freeholders,  so  tliat  the  people  bad  18 
out  of  25  votes;  with  entire  freedom  of  re- 
ligion, civil  marriage,  security  for  five  years 
from  suit  on  cause  arising  outside  of  the 
country^  (for  protection  of  emigrant  debtors), 
exemption  from  taxation  for  the  first  year  and 
no  political  or  social  superiors  anywhere.  That 
is,  free  EJiglishmen  in  virtual  democracy  were 
to  become  at  a  blow  the  serfs  and  villeins  of 
the  time  of  the  Norman  Conmiest  The  pro- 
prietors bound  themselves  by  solemn  compact  to 
maintain  this  incredibly  foolish  instrument  as 
imalterable  forever,  and  evidently  expected  men 
to  emigrate  to  a  savage  wilderness  on  such 
terms.  Five  successive  forms  of  this  constitu- 
tion were  promulgated  before  its  entire  aban- 
donment in  1^3,  each  in  turn  proclaimed 
permanent  and  unalterable ;  and  me  result 
especially  in  Albemarle  County  (afterward 
North  Carolina),  was  simple  anarehy.  The 
people  set  them  utterlv  at  naught;  and  while 
the  former  s_ystem  haa  been  legally  abolished, 
h  continued  in  force  by  sufferance.  Resistance 
to  law  as  a  first  principle  of  life  became  ut- 
grained  in  them ;  and  the  character  of  the  col- 
ony was  long  and  deeply  injured  by  the  quar- 
ter-century of  attempt  to  force  its  people,  new 
and  old,  into  this  iron  mold  of  extreme  feudal- 
Um.  For  further  history  see  tforru  Caxouha; 
South  Cahmjna. 


CAROLINA  ALLSPICE.    See  CaLycan- 

THtJS. 

CAROLINA-PINK,  MARYLAND 
PIHKROOT,  or  WORH-GRASS,  names 
given  to  the  SpigtHa  marilandica,  a  olant  of  the 
order  Logoniaceir,  bearing  scarlet  flowers,  and 
having  a  root  used  as  a  vermifuge.  It  occurs 
in  rich  woods  and  extends  from  New  Jersey 
west,  north  and  south  to  Wisconsin  and  Texas. 

CAROLINA  RIDOS,  in  geokigy,  the 
name  given  to  an  elevation  of  the  bottom  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  ofi  North  Carolina,  that 
occurred  in  Miocene  time.  It  deflected  the 
Gulf  Stream  and  caused  a  great  change  in 
climate  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  See  Uiocene; 
Tebtiaby  Puiod. 

CAROLINE,  The,  an  American  steamboat 
used  in  1837  by  the  American  sympathizers  with 
the  Canadian  insurgMits  under  William  Lyon 
Mackeniie  (o.v.).  The  latter,  after  years  of 
agitation,  haa  gathered  a  band  of  insurgents 
.in  December,  and  attempted  to  seize  Toronto, 
capture  the  heutenant-governor  and  his  cab- 
inet and  proclaim  a  republic.  He  was  defeated 
and  fled  to  Navy  Island  on  the  British  side  .of 
the  Niagara  River.  Some  hundreds  of  Ameri- 
can sympathizers  joined  him,  and  he  set  up  a 
'provi^onal  govenmient,*  issued  paper  money 
and  offered  Sounties  for  volunteers  and  a  re- 
ward for  the  apprehension  of  the  lieutenant- 
governor.  On  29  December  an  American 
steamer,  the  Caroline,  crossed  over  to  his  camp 
from  Schloiser  on  the  American  side,  laden 
with  reinforcements,  provisions  and  munitions; 
and  reluming  lay  at  Schlosser  that  nisht  full 
of  men  presumably  ready  for  a  simUar  trip 
the  next  day.  The  Canadians,  incensed  at  this 
outrageous  violation  of  neutrality,  aent  over  an 
armed  party  in  boats  to  enforce  it.  They 
boarded  the  Caroline,  biutled  the  passengers 
and  crew  ashore,  IdlUng  one  man  (Amos  Dur- 
fee)  on  shore  in  the  fray,  towed  the  vessel  out 
into  the  stream,  set  it  on  fire  and  sent  it  over 
Niagara.  A  great  uproar  ensued.  President 
Van  Buren  issued  a  proclamation  ordering  the 


manded  reparation  from  the  British  govern' 
ment.  The  Utter  naturally  showed  no  great 
alacrity  in  responding.  Shortly  afterwardT  one 
Alexander  Mu.eod  came  over  to  the  American 
side,  boasting  that  he  was  one  of  the  boarding 
party  and  had  killed  one  of  the  CaroUne's  men 
with  his  owjD  hand.  He  was  arrested,  indicted 
by  the  grand  jury  for  the  murder  of  Durfee 
and  imprisoned  to  await  his  triaL  Fox,  the 
English  Minister,  demanded  his  release:  the 
Secretary  of  State   (Forsyth  of  CJeorgia)    re- 

K'ied  that  he  was  in  the  hands  of  justice  in 
ew  York  State  and  must  await  its  course; 
Lord  Pahnerston  thereupon  assumed  for  the 
English  government  full  responsibility  for  the 
assault  on  the  Caroline  and  again  demanded  hti 
release.  But  Fox  in  his  tetter  curiously  added 
that  the  goveniment  had  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve  that  McLeod  was  not  one  of  the  boarding 
party;  in  which  case,  of  course,  he  was  either 
a  mendacious  braggart  or  a  common  murderer, 
and  the  matter  otthe  Caroline  was  irrelevant 
Webster,  now  Secretary  of  State,  repUet^ 
ignoring  this  point,  that  if  the  case  were  in  a 
Federal  court  the  President  would  order  a 
nolU  prosequi  entered;  but  it  being  in  a  State 


.Google 


CASOLIHB  JkllBLIA  ELIZABKTH-^CASOUNB  MATILDA 


eeiirt,  lie  conld  only  await  its  acdon,  and  if  it 
did  not  discbarge  McLeod,  the  case  should 'eo 
up  (o'the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  in 
toe  July  term  o£  1838  a  writ  of  habeas  eorptu 
was  sued  for  in  the  New  York  Supreme  Court, 
but  refused.  McLeod  was  acquitted,  however, 
and  the  whole  affair  dropped  See  Canada  — 
Diplomatic  Relations  of  thz  Umited  States 

CAROLINB     AJUELIA    BLIZABBTH, 

Queen  of  Eaglaud,  wife  of  George  IV,  King 
of  Great  Britain  and  Hanover,  second  daughter 
of  Duke  Charles  William  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick: b.  17  May  1768;  d.  London,  6  Aug.  1821. 
$fae  vaa  married  to  the  Prince  oi  Wales,  after- 
ward George  IV,  in  1795.  After  the  birth  of 
ber  daughter,  Chariotte  Augusta  (7  Jan.  17%), 
her  husband  abandoned  her,  declaring  that  no 
one  could  force  his  inclinations.  This,  was  the 
beginning  of  the  diwraceful  dispute  between 
the  two  parties,  which  lasted  till  the  death  of 
Caroline,  and  exposed  her  honor  to  related 
accusations  from  her  ^husband.  The  Princess 
of  Wales  lived  retire*d  from  tbe  court,  at  a 
country-seat  at  Blackheath,  till  1808.  In  1813 
the  contest  was  renewed  between  the  two  parties, 
the  Princess  of  Wales  complainings,  as  a  mother, 
of  the  difficulties  opposed  to  her  seeing  her 
dangler.  In  1814  the  Princess  obtained  per- 
mission to  go  to  Brunswick  and  afterward  to 
make  the  tour  of  Italy  and  Greece,  in  which 
the  Italian  Bergami  was  her  confidant  and  at- 
tendant. Many  infamous  reports  were  after- 
ward circulated,  relating  to  the  connection  be- 
tween the  Princess  and  Bergami.  When  the 
Prince  of  Wales  ascended  the  throne,  29  Jan. 
1820,    he   offered    ber    an    income    of    £5aOOO 


__ of  England,  and  every  title 

appertaining  to  that  digniw,  and  should  not 
again  return  to  England.  She  refused  the  pro- 
posal, returned  to  England,  5  June,  and  the 
next  day  entered  London  amid  public  demon- 
strations of  welcome.  She  was  now  tried  for 
adultery,  but  not  convicted,  and  in  this  trial 
Brougham  acted  as  the  Queen's  attorney-gen- 
eral. Thou^  banished  from  the  court,  the 
Queen  still  lived  at  Brandenburg  House,  main- 
taining a  Style  suitable  to  her  rant.  She  was  re- 
fused admission  to  Westminster  Abbey  on  the 
occasion  of  the  coronation  of  her  husband,  on 
19  July  1821,  and  published  a  protest  in  the 
newspapers.  Her  tomb  at  Brunswick  has  a 
vet;  short  inscription,  in  which  she  is  called 
the  unhappy  Queen  of  England.  Consult 
Nightingale,  'Memoirs  of  Queen  Caroline' 
(London  1820) ;  Adolphus,  'Life'  (London 
1821);  Huish  (London  1821);  Wilk  (London 
1822);  also  Oerke,  'Ufe  of  Her  Majesty 
Queen  Caroline'    (London  1821). 

CAROLINE  BOOKS,  or  LIBRI  CAR- 
OLINI,  a  theological  work  in  four  books,  pre- 
pared under  die  direction  of  Charlemagne 
(CaroluB  Magnus),  in  connection  with  the  axs- 


monarcfa.     The   second   synod  of    . 


Church.  Owing  to  a  misunderstanding  of  the 
Nicean  canons  through  a  bad  translation,  wbidi 
seemed  to  make  the  Eastern  synod  declare  that 
tbe  worship  due  to  God  alone,  lairia,  should  be 


paid  to  images,  the  *Libri  Caroljni'  severely 
reviewed  the  doctrine.  Tbe  condeomatkiD  ol 
image  worship  as  formulated  in  the  Caroline 
Books  does  not,  however,  bear  upon  the  in- 
ferior honor,  dnlia,  paid  to  the  saints  and  their 
images,  or  that  given  to  the  Virgin,  hyferdtUia. 
The  author  is  unknown.  0>nsult  Hefele, 
•ConciUMWgeachichte'  (Vol.  Ill,  bt  XX, 
chap.  II,  2d  ed..  Freiburg  1877). 

CAROLINB  ISLANDS,  a  large  archipel- 
ago in  the  north  Pacific  Ocean,  between  lat.  3° 
and  12°  N..  and  long.  132°  and  163°  6'  E.,  and 
between  the  Philippines  and  the  Marshall  Isles. 
Area,  about  560  square  miles.  It  contains  many 
^onps,  embracing  in  all  about  525  islands  and 
islets.  Many  of  tbem  are  mere  coral  reefs,  lit- 
tle elevated  above  the  ocean.  The  moat  west- 
erly group  is  the  Paloas,  or  Pel^  Islands, 
which  contain  seven  large  and  many  small  ones, 
all  of  coral  formation.  The  next  group.  Yap 
or  (^uap,  lies  northeast  of  tbe  last.  In  its 
chief  island,  which  is  mountainous,  precious 
metals  have  been  found.  The  other  'principal 
groups  are  Lutke,  Mortlock,  Siniavin,  Enderby 
and  Hogoleu,  The  most  easterly  island  is  Ula- 
lan.  The  most  important  vegetable  productions 
are  palms,  bread-fruit  trees  and  bananas. 
Copra  is  also  an  important  product,  while 
some  of  the  islands  also  yield  shells.  The  com- 
merce is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the  German 
Taluit  Company,  whicL  has  stations  on  every 
important  island.  The  inhabitants,  numbering 
about  55,000,  though  mainly  Micronesians,  in- 
clude various  races,  and  have  made  very  differ- 
ent degrees  of  progress  in  civilization.  In  the 
central  groups  tnej;  are  of  a  handsome  physical 
type,  active  and  industrious,  and  have  some 
commerce.  On  the  cast  generally,  and  on  the 
west^  with  the  exception  of  tbe  Pelcw  Islands, 
the  mhabitants,  though  apparently  of  the  same 
stock,  arc  far  less  advanced.  The  islands  were 
discovered  in  1527  by  the  Portuguese,  who  gave 
them  the  name  of  Sequeira.  In  1686  tiiey  were 
annexed  and  renamed  in  honor  of  Charle;  II 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  soon  changed  the  name 
to  New  Philippines.  After  several  futile  mis- 
sion aiy  attempts  in  the  I8th  century,  Spain 
took  little  active  interest  in  the  group  until 
August  1885,  when  the  German  flag  was  raised 
over  Yap.  A  serious  dispute  followed  this  act, 
and  the  question  being  submitted  to  the  Pope 
as  arbitrator,  he  decided  in  favor  of  Spain;  re- 
serving special  trade  privileges  to  (jermany. 
In  1887  disturbances  broke  out  at  Ponape,  in 
which  the  governor,  who  had  arrested  one  of 
the  American  Protestant  missionaries,  was 
killed  by  the  natives;  but  the  rising  was  soon 
suppressed.  In  February  1899  Germany  pur- 
chased from  Spain  for  about  $3,300,000  the 
Caroline  and  Pclew  Islands,  and  all  of  tbe  La- 
drones,  but  Guam,  which  had  been  ceded  to  tbe 
United  States  in  me  treaW  of  peace  that  ended 
the  Spanish- American  W'ar.  Consult  Chris- 
tian, 'The  Caroline  Islands'  (1899);  Fumess. 
'Island  of  Stone  Money'  (1910);  Salesius, 
<Die  Karolinen  Insel  Jap<    (1904). 

CAROLINE  MATILDA,  Queen  of  Den- 
mark, dau^ter  of  Frederick  Louis,  Prince  of 
Wales:  b.  1751;  d  Celle,  Hanover,  10  May 
1775.  She  was  married  in  1766  to  King  Chris- 
tian VII  of  Denmark  She  became  the  object 
of  court  intrigues  caused  by  die  Jealousy  of 
tbe  grandmother  and  stepmother  of  her  htis- 


.Google 


CASOUMOXAMS'CASOTID  ARTERY 


band.  These  led  to  tiie  execution  for  treason 
of  Counts  StnteoKC  and  Bnudt,  who  were  of 
the  Queen's  party,  and  to  the  nnprisonment  of 
the  Queen  herself,  who  wbs  libmted  throu^ 
the  interfcrcoce  of  her  brother,  GeorRe  III  of 
England.  She  received  a  pension  oi  £5,000  and 
was  allowed  to  retain  the  title  of  Queen.  She 
vent  her  last  years  in  a  castle  at  Celle,  Han- 
over. Her  last  hours  are  described  in  a.  anall 
wori^  'Die  Letzten  Stunden  der  KonigtB  von 
Dinemaric*  Consult  Laartzt,  <La  reinc  Caro- 
Une-Mathilde>  (Paris  1^>,  and  Wilkins,  <A 
Queen  of  Tears.' 

CAROLIHGIANS,     See   Cakixivingiams. 

CAROLUB,  a  Kold  coin  struck  in  the  reifpa 
of  Charles  I,  and  oiiginally  20  sbiUtngs  in 
value,  afterward  23  shillinKa.  The  name  was 
given  also  to  various  other  coins. 

CAROLUS-DURAN,  ka-rS-liis-du-riA, 
Augnste  Emile,  French  portrait  painter :  b. 
Lille,  4  July  1838;  d.  Paris.  18  Feb.  1917.  His 
name  was  originally  Charles  Emile  Augusts 
Durand.  He  studied  under  Souchon  at  the 
Lille  Academy  of  Art^  and  afterward  in  Paris, 
where  he  copied  the  old  masters  in  the  Louvre, 
especially  Velasquez  and  Leonardo.  In  1861 
he  obtained  the  Wicar  prize  for  painting  and 
went  to  Italy  and  Spain,  continuing  his  stu^ 
of  Vefftstjuez,  who  remained  his  chief  model. 
Ehiring  his  stay  in  Rome  be  completed,  his  first 
important  work,  "The  Evening  Prayer.' 

His  first  painting  to  receive  a  medal  was  a 
historical  subject,  'I'Assassine,'  in  1866.  It 
was  presentea  to  the  Lille  Museum  by  the 
French  government.  After  1866  Mr.  Carolus- 
Duran  turned  his  attention  to  portraiture,  and 
in  1869  exhibited  <The  Lady  with  the  Glove,* 
a  full  lengA  portrait  of  his  wife  in  outdoor 
costume.  The  portrait  was  placed  in  the  Lux- 
embourg. Mr.  Carolns-Duran  made  a.  spe- 
cial tv  of  painting  portraits  of  women  and 
children.  ,  He  bad  ^inted  portraits  of  the 
Duchess  of  Mariborouzh,  the  Marchioness 
d'Adda,  the  Princess  de  Waeram,  Mrs.  Astor, 
the  Countess  of  Warwick,  Ine  Comtesse  Cas- 
teliane,  Qaceo  Maria  Pla  of  Portu^l  and  the 
Princess  Obolinsky.  His  first  exhibit  in  Amer- 
ica was  It  Philadelphia  during  the  Centennial 
Exposition  of  1876.  He  exhibited  a  portrait  of 
Mile.  Sophie  Croiiette,  a  well-known  actress, 
who'  was  his  sister-in-law.  He  made  several 
■      he  g 


Salon  of  187E.  The  couple  had  a.  sod  who 
joined  the  French  army. 

Mr.  Carolus'Duran  was  commander  of  the 
Order  of  Leopold,  grand  oEcer  of  the  Order 
of  Saint  Maurice  et  L.aiare,  commander  of 
the  Order  of  Charles  III  of  Spain,  commander 
of  the  Order  of  Christ  de  Portugal  and  grand 
officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  He  received 
the  Grand  Croix  of  the  Order  d'Isabelle  la 
Catholique  of  Spain  and  the  Medaille  de 
Sauvetage.  Consult  Muther,  'History  of  Mod- 
em Painting*  (New  York  1907)  and  the  bi- 
ography by  Alexandre   (Paris  1902). 

CAROH,  R£n6  Edooard,  Canadian  states- 
man: b.  Sainte  Anne,  Lower  Canada;  d,  1876. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Quebec  Seminary  and 
CoUige  Saint  Pierre  and  called  lo  the  lar  of 
Lower  Canada  in  1836.  He  was  mayor  of  Que- 
bec 1S33-37  and  was  a  member  of  assembly 
1834-36.  He  was  called  to  the  legislative  coun- 
cil in  1841,  of  which  he  was  speaker  1843-47 
and  184&-53.  After  holding  office  in  the  La 
Fontaine-Baldwin  and  Hincks-Morin  govern- 
ments, he  became  a  judge  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  Quebec,  and  afterward  of  the  Court 
of  Queen's  Bench.  He  was  one  of  the  judges 
of  the  special  Seigniorial  Court,  which  in  18SS 
adjudicated  on  the  questions  arisine  out  of  the 
abolition  of  seigniorial  tenures  in  Lower  Can- 


trated  it  by  painting  a  portrait.  In  1889  he  was 
made  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and 
was  made  a  director  of  the  French  Academy  at 
Rome  in  1905.  He  also  was  made  president  of 
the  Soci^te  Nationale  des  Beaux-Arts  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  painted  a  series 
of  historical  and  genre  subjects,  among  them 
being  'The  Bathers';  'Gloria  Marix  Medici,* 
a  decorative  composition  for  a  ceiling  in  the 
Louvre;  'The  Burial  of  Christ';  'Dawn*  and 
*The  Vision.'  His  portraits  of  men  included 
those  of  Pope  Pius  X,  Emile  de  Girardin, 
Gounod,  Gustave  Dor6  and  Alphonse  Carr.  Iti 
his  younger  days  Mr.  Carol us-Duran  gave 
fencing  exhibitions  and  was  known  as  one 
of  the  best  swordsmen  in  France.  He  also 
showed  skill  as  a  sculptor.  He  married  Mile. 
Pauline  Marie  Croizette,  herself  an  artist. 
iixae.  Carolus-Duran  received  a  medal  at  the 


by  the  Spaniards  in  1572.  It  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  gums,  rubber  and  cochineal,  tanneries 
and  the  raising  of  cattle,  horses  and  mules  are 
the  chief  industries.  The  city  dates  frtHn  the 
Spanish  foundation  of  1572.    Pop.  6,000. 

CAROTID  ARTER?,  either  of  the  two 
great  arteries  which  convey  the  blood  from  the 
aorta  to  the  head  and  the  hrain. '  In  the  article 
on  the  aorta  ((}.v.)  the  origin  of  the  carotid 
arteries  is  descnbed  —  that  from  the  right  side 
springing  from  the  innominate  arlerv  to  sup- 
ply most  of  the  right  side  of  the  beaa;  that  on 
the  left  side  arising  directly  from  the  aorta  to 
supply  all  of  the  structures  of  the  left  side  of 
the  head.  Apart  from  these  slight  variations 
in  their  origin  on  the  two  sides,  the  carotid 
arteries  and  their  branches  are  practically  du- 
plicated in  the  two  halves  of  the  head.  Thus 
the  main  branches,  the  common  carotids,  soon 
branch  into  two,  the  external  and  internal  caro- 
tids. This  division  takes  place  about  the  level 
of  the  thyroid  cartilage.  The  external  carotid 
supplies  die  upper  part  of  the  front  and  side 
of  the  neck,  Ine  tongue,  larynx,  pharynx,  face^ 
the  pterygoid  regions,  the  upper  part  of  the 
back  of  the  neck,  the  scalp  and  the  major  por- 
tions of  the  brain  membranes.  The  internal 
carotid  soon  enters  the  skull  and  supplies  the 
greater  part  of  the  brain  tissue,  the  orbital 
structures  (the  eye,  etc.)  and  portions  of  the 
brain  membranes.  The  branches  of  homolo- 
gous  arteries  of  the  two  sides  anastomose  some- 
what, although  many  of  the  arteries  of  tba 
brain  are  terminal  arteries  and  do  not  anas- 
tomose. Occlusion  of  one  of  these  vessels  in 
the  brain  usually  results  in  permanent  injury. 
In  deep  cuts  of  the  throat  mesc  arteries  may 
be  involved,  but  tiiey  lie  vciy  deep  aa  a  rule 


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C  AKOTIM  '  C  ASPANI 


and  are  not  often  severed.  (Horris,  'Anat- 
omy';  Gray,  'Anatomy'), 

CAROTIN  (Lat.  carota,  *a  carrot*),  the 
CoIorin^-matter  of  the  carrot.  It  always  ac- 
companies chlorophyll  and  xanlhophyll  in  the 
chlorophast,  and  is  the  coloring  malter  of  some 
petals,  fruits  and  other  plant  organs.  The  sub- 
stances described  by  tne  terms  erythrophyll, 
chrysoph]fll  and  etolin  are  probably  carotin. 
Carotin  is  a  hydrocarbon  of  the  empirical 
formula  CuHu  and  is  closely  related  to  xan- 
thophyll,  which  has  the  formula  ChHhOi  and 
is  possibly  an  oxidation  product  of  carotin.  It 
differs  from  xanlhophyll  in  its  ease  of  ciys- 
tallization,  solutuHty  in  various  solvents, 
slightly  ditTerent  melting  points  and  spectra.  It 
may  be  extracted  from  the  chopped  carrot  by 
the  action  of  carbon  disulj^deu  in  which  (as 
also  in  betiiene)  it  is  very  soluble.  It  crystal- 
lizes in  small^  red  plates,  which  are  insoluble 
in  water  and  in  alcohoL  A  similar  compound, 
called  *hydrocarottn,'  is  also  known. 

CAROTTO  <ka-r3'ta)  FAMILY.  1.  Gian 
Fkancesco,  jan  fran-chislcd,  Italian  painter; 
b.  Verona  1470;  d.  there  1546.  He  studied 
under  Liberale  at  Verona  and  under  Andrea 
Montana  at  Mantua.  His  earlier  productions 
are  in  imitation  of  the  style  of  Montegna;  but 
at  a  later  period  the  studh'  of  the  works  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Raphael  produced  a 
decided  change.  Carotto  is  not  distinguished 
by  the  grandeur  of  his  conceptions,  but  excels 
in  character  and  expression,  and  in  the  soft- 
ness and  warmth  of  coloring.  Verona  contains 
most  of  his  works.  Among  these  is  the  'His- 
tory of  Tobias,*  a  series  of  pictures  in  the 
church  of  Saint  Eufemia.  Others  are  Ac 
fresco  of  the  'Annunciation*  (San  Girolamo 
1508) ;  the  altar  of  San  Fenno  Haggiore 
(1528) ;  various  frescoes  and  panels  in  San 
Giorgio  in  Braida  and  several  panels  in  the 
Pinacoteca  Communale.  Good  examples  of  bis 
art  are  in  the  Castello,  Milan,  the  Chiesa  di 
Carita,  Mantua,  in  the  Uffiri  anji  Pitti,  Florence, 
and  in  the  museums  of  Dresden,  Budapest,  etc, 
2.  Giovanni,  j6-vin'ne,  Italian  painter:  d.  15S5. 
He  was  the  brother  of  Gian,  and  his  pupil  He 
was  chiefly  an  architectural  painter  and  is  cele- 
brated for  his  copies  of  ancient  ruins.  He  is 
also  said  to  have  given  instruction  to  Paul 
Veronese. 

CAROUGE,  ki-roozh',  Switzerland,  a  town 
of  the  canton  of  Geneva,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Arve,  OH>osite  Geneva,  with  which  it  is 
connected  \iy  a  bridge.  It  nas  machine  works, 
foundries,  dye  works  and  manufactures  of 
watches.  Founded  in  1780  by  one  of  the  Sar- 
dinian kings  as  a  rival  of  Geneva,  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  Girouge,  it  was  ceded  to 
Switierland  in  1816.     Pop.  (1911)  7,890. 

CARP,  a  name  applied  to  many  fishes  be- 
km^ng  to  the  Cyprimda.  The  members  of  this 
family  inhabit  fresh  waters  and  are  extremely 
numerous  in  genera,  species  and  individnals. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are  more  than  1,000 
species.  One  group  of  the  family,  found  in 
North  America,  includes  fishes  known  as 
mckers,  huffalo-fiihes,  redhorses  and  mullets, 
while  another  group  contains  the  minnow*,  dace, 
fatheads,  chubs,  etc.  They  are  all  soft-finned 
fishs,  with  a  stout,  serrated  spine,  which  stands 
in  front  of  both  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins. 
There  are  no  teeth  in  die  motnh,  but  they  are 


developed  ni  the  pfaaryngeal  bones ;  that  is,  in 
the  throat  The  Oesh  is  not  of  the  best  quality 
and  is  full  of  fine  bones.  The  name  carp  is 
«Iiecially  aiiptied  to  one  fish  —  Cyptiiatt  carpio. 
This  was  introduced  into  North  America  from 
Europe  by  the  Uttited  States  Fish  Conunission, 
but  it  came  oriRinally  from  Asia.  It  inhabits 
our  streams  and  lakes,  iriiere  it  is  increasing 
c^ttdly  in  numbers.  It  reaches  a  length  of  two 
feet  and  may  attain  a  weight  of  40  pounds. 
It  b  a  scaly,  compressed,  robust  fish,  with  well- 
develc^ted  barbels  and  dorsal  fin,  and  a  short 
anal  one;  it  is  of  brownish  hue.  Owmg  to  its 
hardiness,  its  durability  under  extreme  tempera- 
tures, the  facility  with  which  it  may  be  raised 
because  of  its  adaptability  to  sluggish  ponds 
and  swami^  lakes,  it  might  form  an  important 
element  in  the  fish  food-supply  of  the  North 
American  interior,  stnce  fanners  can  raise  it 
easily  in  their  mill-ponds.  It  feeds  upon  vege- 
table fare,  larvie,  insects,  etc,  and  during  the 
winter  months  hibernates,  at  which  time  it  re- 
quires no  food.  The  eggs,  also,  are  very  hardy, 
and  number  several  hundred  thousands  to  eadi 
individual.  They  adhere  to  aquatic  grasses  and 
weeds. 

The  carp  is  usually  covered  with  large 
scales;  but  one  variety  of  it,  the  'mirror  carp,» 
has  only  a  few  large  scattered  scales;  while 
another  species,  the  leather  carp,*  is  wholly 
without  scales.  Consult  the  publications  of 
the  United  States  Pish  Commission,  and  Gin, 
'Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections*  (Vol. 
XLVIII,   Washington   1907). 

CARP-SUCKBR,  a  common  and  little- 
valued  fresh-water  fish  of  the  senus  Carpiodes, 
related  to  the  buSalo-fishes  and  suckers.  It  is 
found  throughout  the  central  part  of  the  United 
States,  takes  its  name  from  its  carp-Uke  fonn, 
averages  about  two  feet  in  length  and  is  a  dull 
green  above,  grading  into  silver  beneath. 

CASPACCIO,  kar-pa'chS,  Vittore,  Italian 
artist:  b.  Venice  about  1450;  d.  1525.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  masters  of  the  old 
Venetian  school  and  was  the  rival  of  Bellini 
and  the  last  Vivarino.  He  studied  probably 
with  Bastiani,  and  came  also  under  the  mfluence 
of  Gentile  Bellini.  All  that  is  known  of  his 
Hfe  is  that  he  belonged  to  Venice,  of  which 
he  has  r^roduced  in  the  background  of  bis 
pictures  the  streets  and  moRuments.  His  dis- 
tinguishiiK  characteristics  are  natural  expres- 
sion, vivid  conception,  correct  arrangement  and 
great  variety  of  figures  and  isstumes.  He  also 
excelled  as  an  architectural  and  landscape 
painter.  His  favorite  employment  was  tne 
drantatic  representation  of  sacred  subjects,  sev- 
eral of  which  he  has  illustrated  by  a  series  of 
paintings.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated  are  the 
histories  of  Saint  Ursula  and  Saint  Stephen. 
The  former,  consisting  of  nine  pirrtures,  is  now 
in  the  Acaoemy  of  Venice,  and  has  been  en- 
graved; the  latter,  in  five  pictures,  is  in  Paris, 
Milan  and  Berlin.  The  'Madonna  and  Child 
Enthroned,'  supposed  to  be  an  earlier  produc- 
tion, is  in  Ibe  National  Gallery,  London.  He 
also  painted  a  number  of  smaller  pictures.  The 
latest  research  on  Carnacdo  may  be  found  it) 
the  monograph  by  Ludwig  and  Molmenti 
(Milan  1906^  trans,  by  Cust,  London  1907). 
"CARPANI,  kar-p5'n6,  OioMpe.  Ittlian 
dramatist  and  writer  on  mn«c:  b.  Vitlalbese, 
near  Itikm,  28  Jm  1752;  d.  Vtttaa,  22  Jan. 


CiQ 


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CARPATHIAN  HOVHT AIMS  —  CARPEAUX 


•Bl 


1825.  HavuiR  prepared  for  the  profession  t>l 
the  law,  he  afterward  dvvoted  himself  to  liter- 
ary punuits,  and  produced  a  great  .number  of 
plajrs  and  operas,  partly  translations  and  partly 
original.  In  1792  he  was  editor  of  the  Gatttia 
di  Milano,  and  wrote  violent  articles  against 
the  French  Revolution.  He  was  obli^d  to  leave 
the  dly  after  the  iirvaskin  of  the  French  and 
went  to  Vienna,  ^^ere  he  was  appointed  censor 
and  director  of  the  thsAtre.  la  1309-be  accom- 
panied the  Archdidce  John  in  the  expedition 
against  Napoleon.  Under  the  title  of  'Hxy 
dine,'  he  published  a  series  of  curious  and  in- 
teresting fetters  on, the  life  and  works  of  his 
friend  Haydn,  the  composer.  These  letter^ 
published  in  a  French  translation  as  an  original 
work  by  L.  A.  C.  Bombet,  or,  as  other  biog- 
raphers state,  tw'  B^le  (known  under  the 
non^-dt-ptume  of  Stendhal),  gave  rise  to  a 
great  literary  controver^,  in  which  Carpani 
vindicated  lus  authorship  most  successfully. 
Consult  Tipaldo,  'Biographa  degli  Italiani  lUus- 
tri*  (giving  a  complete  list  of  the  works  of 
Carpani)  ;  Colomb,  M.,  ^Notice  sur  h.  vie  et 
les  ouvrages  de  M.  Beyle'  (1846). 

CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS,  a  range 
□f  mountains  in  central  Europe,  forining  for 
the  greater  part  of  their  extent  a  natural 
boundary  of  Hungary,  in  the  shape  of  a  semi.^ 
circular  belt  of  nearly  800  miles  m  lensth,  ex- 
tending from  Orsova  on  the  Serbian  frontier, 
to  Pressburg.  Its  breadth  is  considerable,  reach- 
ing a  maximum  of  240  to  250  miles,  between  the 
Banat  and  Transylvania.  The  Carpathian  chain 
may  be  divided  into  two  great  sections,  the  East 
and  the  West  Carpathians,  the  former  curving 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Nera  to  the  source  of 
the  Theiss,  and  forming  the  boundary  between 
Austria  and  Rumania;  the  latter  proceeding 
from  the  sources  of  the  Theiss  and  the  Pruth, 
and  terminating  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube 
west  of  Pressbiug,  and  forming  the  boundary 
between  Hungary  and  Galicia.  To  the  western 
Carpathians  Delongs  the  reniarkable  groiq)  of 
the  Tatra,  in  whii^  is  situated  the  culiainating 
summit  of  the  whole  system,  the  Gerlsdorf 
Peak,  8,737  feet.  Several  other,  peaks  exceed 
8,000  feet.  The  loftiest  summit  ai  the  eastern 
Carpathians  reaches  an  elevation  of  8,318  feet 
The  most  remarkable  and  frequented  passes 
are  those  of  Teregova,  leading  from  Orsova 
to  Temeswar;  of  Vulfcar,  forming  the  valley  in 
which  the  Schyl  flows;  and  of  the  Rothen- 
thurm,  in  a  gorge  formed  by  the  Aluta  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Szurul.  The  outer  bend  of  the 
Carpathians  is  much  steeper  than  that  which 
descends  toward  the  valleys  of  Transylvania 
and  Hungary.  The  only  important  rivers  which 
actually  rise  in  the  chain  are  the  Vistula,  the 
Dniester  and  the  Theiss.  Small  lakes  abound 
in  the  interior  of  the  mountains,  some  at  great 
elevations  and  of  great  depth.  The  formation 
of  the  Carpathians  took  place  mostly  in  the 
Tertiary  period,  and  was  practically  completed 
at  the  end  of  the  Miocene.  The  eastern  part 
of  the  Carpathian  chain,  from  Orsova  to  the 
source  of  the  Burcza,  near  Kronstadt,  is  en~ 
tirely  composed  of  pnmitive  rocks.  These  are 
succeeded  by  granwidcc,  wfcjch  extends  to  the 
sources  of  the  Theiss,  and  is  only  interrupted 
by  a  primitive  group  between  the  p^s  of  Borgo 
and  the  source  of  the  Viso.  A  great  chain  of 
trachyte  appears  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Buko- 
wina  and  stretches  to  the  point  where  the  Aluta 


begins  to  fiow  southwest.  To  the  west  of  this 
chain,  on  approaching  the  plains,  an  extensive 
tract  of  sandstone  belonging  to  the  coal  forma* 
tion  b^ins  to  BppCBr  and  covers  the  greater 
part  of  Transylvania.  Tertiary  formations 
surround  the  vast  plaiits  of  Hungary,  which 
cotisisi  of  a  rich  alluvium  and  must  once  have 
hem  the  bed  of  a  lake.    Basalt  frequently  oc- 

Srs,  but  no  distinct  traces  of  extinct  volcanoes 
re  been  fottnd.  The  Carpathian  range  is 
rich  in  minerals,  including  gold,  silver,  lead, 
quicksilver,  copper  and  iron.  Salt  occurs  in 
beds  which  have  sometimes  a  thickness  of  600 
or  700  feet  and  are  apparently  inexhaustible. 
On  the  plateaus  corti  and  fruit  are  grown  to 
the  height  of  1,500  feet;  higher  up  the  moun- 
tain steeps  are  covered  with  forests  of  pine, 
oak  beech,  chestnut  and  fir,  some  of  them  as 
high  as  5,500  feet  Bears,  lynxes  and  wolves 
are  numerous  in  the  forests.  About  6,000  feet 
seems  to  be  the  vegetable  limit  Above  it  a  few 
lichens  may  be  found,  but  in  general  nothing  is 
seen  but  bare,  steep  rocks^any  of  them  in  the 
form  of  cDiucal  peaks.  There  are  no  glaciers 
nor  perennial  snow  fields.  Numerous  passes 
across  the  system  facilitate  communication  be- 
tween Hungary  and  her  neighbors  to  the  east 
See  Hungary;  Gaucia;  Rumania. 

CARPATROS,  k3r'pa-th«s,  an  island  in 
the  jEgeau  Sea,*  now  called  Scarpanto.  In 
andent  times  it  belonged  to  Rhodes.  It  has 
been  under  Italian  rule  since  1912.  It  is  Mt- 
uated  midway  between  the  island  of  Rhodes 
and  Crete.  It  is  31  miles  kmg  and  8  miles  in 
extreme  breadth.  Area  126  square  miles.  It 
has  bare  mountains,  reaching  a  hdght  of  4,000 
feet.  There  are  ruins  of  towns  in  several 
places.  Pop.  about  8,00C^  mostly  Gr«ek  workers 
in  wood  and  fishenneu. 

CARPEAUX,  Jeao  Baptiste,  zhon  bip'test 
kir-po,  French  sculptor :  b.  Valendennes, 
France,  14  Uay  1827 ;  d.  Courbevoie,  near  Paris, 
12  Oct  1875.  He  studied  at  the  School  of 
Architecture  in  Valendennes,  and  later  went 
to  Paris,  becoming  a  pupil  of  Rude  and  of 
Duret.  In  1854  he  obtained  the  Prix  de  Rome:. 
His  bronze  'N^politan  Boy>  attracted  notice; 
and  'Ugolino  and  His  Four  Sons'  (1863),  also 
in  bronze,  though  it  defied  the  canons  of  sculp- 
ture, made  him  famous.  He  settled  in  Paris  in 
1862.  His  masterpiece,  a  marble  group,  'The 
Dance,'  in  the  facade  of  the  New  Opera  in 
Paris,  fully  showed  his  dramatic  power  and 
the  exuberance  of  his  imagination^  but  it  pro- 
voked much  hostile  criticism  as  involving  an 
attempt  to  stretch  beyond  their  natural  province 
the  limits  of  the  plastic  art.  The  most  notable 
of  his  later  works  are  the  great  fountain  in  the 
Luxembourg  (gardens,  representing  'Four 
Quarters  of  the  World  Sustaining  the  Sphere' ; 
a  monument  to  Watteau  at  Valenciennes,  ana 
a  painting  of  'Napoleon  in  His  Coffin'  in  the 
same  museum.  For  his  originality  and  virility* 
he  has  been  ranked  with  Rodin,  Rude  and 
David  d'Angers.  In  painting  he  exhibited  the 
same  fearless  handling  of  theme.  Paris  con- 
tains several  thousand  of  his  drawings;  the 
Louvre  possesses  many  of  these  as  well  as 
notable  portrait  busts  of  Alexandre  Dumas  ills. 
Napoleon  III  and  the  Princess  Mathtlde.  Con- 
sult biogranhies  by  Oarelie  (Paris  1875); 
Chesneau  (ib.  1880).  Consult  also  (}onse,  <La 
Kulpture  francaise'   (>b.  1895). 


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CARPBL — CARPSNTBR 


CABPBL,  the  leaf  fonning  the  pistiL  Sev- 
eral carpels  may  enter  into  the  composition  of 
one  pisuL     See  Flowek. 

CARPENTARIA,  Gulf  of,  a  large  gulf 
indenting  the  northern  coast  of  Austnuia, 
named  for  its  discoverer,  Pieter  Carpenter. 
C^pe  York  Peninsula,  the  northern  extremity 
of  Queensland,  is  on  the  east  and  Amhem  Land 
on  the  wesL  It  contains  a  number  of  islands, 
among  them  Groote  Eylandt,  Sir  Edward  Pel- 
lew  Islands  and  Wcllesley  Islands.  Its  nuuci- 
mum  width  is  about  400  miles  and  its  length 
460  miles,  strctchins  from  lat  11°  to  17*  30^  S. 
and  from  long.  136°  to  142°  R  The  land 
around  is  generally  low.  ' 

CARPENTER,  Charlea  Carroll,  American 
naval  officer:  b.  Greenfield,  Mass..  27  Feb.  1834; 
d.  Jamaica  Plain.  Mass.,  1  April  18».  He  was 
promoted  commodore  15  May  1893  and  rear- 
admiral  11  Nov.  1894;  was  commander-in-chief 
of  the  United  States  Asiatic  squadron  from  27 
Aug.  1894  till  9  Nov.  1895;  and  was  retired  on 
reaching  the  age  limit,  28  Feb.  1696.  During 
ner  of  1895  he  rendered  invaluable 
I  China  in  protecting  American  mis- 
and  in  co-operating  with  United 
Stales  Minister  Charles  Denby  and  the  British 
and  Chinese  authorities  to  preserve  peace,  par- 
ticularly after  the  Kucheng  massacre. 

CARPENTER,  Edmund  Janes,  American 
journalist:  b.  North  Altleboro,  Mass.,  16  Oct. 
1845.  After  graduation  from  Brown  Univer- 
sity in  1866  he  engaged  in  husineu  until  187% 
when  he  entered  journalism.    He  was  for  many 

Ers  on  the  editorial  staffs  of  Providence,  New 
ven  and  Boston  papers,  and  is  contributing 
literary  reviewer  to  the  Boston  Trattscript.  He 
has  published  'A  Woman  of  Shawmut:  a  Ro-' 
mance  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  1640' 
(1892);  'America  in  Hawaii'  (1898):  "The 
American  Advance*  (1903);  'Long  Ago  m 
Greece*  (1906);  'Roger  WilliamsT  (1909); 
'The  Pilgrims  and  their  Monument'  (1911); 
'Memoirs  and  Letters  of  James  Kent,  LL.D.,' 
in  collaboration  with  William  Kent ;  is  also  th^ 
author  of  many  editorials,  newspaper  articles, 
literary  reviews,  translations  and  verses.  In 
190S  he  received  the  degree  of  LittD.  from 
Brown  University. 

CARPENTER,  Edward,  En^ish  social- 
istic writer :  b.  Brighton,  En^and  20  Aug.  1844. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge, 
and  was  for  some  time  fellow  and  lecturer 
there,  as  well  as  curate  under  the  noted  F.  D. 
Maurice.  In  1874  he  gave  up  his  fellowship  and 
left  the  ministry,  and  until  1881  lectured  on 
science  and  music  in  university  extension  work. 
He  has  since  devoted  his  time  to  literary  work, 
market  gardening  and  socialist  propaganda.  In 
1S84  he  visited  the  United  States  in  order  to 
meet  Wall  Whitman.  He  has  published 
'Towards  Democracy'  i  'Love's  Coming  of 
Age* ;  'Angels'  Wings' ;  'Adam's  Peak  to  Ele- 
phanta';  'lolaus:  an  Anthology  of  Friendstup'; 
'Days  with  Walt  Whitman' ;  'The  Drama  of 
Love  and  Death* ;  'The  Healing  of  Nations,* 
etc. 

CARPENTER,  Francis  Bicknell.  Ameri- 
can painter:  b.  Homer,  N.  Y.,  6  Aug.  1830; 
d.  New  York,  23  May  1900.  He  studied  with 
Sanford  Thayer  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y,  (1844). 
and  in  1852  became  an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy.    Among  his  works  are  a  portrait  of 


Preiident  Fillmcffe,  in  the  City  Hall,  New  Yoik: 
a  portrait  of  President  Lincoln,  in  the  ca^toi 


ington.  While  executing  the  last-oained  paint- 
ing he  was  closely  associated  with  President 
Lmcolu,  and  hu  observations  durips  this  period 
are  embodied  in  his  book  entitled  'Six  Uonihs 
in  the  Whke  House  with  Abraham  Lincoln.' 
CARPENTER,  Fred  Warner,  American 
diplomat  r  b.  Sauk  Centre,  Minn.,  12  Dec  1873. 
He  received  a  public  school  education,  studied 
law  at  the  University  of  Minnesota,  in  1898  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  and  was  stenographer  to 
a  law  firm  for  several  years.  He  became 
private  secretary  to  William  H.  Taft,  governor 


Minister  to  Siam. 
CARPENTER,  Joaeph  Bstliti,  English 
Unitarian  scholar;  b.  Ripley,  Sussex,  5  Oct. 
1844.  He  was  educated  at  Universi^  College, 
London^  and  Manchester  New  College  (now  at 
Oxford).  He  was  minister  of  Oakfield  Road 
Church,  Clifton,  1866-69,  and  of  Mill  Hil) 
dapel,  Leeds,  1869-75;  was  lecturer  in  Man- 
chester New  College,  lS7S-1906i  and  principal, 
1906-lS.  He  is  one  of  the  very  foremost 
living  authorities  as  a  Sanskrit  scholar  and 
biblical  critic,  and  besides  editing  Ewald's  'His* 
tory  of  Israel*  (Vols.  IH-V)  and  translating 
Tide's  'Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religion,' 
is  the  author  of  'Life  and  Work  of  Mary  Car- 
penter' (1879) ;  'Life  in  Palestine':  "The First 
Three  Gospels:  Their  Origin  and  Relations' 
(1890)  ;  <The  Bible  in  the  Nineteenth  Century' 


lomcal  Christ*;  'Comparative  Religion*  (1913), 
With  Rhys  Davids  he  has  edited  Oie  'Somair- 
gala  Vilasini'  (1886)  ;  and  the  'Mgha  Nikaya* 
(1889).  With  Harford-Battersby  he  has  also 
edited  the  Hexateuch  according  to  the  revised 

CARPENTER,  Lant,  Enriish  Unitarian 
clergyman:  b.  Kidderminster,  2  SepL  1780;  d. 
at  sea,  5  April  1840.  Designed  for  the  minis- 
try, he  was  sent  in  1797  to  the  Northampton 
Academy.  That  school  being  temporarily  dis- 
continued, young  Carpenter  was  placed  at  (^las- 
^ow  College,  where,  however,  he  did  not  con- 
tinue the  length  of  time  necessary  to  take  his 
degree.  Leaving  college  in  1801,  he  spent  some 
time  in  teaching^  and  as  librarian  of  the 
Atheneeum,  Liverpool,  At  Liverpool,  Carpen- 
ter's views  were  so  clearly  in  sympathy  with 
those  of  the  Unitarian  denomination  generally 
that  he  received  several  invitations  to  the  pas- 
toral charge  of  Unitarian  congregations,  and  a 
call  to  a  professorship  in  their  college  at  York. 
In  1805  he  accepted  a  call  to  Exeter,  where  he 
continued  for  12  years.  In  1806  the  University 
of  Glasgow  gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.,  al- 
though ae  had  applied  only  for  the  degree  of 
M.A,  From  Exeter  he  removed  to  the  pastoral 
charge  of  the  Unitarian  congregation  at  Bristol 
(1817),  where  he  continued  until  his  death, 
whid)  occurred  by  falling  from  a  vessel  be- 
tween Naples  and  Leghorn,  while  on  a  tour 
for  his  health.  Dr.  Orpeittr's  piety  was  of 
an  eminently  prsaical  turn.     The  imtmction 


.Google 


CASPBHTBR 


of  chlldrai  wtu  sm  object  of  conttant  interest. 
Amid  a]l  his  imstonil  aod  literary  labon  he 
always  found  time  and  energies  to  devote  to 
jmrenile  iutruction,  and,  even  against  the 
mjndtces  of  his  congregations,  established 
Sunda^schools  among  the  children  of  Exeter 
and  Bristol.  In  his  pastoral  charges  at  Ex- 
eter and  Bristol  he  was  active  in  co-operation 
with  odiers  in  the  eit^ishment  of  libraries, 
schools,  savings  banks  and  institutiona  for  gen- 
eral improvement  and  welfare.  His  published 
works  are  mainly  theological  and  doctrinal,  in 
support  of  the  Unitarian  sentiments  he  had 
early  espoused.  Among  his  more  important 
works  are  'An  Introduction  to  the  Geography 
of  the  New  Testament';  'Unitarianism,  the 
Doctrine  of  the  Gospel*  (1809);  'Examination 
of  the  Charges  Agamst  Unitarianism'  (1820): 
'Harmony  of  the  Gospels';  'Systematic  Edu- 
cation' (2  vols.,  I81S):  'Principles  of  Educa- 
tion' (1820)  ;  and  a  volume  of  sermons.  Mild 
in  controversy,  faithful  in.  humane  labors  and 
practically  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  so- 
ciety, Dr.  Orpenter  was  greatly  respected  even 
by  those  who  were  his  most  staunch  antag- 
onists in  theology.  Cotisult  his  'Uemoirs,' 
edited  by  bis  son,  R.  L,  Carpenter  (London 
1842). 

CARPBNTBR,  Loois  George,  Aroerictui 
engineer;  b.  Orion,  Mich.,  28  March  1861.  He 
was  ^dusted  at  Michigan  Agricultural  Col- 
lege m  1879,  and  after  serving  there  as  in- 
structor in  mathematics  and  euAneerin^  took 
Dost-ffraduate  courses  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  and  Johns  Hopkins  University.  In 
1888  he  became  professor  of  engineering  at  the 
Colorado  Agricultural  College  and  meteorolo- 
gist and  irrigation  engineer  at  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  and  organized  the  first 
systematic  course  in  irrigatioa  engineerinE 
given  in  any  American  college.  He  founded 
the  American  Society  of  Irrigation  Engineers 
in,  1891.  He  was  special  agent  of  the  United 
SUtes  artesian  weQs  Investigation  in  1890,  and 
in  1899  was  appointed  director  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station  at  the  Colorado  Agri- 
cultural College.  He  is  a  member  of  many 
American  and  foreign  engineering  societies. 
He  has  published  government  reports,  'Artesian 
Wells  in  Colorado*  (18M);  'Irrigation  Prog- 
ress in  Colorado'  (1S)1) ;  and  many  papers  on 
irrigation. 

CARPBNTBR,  Marnret  Sarah,  English 
painter:  b.  Salisbury,  Eagland,  in  1793;  d.  Lon- 
don, 13  Nov.  1872.  Her  first  studies  in  art 
were  obtained  from  the  collection  of  Lord  Rad- 


SocicW  of  Arts,  several  times  successfully,  and 
once  beiog  awarded  the  ^Id  medal  for  the 
study  of  a  bcq^s  head  In  1814  she  went  to 
London,  where  she  secured  for  herself  3  wide 


at  the  Royal  Academy  and  the  pictures  'For- 
tune-TelIer>  and  'Peasant  Boy'  at  the  British 

Institution  at  once  gained  '      '  

larity  and  marked  ue  bei 


147  pictures  at  the  Royal  Academy,  50  at  the 
Briii^  Institution  and  19  at  the  Society  of 
British  Artists.  Chief  among  her  pictures  are 
'Lord  Kilcoursie  and  Lady  Sarah  de  Cres- 
pigny'  (1812);  'Lord  Folkestone'  (1814); 
^Mr.  Barring'  (181S)  ;  <Sir  Heniy  Bunbury* 
(18221  L"Lady  Eistnor'  (1825)  ;  'Lord  de  Tab- 


tional  Portrait  Gallery  are  also  three  portraits 
from  her  brush — those  of  Richard  Parkes 
fionington,  the  i^nter ;  John  Gibson,  the 
sculptor;  and  Patrick  F.  Tytler,  the  historian. 
In  the  South  Kensington  Museum  are  three 
pictures:  'DeTOtion>  (1822);  'The  Sisters' 
(1840)  ;  and  'An  Old  Woman  %iinning.>  Con- 
sult Uayton,  £.  C,  'English  Female  Artists> 
(Vol.  I.  pp.  386-88,  1W6J. 

CARPENTER,  Hary,  EngUsh  pUlan- 
thropist;  b.  Exeter,  3  April  IS07;  d  BristoL 
15  Jtine  1877.  -  She  was  the  eldest  daughter  ot 
Lant  Carpenter  (q.v.).  Her  special  work  was 
for  the  ne^ected  children  of  the  poor  and 
young  criminals.  She  established  a  number  of 
schools  and  reformatories,  including  the  Red 


W.  H.  Carpenter,  keeper  of  the  prints  i 


186^  ll69  and  1875:  and  came  to  the  United 
States  and  &nada  m  1873,  where  she  spoke 
on  prison  reform.  She  wrote  'Reformatory 
Schools  for  the  Children  of  the  Perishing  ana 
Dangerous  Classes'  (1851);  'Juvenile  Delin- 
quents' (1853);  'Our  ConvicU'  (1864);  and 
'Six  Months  in  India>  (2  vols.,  1868).  Con- 
sult Carpenter,  J.  E.,  'Life  of  Mary  Carpenter* 
(London  1879). 

CARPENTER,  RoUa  CUnton,  American 
enf^neer:  b.  Orion^  Mich.,  26  June  1852:  He 
studied  at  the  Midiigan  Agricultural  Colle^ 
M.S.,  LLJ>.;  was  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Michigan  in  1875;  student  Cornell,  M.M.El, 
1888;  was  professor  at  the  Michigan  Agricul- 
tural CoBe^  1878-90;  professor  of  exjKri- 
mental  engineering,  Cornell  University,  since 
1890;  member  Aaierican  Sode^  Mechanical 
Engineers  (vice-president;  chairman  Comtnit- 
tee  on  Reaearch) ;  American  Society  Civil  En- 
gineers; American  Society  Mining  Engineers; 
American  Society  Heating  and  Ventilating  £n- 
giDeers  (president,  1898) ;  Society  Automobile 
luiginccn  (vice-president);  consulting  engi- 
neer for  Helderberg  Portland  Cement  Com- 
pany, C^Uga  Lake  Portland  Cement  Company, 
Quaker  Portland  Cetnent  Company,  Great 
Northern  PoiUand  Cement  Company,  Belle- 
ville Portland  Cement  Comwiny,  Atlas  Port- 
land Cement  Company,  Kosmos  Portland 
Cement  Company,  California  Portland  Cement 
Company  and  others:  has  constructed-  numer- 
ous power  stations  for  electric  railways  and 
&as  had  active  diarge  of  many  engineering 
constructions;  patent    expert    in    several    im- 


American  Exposition,  Buffalo,  1901,  Jamestown 
Exposition,  1907;  menUier  of  committee  to  re- 
port to  President  of  United  States  respecting 
slides  in  Panama  Canal  1915-16;  andior  'Ex- 
perimental Engineering'  (7  eds.,  189a  190% 
1909);  'Heating  and  Ventilating  Baildingt> 
(7  edi.,  1898;  190^  1909) ;  and  nonieroua  papers 

:.a.e..v  Google 


CARPENTER -'CAitmmKS'   HALL 


in  'Transactions  American  Socie^  Uechonical 
Engineers,'  'Transactions  Healing  and  Venti- 
lating Engineers,'  etc. 

CAJRPBNTER,  WiUiam,  English  oUtor 
and  author :  b.  Saint  James,  Westminster,  179?; 
d  Colebrooke  Row,  Islington,  21  April  1874. 
Bdng  the  son  of  a  poor  tradesman  he  was  ^ut 
to  work  early  in  life  and  obtained  no  education, 
but  entering  the  service  of  a  bookseller  he  soon 
kamed  to  speak  fluently  several  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  and  took  great  interest  in 
the  study  of  bibhcal  subjects.  With  William 
Greenfield  he  edited  the  Scripture  Magasine, 
which  was  later  known  as  'Critica  Biblica* 
(4  vols.,  1824^27) ;  in  rapid  succession  he  be- 
came editor  of  Shipping  GatelU  (1836);  Era 
(1838);  KaUtvay  Observer  (181*3) ;' Lloyd's 
Weekly  News  (1844);  Courl  Joumai  (1848); 
Sunday  Times  and  Bedfordshire  Independent 
(1854).  He  issued  a  publication  'Political  Let- 
ters' (1830-31),  which  he  claimed  was  not  liable 
to  the  stamp  duty  on  newspapers,  but  at  bis 
trial  in  1831  was  convicted  and  imprisoned  for 
some  time.  Gupenter  wrote  many  treatises  on 
tile  subject  of  political  reformation  and  from 
1851-53  was  honorary  secretary  to  the  C3iaiicsry 
Reform  Association.  Among  these  works  are 
'The  Elector's  Manual*  (1832);  'The  Political 
Text-book'  (1833);  'Peerage  for  the  People' 
(1841) :  'The  Corporation  of  London  as  it  is 
and  as  it  should  be>  (1847).  Of  his  other  pub- 
lications the  most  noteworthy  are  'Sancta  Bib- 
fica*  (1825)  ;  'Anecdotes  of  the  French  Revct- 
lution  of  1830>  (1830);  <Lifc  and  Tiroes  o£ 
John  lfilton>  (1336);  <Tbe  Biblical  Com- 
panion*  (1836);  'Relief  for  the  Unemployed: 
EmigratioD  and  Colonization  Considered' 
(1841);  'A  Comprehensive  Dictionary  of  Eng- 
lish Synonyms'  (6th  ed.,  1865)  ;  'An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Reading  and  Study  cl  the  English 
Bible>  (3  vols.,  1867-68),  etc. 

CARPENTER,  William  Benjunin,  Eng- 
lish physiologist  and  naturalist :  b.  Exeter,  29 
Oct  1813;  d.  19  Nov.  1885.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Lant  Carpenter  (q.v,);  was  edncated  in 
his  father's  school  at  Bristol,  and  in  1833  en- 
tered University  College,  London,  as  a  medical 
student.  Two  years  later  he  went  to  Edinborgfa 
University,  where  he  was  graduated  as  U.D. 
in  1839;  and  in  that  year  also  he  produced  bis 
first  important  woric,  'The  Principles  of  Gen- 
eral and  Comparative  Physiology.'  In  1844  he 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and 
also  obtained  the  Fullertan  professorship  of 
irfiysiology  at  the  Royal  Institution.  From  1847 
to  1852  be  was  editor  of  the  Britiik  and  Foreign 
Medico-Ckirurgical  Review,  was  one  of  uiC 
editors  of  the  Natural  History  Review,  and  in 
1856  he  was  appointed  regbtrar  of  the  Univ«r~ 
sity  of  London,  a  post  which  he  resigned  in 
18/9.    He  wrote  several  well-known  works  on 

?hysioIogy,  one  of  which  has  been  alreathr  re- 
erred  to.  Others  are  'Principles  of  Mental 
Physiology'  (4di  ed,,  1876)  and  'Principles  of 
Human  Physiology'  (1846^  new  edition  by  H. 
Power  1881).  Still  other  works  of  his  are 
'Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Foraminif- 
era'  (3863);  'The  Microscope  and  Its  Revela- 
tions' (1868;  6th  ed.,  1881);  'The  Physiology 
of  Temperance  and  Total  Abstinence'  (1853); 
'Zoology  and  the  Instincts  of  Animals'  (1857)  ; 
'Mesmerism  and  Spiritualism'  (1877);  'Natore 
and  Man'  (1888) ;  besides  mat^  papers  in  Bci.> 


entific  iouraats.  He  took  a  kading  part  in  the 
cxpeditians  sent  out  by  the  government  in  1868- 
70  for  deep-sea  adoration  in  the  north  At- 
lantic and  contributed  largely  to  the  discussion 
of  ocean  drculatjoe.  He  advocated  the  doc- 
trine of  vertical  drculaiion  indqtendmtiv  of 
Dr.  Le&i:  of  Saint  Petcrtfnirg,  who  in  IMS  bad 
begun  to  advance  that  theory,  H«  was  chosn 
president  of  the  British  Assodation  »t  Biigfaton 
m  1872. 

CARPENTER,  WOUam  Hemr,  American 
philologist :  b.  Utica,  N.  Y.,  IS  July  1853.  He 
received  a  university  education  at  Cornell  and 
Johns  Hopkins,  and  at  Leipzig  and  Freiburg 
universities;  became  instructor  in  rhetoric  and 
lecturer  on  North  European  literature  in  Cor- 
neU  Universi^  in  1883;  instructor  of  German 
and  Scandinavian  languages  in  (>)tumbia  Uni- 
versity, 1883-89;  assistant  professor  of  GtT- 
manic  languages  and  literature  in  the  same 
institution,  1889-90;  adjunct  professor,  1890- 
9S ;  and  in  1895  professor  of  (German  philology 
there.  Since  1912  he  has  been  provost  of  the 
university.  He  is  vice-president  of  the  Ger- 
manistic  Society  of  America  and  editor  of  the 
Germanistic  Society  Quarterly;  and  trustee  and 
secretary  of  the  Columbia  University  Press. 
He  b  a  member  of  the  Authors  and  Century 
Clubs  of  New  York.  He  has  published  several 
works  in  the  line  of  his  specialty,  and  has  con- 
tributed largely  to  dictionaries  and  encyclo- 
pedias and  to  magazines  and  reviews. 

CAKFENTBR-BBB,  a  species  of  bee 
iXylocopa  virginica)  which  burrows  into  dead 
tree-trunks,  lumber  and  even  into  woodwork 
of  buildings.  It  is  a  large,  black-bodied  bee^ 
as  big. as  the  biggest  bumblebee.  Its  burrow  is 
about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  runs  horizon- 
tally across  the  grain  of  the  wood  for  a  short 
distance,  then  forms  a  tunnel  at  right  angles  to 
this  entrance,  running  sometimes  12  to  18  mches. 
When  the  tunn^  are  complete,  the  cells  are 
made  and  sui)plied  with  pollen.  The  cells  are 
about  seven-eis^ths  of  an  inch  lon^  and  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  partitions  made 
of  sawrdust  glued  together.  When  the  eggs, 
which  arc  laid  one  in  each  cell,  are  batch«], 
the  larvte  feed  on  the  poBen-deposit  until  th^ 
are  ready  to  bore  their  way  out.  The  carpentei^ 
bee  will  use  the  tame  bmrow  again  and  again, 
and  its  home  is  sometimes  utilized  by  other 
species  of  bees. 

CARPENTERS'  HALL,  Philadelphia,  on 
the  south  side  of  Chestnut  street  between 
Third  and  Fourth.  It  was  built  shortly  after 
1770  (as  an  assembly  house  and  clid>)  for  the 
carpenters'  guild  of  that  dty,  and  probably  for 
-■- ■'  ^--"^     In  im  it  b 


s  if  desired. 


t  became  famous 


avic  u 

as  the  chosen  meeting-place  of  eeverd  conven- 
tions for  Ae  liberation  of  the  colonies.  The 
first  was  on  15  July,  when  the  committee  of 
oorrespondence  of  tne  cidony  appointed  a  ses-  . 
sion  of  committees  from  each  county,  as  *tbe 
most  effective  means  toward  a  nnioiL*  Later, 
on  5  September^  the  first  (^ntiiiental  Congress 
met  IT  Its  'pixax  but  spadous  rooms*  on  the 
lower  floor,  altfaonsfa  the  State  House  had  been 
offered  than.  Benind  its  dosed  doors  weiv 
prepared  the  papers  which  Chatham  said 
ranked  with  the  greatest  of  tbe  world.  The 
second  (^gt«si  also  began  its  sessiotts  Ibei^ 
10  May  1775. 


=v  Google 


CAKt»BNTRAS—  CARFBNTSY 


16  miles  northeast  of  ATisnon.  In  Rcoian  times 
it  was  known  as  Carpentoracte,  was  a  place  of 
importance  and  possessed  many  handsome  edi- 
fices, of  which.a  few  traces  are  left.  The  prin- 
cipal structures  are  an  aqueduct,  which  crossed 
the  valley  of  the  Anion  by  48  arches;  a  Roman 
triumphal  arch,  a  Gothic  cathedral,  a  museum 
containing  a  collection  of  Fhcentcian  bas-reliefs 


Carpet , , 

weeldy  markets,   which  are  among  the  most 
important  in  southern  France.    It  was  formerly 


CARPENTRY,  the  art  of  combining 
pieces  of  timber  to  snpftort  a  wei^t  or  sus- 
tain pressure.  The  woric  of  the  carpenter  is 
intended  to  give  stability  to  a  strticture;  that 
of  the  ioiner  11  applied  to  finishing  and  decora- 
tion. The  scientific  principles  of  carpentry  are 
founded  on  the  doctrines  of  the  compositioa 
and  reiolntion  of  mechanical  forces,  and  a 
knowledge  of  these  doctrines,  eiAer  theoretical 
-r  practical,  is  indispensable  to  the  skilled  car- 

1- :_._   .1, :_.;_i.,  ^j   jj,^  ^^^ 

ticular  appli- 
whtch  would 
be  beyond  the  scope  and  Hmits  of  this  work. 
An  explanation  of  the  terms  employed  in  car- 
pentry may,  however,  be  useful  to  the  general 
reader.  The  term  'frame*  is  applied  to  any 
assemblage  of  pieces  of  timber  firmly  con- 
nected together.  The  points  of  meeting  of  the 
pieces  of  timber  in  a  frame  are  called  ■joints.* 
'Lengthening*  a  beam  is  uniting  pieces  of  tim- 
ber into  one  length  by  joining  meir  extremities. 
When  neatness  is  not  required  this  is  done  by 
•fishing.*  In  this  mode  tne  ends  of  the  beams 
are  abutted  together,  and  a  piece  of  timber 
placed  on  each  side  and  secured  by  bolts  passed 
through  the  whole.  Sometimes  the  parts  are 
indented  together,  and  piece*  termed  "Iceys*  are 
notched  into  the  beams  and  side  pieces.  When 
it  is  desirable  to  maintain  the  same  depth  and 
width  throughout  the  beam,  "scaring"  is  em- 
ployed. This  is  cutting  from  each  beam  a  part 
of  the  thickness  of  the  timber,  of  the  length 
of  the  intended  joint,  and  on  opposite  sides,  so 
that  the  pieces  m^  be  jointed  together  and 
bolted  or  hooped.  In  bolting  scarfs,  side  plates 
of  iron  are  used  to  protect  the  wood  When 
greater  strength  is  required  than  can  be  pro- 


combining  two  or  more  beams  in  depth  l_  .  ._ 
have  the  effect  of  one.  In  trussing  the  beam 
is  cut  in  two  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and 
supported  with  cross-beams,  as  in  roofing. 
•Mortise*  and  "tenon*  is  a  mode  of  jointing 
timber.  An  excavation  called  a  mortise  is 
made  in  one  piece  and  a  projecting  tongue  to 
fit  it,  called  a  tenon,  in  the  other.  The  tenon 
IS  confined  in  the  mortise  by  a  pin  penetrating 
It  laterally  through  the  side  of  the  mortised 
beam,  or  by  an  external  strap  of  iron  passing 
round  the  mortised  beam  and  rivetted  in  the 
one    terminating    in    the   tenon.      The    timber 


frame-work  of  £oors  is  called  "naked  flooring.* 
It  is  of  three  kinds — single,  double  and 
framed.  Single  flooring  ctmsists  of  a  series  of 
joists  stretching  across  the  whole  void  from 
wall  to  wall,  without  an  intermediate  support 
The  flooring  boards  are  laid  on  the  top  of  these, 
and  the  ceiUi^  of  the  lower  stoiy;  fixed  to  the 
under  lide.  Double  floorins  consists  in  laying 
binding  joists  across  the  floor  about  six  feet 
apart,  crossed  above  by  bridging  joists  and  also 
crossed  below  by  the  ceiling  joists.  Framed 
flooring  is  provided  with  girders  or  beams  in 
addition  to  the  binding,  bri<^iig  and  ceiling 
joists.  To  prevent  the  transmission  of  sotmd, 
a  double  ceiling  of  lath  and  plaster  is  some- 
times used,  but  ntierally  puling  b  inserted 
between  the  roof  and  the  ceiling.  "Cornice 
bracketing*  consists  in  roi^  wooden  profiles 
of  the  room  cornices,  which  are  afterward 
lathed  around  and  plastered  Partitions,  when 
not  required  to  bear  weight,  are  formed  ay  lay- 
ing along  the  floor  a  piece  of  timber  called  a 
"sul,*  together  with  a  corresponding  piece 
along  the  ceiling  joists,  the  space  within  being 
filled  with  vertical  pieces  cal!ed'"auarters,'  to 
which  the  lath  is  nailed  When  tne  partition 
has  weight  to  support,  it  has  to  be  trussed  with 
posts  and  braces.  The  timbers  which  support 
the  steps  of  a  wooden  staircase  are  termed  the 
"carriage.*  They  consist  of  two  pieces  of  tim- 
ber inclined  to  the  "rake,"  or  projection  of  the 
steps,  and  termed  "rough  strings,"  which  may 
rest  upon  a  piece  of  timber  proiectin^  horizon- 
tally from  the  upper  wall,  called  a  "pitching*  or 
'apron*  piece,  which  also  supports  the  joists  of 
the  landmg  or  "lialf  pace."  The  "roof"  is  the 
framewoik  by  which  the  covering  of  a  building 
is  supported  It  may  consist  of  a  series  of 
timbers  which  are  called  "rafters*  with  the  ends 
resting  on  the  opposite  walls,  and  the  other 
ends  meeting  in  a  point.  When  loaded 
with  the  weight  of  the  covering,  this  frame- 
work would  be  apt  to  thrust  out  the  roof  j  a 
third  piece  is  consequently  added  which,  like 
3  string,  corJiecls  the  lower  extremities  of  the 
rafters  and  nrevents  them  from  spreading.  This 
is  called  a  "tie,*  and  the  whole  frame  a  "cou- 
ple,* When  the  tie  is  of  such  a  length  that  it 
IS  apt  to  droop  in  the  middle,  or  "sag,*  by  its 
own  weight,  a  fourth  piece  is  added  to  imite 
it  directly  with  the  apex  of  the  rafters;  this  is 
called  the  "Idng-post.*  If  the  rafters,  toi^ 
■re  liable  to  sag,  cross  pieces  called  "stmts' 
are  introduced,  uniting  their  centres  with  the 
centre  of  the  tie,  Instead  of  the  king-posts  and 
struts,  the  centre  of  each  rafter  may  be  joined 
to  the  tie  t^  a  piece  falhng  perpenoicularly  on 
the  latter,  and  to  each  other  oy  a  piece  running 
across  parallel  to  and  above  the  tie,  forming 
a  parallelogram  with  the  perpendiculars  and 
dw  section  of  the  tie  enclosed  by  them.  The 
suspending  pieces  are  called  'queen-posts,*  and 
the  horizontal  one  a  "collar-beam,*  The  whole 
frame,  constructed  in  either  way,  is  called  a 
truss.  The  trussed  frames  are  placed  at  in- 
tervals of  about  IS  feet  apart,  and  support  hori- 
lontal  pieces  called  'purlins,*  which  run  the 
whole  length  of  the  roof  and  support  the  com- 
mon rafters  with  their  covering.  Shipcirpen- 
try  is  a  special  form  of  carpentry.  The  tim- 
bers are  larger  and  heavier  and  of  the  harder 
'  kinds  of  wood.  These  must  be  shaped  to  the 
'  -  'y  beveled 
f  caipcn- 


lo  make  close  joints.    This  t: 


.Google 


C  A&PBT — C  AK^T-BSdTLB 


try  is  DOW  confined  to  small  vessels  soch  u 
yachts,  coasting  schooners,  barget,  scows,  etc 
The  principal  instriuneiits  used  in  carpentry 
are  saws,  as  die  circular-,  band-  and  tenon- 
saws ;    planes,    as   the   jack-plane,    smoothing- 

Elaae,  molding-plant;  etc. ;  chisels,  gouges, 
rad-awls,  gimlets,  descriptions  of  which  will 
be  found  in  their  places.  See  Building^,  Cabi- 
MBT- Making ;  Joinery;  Shifbuildikg. 

BiblioST^phv'—  Fletcher  and  Fletcher, 
•Carpentry  and  Joinery  for  Ardnitects,  etc' 
(London  1S98) ;  Hattield,  <The  American 
House  Carpenter'  (New  York  1880);  Hodg- 
son, 'Modem  Carpentry  and  Joineiy'  (lb. 
1906)  ;  Jacoby,  'Structoral  Details,  or  Elements 
of  Desini  in  Heavy  Framing*  (ib.  1909J ; 
Riley,  'Manual  of  Carpentry  and  Joinery*  (ib. 
1906). 


ilization  and  desire  for  comfort,  he  be^n  to 
use  bis  packing;  carpite  as  a  wrap  for  himself 
and  to  cover  his  feet  and  limbs  at  ni^hL  From 
that  he  began  to  use  it  to  protect  his  sandaled 
feet  from  cold  stone  floors.  Then  the  ma- 
terial was  made  finer  and  gradually  embellished 
with  colors  and  designs.  The  art  progressed 
most  rapidl);  in  the  cold  mountain  districts  of 
western  Asia  —  Persia,  Turkey,  Syria.  The 
people  of  these  regions  had  tune,  patience  and 
a  love  for  things  beautiful.  They  produced 
wonderful  results  with  wool,  camel's  hair,  or 
goat's  hair,  combined  with  a  flaxen  warp.  All 
their  work  was  (and  still  is)  done  most  labori- 
ously by  hand  on  looms  of  the  crudest  sort. 
These  fabrics  of  the  better  sort  are  almost  iiif 
destructible  with  ordinary  wear.  Carpets  are 
Still  in  use  in  some  of  the  palaces  of  Persia 
which  have  been  constantly  used  since  the  end 
of  the  16th  century. 

When  woven  floor-coverings  were  first  used 
by  man  is  hard  to  tell.  Fra^entt  of  what 
might  be  such  are  found  in  E^yptiaa  excava- 
tions indicatins;  a  possible  use  of  them  as  early 
as  3000  B.C.  That  the  skins  of  animals  and  nisa 
mats  were  used  by  prehistoric  man  as  protection 
from  the  cold  stone  of  the  cave  dwellmg  is  cer- 
tain. Cyrus  the  Great  had  wonderful  carpeta 
when  he  placed  Persia  at  the  forefront  of- na- 
tions. Alexander  found  them  in  use  in  his  vi^ 
torious  march  through  Asia  to  India. 

The  art  of  carpet-malring  in  its  best  sense 
"I  with  the  Orient.     No  Occidental 


Far  East  Some  of  the  Indian  carpets  approach 
the  fineness  of  those  of  Persia.  The  jute  and 
cotton  rugs  of  Japan,  and  the  grass  mattings  of 
China,  are  lampks  of  this  art  in  poorer 
material. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  samples  of 
native  workmanship  which  compare  well  with 
the  pcoductioRS  of  the  East.  The  woric  of  the 
Navajo  Indian  in  particular  is  very  quaint  and 
perfect.  His  rugs  or  blankets,  colored  with  na- 
tive i^gments  and  laboriously  woven  by  hand, 
will  wear  for  many  years.  Cortei  found  the  ■ 
palaces  of  Montezuma  covered  with  grand  rugs, 
many  of  them  made  of  the  sldns  of  hmnming- 


i»rds   sewn  togetlwr.  -  See  Caxkt  ahd  Rug 

iNDUStaY. 

CAKPET-BAOOBRS,  CAKPET-BAG 
GOVERNHBNT8.  The  admission  of  the 
Southern  ne^oes  to  the  franchise  after  the  war 
involved  their  organization  and  -leadership,  and 
their  representation  in  State  and  national  offices 
by  intefligent  whites.  As  no  Southern  whites 
of  character  would  underlake  what  they  re- 
garded as  a  crusade  against  civilization,  the  task 
tell  to  Northern  Republicans.  Those  who 
undertook  it  were  of  -all  grades  of  personal 
integrity  and  honesty  of  purpose,  from  sincere 
old-fashioned  abolitionists  to  mere  scalawag 
adventurers ;  but  they  had  one  characteristic  in 
common :  the  lack  of  property  interests  in  the 
South  to  make  its  injury  theirs.  Hence  the 
name,  implying  that  their  only  possessions  were 
in  their  carpet-bags.  The  name  was  at  first 
given  only  to  those  whose  one  motive  for 
residence  there  was  election  to  office  by  aid  of 
the  negro  vote;  and  the  purpose  of  many  was 
voiced  in  the  utterance  of  one  hi^  official, 
that  when  he  could  no  longer  hold  office  from 
there  he  would  no  longer  live  there.  But  the 
rigime  of  monstrous  plunder  and  social  and 
industrial  ruin  which  the  system  brought  on, 
the  levying  of  fraudulent  taxes,  and  the  piling 

Sof  huge  State  debts  (or  the  future,  soon 
aced  all  distinctiona.  All  Northerners  who 
upheld  the  system  or  tried  to  protect  the 
negroes'  voting  rif^ts  were  confounded  under 
the  name;  all  State  governments  in  any  way 
protected  from  overthrow  by  United  States 
troops  were  *carpet-bag*  Bovermnenls;  and 
finally  the  entire  years  of  Rcconstniction,  and 
that  attanpt  itself  are  compendiously  known  as 
the  "Carpet-Bag  Rigime." 

CARPET-BEETLB,  a  small  beetle  {An- 
tkrenus  jcrophularia) ,  often  wrongly  called 
'buffalo  bug.»  In  th;  grub  or  larval  slate,  it  is 
injurious  to  carpets  and  similar  fabrics.  It  is 
an  active,  brown,  hairy  larva,  the  size  of  a  grain 
of  wheat,  which  works  in  a  hidden  manner 
from  the  under  surface,  sometimes  making  ir- 
regular holes,  but  more  frequently  following 
the  floor-cracks  and  cutting  long  slits  in  a 
carpet.  This  insect  was  broi^t  from  Europe 
about  1874,  and  is  abundant  in  the  New  Eng- 
land States  and  westward  to  Kansas.  The 
adult  insect  is  a  minute,  broad-oval  beetle  about 
three- sixteenths  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  red 
Stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  When 
disturbed  it  folds  up  its  limbs  and  feigns 
death.  As  a  general  thing  the  beetles  begin  to 
appear  in  the  autumn,  and  continue  to  issue,  in 
heated  bouses,  throughout  the  winter  and  fol- 


loi 

spots.    The  eggs  hatch  i 


retarded  by  cold  weather  or  by  lack  of  food, 
and  they  may  remain  alive  for  an  indefinite 
period.  When,  under  normal  con<Ktions,  the 
larva  reaches  full  growth,  the  yellowish  pupa 
is  formed  within  the  last  larval  skin,  from 
which   the  beetle  emerges  later.    The  beetles 


the  windows,  and  may  often  be  found  upon 
the  sills  or  panes.  "The  carpet-beetle  is  verj- 
diflicnlt  to  exterminate,  and  die  best  preventa- 
tive b  the  use  of  movable  rugi  on  hard-wood 


d=,  Google 


CARFBT  AND  SUO  INDUSTRY 


SST 


floors.  SuEfteotad  C3ikt)ets  should  be  taken  up, 
beaten,  sprayed  oat  of  doors  with  bCnzine,  and 
then  be  well  aired  Before  relaying  the  carpet, 
tarred  roofing-paper  should  be  laid  upon  the 
floor. 

Another  similar  pest  is  the  black  carpet- 
beetle  (^Allagenus  picent),  whose  larva  is  read~ 
ily  distinguished  from  die  buflfalo'bu^  by  its 
cylindrical  sha^  and  lighter  color.  It  is  not  so 
fond  of  working  in  cracks  and  cnttinK  1(h% 
slits  in  carpets,  and  in  general  is  not  so  danger- 
ous a  species  as  the  other.  It  sometimes  pro- 
duces in  feather-beds  a  peculiar  felting  of  the 
ticking.  It  has  also  been  known  to  infest  floar- 
■nills,  and  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  feeder  upon 
cereal  products.  Two  years  are  required  for 
its  development  from  egK  to  beetle.  Consult 
Howard  and  Marlett,  'Household  insects' 
(United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  1896). 

CARPET  AND  RUG  INDUSTRY.  Like 
many  American  industries,  the  manufacture 
of  carpets  had  its  beginnings  in  (he  Old  World. 

Probably  the  first  carpetiUKS  made  on  K  large 
scale  were  made  in  an  establishment  founded 
by  Henry  IV,  Kii^  of  France,  at  the  Louvre  in 
lci07.  This  establishment  was  followed  in  1627 
by  dne  called  the  'Savonnerie"  at  Chaillot,  the 
building  having  previously  been  used  as  a  soap 
factory,  and  by  one  at  Beauvais,  established  in 
1664  by  Colbert,  minister  of  Louis  XIV.  Many 
of  the  weavers  employed  in  these  factories  were 
Protestants  and  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  in  16S5  caused  a  tremendous  emigration 
of  these  people  to  other  conntriM^  more  particu- 
larly to  England,  Holland  and  Flanders.  Tfaos 
in  England  in  173S  we  find  that  in  the  town  of 
■Kidderminster  the  manufacture  of  ingrain  car- 
petings  had  been  established,  and  although  car- 
pet-making had  been  attempted  as  far  back  as 
the  reign  of  Edward  III  at  Bristol,  it  did  not 
gain  a  permanent  foothold  in  the  coimtiy  until 
after  the  immigrations  from  France.  In  1745 
the  Earl  of  Pmibroke  established  a  factory  at 
Wilton  in  which  he  employed  only  French 
weavers,  and  this  was  followed  in  1750  by  an 
establishment  founded  at  Fulham  by  a  Capuchin 
friar  for  the  manufacture  of  Savonnerie  carpet- 
tngs,  but  this  was  a  failure. 

The  manufacture  of  Brussels  carpet  was  in- 
troduced into  England  from  Flanders,  where  it 
undoubtedly  originated,  by  Jiibn  Broom,  who 
put  the  first  loom  into  operation  in  1749,  This 
loom,  though  the  secret  of  its  operation  was 
carefully  guarded,  was  copied,  and  within  a 
short  time  there  waa  a  number  of  similar  looms 
in  o[)eration,  and  so  successful  were  the  makers 
of  this  kind  of  carpet  that  Kiddcnninster  rapidly 
became  the  centre  of  trade  for  diis  class  of 
goods. 

With  the  opening  up  of  trade  with  the  colo- 
nies, the  carpet  manufacturers  of  theOld  World 
began  to  look  westward  for  new  markets,  and 
along  with  the  early  settlers  came  mtn  who  had 
learned  the  art  of^  weaving  and  were  seeking 
new  Aelds  in  which  their  energies  might  have 
lull  sway.  1 

Of  the  early  carpet  dealers  in  this  country 
'  the  first  records  are  meagre,  but  in  Parker's 
New  York  Gastlte.  issue  of  30  June  1760,  an 
advertisement  aimeared  reading  as  follows :  'J. 
Alexander  and  Company  have  removed  their 
St&le.to  Mr.  Kayne's  house  on  Smith  Street, 
where  Mr.  pfoctor,  watch-maker,  lately  livtjd. 


where  th^  sell  check  handkercbiefs,  Uoois  of 
different  lands,  lawns  and  minonets,  Scot's  car- 
pets, broad  and  narrow  cloths,  shoes  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  undershirti  hats,  stockings,  with 
several  other  goods;  Fine  Scot's  barley  and 
herrings.  Also  a  choice  parcel  of  Old  Madeira 
in  pi^s.*  Thus  we  see  that  carpets  were  sold 
in  this  country  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the 
16th  centurv,  but  the  manufacture  did  not  com- 
mence until  mai^  years  after  the  introduction. 

The  history  of  carpet-mokinK  in  Amerii:a 
may  be  divided  into  two  periods,  the  first  cover- 
ing the  times  when  all  carpets  were  made  on 
hand  looms,  and  extending  up  to  the  year  1841, 
when  the  perfected  power  loMn  was  introduced; 
the  second  period  extending  from  1841,  when 
F.rastus  B.  Bigelow  of  Boston,  Mass.,  brought 
forth  his  perfected  power  loom  and  completely 
revolutionized'  the  methods  of  carpet-making, 
up  to  the  present  time. 

The  earliest  records  show  that  W,  P. 
Sprague  was  the  pioneer  in  the  weaving  of  car- 
pets, and  in  1791  opened  a  facloi^r  in  Pbiladel- 
phia  for  the  manufacture  of  Axminster  carpet- 
ing. It  was  the  importation  of  this  s^le  of 
carpet  that  &rst  suggested  the  principle  of  tl^ 

B 'elective  tariff  duty.  At  the  time  Alexander 
amilton,  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  irana- 
mitted  a  message  to  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  which  he  recommended  that  a  duty  of 
2ii  per  cent  be  laid  on  all  imported  carpets  "to 
which  the  nature  of  the  articles  suggests  no  ob- 
jection, and  which  may  at  the  same  tune  furnish 
a  motive  the  more  to  the  fabrication  of  them  at 
home,  toward  which  some  bcf^nnings  have  been 
made.'  This  factory  was  followed  in  1804. hy 
one  at  WofcestCT,  Mass.,  owned  by  Peter  ai^ 
Ebenewr  Stowdl,  in  which  were  six  .looms 
invented,  and  constructed  by  themselves.-  ■■•.■ 
The  manufacture  of  ingrain  carpets  :U]  this 
country  was  begun  early  in  the  J9th  c*tui+, 
the  first  ingrain  mill  probably  being  that  estab- 
lished in  1810  by  George  M,  Conradt,  a. native 
of  Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  at  Frederick  Gif, 
Md,  There  carpets  were  made  on  a  hand.loom, 
on  a  drum  having  rows  of  pegs  similar  .to  tHe 
cylinder  of  a  inusic  box,  by  which  the  h^rntis 
was  worked.  In  1821  a  factory  was  established 
in  New  York  by  John  and  Nicholas  Haiidit. 
with  J.  W.  Mitchell,  a  Scotchman,  who  b»d 
come  from  Kilmarnock,  the  centre  of  the  in- 
grain trade  in  Scotland,  as  superintcndest.  In 
1825  Alexander  Wright  who  was  the  superin- 
tendent of  a  factory  at  Medway,  Mass.,  owned 
by  Henry  Burdette,  attempted  to  learn  t^ 
processes  of  the  Jacquard  system,  but  was  uq- 
able  to  gain  any  Imowledge  of  ttiem  because  the 
secrets  were  so  jealously  guarded  that  he  was 
not  even  permitted  to  enter  the  milL .  He  there- 
upon went  to  Scotland,  and  after  purchasing 
the  best  hand  looms  on  the  roirket  and  securing 
mechanics  to  operate  them,  returned  ^nd  start^ 
the  manufacture  of  carpet*  on  a  scale  which  fj^r 
those  times  was  very  extensive.  The.  factniy 
-was  in  1828  sold  complete  to  the  lJxfeU.,iiMi»- 
.  facttinng  CcHnpany,  the  madiinery  tttd,,}p(mii 
being  trtosferred  to  their  new  mill  tn ,  l^w^ 
upon  its  completion.  Alexander  Wiisbt  iWiis 
the  first  Superintendent  of  this  miU,:a]ral.^^ 
gethcr  with  Claude  Wilson,  one  of  Ihr  m«itM]t{s 
whom  he  bad  brought  with  him  froms  Sm(Is«!|; 
-devised'  tliany  improvemeijts  in  the  ,}tail9Kp 
\oomi  malcing  it  simple  in  eonstructioo,  ^itt^wt- 
ing  the  mort  (pnipic^  f  f,rts  "      * 


tl^e,in^is«ry, 

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CARPBT  AND  SUO  INDUSTRY 


state  of  perfection  till  many  years  afterwarc^ 
and  the  machinery  was  so  expensive,  the  opers' 
tion  so  tedious,  and  the  skill  required  so  great, 
in  the  making,  that  it  was  thought  the  de- 
matid  for  carpets  would  not  justify  such  an  out- 
lay, but  throtigh  perseverance  and  the  gradual 
introduction  of  improved  methods  the  efforts 
put  forth  by  the  Lowell  company  were  amply 
repaid,  and  the  founders  lived  to  see  the  estat>- 
lishment  become  one  of  the  largest  carpet  fac' 
lories  in  the  country. 

In  1840  the  carpet  industry  was  started  in 
New  York  by  Robert  Beattie,  followed  in  1841 
by  E.  S.  Hiegins  and  Company,  who  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  ingrain  carpetings.  In 
1844  Alexander  Smith  started  a  factory  at  West 
Fanns,  N.  Y,  In  1845  John  Bromley  com- 
menced to  manufacture  in  Philadelphia  and  was 
practically  the  pioneer  in  what  has  gnawn  to  be 
the  largest  manufacturine  centre  of  the  coun- 
try; where  more  yards  of  carpet  of  all  grades 
are  made  than  in  any  other  city  in  the  world, 
and  where  some  of  the  finest  factories  in  the 
world  are  localed. 

At  this  period  the  manufacture  of  cai^t  in 
this  country  was  far  from  being  a  large  mduj- 
try.  In  Massachusetts  there  were  seven  factories 
in  operation ;  in  Connecticut  there  were  four;  in 
New  York,  eight;  in  New  Jersey,  four;  Mary- 
land had  one ;  and  in  Pennsylvania  there  were 
only  five,  all  of  which  were  in  or  near  Phila- 
delphia. Of  the  total  number  of  looms  then  in 
operation,  1,500,  probably  not  more  than  1,250 
were  used  for  ingrain^  the  others  being  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  Brussels,  damasks, 
Venetian  or  rugs.  The  largest  mills  then 
were :  The  Lowell  company,  operating  150 
looms;  W.  H.  UcKnight,  Saxonville.  Mass., 
.  150  looms ;  Orrin  Thompson,  Thompsonville 
and  Tariflville,  Conn.,  250  looms;  and  W.  H. 
Chatham,  Philadelphia,  160  looms,  while  num- 
bered among  diem  were  the  first  plants  of  such 
concerns  as  the  Hartford  Carpet  Company, 
Robert  Beattie  and  Sons,  E.  S.  Higgins  Carpet 
Company  and  McCallum  and  McCallum. 

It  was  in  1841  that  the  second  period  in  the 
history  began,  Erastus  B.  Bigelow  (q.v.),  a 
youn^  medical  student  in  Boston,  20  years  of 
age,  in  1839  became  interested  in  the  weaving 
of  coach-lace,  and  started  in  to  improve  on  the 
machinei^.  bv  which  this  class  of  goods  was 
made,  with  the  result  that  inside  of  two  years 
he  had  brought  forth  an  invention  by  the  use 
of  which  the  cost  of  the  manufacture  of  these 
Roods,  which  had  been  22  cents  a  yard,  was  re- 
duced to  three  cents.  The  same  year  he  intro- 
duced a  {Mwer  loom  for  weaving  ingrain  car- 
pets, raising  the  product  of  eight  yards  a  day 
possible  on  the  band  loom  to  10  or  12  yards, 
and  later,  after  making  several  improvements, 
extending  ihis  total  to  25  or  27  yards  a  day.  He 
also  invented  and  patented  the  power  loom  for 
weaving  Jacquard  Brussels,  Wilton  and  tapes- 
try carpets.  He  was,  however,  unable  to  inter- 
est any  of  the  manufacturers  in  hb  inventions 
and  finally  started  a  plant  of  his  own  at  CUnton, 
Mass.,  and  which  was  later  organized  as  the 
Bigelow  Carpet  Company,  now  one  of  our 
greatest  and  most  progressive  companies.  The 
exclusive  right  to  use  his  process  of  manufac- 
ture in  England  was  at  once  purchased  by  the 
Crossleys  of  En^and  and  A.  &  E.  S.  Higgins 


of  New  York,  and  the  Roxbuiy  Carpet  Com- 
pany of  Massachusetts  acquired  the  use  in  tht 
United  States  of  his  loom  for  tapestry  and  vel- 
vet during  the  term  of  the  patent 

To  John  Johnson  of  Halifax,  England,  be- 
longs the  credit  of  first  manufacturing  tspestry 
Brussels  and  velvet  cariKtings  in  this  countn. 
He  began  operations  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  a  mill 
with  25  looms,  but  this  later  was  moved  to 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1855  was  purchased  by  the 
Roxbun'  Carpet  Company  ancf  moved  to  Kox- 
btu^,  Mass^    The  product  of  these  looms  origi- 


outjHit  per  loom  ranges  frc 

mainly  possible  tbrou^  the  introduction  of  the 

Bigelow  inventioiis. 

In  1856  Halcyon  SkianeT,  a  mechanic  in  the 
employ  of  Alexander  Smith  at  his  West  Farms 
factoi^,  b^^  hb  investigations  into  the  con- 
struction of  a  [wwer  loom  with  the  intention  of 
making  one  himself  of  superior  c^abilities, 
and  the  result  of  his  labors  was  that  about  a 
.year  later  his  patent  was  brought  forth,  but 
owing  to  the  destruction  of  the  mill  by  fire  it 
was  not  until  1864  that  bis  loom  was  put  into 
operation  in  the  new  factory  which  Smith  had 
built  at  Yonktrs,  N.  Y.  In  January  1877  Skin- 
ner invented  his  power  loom  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  moquette  carpetings  and  later  several 
important  improvements  were  made  on  this,  not 
only  by  him  but  by  his  sons,  Charles  and  A.  L 
Skinner.  This  increased  the  output  of  one  and 
one-half  yards  a  day,  the  result  of  the  labors 
of  two  men  and  a  boy,  to  about  11  yards  a  day, 
and  this  has  gradually  been  increased  till  toe 
output  now  reaches  about  15,000,000  yards  a 
year,  made  on  1,000  power  looms  and  employ- 
ing over  5,000  people. 

Of  the  mote  recent  inventions  the  most  in- 
teresting is  perhaps  that  of  James  Dunlap  of 
.Philadelphia,  who  ^tented  a  process  of  print- 
ing tapestry  carpeting  in  the  cloth,  a  maiknl 
improvement  over  all  other  previous  methods 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  coloring  matter 
was  pressed  down  into  the  roots  of  the  pile  and 
extended  entirely  through. the  {abric 

The  employment  of  power  looms  for  making 
rugs  is  comparatively  modem.  The  importa- 
tion of  Oriental  hand-made  rugs  led  to  imita- 
tions being  woven,  and  so  successful  was  this 
branch  of  the  industry  that  a  lar^  proportion 
of  dwellings  is  now  supjdied  with  one-piece 
rugs  in  place  of  carpeting  made  in  breadths. 

Ingrain  was  the  first  machine-made  carpet 
to  be  widely  introduced.  It  was  first  manufac- 
tured as  a  two-ply  cloth,  with  two  colors  of 
yam,  the  pattern  on  one  side  appearing  in 
reverse  colors  on  the  other  side.  Later  a  three- 
ply  was  made,  with  concealed  cotton  string 
warp.  No  pile  is  used  with  eiAer  two-  or 
three-ply.  Ingrain  has  also  been  known  as 
Kidderminster  or  Scotch,  from  the  place  of  its 

Brussels,  like  most  carpets,  is  made  with  a 
pile.  This  is  a  thick,  hair-like  surface  given  to 
a  fabric,  so  that  the  weaving  is  covered.  A 
cut  pile  leaves  short,  protruding  ends,  as  in 

flush ;  an  uncut  pile  leaves  protruding  loops. 
n  Brussels  the  pile  is  uncut,  being  looped  tif^t. 


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CASPST^KAKS 


Wilton  calT>ets  or  rugs,  sotnclimes  known 
as  imperial  Brussels,  a.ad  also  velvet,  are  made 
nmilarlj;  to  Brussels,  except  thai  the  pile  is  cut 
automatically  ia  the  loom  during  the  process 
of  weaving. 

Axminster  carpet,  sometimes  termed  chenille 
Axminster,  has  a  fluffy  thick  pile,  with  a  Hnen 
or  hemp  warp  and  chenille  filling.  This  chenille 
cord  may  be  of  worsted  or  other  material,  but 
its  disting^uishing  characteristic  is  that  it  has 
four  or  more  soft  threads. 

Tapestry  carpet  resembles  Brussels,  being 
really  an  imitation,  more  loosely  woven,  and 
having  the  warp-yam  forming  the  pile  colored, 
or  pnnted  in  the  warp.  Upon  tapestry  are 
built  various  tufted  fabrics  as  moquette.  Per- 
sian or  Smyrna  rugs  have  usually  a  linen  or 
hempen  warp  and  filling,  and  a  pile  or  tufts 
of  colored  wool  twisted  about  the  warp.  The 
Turkish  rug  is  very  similar,  but  the  manner  of 
attaching  the  tufts  is  different. 

Rag  carpet  is  a  separate  industry,  carried 
on  by  a  considerable  number  of  very  small 
concerns,  mainly  by  some  lone  weaver,  who  has 
a  suitable  loom,  and  makes  a  living  by  weaving 
up  the  rags  saved  by  economical  housewives  of 
the  neighborhood.  There  are  no  statistics  of 
the  rag  carpet  industry. 

In  1849  there  were  116  establishments  mak- 
ing carpets  and  n^s  in  the  United  States.  They 
employed  over  6,000  hands,  and  their  product 
in  that  year  was  worth  $5,400,000.  In  1914 
ther«  were  only  97  factories,  but  the  volume  of 
business  had  increased  many  times,  and  some 
of  the  factories,  as  in  Philadelphia  and 
Yonkers,  are  very  large.  The  wage  earners 
numbered  31,309,  besides  1,720  saUried  men. 
Nearly  half  the  emjrfoyees  were  women  and 
children,  and  their  avera^  earnings  were  under 
$10  weeUy.  The  salaried  men  averaged  $33 
weekly.  The  capital,  invested  was  $85,153,000, 
and  me  annual  pro'dact  was  valued  at  $69,- 
1^185,  of  which  $25,847,962  was  the  value 
added  by  manufacture.  The  industry  ex- 
perienced its  greatest  growth  during  the  dec- 
ades from  ISW  to  1890,  and  from  1900  to  1910, 
showing  50  per  cent  gain  in  each  lO-year  period 
specified.  Pennsylvania  was  the  leading  State 
in  the  industry  almost  from  its  inception,  but 
New  York  State  was  in  the  lead  in  1914.  Each 
of  these  States  produces  abgut  one-third  of  the 
cupets  and  rugs  manufactured  io  the  country. 
MassachuMtts  was  third  with  16  per  cent,  and 
no  other  State  made  much  showing.  There 
are  now  about  12,000  carpet  and  rug  looms  in 
operation,  and  the  annual  yardage  manufac- 
tured U  close  to  100,000,000- 

Axminster  and  moquette  carpets  and  ru^ 
ranked  first  in  respect  to  quanti^  produced  in 
1914,  and  also  in  respect  to  value.  The  output 
reported  for  that  year  was  15,742,835  square 
yards,  valued  at  $18,578,693, 

Tapestry  Brussels  carpets  and  rugs  had  the 
second  largest  output  in  respect  to  quantity, 
13,614,354  square  yards  being  produced,  the 
decrease  since  1909  being  20.3  per  cent.  In 
respect  to  value,  however,  this  class  of 
products  occupied  fourth  place,  being  led  by 
Axminsler-moquette,  tapestry  velvet  and  WU- 

Tapestry  velvet  carpets  and  rugs  ranked 
third  as  to  quantity  and  second  as  to  value  of 
output  in  1914,  and  showed  pronounced  in- 
creases in  both  respects  as-compared  with  die 


1909  figures.  The  production  in  the  later  year 
was  13,227,819  square  yards,  valued  at  $12,867,- 
635,  representing  increases  of  24.1  per  cent  in 
quantity  and  42.5  per  cent  in  value  as  compared 
with  1W9. 

Wilton  carpets  and  rugs  which  ranked  fifth 
in  respect  to  quantity  and  third  in  respect  to 
value  in  1914,  also  showed  pronounceo  gains, 
the  output  in  that  year  amounting  to  5,616,263 
square  yards,  valued  at  $11,929,605,  and  repre- 
senting increases  of  5.1  per  cent  in  quantity 
and  17.9  per  cent  in  value  over  the  correspond- 
ing figures  tor  1909. 

The  remainii^  products  of  the  industry — 
consistit^  of  body  Brussels  carpets  and  rags, 
ingrain  carpets  and  rugs,  Smyrna  rugs.  Colonial 
or  rag  rv^s,  wool  and  paper-Abre  rugs,  other 
wool  Ttigs,  and  other  products  —  were  valued 
at  $15,8%,6(6  in  1914.  The  production  of  body 
Brussels,  ingrains  and  Smyrna  rugs  showed 
pronounced  declines  in  1914  as  compared  with 
1909. 

The  chief  constituent  material  of  the  carpet 
and  rug  industry  is  wool,  either  in  raw  or  in 
partially  prepared  form.  The  raw  wool  used 
in  1914  amounted  to  52,552,449  pounds  and  cost 
$10,493,743.  Woolen  and  worsted  yams  also 
constituted  important  materials.  Of  woolen 
yam,  21,626,360  pounds,  costing  $5,821,848^  was 
osed ;  of  worsted  yarn  9,267,278  pounds,  costing 
$4,592,906 1  of  materials  other  than  wool,  yam 
made  of  jute,  ramie  and  other  vegetable  fibre 
is  of  greatest  importance,  the  amount  consumed 
being  59,148,266  pounds,  costing  $6,040,186; 
cotton  yam  to  the  amount  of  24,619,137  pounds, 
costing  $4,637,673 ;  and  linen  yarn  amounting  to 
7,602,200  pounds,  casting  $1,414^24. 

More  than  three-fourths  of  the  mills  pur- 
chased the  yam  which  they  used  in  weaving 
carpets,  there  being  only  22  establishments 
which  bought  the  wool,  hair  or  cotton,  and 
themselves  spun  the  yam  they  consumed.  These 
establishments  produced,  for  their  own  con- 
sumption, 35,615,821  pounds  of  woolen,  10,253,- 
791  pounds  of  worsted  and  2,068,435  pounds  of 
cotton  yam.  Thus  the  total  amount  of  woolen 
yam  used  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and 
rugs  was  57,242,181  pounds;  of  worsted  yam, 
19,521,069  pounds;  and  of  cotton  yam,  26,687,- 
572  pounds. 

CARPST-SNAKE,  the  name  of  two  dif- 
ferent snakes,  given  in  reference  to  the  varie- 
Sited  pattern  of  their  coloration.  (1)  An 
ustralian   python,   about   six   feet   long   when 


specimens  are  black  above,  each  scale  with  a 
yellowish  dot,  with  yellow  spots  ,  .  ,-  more 
or  less  arranged  in  rows.  The  under  parts  arc 
yellow."  It  is  widely  distributed  and  numerous 
in  Australia,  except  In  the  northern  deserts, 
and  is  now  regarded  as  a  variety  (variegata) 
of  the  diamond  python  (Pythott  Sf Holes), 
In  their  habits  ihey  are  quite  alike.  Tney  fre- 
quent open,  stony  ridges,  well  supplied  with 
water,  or  me  banks  of  swamps  and  lagoons, 
where  they  find  the  small  mammals  and  young 
waterfowls  on  which  they  feed;  they  also  spend 
much  of  their  time  in  trees.  (2)  A  viper 
(Echis  carinatusS  of  northern  Africa,  and 
southern  Amb,  buff  in  color,  marked  with 
whitish  spots  and  dark  Y-shaped  marks  on  die 
head.    It  rarely  exceeds  two  teet  in  Ici^th,  bat 


'glc. 


CARPOT  8WBBPBRS— CARR 


is  very  active  and  higbly  venomous,  is  semi- 
noctumal  in  habits  and  causes  the  death  of 
many  persons  annually,  especially  in  southern 
India. 

CARPET  SWEEPERS.  Carpet  sweepers 
of  a  crude  pattern  were  made  in  England  hun- 
dreds of  years  ago,  but  not  until  1876  was  this 
device  seriously  considered  as  «  time-saving, 
labor-saving  household  article.  Several  at- 
tempts had  been  made  in  this  country  as  early 
as  1S56  to  produce  a,  satisfactory  carpet  sweener, 
but  all  (elf  short  of  the  reauirement.  To  Mr. 
M.  R.  Bissell  is  due  the  credit  of  producing  the 


carpet  sweepers  are  now  in  use  throughout  the 
world.  It  consists  of  a  brush  enclosed  in  a 
wooden  or  metal  dustpan  carried  on  four 
wheels,  which  also  cause  the  brush  to  revolve. 
A  later  ^pe  is  fitted  with  an  air  pump  and  in 
this  the  dust  is  drawn  into  the  dustpan  by  suc- 
tion as  in  the  vacuum  cleaner. 

It  is  justly  claimed  for  the  carpet  sweeper 
that  it  is  at  once  the  modem  sanitary  device  for 
sweeiHng  carpets  and  nigs ;  that  it  performs  the 
work  in  one-quarter  the  time  the  com  broom 
requires  and  with  95  per  cent  less  effort;  that 
it  raises  no  dust,  thus  protecting  the  furniture, 
draperies,  bric-a-btac,  etc;  that  it  confines  alt 
the  dangerous  genus  within  the  pan  receptacles, 
after  which  tne  contents  can  be  burned  or 
buried,  thus  promoting  health  and  cleanliness  *,t 
the  same  time. 

The  carpet  sweeper  has  been  constantly  im- 
proved until  to-dav  it  is  a  thing  of  beauty  as 
well  as  utility,  and  its  use  is  recommended  by 
the  leading  physicians  of  the  world.  As  dust 
is  admittedly  a  carrier  of  disease,  it  is  clearly 
apparent  that  the  sweeper  is  invaluable  as  a 
li»lth-promoting  appliance  in  the  hom^  con- 
fining as  it  docs  all  the  dust  and  dangerous 
germs,  to  say  nothing  of  its  labor-saving,  time- 
saving  qualities.  Where  power  or  electnc  cur- 
rent IS  available  the  vacuum  cleaner  is  fast  dis- 


.  (the 

city  of  Modena.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
suffragan  to  Bologna.  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls,  defended  by  a  citadel,  and  has  two  cathe- 
drals, a  seminary  and  manufactures  of  Straw 
hats  and  spun  silk.  The  neighborhood  pro- 
duces rice,  wheat,  hemp  and  flax.  The  chief 
industry,  however,  is  the  cultivation  of  the  silk- 
worm. Carpi  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
prindcality  of  Carpi.    Pop.  (1911)  27,465. 

CARPIO,  Manuel,  ma'noo-il  kar'pe-<^ 
Mexican  poet  and  physician:  b.  Casamaloapan, 
1  March  1791;  d.  U  Feb.  1860.  He  studied 
medicine,  translated  the  'Aphorisms'  of  Hippoc- 
rates (Mexico  1823) ;  and  became  professor 
of  physiology  in  the  University  of  Mexico. 
Entering  political  life  he  became  a  leader  of 
the  Conservatives.  In  1825  and  1848  he  was 
deputy,  in  18SJ  senator  and  in  1853  councillor  of 
state.  Several  editions  of  his  'Poesias'  have 
been  published,  the  latest  at  Vera  Cruz  and 
Paris  in  1383. 

CARPOPHORE,  a  stalk  of  a  sporocarp; 
the  stalk  raising  the  gynecium  above  the  whorl 
of  the  (Umens,  as  in  Patsifiora.    Also  a  pro- 


longation of  the  axis  between  the  carpeU,  as  b 
UmbeUifertr. 

CARPUS,  in  anatomy,  the  bones  between 
the  forearm  and  hand,  the  wrist  in  man,  or  cor- 
responding part  in  other  animals.    See  Hans. 

CARPZOV,  karp'tsdf,  the  name  of  3  Ger- 
man family  which  has  furnished  several 
eminent  junsts  and  theologians.  The  founder 
of  the  family  was  Simon  C^rpzov,  burgomaster 
of  Brandenburg,  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. He  had  two  sons :  Joachim,  who  at  his 
death  at  Gliickstadt  in  Holstein,  m  1628,  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Danish  army;  and 
Benedict,  b.  22  Oct.  1565;  d.  26  Nov.  1624.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  law  at  Wittenberg 
in  1595,  became  chancellor  of  the  Dowager- 
Electress  Sophia  at  Kolditz,  -but  afterward  re- 
turned to  Wittenberg.  A  second  Benedict,  son 
of  the  former,  b.  Wittenberg  1595;  d.  1666;  be- 
came assessor  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Leipzig  in  1645,  then  councillor 
of  the  Court  of  Appeal  and  member  of  the  privy 
council  at  Dresden.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
eminent  jurists  of  his  day,  and  is  the  antbor 
of  several  valuable  legal  works;  but  is  justly 
censured  fot  the  »everiw  and  cruelty  of  his 
proceedings.  He  is  saiiT  to  have  signed  the 
death-warrants  of  not  fewer  than  20,000  per- 
sons. JoBANN  Bnntaci  Caipzov,  his  brother 
(b.  Rochliti  1607;  d.  1657) :  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Leipzig,  and  is  famed  as  the 
author  of  the  'Systema  Theologicum'   (165J). 


theok^  and  jastor  of  Saint  Thomas'  Church 
at  Ldpxi^  distinguished  himself  by  his  knowl- 
edge of  Hebrew  language  and  literature  and 
translated  several  rabbinical  works.  Another 
member  of  the  family,  Johams  Gottiab  Cart- 
zov,  born  at  Dresden  in  1679,  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Leipzig,  and  died  as 
superintendent  at  Liibeck  in  1/67.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  eminent  theolo^ans  of  his  time, 
and  wrot&  among  other  treatitcs,  'Critica  Sacra 
Veteris  Testamenti>  (1728);  'Introductio  in 
Libras  Canonicos  Veteris  Testament!.'  On  the 
family  of  Carpzov,  see  Dreyhaupt,  *Beschrei- 
bung  des  Saalkreises*  (Beilagen  zu  Theil  2 
S.28). 

CARQUINEZ,  kar-k«'n«s,  or  KAR- 
QUKNAS.  a  strait  between  Contra  Costa  and 
Salano  counties,  California;  its  greatest  width 
is  two  miles  and  its  lenRth  seven  miles;  it  is 
navigable,  and  connects  ue  bays  of  San  Pablo 
ana  Suisun.  Benicia  is  on  the  north  and  Mar- 
tinez, Port  Costa  and  Crockett  are  on  the 
south  shore. 

CARK,  Dabney,  American  colonial  politi- 
cian: b,  26  Oct.  1743;  A  May  1773.  He  was 
graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1762 
and  entered  t^e  profession  of  law.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  house  of  burgesses  of  Virginia, 
and  moved  and  eloquently  supported  a  resolu- 
tion to  appoint  a  committee  of  grievances  and 
corresponJence,  in  consequence  of  British  en- 
croachments. His  resolution  was  adopted,  3 
March  1773.  He  married  a  sister  of  Jefferson, 
by  whom  he  is  described  as  a  man  of  sound 
judgment  and  inflexible  purpose,  mingled  with 
amiability,  and  of  a  fanciful  eloquence. 

CARR,  Banne  Aw,  American  anny 
officer,  b.  Con«>rd,  N.  Y.,  20  March  1S30;  d. 


,  Google 


CAltS— CARRACCI 


19ia  He  was  giadnated  at  the  United  States 
unitary  Academy  in  1850,  and  joined  the 
Mounted  Rifles.  He  accompanied  the  Sioux 
Expedition  in  1855,  and  was  active  in  suppress- 
ing the  insurrections  on  the  Kansas  border  in 
1856.  In  J860  he  was  cnga^d  in  a  campai^ 
against  the  Comanche  Indxins.  He  was  in 
active  service  tKroughotit  the  Civil  War,  Com- 
manding the  4th  division  of  die  Army  of  the 
Southwest  and  subsequently  acting  as  com- 
mander of  the  same  army.  He  commanded  a 
division  in  the  VicksburK  campaign  in  1863,  and 
led  the  assault  on  the  works  of  that  dty,  18 
May.  In  December  1863  he  was  assigned  to  the 
Army  of  Arkansas.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general.  United 
States  Army,  and  brcvetted  major-general  of 
volunteers.  In  1868^  he  was  engaged  agunst 
the  Sioux  and  Cheyenne  Indians,  and  afterward 
took  part  in  other  expeditions  against  .hostile 
Indians.  He.  fought  in  13  engagements  with 
Indians,  was  four  times  wounded  in  action,  and 
received  a  congressional  medal  of  honor  and 
the  thanks  of  the  legislatures  of  Nebraska, 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  He  was  retired  in 
1893. 

CARR,  Josrah  Brsdferd,  American  mil- 
itary officer:  b.  Albany,  N.  Y..  16  Aug.  1828;  d. 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  24  Feb.  1895.  He  joined  the 
militia  in  1849,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel. 
In  1861  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  28th 
New  York  Volunteers,  and  led  them  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Big  Bethel  and  in  UcQellan's  Peninsular 
campaign.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Chancellors viHe  and  Gettysburg,  and  for  his 
bravery  throughout  the  war  he  was  brevetted  a 
major-general  of  volunteers.  After  the  war 
he  became  prominent  in  Republican  politics  in 
New  York  State,  and  was  elected  secretary  of 
state  in  1879,  1881  and  1883.  In  1885  he  was 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  lieutenant- 
governor. 

CARS,  JOMph  William  Comym,  English 
art  critic  and  dramatist:  b.  1  March  1349.  He 
was  educated  at  London  University  and  was 
admitted  a  barrister  of  the  Inner  Temple  in 
1869.He  has  been  English  editor  of  L'Art  and 
art  critic  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gasette.  He  has 
published     'Drawings    by    the    Old     Masters' 

(1877)  ;  'The  Abbey  Church  of  Saint  Albans' 

(1878)  ;  "Examples  of  Contemporary  Art' 
(1878)'  'Essays  on  Art' ;  'Papers  on  Art';  'A 
Fireside  Hamlet';  <The  United  Pair";  *The 
Naturalist';  'The  Friar';  'Foijtiveness' ; 
'King  Arthur';  'Some  Emment  Victorians'; 
'Coasting  Bohemia.' 

CARR,  Lad«n,  American  archxoloeist -.  b. 
Troy.  Lincoln  County,  Mo.,  IS  Dec  1829;  d. 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  27  Jan.  1915.  He  was 
graduated  at  Saint  Louis  University  in  1846. 
Having  marked  literary  ability  he  turned  to 
journalism,  and  from  1848  was  connected  with 
the  Missouri  Republican.  Editorial  work  be- 
gan to  imdermine  his  health  and  he  retired  for 
a  time  to  the  country,  where  he  devoted  himself 
■  to  stu<^.  In  1867  he  removed  to  Cambridge; 
which  was  his  home  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
Having  early  taken  an  interest  in  the  study  of 
the  Indians  and  of  American  archxology,  he 
was  aoon  recogniied  as  an  expert  in  that  field, 
and  after  the  establishment  of  the  Peabody 
Musentn  he  was  closely  associated  with  its 
work,    serving    as    assistant    curator    of     the 


muMum  fnun  18^  to  1894.  Wtdi  Prof.  N.  S. 
Shalcr  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  he 
wrote  'Prehistoric  Remains  of  Kentuc^.' 
Among  his  indeoendent  publications  are  'The 
Mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historically 
Considered'  (1883) ;  and  an  historical  volume 
•on  Missouri  (1888). 

CARR,     or     KER,     Robert,     Viscoukt 


James  I  to  England,  when  that  monarch  be- 
came Elizabeth's  successor.  James  chose  him 
as  his  chief  favorite  and  adviser,  knighted  him, 
gave  him  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  and  as- 
sisted him  in  his  schemes  for  a  marriage  with 
Lady  Essex.  The  latter'  after  procuring  a 
divorce  was  married  to  the  Eart,  and  in  1615 
the  couple  were  tried  for  the  murder  of  Sir 
Thomas  Ov«rbury,  who  had  been  Carr's 
confidant  in  the  amorous  intrigue  with  Lady 
Essex.    Thev  were   condemned   to    death  but 

Erdoned.  Somerset  lived  in  obscurity  until 
I  death.  Consult  Ranke,  'History  of  Eng- 
land, Principally  in  the  17th  Century>  (Vol.  I, 
Oxford  1875) ;  Gardmer,  'History  ot  Eng- 
land' (Vol.  II,  London  and  New  York  1889): 
the  latter's  article  in  the  'Dictionary  of  National 
Biography'  (Vol.  IX)  ;  Archbishop  Abbot 'The 
Case  of  Impotency  in  that  Remarkable  Tryal 
An.  1613  Between  Robert,  Earl  of  Essex,  and 
Lady  Frances  Howard>  (London  171S);  Amos, 
'The  Great  C^r  of  Poisoning'  (London 
1846). 

CARS,  Sir  Robert,  British  commissioner 
in  New  Eneland:  b.  Northumberland;  d.  Bris- 
tol, England,  I  June  1667.  He  was  appointed 
to  that  office  by  Charles  II  in  166*,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Nicofis,  Cartwrifrtit  and  Maverick,  In 
1664,  Nicolls  and  Carr  captured  New  Amster- 
dam froni  the  Dutch,  calling  it  New  York,  in 
honor  of  the  King's  brother,  the  Duke  of  York 
after  James  II.  Carr  forced  the  Swedes  and 
Dutch  on  the  Delaware  into  a  cajatulation.  He 
returned  to  Boston  in  1665,  but  met  with  stub- 
bom  opposition  from  the  authorities,  who  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  his  commissionership,  as 
did  also  the  people  of  New  Hampshire.  Maine, 
however,  submitted  and  was  governed  sepa- 
rately from  Massachusetts  from  1666-68. 

CASRACCI,  kar-ra'che,  or  CARACCI, 
Agoatino,  Italian  artist:  b.  Bologna  1558;  d. 
Parma  1602.  One  of  a  family  of  artists  who 
founded  the  Bolognese  or  Eclectic  school  of 
painting.  He  was  a  brother  of  Annibale  Car- 
racd,  and  distantly  related  to  Lodovico  Car^ 
racci,  under  whose  guidance  he  studied  art. 
He  studied  painting  under  Fontana  and  engrav- 
ing with  Tibaldi  and  Cornells  Cort.  He  at- 
tamed  great  masteiy  in  engraving,  and  en- 
graved more  pieces  than  he  painted,  in  order,  it 
IS  said,  to  please  his  brother  Annibale,  who  be- 
came envious  of  his  fame  after  one  of  Agos- 
tino's  i»ctures  had  obtained  a  prize  in  prefer- 
ence to  one  of  his  own,  and  another  excellent 
picture— 'The  Last  Communion  of  Saint 
Jerome'  (now  in  Pinacoteca  of  Bologna,  1592) 
— had  gained  his  brother  universal  aomiration. 
In  160O  ^ostino  accompanied  Annibale  to 
Rome,  and  assisted  him  in  designing  and  paint- 
ing the  Farnesian  Gallery.  He  painted  the  two 
pnndp^  features  of  the  long  walls,  the 
■Triumph  of  Galatea'  and  die  'Rape  of  Cc- 
phahis.'     As  many  penons  said  that  the  en- 


=,  Google 


CARKACd — CASK««»BN 


graver  worked  better  dum  the  oainter,  Ad- 
mbaJe  removed  his  brother,  under  the  pre- 
text  that  his  style,  though  elesant,  was 
not  grand  etioueh.  Agostino  went  tbei)  to  the 
court  of  the  Di£e  of  Fansa,  and  painted  there 
a  picture  representinKthe  heavenly,  the  earthly 
and  the  venal  love.  There  was  only  one  figure  , 
wanting  when,  ejdiausted  ^^  labor  and  mortifi- 
cation, he  retired  to  a  Capuchin  monasteiy 
where  he  died.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  per- 
spective and  architecture.  As  an  engraver  he 
deserves  great  praise,  and  often  corrected  the 
imperfect  outlines  of  his  originals.  He  left 
behind  278  plates,  a  large  number  of  which  are 
original.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  exact- 
ness in  drawing,  his  harmonious  composition 
and  the  extreme  delicacy  of  his  coloring.  For 
bibliography  see  Cakbacci,  Lodovico. 

CASRACCI,  Atmibale,  Italian  painter;  b. 
Bologna  1560;  d,  Rome  1609.  He  worked  first 
with  his  father,  who  was  a  tailor.  By  the 
advice  of  Lodovico  Carracd  he  learned  draw- 
ing, and  made  the  most  astonishi:^  prmress, 
copying  first  the  pieces  of  Correggio,  Titian 
and  Paul  Veronese,  and  painting,  like  them, 
small  pictures,  before  be  undertooW  Urge  ones. 
In  the  academy  founded  by  the  Carracci  he 
tau^t  the  rules  of  arrangement  and  distribu- 
tion of  figures.  He  is  one  of  the  greatest  imi- 
tators of  Correggio.  His  'St  Roque  Dis- 
tributing Alms,'  now  in  Dresden,  was  the  first 
painting  whicn  gave  him  reputation.  His 
"Genius  of  Glory'  is  likewise  celebrated  In 
the  Famesian  Gallery  at  Rome,  which  be,  aided 
by  his  brother  Agosiino,  painted  (1600-04), 
there  breathes  an  antique  elegance  ajid  all  the 
grace  of  Raphael.  You  find  there  imitations  of 
Tibaldi  (who  painted  at  Bologna  about  1550 
with  Nicolo  del  Abate),  of  ifichelangelo 
(the  style,  indeed,  somewhat  softened),  and  the 
excellencies  of  the  Venetian  and  Lombard 
schools.  Outside  of  Bologna  he  is  acknowl- 
edged as  the  greatest  of  the  Carracd.  In  that 
city,  however.  Lodovico  is  more  admired. 
Agostino,  pernaps,  had  more  invention,  and 
Lodovico  more  talent  for  teaching;  but 
Annibale  had  a  loftier  spirit,  more  spon- 
taneity, naivet^  and  naturalness,  and  his 
style  is  more  eloquent  and  noble.  His 
atelier  in  Rome  was  the  workshop  of  many 
famotis  artists,  among  them  Domenichino 
and  Albani.  He  was  buried  at  the  side 
of  Raphael  in  the  Pantheon.  His  best  picture 
is  that  of  'The  Three  Marys,>  now  at  Castle 
Howard,  in  Yorkshire,  Enf^and  He  excelled 
in  landscapes,  many  of  which  may  be  found  in 
Paris,  Petrograd,  Madrid,  Florence  and  espe- 
cially in  the  Palaiio  Doria  Panifili,  Rome. 
Consult  Tietie,  ■Annibale  Carraccis  Gallerie 
in  Palazio  Famese  und  seine  romische  Werk- 
statte,*  in  'Jahrbuch  der  kunithistorischen 
Sammlungen  des  allerhdchsten-  Kaiserhauses 
XXVP  (Vienna  1906);  Schmerber,  'Betrach- 
tungen  uber  die  italiemscbe  Malerei  im  17ten 
Jahrhundert'    (Strassburg  1906). 

CARRACCI,  Lodovico,  IMO-ve'kfi,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Bologna  1555;  d.  1619.  He  was  the 
eldest  of  the  three  Carracci,  and  is  regarded 
as  the  chief  founder  of  their  school.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  butcher,  and  appeared  at  first  to 
be  more  fit  for  grinding  colors  than  for  trans- 
ferring them  to  canvas.  But  his  slowness  did 
not  anse  from  deficiency  of  talent,  but  from 


zeal  for  exceHeora.  He  detested  all  that  ma 
called  ideal,  and  studied  only  nature,  whicb  he 
imitated  with  great  care.  At  Floroice  be 
studied  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  enjoyed  the  in- 
struction of  PasuB^no.  He  went  to  Parma 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  Correggio,  who 
was  then  imitated  by  almost  alt  the  Florentine 
painters.  At  Bologna  he  endeavored  to  gain 
popularity  for  his  new  principles  amoiig  the 
jToung  artists,  and  united  himself  with  his  rel- 
atives, Agostino  and  Annibale  Carracci,  whom 
he  sent  in  1580  to  Parma  and  Venice.     In  1589 


thtv  established  i 


academy    for 


Bofogna,  called  the  ■Academia  degli  Incwn:  _ . 
(i.c,  'of  ihose  on  the  right  way'),  which  they 
directed  jomtly  till  1600,  the  year  of  the  de- 
inrture  of  Agostino  and  Anmbale  tor  Rome, 
From  that  time  till  his  death  Lodovico  was  sole 
(Urenor.  The  academy  was  so  successful  that 
similar  institutions  in  Bologna  had  to  be  closed. 
Among  his  most  famous  pupils  were  Domen- 
ichino and  Guido  Renl  Hts  first  principle  was, 
that  the  stu<^  of  nature  must  be  united  with 
'  of  the  best  masters.    He  soon  g 


an  example  of  this  principle  in  his  'Prophecy 
of  John  the  Baptist,'  in  tne  monastery  of  the 
Carthusians,  imitating  in  single  figures  the  style 
o£  Raphael,  Titian  and  Tintoretto.  With  his 
two  relatives  he  painted  the  frieze  of  the 
Palazzo  Maenani,  showing  the  'Story  of  Rom- 
ulus'; the  frieie  of  the  Palatio  Sampiere,  in 
which  his  share  was  the  'Battle  of  a  Giant  with 
Zeus';  the  frescoes  of  the  monastery  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Bosco,  representing  scenes  from  the 
lives  of  Saint  Benedict  and  Sunt  Cecilia.  The 
finest  works  of  Lodovico  are  in  Bologna,  espe- 
cially in  the  picture  gall etv  or  Pinacateca,  and 
among  them  are  "The  Annunciation';  'The 
Transfiguration* ;  and  '  Sl  George  and  the 
Dragon.'  For  the  cathedral  of  Fiacenza  he 
painted  in  160&-p9  two  large  canvasses  repre- 
senting the  'Burial  of  Mary'  which  are  now 
in  the  Galleria  Farnese,  Parma,  and  a  series 
of  fine  frescoes;  in  the  sanctuanr,  'Choruses 
of  Angels,'  a  'Limbus^'  and  in  me  arch  over 


the 


'Angels   Strewing    Flowers.'      In 
year,     he    executed     'Conv* 


--     - -     yea_.     __     

of  Saint  Paul'  for  the  Munich  Gallety. 
He  excelled  in  architectural  views  and 
drawing,  and  in  general  was  very 
3ugh  in  all  the  branches  of  his  art.  He 
also  executed  several  fine  engravings.  Con- 
sult 'Die  Malerschule  von  Bologna*  in  Dohme, 
•Kunst  und  Kiinstler  Italiens'  (Vol.  Ill,  Ldp^ 
zip  1879)  ;  Bolognini-Amorini,  'Vite  dei  pitiori 
ed  artefici  Bolognesi'  (Bologna  1843);  id,  'Le 
vite  di  Lodovico,  Agostino,  Annibale  ed  allri 
dei  Caraed'  (Bologna  1842)  ;  contemporary  ac- 
counts by  Malvasia,  'Felsina  pittrice'  (Bologna 
1678;  new  ed,  1841):  Bagiione,  'Le  vite  dd 
pittom  dal  pontificato  del  Gregorio  XIII'  (Rome 
1649). 

CARRAGEEN,  kir'rv-gen,  CARRA- 
GHEEN, or  IRISH  HOSS,  a  oame  amlied  to 
several  spedes  of  marine  algc  found  abun- 
dantly near  Waterford,  Ireland,  at  a  place  called  - 
Carragheen,  from  which  die  name  is  derived 
It  abounds  also  on  the  rocks  in  other  localities 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  is  found  on 
the  east  coast  of  North  America.  The  ipedes 
from  which  the  carrageen  of  «Mmnerce  is 
chiefly  derived  is  seaweed  called  Cko»drus 
criipus.     The    frond   is   tbid^   caitilaginons. 


d=v  Google 


CARRARA— CARR£. 


somewlwt  fan-shkped,  and  cqwrnKdiy  forlced; 
color,  various  ibaoo  of  pun^e  or  Ere«n.  It  is, 
gathered  from  the  rocks,  washed,  bleached  in 
the  sun  aud  dried,  and  is  then  the  Irish  tuoss 
of  commerce.  Iti  hot  water  it  sweUs  up,  and 
on  boiUng  it  dissolves.  The  results  of  the 
analysis  of  Irish  moss  are  somewhat  discord- 
ant; but  the  main  constituetil  is  a  mudla^, 
which  differs  froia  gums,  starches  and  jellies 
by  not  ^ving  their  diaracteristic  reactions.  It 
is  nutritious,  and  is  substituted  for  animal  jelly 
and  starches  in  the  preparation  of  soup,  jellies, 
creams  and  similar  dishes.  It  is  of  value  in 
pulmonary  troubles,  and  is  also  used  by  painters 
and  others  in  preparation  of  siie.  It  is  some- 
times  confounded  with  Iceland  moss,  which  is 
a  lichen.     See  Icn^ND  Moss. 

CARRARA,  kar-ri'ra,  Italy,  dty  in  the 
province  of  Massa-e-Carrara,  Tuscany,  on  the 
Lavensa,  near  the  Mediterranean,  and  60  miles 
west-northwest  of  Florence,  and  in  a  valle^r 
surrounded  by  the  marble  hills  to  which  it 
owes  its  celebrity.  An  academy  of  scnipture  is 
estaUished  here,  and  several  artists  have  their 
residence;  attracted  by  the  conveiuence  of  ob- 
'  '  '  f  marble  almost  cost-free.  Carrara  has 
me  churches,  an  academy  of  the  fine  arts, 
a  sianie  of  Garibaldi.  From  400  quarries  4^00 
woricmen  cM  and  ship  more  than  ^1,00(^000 
worth  of  marble  yearly,  and  600  quarries  in  the 
neighborhood  hdp  to  swell  the  total.  The 
finest  and  whitest  Italian  marUe,  of  which  the 
most  valuable  varieties  are  Polvaccio,  Bettofcli 
and  Crcstola,  is  found  in  the  valley  of  Toianck 
although  in  recent  years  the  bluish  marble  of 
Bardi^io  has  come  into  favor.  The  Romans, 
whose  tools  are  frequently  discovered,  called 
the  stone  'marmor  Ivnenie,'*  from  the  city  of 
Luni,  whose  ruins  are  about  three  miles  distant 
from  Carrara.  There  is  a  museum  containing 
numerous  statues  and  Ronun  antiquities,  also 
several  fine  churches.  Pop.  (1911)  49,492.  See 
Cabkaka  Maible. 

CARRARA,  kar-ra'ra,  MARBLE  (so 
called  from  the  city  of  Carrara),  the  variety  of 
marble  generally  employed  by  statuaries.  It  is 
a  white  crystalline  limestone,  sometimes  with 
black  or  purplish  veins,  and  occurs  in  deposits 
of  enormous  extent  —  veritable  ■marble  moun- 
tains." Cariara  marble,  which  w^  formerly 
supposed  to  be  a  primitive  limestone,  is  now 
considered  an  altered  stib- carboniferous  lime- 
stone. The  plotonic  action  to  which  it  has  been 
subjected  has  served  to  obliterate  the  traces  of 
fossils.  The  mountains  containing  the  marble 
are  situated  a  few  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
reach  the  height  of  over  5,000  feet.  Although 
the  quarries  have  been  worked  for  2,000  years, 
having  furnished  the  material  for  the  Pantheon 
at  Rome,  the  supply  is  still  practically  inex- 
haustible. Those  quarries  supplying  the  pure 
while  marble  used  for  statuary  are  the  most 
valuable.  The  so-called  'Carrara  district,*  em- 
bracing the  communes  of  Carrara.  Massa,  Pie* 
trasantH,  Seravezra,  Stazrema  and  Ami,  is  the 
centre  of  the  marble  industry,  Carrara  and 
Massa  are  the  two  most  important,  the  former 
having  a  population  in  the  city  of  21,000  people, 
with  an  additional  21,000  in  the  mountam  vil- 
lages surrounding  it  and  forming  part  of  the 
commune.  These  villages  are  inhabited  almost 
entirely  by  quarrymen  and  the  laboring  class. 
The  commune  of  Massa  has  a  population  of 


about  24:000.  Broadly  speaHtc  the  entne  male 
population  of  these  two  communities  is  actively 
engaged  in  some  branch  of  the  marble  industry. 
There  were  in  1901  in  the  district  611  quarries 
in  active  operation,  of  which  345  are  at  Car- 
rara, 50  at  Massa  and  the  rest  distributed 
among  the  places  named  above.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  are  perhaps  double  this  number 
whidi  have  been  opened  and  afterward  aban-. 
doned  as  being  unproductive,  or  in  which,, 
for  various  reasons,  active  work  has  for 
the  time  being  ceased  Under  the  sanc- 
tion of  ancient  laws,  the  mountains  where 
die  quarries  are  found  are  the  property 
and  under  the  direct  control  of  the  munici- 
pality of  the  district  in  which  they  are  located. 
Applications  for  leases  are  made  to  the  syndic 
of  the  town,  and  within  a  reasonable  time,  after 
survey,  etc,  the  concession  is  granted.  Tht 
concession  is  permanent,  the  only  condition  be- 
ing that  the  grantee  should  formally  renew  it 
every  30  years,  ^ly  the  annual  rent,  and  woiic 
the  property.  The  rent  is  merely  nominal. 
Failure  to  pay  it  for  two  successive  years  or  to 
develop  the  property  in  the  same  length  of  time 
Fenders  the  concession  void  Quarries  thus 
leased  may  be  sold  or  transferred,  or  left  as  an 
inheritance  by  the  grantee  at  any  time,  without 
formal  permission  from  the  grantor.  Until 
1890  most  of  the  output  of  the  quarries  was 
transported  to  the  local  mills,  and  to  the  Marina 
for  shipping,  by  ox-teams.  But  now  the  quarry 
railroad!,  completed  in  1890,  greatly  facilitates 
this  transportation,  Fr^m  Carrara  it  makes  the 
difficult  ascent  of  the  mountains,  through  many 
tunnels  and  over  hi^  viaducts,  to  apoint  some 
1,5{X)  feet  above  Hie  sea-level.  Tremendous 
obstacles  were  overcome  in  the  construction  of 
these  15  miles  of  railroad,  the  completion  of 
which  cost  a^ut  $4,000,000.  Although  largely 
patronized  by  the  quarry  owners,  it  &s  : 


represented  by  a  consular  agent.  The  build- 
ings of  the  city  of  Carrara  are  of  marble,  and 
in  the  churches  of  Sant'  Andrea  (13th  century) 
and  of  the  Madonna  della  Grazie  are  splendid 
marble  statues  of  Rossi,  Garibaldi  and  Mazzinl. 
Hiere  Is  also  a  museum  containing  numerous 
statues  and  Roman  antiquities. 

CARRARA Y.  Philippines,  a  small  island, 
about  30  miles  long  and  6  miles  wide.  It  has 
coal  deposits.  The  population  is  sparse  and. 
wholW  uncivilized,  subsisting  by  trade  with  the 
neighboring  islands  of  Samar  and  Luzon. 

CARRtf.  ka-rfi,  Michel,  French  dramatist: 
b.  Paris  1819-  A  Argenteuil,  near  Paris,  27 
Tune  1872.  He  first  published  a  volume  of' 
Poems,  <FoUes  rimes' ;  then  turned  to  the 
drama  and  wrote  'La  jeunesse  de  Luther' 
(1843)  and  'Scaramouche  et  PascarieL'  He 
men  worked  in  collaboration  with  other  au- 
thors, especially  with  Jules  Barbier.  With  him 
he  wrote  many  dramas,  vaudevilles  and  opera 
librettos,  several  of  whidh  met  with  much  suc- 
cess; among  their  joint  works  are  'Van  Dyck  k 
Londres*  (with  Narrey,  1848) ;  'Jobin  et 
Nanette>  (with  Baltu,  1849)  ;  and  <Lc  Tour- 
binon>  (with  Deslandes,  1866) ;  'Galatee* 
(1852);  fPaust  et  Marguerite>  (1859);  'Lalla 
Raukh>  (1862);  'Romeo  et  Juliette'  (1867); 
>Mignon>  (1867);  'Hamlet'  (1868);  'Paul  et 
Virginie>  (1876). 


=vGe^ogIc 


CARRW. — C  ARBKRA 


CAKRSL,  ki-i<l,  HlcoUs  Amumd. 
French  writer  and  republican  leader:  ti.  Rouen, 
8  May  1800;  d,  24  July  1836.  He  was  educated 
at  ^e  military  school  of  Saint  Cyr.  He  entered 
^uiusiastically  into  several  of  the  secret  soli tj- 
cal  societies  which  were  numerous  in  France 
after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  In  1819, 
when  lieutenant  of  the  garrisons  of  Bel  fort 
and  Neubreisach,  he  became  implicated  in  a 
conspiracy,  and  though  his  conduct  escaped  in- 
vestiKAtion  he  was  removed  with  his  regiment 
to  Marseilles.  He  resigned  his  commisiion  to 
take  an  active  part  in  the  politics  of  his  time. 
Finally  settled  in  Paris,  he  zealously  prosecuted 
his  historical  and  political  studies,  and  became 
intimate  with  Thiers,  Mignet  and  Augustin 
Thierry,  particularly  the  last.  He  pubUdhed  A 
'History  of  the  Counter  Revolution  in  Eng- 
land,' and  in  1830  united  with  Thiers  and 
Uignet  in  editing  the  National,  which  soon  rose 
to  be  the  leadii^  opposition  newspaper.  After 
the  revolution  his  colleagues  joined  the  govern- 
ment,  and  he  was  left  with  the  chief  direction 
of  the  paper,  which  still  continued  in  oppoti-' 
tion.  In  1S32  the  NtUiomtl  became  opetuy_  re- 
publican. Carrel  was  mortally  wounded  in  s 
duel  with  fimile  de  Girardin.  He  h«s  been 
called  the  Bavard  of  republican  journalism, 
littri  republished  his  articles  under  the  title, 
'<Euvres    politique^    et    litteiaires'     (5    vols.. 


['   CARREfttO,     ka-ri'nyd,     Terewt,     Vene- 
zuelan pianist :  b.  Caracas,  22  Dec  1853.     She 


jv  York  and  attracted  the  interest  of  Gott- 
schalk,  who  gave  her  some  instruction  espe- 
cially in  regard  to  plaving  his  own  composi- 
tions. She  has  traveled  widely  in  America, 
and  ^ven  many  concerts ;  she  nol  only  has.  a 
high  rank  as  a  pianist,  but  also  has  won  success 
as  a  concert  singer,  and  has  published  a  num- 
ber of  musical  compositions.  Her  first  husband 
was  Sauret,  the  violinist,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced;  ^e  has  also  married  and  divorced 
Tagliapietra,  the  singer,  and  Eugene  d' Albert, 
the  pianist  In  1902  she  married  the  younger 
brother  of  her  second  husband.  A  woman  of 
many  talents,  she  composed  a  string  quartet, 
piano  pieces  of  the  salon  order  and  the  Ven- 
ezuelan national  hymn;  she  won  admiration  as 
a  concert  singer,  and,  while  managing  an  opera 
dompany,  successfully  wielded  the  baton  during 
the  absence  of  the  conductor.  The  chief  traits 
of  her  playing  are  brilliancy,  dash  and  mascu- 
Ithe  vigor,  for  which  she  gained  the  appellation 
of  "Ibe  Valkyr  of  the  piano.*  The  softer 
qualities  are  not  greatly  in  evidence,  but  her 
intellectual,  grasp  and  breadth  of  interpretation 
place  her  among  the  greatest  pianists. 

CARRBftO  DS  MIRANDA,  Jnan,  Span- 
ish painter:  b.  Avilis,  Asturias,  25  March  1614: 
d.  Madrid  1685.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Barlo1om£ 
Roman  and  Pedro  de  Las  Cuevas  in  Madrid 
and  became  court  painter  to  Philip  IV  and 
Charles  II.  He  painted  many  portraits  and 
excelled  in  religious  subjects.  He  succeeded 
Velasquez  as  the  first  portrait  painter  of  the 
Spanish  court  As  a  colorist  die  Spaniards 
rank  him  with  Titian  and  Vand]*e.  His  prin- 
cipal paintings  are  a  'Magdalen  in  the  Desert,* 
at  Madrid ;  a  'Holy  Family,'  at  Toledo ;  and  a 
'Baptism    of    our    Saviour,'     at    Alcaic    de 


Henares.  His  principal  surviving  frescoes  were 
commissioned  in  1669  by  Velasquez  and  painted 
with  the  assistahce  of  Francesco  Rizi.  lliey 
are  at  Saint'  Antonio  de  los  Portugeses  in 
Madrid  and  at  the  cathedral  in  Toledo.  Con- 
sult Beruete  y  Moret  'The  Madrid  School  of 
Painting'    (London  1909). 

CARRER,  kar'rir,  Lnigi,  Venetian  poet; 
b.  Venice  1801 ;  d.  23  Dec  1850.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Padua  from  1830  to 
1833,  when  he  went  to  Venic^  where  he  con- 
ducted a  literary  journal  for  nine  years,  during 
which  time  he  was  also  appointed  by  the  mu- 
nicipal council  professor  in  the  school  of  arts 
and  science^  and  director  of  the  museiun.  Here 
he  published  several  works,  the  most  popular  of 
which  is  'L'Anello  di  sette  gemme,'  a  pocdc 
description  of  the  history  and  customs  of 
Venice.  His  works  were  published  with  a 
biographv  by  Crespan  (Vemce  1869)  and  by 
Abrate,  'L'opera  poetics  di  L.  Carrer*  <Turin 
1905), 

CARRERA,  kir-ri'ra,  die  name  of  thrtK 
brothers  distin^sbed  as  Chilean  revolutionists 
—  Jds£  Mignel,  luan  Josi  and  Luis.  The  chief 
of  them,  Jose  Vigud,  was  bom  at  Santiago, 
IS  Oct  178S:  d.  5  Sept  1821.  Thejr  were  die 
sons  of  a  rid)  landholder  in  Santiago,  Don 
Ignado  Carrera.  Jos£  Miguel  Carrera  be> 
came  a  major  in  the  Spanish  army.  The  rcvo- 
hition  attracted  him  to  Chile  where  he  became 
a  member  of  the  junta  in  1810,  usurping  the 
presidenn>,  and,  in  1811,  becoming  military  dic- 
tator. Hb  intemat  administration  was  most 
effective.  He  established  the  newspaper  La 
Aurora,  the  first  paper  in  Chile.  In  1813  he 
was  deposed  and  succeeded  by  O'Higgins.  The 
brothers  Juan  Josi  and  Luis  were  apprehended 
in  1817  near  Mendoza,  on  a  nolitical  charge, 
and  having  been  first  inducea  to  attempt  an 
escape,  were  brou^  to  trial  and  executed 
18  March  1818.  Jos£  Miguel  raised  a  body  of 
troops  to  reveogc  their. death,  and  a  conspiracy 
was  formed  in  his  favor;  but  it  was  detected 
and  suppressed,  and  he  himself  being  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner,  was  executed  on  the  same 
spot  as  his  brothers.  A  bronze  statue  to  Jose 
Miguel  was  erected  at  Santiago,  Chile,  1864. 

CARRERA,  Rafael,  Guatemalan  revolu- 
tionist: b.  Guatemala  1814;  d.  there,  14  April 
1865.  He  was  of  mixed  Indian  and  negro  blood. 
In  1837  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  insurgent  mountaineers.  Enlisting  the 
empathies  of  the  Indian  popnlation,  the  rd>et- 
lion  spread.  Carrera  was  in  turns  courted  and 
caressed  b^  members  of  the  opposite  factions 
which  divided  the  government  In  Febman 
1838,  he  occupied  the  dty  of  Guatemala  with 
6,000  Indians,  and  succeeded  in  restraining  his 
followers  from  anticipated  pillage  and  massacre. 
Having  secured  bis  victory,  he  became  dictator 
in  1840,  and  from  1844  to  1848  was  Preudent 
of  Guatemala ;  was  re-elected  in  1852,  and  made 
President   for  life  in   1^.     He  recalled  the 

tesuits,  who  in  1767  were  banished,  and  in  1863 
e  engaged  in  war  with  Salvador.  After  cap- 
turing San  Salvador,  the  c^iital  he  dqiosed 
President  Barrios  and  ^ipointed  Dne&as  m  his 
stead. 

CARRERA,  Valentino,  Italian  dramatic 
poet:  b.  Turin.  19  Dec  1834.  He  was  con- 
nected with  the  Italian  Cosloms  Department 


[ig 


vGooglc 


CASRBHB  w  C«RRI  AOK 


until  his  retirement  ftvm  nlBce  in  1E08.  H*  U. 
one  of  the  most  originai  dramatists  of  Italy, 
emedally  In  comedy.  Among  his  many  com- 
cdiea,  vaudevilles,  etc.,  the  play  which  won  for 
hicn  a  wide  neputatkm  was  <La  quadema  di 
Nanni>  (1870),  a  perfect  picture  of  Florentine 
life.  Other  worl^  are  *Galateo  nitovisMmo' 
(1875),  'Bastoni  fra  le  mote*  (1884)  and  <L« 
nloiotia  di  Giannina*  08S5).  A  collective  edi- 
tion appeared  in  Turin  in  1887-90  (4  vols.). 

CARRBRB,  John  Merven,  American 
architect:  h.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Braxil,  9  Nov. 
1858;  d.  1  March  1911.  He  was  of  American 
parentage  and  his  education  was  obtained  in 
Switzerland.  He  was  graduated  from  the  ficole 
des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  in  1S32,  and  since  IS84 
was  a  partner  in  tne  firm  of  Carrere  & 
Hastings,  New  Yort  The  firm  rapidly  ac- 
(luired  a  distin^shed  reputation  for  the  imaK- 
inalive  and  artistic  <iuality  of  its  work,  strongly 
colored  by  French  influence.  The  first  import- 
ant commissions  of  the  younf  practitioners 
were  the  Ponce  de  Leon  and  Alcjiar  hotels  at 
Saint  Angnstine,  Fla.  Other  early  works  were 
the  Central  Congregational  Church  at  Provl' 
dence,  R.  I.,  and  the  Mail  and  ^ntress  and 
Edison  buildings  in  New  Yotie.  The  list  of 
their  later  works  is  very  long;  by  far  the  moat 
notable  is  the  Public  Library  of  New  Yoit, 
erected  at  a  oost  of  omr  ^8,000,000  from  de- 
rigiu  which  won  the  prize  m  a  competition  in 
which  many  of  the  ablest  architects  of  the 
country  were  cmplcqrBd.  He  died  1  March 
1911,  as  the  result  of  an  accident  The  body 
was  laid  in  state  in  the  still  unfinished  Public 
Library,  and  the  great  throngs  tbax  pressed  to. 
view  It  attested  ue  high  regard  io  which  he 
was  held. 

CARRHS,  klKre,  tbe  name  of  the  site  of 
an  andent  city  m  northwestern  Mescvotansia, 
supposed  to  have  been  the  biblical  Haran.  Il  is. 
famous  in  history  for  the  disastrous  defeat  of 
Crassus  by  the  Parfhiang;  S3  B.C 

CARKIACOU,  kir-re-a-koo',  the  largest  of 
the  Grenadine  Islands,  in  the  British  West 
indies,  seven  miles  long  and  from  two  to  four 
Inroad.  It  is  well  cultivated  and  produces  good 
crops  of  cotton.  The  town  and  harbor  of  Hills- 
borough are  on  its  west  side.  Area,  nearly  11 
square  miles.     Pop.  <1911)  6,886. 

CARRIAGE,  a  general  term  for  vehicles 
of  all  sorts,  especiafly  wheeled  vehicles;  in  a 
narrower  sense  confined  to  those  vehicles  that 
carry  persons  only,  for  pleasure  or  business. 
The  carriage  is  as  old  as  the  wheel.  The  first 
man  who  cut  two  slices  from  a  tree-trunk  and 
mounted  them  on  an  axle  was  the  builder  of 
ike  first  carriage,  Tbe  early  Egyptians  and 
Assyrians  knew  how  to  make  wheels,  as  evi- 
denced by  carvings  on  their  monuments.  Some 
of  these  show  a  wheel  made  with  tire  and 
spokes,  a  construction  indicating  considerable 
mechanical  knowledge. 

w 

axle, 

and  a  rude  box  open 
early  chariots.  These  and  the  primitive  carts 
were  always  two-wheeled.  Four-wheeled  car- 
riages came  into  use  with  the  formation  of 
comparatively  smooth  roads,  being  ill  adapted 
to  rough  and  unkept  highways.  The  earliest 
Icicles  were  made  almost  wholly  of  wood, 
pinned  together,  the  holes  being  often  bonted 


made  use  of  the  two-wheeled  earruca  (fro-.. 
which  wotil  'carriage*  is  derived),  but  although 
cfaaiiots  of  war  and  cans  for  transportation 
were  comparatively  common  from  early  times, 
the  carria^  proper,  for  conveying  persons,  waa 
in  very  sh^l  use  before  the  16tti  century. 

As  late  as  1550  there  were  only  three 
coaches  in  all  Paris,  and  the  stage  coach  did 
not  nnjcc  its  apptsiranoe  In  EnelaDd  until  1555. 
When  the  coach  and  covered  carriage  first 
came  into  use  they  were  considered  fit  only  for 
women  and  children,  men  scorning  to  seek 
such  protection  from  the  weather  as  is  afforded 
by  a  covered  vehicle.  By  dte  opening  of  the 
1/th  century  the  coach  had  become  popular,  and 
not  only  crowned  heads,  bat  titled  families, 
doniMieniy  employed  them,  emUaioned  wiUi 
their  arms  and.  decorated  to  the  hi^st  de- 
gree. Some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  de^mt 
handiwork  of  that  period  was  expended  in  dM 
ornamentation  of  coaches.  Elaborate  painting, 
upholstory  and'  joiner-work  combined  to  pro- 
duce the  most  sumptuous  of  vehicles.  No  such 
extrenK  effort  at  mspla^  has  characterized  car- 
riages of  later  generations. 

About  1625  tbe  hacknoy  coach  came  into  ex- 
istence in  Loodon,  and  the  hired  cab  soon  be- 
came aa  established  InstitutkHL  Tbe  increaso 
of  post-roads  and  seneral  improvement  in  high- 
ways canscd  a  gradual  increase  in  private  car- 
riages and  wheeled  vehicles  of  all  sorts  during 
the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  The  bodies  oiE 
these  early  carriages  and  coaches  were  sus- 
fended  by  leather  straps^  and  depended  on 
thesCj  in  combination  wiUi  the  sprin^ess  of 
the  timber  employed,  to  reduce  the  shocks  and 
jolts,  to  the  occupants.  Thai  tbey  were  jolty 
enou^  to  afford  con^derable  exercise  can  be 
testified  to  by  those  who  have  taken  up  the 
modem  spon  of  coaching  in  imitation  of  the 
old-time  tally-ho  coach.  About  1700,  steel 
springs  were  introduced,  but  they  did  not  make 
very_  rapid  headway.  The  C  spnng  was  a  radi- 
cal improvement,  but  gave  way  to  the  elliptic 
spring,  which  was  invented  in  1804  and  remains 
in  use  to  the  present  day.  The  rubber-tired 
wheel  was  borrowed  from  tbe  bicycle  about 
1875,  and  still  further  added  to  the  comfort  of 
carnage  riders,  while  the  pneumatic  tire  of 
more  recent  date  affords  the  latest  refinement 
of  corafort_ 

The  various  wheeled  vehicles  that  may  be 
grouped  under  the  name  "carriage*  embrace  a 
wide  nomenclature,  the  best  known  being  here 
grouped 

AmIo-cot,  Auto-lrHck,  etc  A  car,  tnick,  etc, 
having  an  automatic  engine.    See  Automobile. 

BarOMckt,  a  four-wheeled,  falling  top  car- 
riage, with  low  body,  two  inside  seats  facing, 
and  an  outer  driver's  seat. 

Berlin,  a  four-wheeled  covered  carriage  hav- 
ing a  rear,  seat  behind  the  body. 

Britsska,  or  Breet,  a  four-wheeled  Russian 
carriage  with  falling  top  and  a  rear  seat  un- 
covered 

Brougham,  a  four-wheeled  covered  carriage 
with  outer  driver's  seat,  and  the  fore  bo<fy  cut 
under  so  as  to  turn  short.  The  mitiiahtre 
brougham  seats  only  two. 

Bufkboard,  a  very  simple  form  of  carriage, 
in  which  a  springboard  of  wood  takes  the  place 
of  tbe  springs,  the  seat  being  placed  in  the  ceo- 
tre  of  the  springboard. 


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B*ff0y>  a  li^t  carriage  with  dlher  two  or 
four  wneels,  and  with  or  without  »  top. 

Cat  (short  for  cabrioUt,  but  of  more  gen- 
eral meaning)]  a  carriage  licensed  to  carry  pas- 
sengers for  hire,  usual^  dosed,  with  an  outer 
driver's  seat. 

Cabriolet,  a  two-wheeled  (later  four- 
wheeled),  two-seated,  covered  carriage  with 
falling  top. 

Calaik,  or  Caiiche,  a  two-wheeled  carriage 
with  a  falling  or  folding  top,  a  seat  for  two 
passengers  and  a  narrow  seat  on  the  dashboard 
for  the  driver;  much  used  in  (Canada.  TTic  top 
itself  is  also  called  a  calash. 

Car,  (1)  An  automobile  with  two  or  more 
seats;  (2)  a  railway  carriase;  (3)  a  carriage  of 
unusual  magnificence  ai  for  use  in  a  proces- 
sion; (4)  a  van;  (5)  one  of  various  special 
forms  of  vehicle,  as  the  Irish  jaunting-car. 

Carryall,  a  four-wheeled  covered  carriage; 
H^t   and  commodious,  having  two   or  more 

Cart,  (1)  a  two-wheeled,  light,  topless  pleas- 
ure veiucle;  (2)  a  heavy  two-wheeled  spring- 
less  vehicle,  with  a  strong  box,  for  carrying 
rough  material. 

Chaiie,  originally  a  two-wheeled,  one-horse 
vehicle  with  a  top,  the  body  bring  hung  on 
straps;  later,  a  light,  topless,  four-\rtieeled  car- 
riage of  varying  construction. 

Chariot,  uie  early  two'wheeled  war-carriage ; 
also  a  light  18th-century  coach,  with  one  inner 
seat  and  a  driver's  seat. 

Coach,  a  four-wheeled  covered  carriage  of 
large  size,  having  two  or  more  inner  seats  and 
one  or  more  outside  —  a  tally-ho;  also,  a  two- 
seated  four-wheeled  cab,  or  large  hack. 

Coupt,  a  four-wheeled  carriage,  low-bodied, 
with  an  outer  driver's  seal. 

Curricle,  a  simple  form  of  two-wheeled  two- 
horse  carriage. 

Dog-cart,  a  li^t  pleasure  cart  with  back- 
to-back  seats,  the  rear  seat  covering  a  box  to 
carry  a  dog  or  dogs. 

Drag,  a  form  of  coach  or  tally-ho,  some- 
times uncovered. 

Drosky,  a  lon^-bodied,  four-wheeled  Rus- 
uan  carriage.  In  its  primitive  form  the  bod^  is 
a  plank  on  which  the  passengers  ride  astnde; 
also,  in  some  European  cities,  a  public  hack. 

fiacre,  the  French  name  for  a  public  cab. 

Gig,  a  very  light,  small-bodied,  two-wheeled, 
one-horse  vehicle,  with  seat  for  one. 

Hack,  a  hackney  coach;  loosely,  any  cab. 

Hackney  Coach,  a  four-wheeled  coach  kept 

Hansom,  or  Hansom  Cab,  a  two-wheeled, 
low-bodied,  one-horse,  covered  carriage,  hav- 
ing a  single  seat  closea  in  with  front  doors,  and 
a  seat  for  the  driver  behind. 

Jaunting-Car,  a  light  two-wheeled,  some- 
limes  four-wheeled,  vehicle  haying  a  perch  in 
front  for  ihe  driver,  and  longituiUnal  seats 
extend  over  the  wheels,  and  a  well  between 
them  for  baggage. 

Landau,  a  coach-like  vehicle  having  a  top, 
the  forward  part  of  which  is  removable  and  the 
rear  part  folding. 

Landaulel,  a  one-seated  landau, 

Omnibut,  a  four-wheeled  covered  carriage 
with  long  body,  seats  running  longitudinally,  a 
rear  door  with  steps;  often  with  seats  on  the 


ing  constructton,  usually  low-b 

Rockaway,  a  four-wheeled  pleasure  carriage 
with  two  seats  and  permanent  top. 

Sodablt,  a  four-wheeled  tc^less  pleasure 
carriage,  with  facing  seats. 

Stage,  a  four-wheeled  carriage  of  large  size, 
with  several  seats  inside  and  on  top,  for  long 
journeys;  called  also  stage  coach;  loosely,  an 
omnibus. 

Sulky,  a  two-Wheeled  carriage,  of  skeleton 
construction,  with  a  seat  for  one  directly  on  the 
shafts, 

Surrey,  a  light  four-wheeled  box  carriage 
with  two  seats  and  often  side-bars. 

Tally-ho,  a  four-in-hand  coach. 

T  Cart,  a  pleasure  cart  having  a  T-shaped 
body. 

Trap,  a  Measure  carriage ;  a  term  used  very 
loosely. 

Van,  a  very  large  covered  wagon  for  con- 
veying bulky  articles,  as  furniture. 

Victoria,  a  four-wheeled  carriage  with  fall- 
ing top.  a  seat  in  the  body  for  two  and  an  ele- 
vated driver's  seat  cut  under. 

Wagon,  a  heavy  four-wheeled  vehicle,  osti- 
ally  with  rectangular  box,  for  carrying'  goods, 
sometimes  with  removable  seats,  and  often  with 
removable  top. 

(VapoMtte,  a  light  wagon  for  pleasure  rid- 
ing with  longitudinal  seats  facing  each  other, 
and  entered  by  steps  and  a  door  in  the  rear. 

To  these  might  be  added  many  more  com- 
pound names,  as  top-buggy,  box-buggy,  oost- 
chaise,  etc  It  is  difficult  sometimes  to  draw 
the  line  of  distinction  absolutely  between  many 
of  the  forms  of  carriages  here  named.  Even 
the  very  common  names  of  "coach*  and  •oA* 
overly  in  use,  that  which  one  would  cail  a  cab 
in  one  part  of  die  country  being  known  as  a 
coach  in  some  other  section. 

The  important  parts  common  to  the  typical 
form  of  carriage  are  as  follows;  Body,  seat, 
top,  hood,  dashboard,  apron,  step,  springs,  run- 
ning-gear, perclL  forward  gear,  clip,  fifth- 
wheel,  tongue,  snafts,  swingletiee,  dcuibletree, 
axle,  wheel,  hub,  spoke;  felloe,  tire.  The  body 
of  a  carriage  is  commonly  made  of  selected 
hard  wood,  ash,  oak,  hickoty,  etc,  being  pre- 
ferred. It  is  put  together  with  iron  braces, 
screwy  mortises,  and  tenons,  and  glue  The 
top,  if  permanent,  is  supported  on  selected 
wood  uprights,  or,  if  falling,  is  framed  of  iron 
or  steel  rods  that  fold  up  and  open  into  a 
braced  position.  Leather, .canvas  and  leather- 
ette are  used  as  coverings.  The  gear,  axles, 
shafts,  poles,  etc.,  are  commonly  of  wood, 
selected,  with  special  reference  to  strai^t  grain 
and  consequent  strength.  The  parts  are  largely 
reinforced  with  met^  at  all  points  where  spe- 
cial strength  or  resistance  to  iriction  is  essen- 
tial. The  tendency  is  to  increase  the  use  of 
metal  to  replace  wood,  and  many  carriages  are 
made  with  steel  axles  and  Bide-t»rs. 

The  fifth-wheel  is  the  drcular  device  in 
which  the  forward  axle  turns,  and  is  made  of 
iron  or  steel.  The  axles  have  metal  boxes, 
which  in  the  old  style  are  lubricated  with  axle- 
grease,  but  in  many  modem  vehicles  roller- 
bearings  are  being  substituted  that  run  with 
very  little  or  no  lubrication.  The  reflation 
wooden  carriage-wheel  has  sftokes  let  into  the 
bub  attd  felloes,  the  whole  bang  held  together 


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CARKLAGS.  AMD  WAGON  INDUSTRY 


by  the  pressure  o(  an  iron  tire.  Instead  of 
making  a  wheel  in  the  form  of  a  flat  disc,  the 
practice  is  to  make  it  dishir^;  that  is,  with  the 
spokes  inclining  slightly  away  from  the  body 
of  the  carriage.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  a 
vehicle  wheel  that  is  one  of  a  pair  receives  the 
most  strain  when  the  vehicle  is  on  an  incline 
tipped  to  one  side.  In  this  position  of  severest 
strain  the  spokes  of  the  wheel  on  the  lower 
side  nearest  the  ground  bear  the  weight,  and 
when  dished  are  inclined  to  the  best  position 
to  receive  the  load. 

This  dishing  of  the  wheel  produces  a  neces- 
sity for  placing  the  axle  box  slightly  out  of 
alignment.  A  dished  wheel  running  on  a 
straight  axle  tends  to  bear  against  the  end  nut 
and  work  aS  the  axle.  By  drawing  the  axle 
skein  slightly  inward  at  the  forwaro  side  this 
tendency  is  overcome  and  the  wheel  runs  true. 
The  wire  wheel,  or  bicycle  wheel,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called,  is  made  on  a  different  principle, 
and  dishing  of  the  spokes  and  drawing  of  the 
axle  are  unnecessary.  In  these  wheels  the  hub 
may  be  regarded  as  suspended  from  the  tire, 
and  the  wire  spokes  arc  so  Spread  that  they 
receive  the  strains  due  to  an  inclined  roadway 
to  as  good  advantage  as  would  the  spokes  of  a 
dishea  wooden  wheel. 

Previous  to  1850  most  carriages  were  built 
by  wheelwrights,  assisted  by  blacksmiths,  and 
the  wheelwright's  shop  was  to  be  found  beside 
the  blacksmiUi's  shop  in  nearly  every  viUs^ 
The  development  of  carriage  inanufaclones 
changed  all  this.  The  carriage  factories  buy 
their  lumber  and  hardwood  and  supplies  in 
large  quantities,  and  use  up  the  raw  material 
in  a  more  economical  manocr  than  could  the 
wheelwright;  but  their  greatest  advantage  is 
the  use  of  special  machinery , 

The  term  'railway  carriage"  was  commonly. 
employed  in  the  early  days  of  railroads,  and  is 
stiti  in  use  in  Great  Britain,  where  "coach*  is. 
however,  the  technical  word,  but  in  the  United 
States  it  has  given  way  altnost  wholly  to  the 
shorter  and  more  distinguished  •car".  See  Cab 
BuiLDiMG  iNsusTRy. 

Charleb  H.  Gk:hrame, 
Author  of  'Modem  Itidtutrial  Progress.* 

CARRIAGE  AND  WAGON  INDUS- 
TRY. Probably  one  of  the  most  salient  fea- 
tures in  the  progress  of  the  world  and  one 
which  has  added  greatly  to  the  sum-total  of 
human  happiness  has  been  transportation  by 
means  of  vehicles.  The  attempt  to  discover  the 
birthplace  of  the  industry  and  the  study  of  the 
advancement  in  the  art  of  construction  are  of 

freai  interest  not  on]^  for  the  history  itself, 
ut  for  the  fact  that  in  it  are  bound  the  true 
history  of  the  advancement  of  the  world;  the 
histories  of  peoples,  long  forgot,  who  have  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  comfort  and  case  which, 
we  now  enjoy.  The  historical  records  of  which 
we  are  possessed  prove  that  mankind  has  util- 
ized wheels  as  a  means  of  transportation  from 
the  earliest  periods.  The  float  was  undoubt' 
ediy  the  first  means  of  constructive  transporta- 
tion and  from  this  we  find  the  inventive  genius 
of  man  devising  all  manner  of  conveyances 
for  use  on  land!  First  came  the  sledge  and 
this  gradually  developed  into  a  more  perfect 
mode  of  conveyance,  mounted  on  rollers,  until 
we  have  the  axle  and  the  wheel.  The  roller 
made  from  a  tree  trunk  with  the  centre  shaped 


down  so  as  to  make  a  rotating  axle  was  die 
most  primitive  form  of  wheel.  The  next  move 
came  in  the_  shape  of  the  substitution  of  two 
shorter  sections  of  tree  trunk  attached  to  a 
rotating  axle ;  then  came  the  stationary  axle 
on  which  the  wheels  revolved.  Carts  drawn  by 
men  and  by  oxen  anA  innumerable  chariots  may 
be  seen  on  die  great  sculptured  stones  now  in 
the  British  Museum,  taken  from  the  ruins  of 
the  city  of  Nimrod  near  Nineveh.  The  body  is 
framed  up  with  posts  and  a  top  rail  and  the 
basket  is  made  of  handsome  wii^er-work;  the 
wheels  are  about  42  inches  in  height,  well  pro- 
portioned, have  six  spokes  and  over  them  is  an 
arched  guard  to  prevent  anything  from  com- 
ing into  contact  with  them.  On  another  slab, 
the  king's  chariot  with  an  elegant  canopy  over- 
head, and  carrying  also  the  charioteer  and  an 
arms-bearer,  is  shown.  The  next  noteworthy 
advancement  was  in  the  cart  wheel,  which  was 
similar  in  shape  to  that  now  in  use  in  the  in- 
land districts  of  Uexico.  The  Assyrian  Em- 
pire, thoi^  founded  prior  to  that  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, did  nothing  whatever  to  advance  the 
methods  in  construction,  and  it  was  left  to  the 
Egyptian  to  originate  and  develop  the  more 
perfect  chariot,  which  for  centuries  afterward 
was  the  sole  means  of  land  transportation  and 
which  was  connected  with  all  great  undertak- 
ings. In  Biblical,  mythological  and  all  ancient 
history,  chariots  form  an  interesting  and  im- 
portant part.  In  BibUcat  history  the  chariot 
IS  frequently  referred  to;  the  strength  of  a  na- 
tion was  determined  by  die  number  of  chariots 
in  its  army.  Pharaoh  gave  much  time  and 
thought  to  the  improvement  and  use  of  the 
chanot,  with  such  efiect  that  be  was  enabled 
'ertake  the  children  of  Israel  in  their  flisJit, 


..  _  find  the  word  'carriage*  referred  to 
as  burgage.  ^After  those  days  we  took  up  our 
carriages  and  went  to  Jerusalem."  During 
these  years  the  chariot  developed  and  finally 
wagons  for  use  on  the  farm  made  their  ap- 
pearance, some  having  two  and  others  four 
wheels.  To  the  Etrurians  must  be  given  the 
credit  for  first  putting  into  use  the  canopy. 
Solomon  tells  in  one  of  his  songs  of  a  beauti- 
ful stage  coach  which  he  built  for  his  'Be- 
loved.' of  cedarwood,  having  a  canopy  of 
wonderful  beauty  and  richness,  supported  by 
pillars  of  gold.  According  to  Heroctotus  (450 
B.C.),  the  Scythians  built  and  had  in  daily  use 
two- wheeled  cans  with  a  platform  and  basket 
and  thatched  with  the  reeds  among  which  these 
people  lived,  and  when  not  in  use  these  bas- 
kets were  taken  oC  the  carts  and  used  as  tents.  • 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  of  course  made 
use  of  the  horse  in  drawing  their  chariots,  and 
in  the  story  of  the  Trojan  War,  Achilles  is 
described  as  dragging  the  body  of  Hector, 
lashed  to  his  chariot,  around  the  walls  of  Troy. 
There  was  little  of  luxury  in  any  of  the  ve- 
hicles of  ancient  days ;  the  chariot  with  all  its 
splendor  and  decoration  was  a  comfortless 
thing  without  springs;  even  the  triumphal  and 
funeral  cars  of  early  history  were  springless ; 
their  demand  and  use  for  other  than  warlike 
or  agricultural  purposes  was  hmited;  but  as 
the  world  progressed  so  did  the  vehicle,  and 
though  the  improvement  was  slow,  it  was  nev- 
ertheless sure.  The  Arcera  was  developed  and 
first  used  in  Rome  as  an  ambulance;  then  foL- 


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CASKIAOB  AND  WAGON  INDUSTRY 


hmred  die  Ltctiea  and  the  Bastema,  similar  to 
the  Palanouins  of  India  to-day,  superbly  dec- 
orated and  upholstered  in  finest  silk,  with  cush- 
ions stuffed  with  rose  leaves.  Following  this 
came  the  Carptntum,  decidedly  a  ladies'  vehi- 


the  leader  of  tfie  Arcadian  colony  into  La- 
tium.  Then  followed  the  Carruca,  from  which 
oar  modern  name  of  'carriBge*  undoubtedly 
conies.  This  was  a  Korgeous  affair,  mounted 
originally  upon  one  wheel  after  the  fashion  of 
a  modem  wheelbarrow,  but  later  on  two  and 
then  four  wheels.  The  Romans  considered  it' 
a  greaC  honor  to  ride  in  a  Carmca  and  those 
vehicles  were  often  highly  decorated  in  gold, 
silver  and  ivory.  As  the  Carruca  became  the 
popular  vehicle  for' pleasure  use,  the  Chariot 
for  warlike  purposes,  so  did  the  Benna  come 
into  general  use  as  the  popular  vehicle  for  agti- 
cultural  purposes.  Julius  Cjesar  (55  B.C.) 
brought  back  with  him  from  his  triumphant 
visit  to  Britain  a  chariot  that  surpassed  for 
destructiveness  and  convenience  any  then 
known,  indicating  that  other  nations  were  male- 
ing  progress  in  the  manufacture  of  vehicles 
even  beyond  the  confines  of  Rome. 

During  the  'Imperial  Reign  of  Terror* 
under  the  brutal  ruler,  Nero,  we  find  but  slight 
improvement  in  construction,  although  vehicles 
were  extensively  used.  The  practice  of  letting 
out  vehicles  for  hire  is  of  quite  respectable 
not  to  sa^  hoary,  age,  for  Suetonius,  a  noted 
Roman  biographer  and  historian,  mentions  the 
custom  as  very  general  in  his  day,  150  a.d.,  and 
in  his  writings  refers  to  these  hired  vdiicles 
under  the  name  of  Rheda,  the  Rheda  Meri- 
loria,  and  the  yektcula  Meritona,  both  the 
latter  on  tbe  order  of  a  hackney  coach  open 
and  dosed. 

When  the  world  awakened  from  its  apparent 
long  sleep  of  the  Middle  Ages,  during  which 
the  art  of  vehicle  construction,  like  all  other 
arts,  sank  into  oblivion,  manufacturing  was  re- 
vived and  from  this  awakening,  about  1400 
a.dl,  very  marked  improvements  are  found. 
Emperors  and  kings  vied  with  each  other  in 
the  effort  to  outshine  and  outclass  one  another, 
and  through  this  rivalry  we  note  substantial 
advancement.  In  1550  it  is  said  that  there  were 
but  three  coaches  in  Paris,  and  within  the  next 
century  we  find  the  feudal  lords  throughout 
continental  Europe  supplying  themselves  with 
the  most  exlrava^nt  and  luxurious  of  equi- 
^ges,  some  costing  more  than  $10,000  each. 
The  artist's  skill  was  employed,  poets  sang 
beautiful  songs  in  their  praise,  and  the  epi- 
demic spread,  creating  an  eager  desire  in  all 
to  outnval  their  neighbors.  Legislators  be- 
came alarmed  and  a  trill  was  introduced  into 
the  British  Parliament  seeking  "to  restrain  the 
excessive  use  of  coaches."  Taylor,  the  poet, 
complained  as  follows : 

Twchc*,  coachn.  jtAt*  uA  FUndera  i 


Slow,  in  his  survey  of  London,  rives  cre^t 
to  Gulliam  Booner,  a  Dutchman,  who  in  1564 
■  became  the  Queen's  coachman,  as  being  the  first 
to  bring  coaches  into  England.  In  1S82  the 
French  King  presented  to  Queen  Elirabeth  an 
exceedingly  marvelous  "coache"  with  four  of 
the    fairest   white   "mMles.*     TTtis   wonderful 


state  coach,  wiA  its  highly  ornamented  and 
canopied  body,  was  without  springs.  It  was  a 
sort  of  triumphal  car  for  state  parades.  Her 
usual  mode  of  locomotion  was  by  water  or  on 
horseback.  Captain  Bailey  introduced  hackney 
coaches  into  England  in  I62S,  and  by  his  wide- 
awake advertising  mediods,  made  them  the  talk 
of  all  London. 

Carriages  vrithout  wheels  were  in  use  as 
late  as  the  17th  century  and  were  known  as 
litters  and  were  supported  upon  the  backs  of 
horses  by  means  of  shafts  attached  before  and 
behind  the  litter.  Carriages  on  wheels  pro- 
pelled otherwise  than  by  horses  are  to  be  found 
m  Japan,  known  as  the  Jmrikiska,  and  are 
drawn  bv  a  man  running  between  the  shafts. 
The  modem  vehicle  has  assumed  almost  limit- 
less shapes  and  forms,  and  ages  of  progress  lie 
between  the  gorgeous  chariots  and  state  cars  of 
the  andent  Romans  and  the  modem  buggy. 
From  the  old  time  stage  coach  we  have  pro- 
gressed to  the  dray  or  tally-ho ;  we  no  longer 
nave  the  post-chaise  or  the  curricle ;  but  many 
of  the  olden  types  are  still  to  be  seen,  of  course 
with  many  changes  and  improvements,  of  which 
the  American  buggy  probably  represents  the 
acme  of  development  of  the  carnage-maker's 
art  Many  of  these  types  have  been  imported 
from  abroad,  among  them  the  English 
brou^iun,  named  for  Lord  Brougham ;  the 
landan,  taking  its  title  from  the  German  town 
where  it  or^nated;  and  a  few  specimens  of 
the  Irish  jaunting-car,  which  were  so  popular 
in  their  native  land.  In  1834  the  hansom  cab 
was  patented  by  Mr.  Hansom,  and  this  originally 
was  a  square  body  hung  in  the  centre  of  a 
square  frame,  with  two  wheels  seven  feet  skX 
inches  in  diameter  and  of  the  same  height  as 
the  vehicle.  The  hadmey  coach  was  purely 
an  £n|^sh  product,  but  to-day  we  see  its  lineal 
descendant  m  the  American  hack. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  after  the  middle 
of  (he  17th  century  that  the  manufacture  of 
carriages  gained  much  impetusi  but  from  that 
.......  r.^^  ^^^  brains  and  ingenuity  of  the 


but  steady,  the  industry  took  a  wonderful  place 
in  the  history  and  devdopment  of  our  nation. 
All  vehicles  prior  to  1/50  were  absolutely 
springless  as  previously  stated ;  the  running 
gears  were  very  imperfect;  the  leather  thor- 
ough-brace, which  preceded  the  steel  spring 
and  which  gave  the  ^rst  relief  from  the  jolting 
of  the  old  dead-axle  carria^,  was  the  first 
step  in  advancement  in  this  Ime.  The  body  of 
the  carriage  was  suspended  on  these  thorough- 
braces  which  were  stretched  from  upright  iron 
jades  at  each  end  of  the  running  part,  and  gave 
the  carriage  a  long  swinging  motion,  which, 
even  though  extremely  uncomfortable,  was  far 
superior  to  the  jolt  caused  by  the  springless 
vehicle.  Next  came  the  spring  jack,  made  of 
steel  plates,  and  which  later  was  given  a  sweep- 
ing curve,  and  from  which  our  more  modem 
C  spring  evolved.  The  elliptic  spring  came  into 
use  about  100  years  ago,  and  at  about  the  sane 
time  the  Col  lings  axle  was  invented. 

The  post-chaise  be»an  to  be  used  as  a  general 
means  of  travel  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century.  It  was  a  rambling  affair,  the  body 
hung  very  high  on  leather  straps,  the  wheels 
were  far  apart,  and  the  postilions  rode  the 
•near"  horses.    This  was  improved  upon  until 


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CABBZACn  AND  WAOON  INDUSTRY 


we  see  the  stately  chariot  with  its  richly  dr*ped 
coachman's  seat,  but  which,  however,  wu  not 
used  except  at  state  functions  or  at  royal 
receirtions.  Before  the  Revolution,  very  Uttk 
manafacturing  was  done  in  this  country,  the 
main  business  bcin^  repairing.  The  aristocracy 
of  those  times  living  in  the  large  cities  im- 
ported their  coaches,  carriages  and  phaetons 
from  England  and  France,  and  of  course  the 
manufacturing  end  of  the  business  languished 
through  lack  of  customers.  The  nuniber  of 
TCpair  shops  ^rew  as  the  number  of  vehicles 
increased  and  u  aU  the  lar^e  cities  these  estab- 


lishments thrived,  employing;  for  die  i 
the  skilled  workmen  w' 
Ireland  and  Scotland. 


Engian 


(and. 


The  Revolution  bad  left  its  marie  upon  the 
land,  and  during  the  timet  of  poverty  and  dis- 
tress whidi  followed  there  was  little  tise  made 
of  vdiicles  of  any  kind  except  among  the 
wealthier  class,  and  it  was  fortunate  for  the 
mechanics  and  tradesmen  that  this  class  found 
the  means  of  transpcrtation  inadequate  and 
insufficient  to  cope  with  the  amount  of  travel 
made  necessary  by  the  foundation  of  the  new 
republic  The  next  development  was  the  chaise 
set  upon  two  wheels,  and  it  became  very  popu- 
lar and  came  into  greater  demand  as  the 
prosperity  of  the  country  grew.  It  was  known 
as  the  shay  and  became  the  subject  of  the  well- 
known  poem  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  en- 
titled 'The  One-Horse  Shay.'  At  the  begin- 
ning these  chaises  were  built  without  dashers, 
had  high  wheels  and  the  tops  were  stationary. 
This  s^c  of  vehicle  grew  to  be  very  popular 
and    for  some  yars   there  were  no  dianges 

In  the  early  part  of  the  18th  centuiy  the 
stagecoach  was  introduced  into  England  and 
in  1745  the  first  line  was  established  between 
London  and  Edinburgh,  a  distance  of  400  miles, 
and  it  was  stated  "mat  a  two-end  ^ass  coach 
machine,  h\ing  on  steel  springs,  exceeding  light 
and  easy,  would  go  through  in  10  days  in  stun- 
mer  and  12  in  winter,  the  passengers  lying  over 
during  the  Sabbath  at  one  of  the  villages  on  the 
route.*  They  were  introduced  into  me  United 
States  some  years  later  and  it  is  a  mistaken  idea 
that   the  stagecoach  was  unknown  in  America 

Srior  to  181(^  for  William  Brant,  attorney  for 
cneral  Hancock,  states  that  in  177^  when 
Hancock  married  Dorothy  Quincy,  he  took  her 
by  stage  coach  to  Phitadelidiia  on  his  wedding 
journey.  The  roads  at  Uiis  time  were  little 
Letter  than  bridle-paths  and  in  them  were  many 


SLiincy  of  Harvard  College  wrote  as  follows  of 
e  stage  journey  between  Boston  and  New 
York:  "Tbe  carnages  were  old  and  shackling 
and  mufh  of  the  harness  made  of  ropes.  One 
pair  of  horses  carried  us  18  miles.  We  gen- 
erally reached  our  resting  place  for  the  mght, 
if  no  accident  intervened,  at  10  o'clock,  and 
after  a  frugal  supper,  went  to  bed,  with  a 
notice  that  we  should  be  called  at  3  o'clock  next 
morning,  which  generally  proved  to  be  half  past 
two,  and  then,  w nether  it  snowed  or  rained,  the 
traveler  must  rise  and  make  ready  by  the  help 
of  a  horn  lantern  and  a  farthing  candle,  and 
proceed  on  his  way  over  had  roads,  sometimes 
getting  out  to  help  the  coachman  lift  the  coach 
out  of  a  quagmire  or  rut,  and  arriving  at  New 
Yorl^  after  a  week's  travel,  wonderiiMj  at  the 


ease,  as  well  u  the  Ntpedition,  with  whidi  our 
journey  was  effected."  In  1791,  there  were 
only  1,905  miles  of  post-ioads  in  the  United 
Slates,  and  in  these  roads  were  many  bottom- 
less sfoughg,  ahd  corduroy  bridges  which  con- 
sisted ot  logs  laid  crosswise  over  swamps 
sometimes  for  long  distances,  but  with  the  im- 
provement of  the  roads  and  the  advancement  of 
civilization  we  find  the  industry  of  vehicle  con- 
struction developing  and  spreading  in  America. 
Military  roads  and  post-roads  were  built  by 
the  govenmient  across  [he  mountains  of  Vir- 
sdnia,  cotmecting  the  East  with  the  valley  of 
Ohio;  throng  the  forests  of  Maine  to  the  town 
of  Houlton  on  the  New  Bninswick  frontier, 
and  also  in  other  pans  of  the  country.  Stage 
lines  were  e  stab  us  bed  on  these  roads  and 
thrived;  much  capital  was  invested;  the  busi- 
ness rapidly  grew,  and  the  returns  from  the  in- 
vestments proved  enormous.  Factories  began 
to  spring  up  here  and  there.  The  great  Can- 
estoga  wagon,  with  its  broad  wheels  ;     ' 


and  Pennsylvania  for  the  transportatioi_  _  _ 
freight  and  passengers,  Troy,  N.  Y,  became 
famous  for  its  coaches  and  wnerever  used  they 
were  sure  of  patronage ;  Salem  and  Worcester, 
Mass,  loomea  up  as  manufacturing  centres,  but 
the  most  famous  was  undoubtedly  the  Concord 
coach,  originally  made  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  by 
the  house  of  Abbot;  Downing  &  Company,  who 
later,  in  1815,  moved  to  Salem,  Mass. 

The  War  of  1812  further  helped  the  industry 
in  that  it  threw  us  upon  our  own  resources  and 
.  started  the  emigrant  and  pioneer  toward  the 
great  unknown  West.  This  necessitated  the 
emigrant  wagon  or  prairie-schooner  as  it  was 
called,  and  after  that  the  lighter  farm  wagon. 
Stylish  carriages  and  fine  coaches  began  to  come 
into  demand  in  all  the  large  cities.  Boston, 
New  Haven,  Bridgeport,  Newark,  all  had 
flourishing  sboo^  and  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore  and  Wilmington  were  rapidly  coming 
to  the  front.  A  considerable  trade  with  the 
planters  in  the  West  Indies  grew  up,  the  vehicles 
Deing  exchanged  for  the  products  of  the  planta- 
These  vehicles,  which  were  two-wheeled 


thus  throwing  a  large  portion  of  the  weight  on 
the  horse's  back,  and  besides  this,  the  postilion 
rode  the  horse,  giving  him  a  double  load. 

As  the  emigration  toward  the  West  became 
greater  and  greater,  the  establishment  of  per- 
manent factories  and  repair  shops  became  neo- 
cssaiy  and  the  volimie  of  business  began  to 
assume  considerable  proportions.  One  of  the 
first  to  enter  this  new  field  was  John  Stude- 
baker,  who  in  1835  settled  at  Ashland,  Ohio, 
and  uiere  opened  a  small  shop,  though  it  re- 
mained, however,  for  his  five  sons  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  the  business  at  South  Bend,  Ind., 
operating  under  the  name  of  Studebaker 
Brothers  Manufacturing  Company,  and  who 
are  now  among  the  largest  of  the  4370  car- 
riage and  wagon  manufacturers  in  the  Uni- 
ted States.  It  is  a  far  cry  from  a  village 
blacksmith  shop  with  its  solitary  forge  and  one 
anvil  to  the  marvelously  equipped  factories  now 
operating,  and  when  one  considers  the  vast  out- 
put (1,600,000  carriages,  wagons  and  sldghs 
annually)  he  wonders  where  the  markets  are 
and  where  the  purchasers  are  to  be  found.    In 


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C  AKRICKPBROU8 — C  AfiSIXS 


the  early  jtart  of  the  19tli  centuiv,  the  business 
was  earned  on  by  what  was  known  29  the 
'dicker*  system.  Money  was  seldom  used  in 
the  transactions ;  the  woodworkers,  black- 
smiths, etc.,  taking  parts  in  exchange  or  as  diey 
.said,  •swapping"  and  the  final  settlement  was 
made  in  die  finished  carriage.  This  involved 
less  chance  of  being  in  debt,  and,  according  to 
the  old  operators,  was  much  safer  than  the  cash 
payments.  Bui  the  country  rapidly  outgrew 
this  system  and  we II -organized  and  well- 
equipped  shops  took  Iheir  places,  and  it  seems 
as  thoi^h  we  have  almost  reached  the  limit  in 
quick  and  cheap^  methods  of  production,  but 
undoubtedly  the  inventive  genius  of  the  Ameri- 
can will  continue  to  assert  itself  alone  this  line 
and,  instead  of  retrograding,  we  shall  advance 
and  always  keep  abreast  of  the  times. 

The  modem  system  of  factory  production, 
making  all  parts  tn  large  quantities,  and  using 
special  machinery,  template  and  dies  has  to  a 
great  extent  lessened  the  labor  and  cost  of  pro- 
duction;  hence  the  cheapness  in  the  price  of 
vehicles  at  the  present  tune.  Of  course  there 
are  many  different  grades  of  vehicles  made  in 
this  country  and,  wnile  in  some  instances  the 
price  is  a  fair  indication  of  the  quality  of  stock 
employed  in  the  making,  yet  the  tendency  of 
the  times  b  that  the  best  grade  of  workman- 
ship and  material  obtainable  shall  be  put  in  all 
stales  of  vehicles,  regardless  of  price,  and  the 
manufacturer  who  disregards  this  tendency  may 
some  time  regret  it.  Tnere  is  no  reason  wl^ 
the  downward  rush  of  the  selling  price,  which 
has  been  made  possible  only  by  the  decline  in 
the  cost  of  productian,  should  lower  the  quality 
or  grade  of  the  article  produced ;  nor  is  this 
true  of  the  large  manufacturer  in  this  country, 
v/ho,  realizing  that  the  average  American  has 
neither  the  time  nor  the  ability  to  make  a 
close  examination  of  the  construction,  and 
would  not  if  he  had^  is  perfectly  willing  to  pay 
well  for  a  good  article,  and  who  is  bound  by 
this  trust  put  in  him  to  give  to  the  public  the 
finest  grade  of  work  which  the  hif^est  sldll 
and  care  of  the  best  designers  and  mechanics 
can  produce.  The  most  noteworthy  feature  in 
vehicle  construction  at  the  beginning  of  the 
20th  century  is  the  ra_pidly' increasing  nse  of 
rubber  tires.  These  tires  first  came  into  use 
about  1890,  but  were  used  mainly  for  trotting 
sulkies  or  runabouts  and  were  not  adaptable 
for  the  majority  of  pleasure  vehicles  for  some 
lime.  The-  tires  were  then  made  solid  and 
universally  approved  and  broader  tires  were 
later  adopted,  especially  in  wagons  to  carry 
heavy  loads,  owing  to  the  strong  movement  for 
good  roads  throughout  the  United  States. 

in  1872  the  Carriage  Builders  Natton&l  As- 
sociation was  founded  by  the  leading  manu- 
facturers of  the  country.  Realizing  the  heces- 
sity  of  having  skilled  workmen  for  the  trade, 
a  fund  was  raised  to  establish  a  school  in  New 
York  city,  where  carriaRe  drafting  and  con- 
struction was  to  be  taught.  This  was  a  great 
success  and  has  contributed  largely  to  the  ad- 
vanced methods  now  in  use  in  all  our  modem 
factories. 

From  the  census  tables  it  is  apparent  that 
there  was  a  fair  growth  in  number  of  estab- 
lishments doing  business  during  the  10  years 
from  1890  to  1900  but  a  decline  from  1900 
to  I90S,  which  decline  continues.  The  invested 
capital  has  increased,  but  the  number  of  wage 


earners  is  reduced.  Tlie  total  ptoduclioii  showed 
a  gain  of  10  per  cent  from  1900  to  1905,  bm 
since  then  has  been  stationary.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  antfHnobile  in  place  of  the  carria^ 
and  of  die  auto-trnck  in  place  of  the  wagon  u, 
of  course,  responsible  for  the  slowing  down  in 
the  carriage  and  wagon  industry, 

This  loss  is  in  part  compensated  for  in  that 
carriage  factories  make  a  vast  number  of  auto- 
mobile tops  and  other  parts  and  fittings  of 
motor  vehicles.  The  United  States  census  of 
manufactures  for  1914  dasies  cstniages  and 
wagons  together  as  one  industry,  and  the  fig- 
ures show  that  it  is  still  large  and  prosperous. 
In  that  year  there  were  built  558,492  famiW  and 
pleasure  carriages  of  the  value  of  $34,193,518; 
and  572,613  wagons,  three- fourths  of  which 
were  farm  wagons;'  and  1,287  miscellaneoiis 
buses,  vans,  etc.;  besides  54,700  sleighs  and 
sleds.  There  are  5,320  estabhshments,  which 
produced  $135,792,357  worth  of  vehicles,  with 
an  invested  capital  of  $175,474,000,  and  em- 
ploving  52,540  workers.  To  the  above  might  be 
adoed  the  622  establishments  which  moke  mate- 
rials sold  to  carnage  and  wagon  builders,  widi 
products  of  $16,501X000  above  the  cost  of  tbdr 
materials  and  over  17,000  employees.  If  the 
children's  carriage  industry  be  added  this  gives 
a  count  of  84  more  factories  with  5,769  ent- 
^ployees,  turning  out  over  $^000,000  worth  of 


_    considerable   number    of    factories  i- 

Illinois,   Michigan,  Wisconnn,  Missouri,  Ken- 
tucky and  Massaoiusetts. 

J.  M.  STTjnnAKnL 
CARRICKPBROUS,  kir-rlk-f^gijs,  Ire- 
land, a  seaport  town  in  the  county  ot  Antrim, 
10  mites  bv  rail  northeast  of  Belfast.  It  is  a 
municipal  Dorough,  and  also  a  county  of  itself, 
called  the  county  of  the  town  of  Carrickfergus. 
It  comprises  an  areaof  about  25  square  miles,  of 
which  only  120  acres  is  embracec 


is  a  small  indentation  on  the  north  side  of  Bel- 
fast Lough.  It  is  memorable  in  history  as  the 
landing-place  of  King  William  III,  who  dis- 
embarked on  its  shore  at  the  quay  of  the  town 
of  Carrickfergus  on  14  June  1690.  The  castle 
stands  upon  a  rock  projecting  into  the  bay  and 
b  still  maintained  as  a  fortress,  having  a  num- 
ber of  guns  on  the  walls  and  a  small  garrison. 
The  public  buildings,  besides  the  Episcopal,  Ro- 
man Catholic  and  other  churches,  are  a  town- 
hail,  courthouse,  market-house,  etc  Pop.  about 
9,000. 

CAKSIBR,  Common.  See  Couuom  Cai- 
Rna. 

CARRIER,  ka-rE-fi,  Jean  Baptlite,  Frvndi 
Jacobin:  b.  Yolet,  near  Aurillac,  1756;  d.  Paris, 
16  Dec  1794.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revo- 
lution he  was  an  obscure  attorney,  btit  in  1792 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  convention.  He 
aided  in  the  establishment  of  the  revolutionaiy 
tribunal,  10  March  1793,  and  exhibited  the 
wildest  rage  for  persecution.  He  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louts  XVI,  demanded  the  arrest  of 
the  Duke  of  Orlean^  6  April  1793,  and  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  outbreak  of  31  May. 
On  8  Oct.  1793  he  wu  sent  to  Nantes  with  a 


Digit  zed 


=,Go(: 


CARfilBK-BBLL&USB— CARRIHOTOH 


«n 


commission  to  suppreu  the  dvil  war  and 
finally  put  down  tfae  Vendeans.  Multitudes,  in- 
formally and  precipitately  condemned,  were 
executed  daily;  but  Carrier  resolved  to  destroy 
the  prisoners  l^  numbers  at  a  time  and  without  a 
trial.  He  first  caused  94  priests  to  be  conveyed  to 
a  boat  with  a  perforated  bottom,  under  pretense 
of  transporting  them,  but  in  reality  wiA  a 
view  of  having  them  drowned  by  ni^t.  lliis 
artifice  was  repeated  a  number  of  tunes,  and 
the  victims  were  of  every  age  and  of  both 
sexes.  These  wholesale  murders  by  drowning 
were  called  noj^ades.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  15,000  individuals  perished  in  this  aiamter. 
The  banks  of  the  Loire  were  strewed  with  the 
dead,  and  the  water  was  so  polluted  that  drink- 
ing it  was  prohibited.  Out  of  terror  people  re- 
frained for  a  time  from  drawing  public  atten- 
tion 10  these  atrocities,  but  at  last  the  truth 
began  to  become  known  and  Carrier  was  re- 
called. Shortly  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
he  was  arrested  and  brought  before  the  revo- 
lutionary tribunal,  which  condemned  him  to 
death,  and  he  was  t(villotined  accordingly. 

CARRIBR-BELLBUSB,  kH-ri-S-ba-ltz, 
Albert  Ernest,  French  sculptor:  b.  Aniiy-Je- 
Chateau.  12  June  1824;  d.  I^ris,  3  June  1887. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  David  d'Angers,  and  while 
studying  was  compelled  to  earti  his  living  by 
making  models  tor  the  manufacturers  of 
bronzes.  His  first  work,  a  marble  statue  rep- 
resenting 'The  Death  of  General  Desaix,' 
brought  him  to  the  notice  of  the  public  (18S9)  ; 
and  It  was  followed  a  few  years  later  by  a 
Bacchante,  'The  Messiah,'  a  group  now  at 
Saint  Vincent  de  Paul's  at  Rom^  won  him  the 
medal  of  honor  1&67.  Toward  the  close  of  his 
life  he  was  director  of  the  art  department  of 
the  porcelain  works  at  Sevres,  His  works  in- 
clude marble  sculptures  and  tcna-cotta  busts: 
among  them  are  ^Angelica';  'Madonna  aiid 
Child'  (in  the  church  of  Saint  Vincent  de 
Paul  in  Paris);  ^Sleeping  Hebe*:  'Forsaken 
Psyche';  and  of  busts  of  remarlcable  trulh- 
fulnesi  to  life  of  Ganthier,  About,  Renam, 
where  be  is  seen  at  his  best 

CARRIBR-PIGBON.     See  Houing  Pio- 

CAKRIEK  SHELL,  or  UASON  SHELL, 
a  ^tropod  moUusk  of  the  genui  Pkorut, 
which  covers  its  shell  with  grains  of  sand, 
shell,  coral,  etc.  These  bits  aie  fastened  by 
an  exudation  from  the  mantle,  and  are  appar- 
ently protective  in  their  purpoae. 


After  learning  lace-maldng  from  her  mother 
she  applied  herself  to  decorating  snuff-boxes. 
After  this  she  studied  miniature  and  pastel, 
but  soon  surpassed  her  teachers  and  became 
known -throughout  Italy.  Her  early  portraits 
include  tjiose  of  Maximilian  II  of  Bavaria, 
Frederick  IV  of  Denmark,  12  Venetian  ladies, 
portrait  of  the  artist  and  her  sister  Naneta  (at 
the'  UfHii  Palace)  and  August  the  Strong,  who 
was  one  of  her  early  patrons.  In  1720  she  paid 
a  visit  to  Paris,  where  she  was  enthusiastically 
received  and  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  Her  picture  of  reception  was  'Muse 
'CVowned  with  Laurel.'  She  kept  a  very  inter- 
esting dianr  in  Paris,  which  has  been  published 
hy.the  AbM  -^Tanelli  (1793).    In  1721  she  re- 


turned to  Venice  and  visited  Modena,  Parma 
and  '^enna.  Her  colors  are  extremely  deli- 
cately laid;  and  her  works,  though  often  faulw 
in  design,  are  full  of  a  vivacious  charm,  which 
ranked  her  as  the  leading  miniature  and  pastel 
^nter  of  her  day  and  comparable  with  Cor- 
reggio.  Specimens  of  her  art  are  to  be  found 
in  all  the  g^leries  «f  Europe,  especially  at 
Dresden  and  in  the  Louvre.  'The  Four  Sea- 
sons' (Dresden),  six  pastel'  portraits  (Royal 
Gallery,  Venice)  and  the  portrait  of  the  Prin- 
cess Pia  di  Savoia  Valcarel  are  excellent  ex- 
amples. In  her  old  age  she  became  blind  and 
died  insane.  There  are  good  biographies  by 
Sensier  (with  a  translation  of  her  diarr, 
Paris  186S),  Von  Hoerschelmann  (Leipag 
1908)  and  Malamani   (Milan  1910). 

CARRltfRB,  HorlU,  German  philosopher: 
b.  Griedel,  Hesse,  S  March  1817;  d.  Munich,  19 
Jan.  1895.  He  studied  philosophy  at  Giessen, 
Gottingen,  Beriin  and  in  Italy.  In  1849  he  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  at  Giessen  and 
after  1653  held  that  position  at  Munich.  He 
was  a  defender  of  Christianitv,  opposed  Ultra- 
montauism  and  was  of  the  liberal  school.  He 
also  took  high  rank  as  an  art  critic.  Among 
his  puUtshed  worics  are  'Der  Kolner  Dom  als 
freie  deutsche  Kirche'  (1843);  'Abalard  und 
Heloiie'  (1844);  'Die  Religion  in  ihrem  Be- 
griS>  (1841);  <Die  philoso^hische  Weltan- 
Khatuug  der  Reformationszeit'  (1847)  ;  'Das 
(3iarakterbikl  Cromwells'  (1851)  ;  'Die  Kunst 
im  ZusammenhauK  der  Kulturentwickelung  und 
die  Ideale  der  Menschhcit'  (5  vols.,  3d  ed., 
1876-86);  '^sthetik'  (2d  ed.,  1873);  'Ge- 
sdunack  und  Gewissen'  (1882).  His  'Gcsam- 
melte  Werke'  (14  vols.)  appeared  in  Leipzig 
in  1886-94. 

CARRI£rS8,   Looifl  a«,  French  tbeolo- 

S'an  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church:  b.  AuviU 
i62;  d.  Paris,  11  June  1717.  In  1689  he  joined 
the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  and  became 
well  known  a*  a  theologian.  At  the  request  of 
Bossuet  he  published  a  '(ximmentaire  littoral 
de  I'Ecrtture'  (24  vols.,  1701-16),  reprinted 
Puis  187^ 

CARRINGTON,  Bdwmrd,  American  sol- 
dier: d.  Charlotte  County  Va.,  11  Feb.  1749;  d. 
28  Oct  I810._  He  was  lieutenant>co1onel  of 
General  Harrison's  artillery  regiment,  quarter- 
master-general under  General  Greene,  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Ontinental  Congress  and  foreman 
of  the  jury  in  Aaron  Burr's  trial  for  treason. 

CARRINGTON,  Bdward  Codiington, 
American  lawyer:  b.  Washington.  D.  C,  H) 
April  1872.  He  was  educated  under  private 
tutors ;  was  admitted  to  the  Maryland  bar  in 
1894  and  has  practised  in  Baltimore  and  New 
York.  He  is  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Carring- 
ton  &  Carringtou  of  Baltimore  and  New  York, 
and  specializes  in  corpoiution  law.  Giovenior 
Goldsborough  appointed  him  a  member  of  his 
staff  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  .He  was  cam- 
paign manager  for  Theodore  Roosevelt 
Maryland   in    1912,    and   was    delegi 

to  the  Republican  National  Conventi_..  .„   

cago  the  same  year.  He  signed  the  call  for  the 
Progressive  National  Convention  in  1912,  and 
.later  became  delegate-at-large  to  same:  was  a 
member  of  the  Progressive  National  Commit- 
tee 1912  and  chairman  of  the  Maryland  Pro- 
gressive  State    Committee.     After  the  jnvii- 


it-lar|[e 


eiogic- 


CAJEtRINeTOH — CAJRROLL 


dcDtial  election  of  1912,  he  led  a.  movement  in 
Maryland,  having  for  its  abjeot  the  union  of 
the  Republicans  and  Progreisives.  He  was 
the  regular  Republican  nominee  for  the  United 
States  Senate  a>  1914,  but  was  defeated.  He 
b  a  member  of  the  Maryland  State  Bar  Asso-. 
ciation.  Mr.  Carrington  ia  interested  in  many 
large  enterprises,  is  president  of  The  Ameri- 
cana Corporation  and  ticasuret  of  the  J.  B> 
Lytm  Company,  Albany,  N.  Y, 

CAKRINGTON,  FiUroy,  American  print 
expert  and  lecturer:  b.  Surbiton,  Surrey,  Eng- 
land, 6  Nov.  1869.  He  was  educated  m  the 
island  of  Jersey  at  Victoria  College,  and  came 
to  the  United  States  in  his  17th  year.     From 


1892-1913,   a  period  of   21   years, 
nected  with  the  art  firm  of  Fre 


^*wa. 


t  Frederick  Keppel 
&  Company,  in  1B99  becoming  a  RLfraber  of  the 
firm.  He  became  known  by  his  illuminating  ana- 
lytical introductions  to  art  editions  of  works 
snch  as  Danti,  'New  Life' ;  *The  Queen's  Gar- 
land' (Elixabethan  verse);  Rossetti's  'Pictures 
and  Poems';  William  Morris's  'The  Doom  of 
King  .£risius>:  'The  King's  Lyrics'  (1899>; 
<Thc  Shepherd's  Pipe'  (1903);  'The  Pilgrim's 
Staff*  (1906).  He  published  'Prints  and  their 
Makers'  (1912)  and  was  editor  of  the  unique 
Print-CoUector'j  QuarUrty  from  1911  to  1913, 
when  he  retired  trbm  business  to  become  lec- 
turer on  the  history  and  principles  of  engrav- 
ing at  Harvard  Univerwty,  and  curabor  of 
prints  at  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 

CARRINGTON,  Henry  Beebee,  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  soldier  and  historian :  b.  Walling- 
ford.  Conn.,  2  March  1824;  d.  1912.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1845;  taught  at  Tarry- 
town,  N.  Y.,  1846  and  at  Yale  Uw  School 
1847;  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Columbus, 
Ohio,  in  1848,  and  took  >n  active  part  in<  the 
anti-slavery  movement.  In  the  conveiriion 
which  met  in  1854  to  organize  the  Republican 
party,  Carrington  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee appointed  to  correspond  with  persons  in 
the  different  States  with  a  view  of  making 
the  movement  nationaL  In  1857  he  was  adju- 
tant-general  on  the  staff  of  Governor  Chase 
and  organized  the  State  militia  in  preparation 
tor  war.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  colonel  of 
the  18th  United  States  infantry,  served  throu^ 
the  Civil  War,  and  afterward  was  in  service 
on  the  plains ;  was  wounded  in  war  with  Sioux 
Indians  and  retired  in  1870;  be  became  pro- 
fessor of  military  science  and  tactics  in  Wa- 
bash College,  Ind.,  a  position  which  he  held  till 
1873.  In  1890  he  took  a  census  of  the  Six 
Nations  and  the  Chcrokees.  He  wrote  "Rus- 
sia as  a  Nation'  (1849)  ;  'American  Classics'- 
'Ad-sa-ra-ka,  Land  of  Massacre';  'Battles  of 
the  American  Revolution'  (1876);  'Washing- 
ton the  Soldier' ;  'The  Washington  Ohelislc 
and  its  Voices'  (1887) :  'Lafayette  and  Amer- 
ican  IndependetKe'   and  other  works. 

CARRINGTON,  Paul,  American  states- 
man: b,  Charlotte  County,  Va.,  16  March  1733; 
d.  23  Jan.  I8ia  He  was  graduated  at  the  Col- 
lege of  William  and  Mary.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion he  was  a  member  of  various  conventions 
and  of  the  Committee  of  Safety;  opposed  the 
Stamp-Act  resolutions  of  Patrick  Henn';  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  and 
in  the  Virginia  convention  voted  for  the  adop- 
tion of  (he  Federal  constitution,  , 


CARKINGTON,  Richard,  EtigUsb  astron- 
omer: b.  Chelsea,  26  May  1826;  a  November 
1875.  Carrington  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1344>  to  prepare  for  we  Church, 
but  his  scientific  tendencies  being  awakened  by 
the  lectures  of  Professor  ChalUs  he  turned 
his  attention  to  astronomy.  He  held  the  post 
of  observer  at  the  University  of  Durham  from 
1849  to  1852.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  (7  June  I860).  His  work  'Ob- 
servations on  the  Spots  on  the  Sun'  (1863) 
furnished  data  that  materially  afiected  the 
study  of  solar  physics. 

CARRION  CROW,  any  of  several  large 
carrion-eating  birds.  The  onljr  true  carrion 
crow  (Corvtis  eoront)  is  found  in  England.  It 
is  larger  than  a  crow,  of  black  plumage  and 
with  feathered  neck.  It  is  seldom  seen  in 
flocks,  and  lives  upon  carrion,  small  mam- 
mals, ewrs  and  birds.  In  the  southern  United 
States  the  name  is  locally  given  to  the  black 
vulture  (Catharista  atrato')  a  bird  closely  re- 
lated to  the  turlwy-bnizard  (q.v),  but  smaller, 
and  resembling  it  in  habits  and  public  service 
as  a  scavenger.  Its  bluish  and  spatted  eggs 
number  from  one  to  three  and  are  placed  in  a 
nest  built  under  logs  and  bushes. 

CARRION-FLOWERS,  certain  species  of 
the  genus  Staptlia  (natural  order  AseUpiada- 
tta),  so  calleid  because  of  their  ptRrid  odor. 
See  Smilax. 


altitude  9,420  feet.  It  consists  of  a  laccolith 
or  core  of  igneous  rock  which  has  uplifted  the 
Dakota  sandstone  capping  its  summit.  Consult 
W.  B.  Emery  (in  American  Journal  of  Science, 
Vol.  XLII,  p.  349,  1916). 

CARROLL,  Charles,  <of  Carrallton,' 
American  patriot :  b.  Annapolis,  Md.,  20  Sept 
1737;  d.  Baltimoire,  14  Nov.  1832.  He  attended 
several  schools  abroad;  studied  law  in  Paris  and 
LondoriL  where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Inner  Temple-  returned  to  his  native  country 
in  1764.  In  1775  he  became  a  member  of  the 
'Committee  of  Observation*  at  Annapolis  and 
In  the  same  year  was  chosen  member  of  the 
provincial  convention.  In  1776,  he  was  one  of 
.the  commission  sent  to  persuade  Cuiada  to 
join  the  War  of  Independence.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775,  and  with 
the  other  members  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  on  2  August  of  the  foltowing 
year.  To  make  certain  his  identity,  h«  added 
■of  Carrollton*  to  his  signature,  thus  distin- 
guishing himself  from  another  by  using  the 
name  of  his  family  mansion.  After  many 
more  years  of  imoortant  public  service  to  the 
State  of  Uarvlano  and  to  the  new  republic,  as 
drafter  of  tne  Maryland  constitution.  State 
senator,  congressman,  again  senator  (1789) 
and  member  of  the  Maryland  and  Virginia 
BcAindary  Commission,  in  1804  he  withdrew  to 
private  life  at  Carrollton,  which  was  his  patri- 
monial estate.  There  as  his  life  advanced  he 
became  an  object  of  universal  veneration.  He 
survived  by  six  years  all  the  other  signers  of 
the  Declaration.  Consult  Latrobe.  J.  H.  B., 
fLife'  (Philadelphia  1824):  Mayer  (ed.), 
'Journal  of  C!harles  Carroll  of  Carrollton 
during  his  Visit  to  Canada  in  1776,  as  One  of 
the  Commitsiooers  frooa  Congreea*  (BalttmoR 


Digitized 


6,  Google 


CARROLL  —  CARKOLLTON 


CARROLL,  Henry  King,  American  der- 


Home  (Methodist),  and  from  1876  I 

rcli^ous  and  political  editor  of  the  Indefend- 
enl.  He  has  written  *The  Religious  Forces 
of  the  United  States' ;  and  many  reviews, 
reports  and  miscellaneous  papers.  He  super- 
vised the  compilation  of  religious  statistics  for 
the  Utb  census,  and  in  1898  was  appointed  to 
prepare  a  report  on  the  internal  conditions  of 
Porto  Rico.  In  1900  he  became  a  secretary  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  Missionary 
Society.  He  was  executive  secretary  of  the 
western  section  of  the  Ecumenical  Methodist 
Conference  of  1911.  Besides  government  re- 
ports and  numerous  reviews,  he  has  published 
'Missionary  Growth  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Churrh'  (1907). 

CARROLL,  Howard,  American  journalist 
md  politician:  b.  Albany,  N.  Y.,   1854;  d.  New 


street  grammar  school  in  that  city.  His  later 
education  was  completed  by  study  at  Hanover, 
in  Germany,  and  at  Geneva.  He  then  fl877) 
became  a  reporter  on  the  New  York  Times,  and 
later  received  a  roving  commission  from  the 
Times  as  a  political  correspondent.  While  en- 
gaged in  this  political  work  he  became  ac- 
3uainted  with  the  late  John  H.  Starin,  whose 
aughter  he  married.  Some  time  spent  as  spe- 
cial correspondent  in  Washington  was  followed 
by  his  reporting  the  yellow  iever  epidemic  in 
the  South.  He  was  a  close  friend  of  President 
Arthur,  but  declined  when  President  Arthur 
oflered  to  make  him  his  private  secretary  and 
later  Minister  to  Belgium.  General  Carroll  for 
many  years  never  missed  a  Republican  national 
convention  and  had  a  country-wide  acquaint- 
ance among  the  Republican  leaders,  who  enter- 
tained much  respect  for  his  abili^.  He  was 
chief  of  artillen'  in  the  New  York  National 
Guard  from  1895  to  1898.  During  the  Spanish- 
American    War    he    was    inspector-general 


the  New  York  IrooM.     _      .  _.  

father^  had  died  while  leading  his  brigade  in 


General  Carroll,  whose 

e  leading  his  brigade  in 

the  2d  Army  corps   at   tha  battle  of   Antie- 


1  qualified  for  his  post.  While 
in  Hanover  he  bad  for  three  years  studied  for- 
tification and  drilled  with  the  Polytechnic 
Cadet  Corps.  General  Carroll  was  a  thoroi^ 
German  scholar  and  was  able  to  use  this  tan- 
kage in  some  of  his  campaign  work.  His 
interest  in  German  affairs  caused  the  Kaiser 
to  bestow  on  him  the  order  of  the  Red  Eagle. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  books  and  plays, 
among  his  books  being  »Twelvc  Amencans, 
Their  Lives  and  Times,*  'A  Mississippi  Inci- 
dent' and  'The  American  Countess.'  General 
Carroll  was  president  of  the  Sicilian  Asphalt 
Paving  Company  and  a  director  in  the  Boston 
Asphalt  Company,  Sicily  Asphallum  Company, 
Ulster  Stone  Company  and  the  Fultonville 
National  Bank. 

CARROLL,  John,  American  prelate:  b. 
Upper  Marlborough,  Md.,  8  Jan.  1735-  d 
Georgetowiy  D.  C,  3  Dec.  1815.  He  was  a 
cousin  of  Charles  Carrol!  of  Carrollton  and 
first  Roman  Catholic  bishop  in  the  United 
States.  At  the  age  of  13  he  was  sent  to 
VOL.  s  — M 


Europe  to  be  educated  He  studied  at  Saint 
Omer  for  six  years  and  later  at  the  University 
of  Louvain.  He  was  professor  (1759-71)  at 
Saint  Omer's  and  Li^e;  then,  becoming  a 
Jesuit,  be  was  made  prefect  of  the  Jesuit  Col- 
lie at  Bruges.  On  the  suppression  of  the 
Jesuits  in  1774,  be  returned  to  the  United 
Stales.  In  1784,  at  the  suggestion  of  Franklin, 
he  was  appointed  superior  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic clergy  in  the  United  States;  was  made 
bishop  in  1789;  and  in  1808  was  created  arch-  ' 
bishop  of  the  archdiocese  of  Baltimore, 
(jcorgetown  College  was  founded  by  Bishop 
CarroU  in  1791.  Consult  Shea,  'Life  and 
Times  of  the  Most  Rev.  John  Carroll'  (New 
York  1888),  being  Volume  II  of  his  'Historyof 
the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States' ; 
Brent,  'Biographical  Sketch  of  the  Most  Rev. 
John  Carroll*  (Baltimore  1843);  White's  'Ap- 
pendix' to  Darras'  'History  of  Uie  Cathobc 
Church.' 

CARROLL,  John  JoKph,  American  Ro- 
man Catholic  clergyman ;  b.  Enniscrone, 
County  Sligo,  Irelan(r24  June  1856.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  infancy,  was  educated 
in  Saint  Michael's  College,  Toronto,-  Ontario, 
and  at  Saint  Joseph's  Theological  Seminary  in 
Troy,  N.  Y,  He  became  assistant  priest  in  the 
Cathedral  of  the  Holy  Name,  (Hiicago,  in  1880, 
and  subsequently  rector  of  Saint  Thomas 
Church  there.  He  is  a  Gaelic  scholar  of  prom- 
inence and  has  written  *Notes  and  Observa- 
tions on  the  Aryan  Race  and  Tongue'  (1894) ; 
'Prehistoric  Occupation  of  Ireland  by  the 
Gieiic  Aryans'  (1906);  'Tale  of  the  Wander- 
ings of  the  Red  Lance'  (1909);  translation 
into  Gieiic  verse  of  'The  Rubaiyat'  of  Omar 
Khayyam  (1909). 

CARROLL,  Lewis.  See  Dodgson,  Charles 

LuTWIDCE. 

CARROLL,  Iowa,  dty  and  county-seat  of 
Carroll  County,  on  the  Chicago  Great  Western 
and  the  Chicago  Northwestern  railroads,  96 
miles  northeast  of  Omaha,  Neb.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  tractor  engines,  wire  fencing  and 
wire  novelties,  etc;  roller  and  flour  mills,  ice 
factory,  cream  factory,  marble,  cement  and 
brick  works,  and  owns  and  operates  municipal 
waterworks.  The  settlement  of  Carroll  dates 
from  1867.    Pop.  (1910)  3,546, 

CARROLLTON,  Ga.^  city  and  county-seat 
of  Carroll  County,  50  miles  southwest  of  At- 
lanta, on  the  Little  Tallapoosa  River,  and  on 
the  Central  of  Georgia  Railroad  It  has  exten- 
sive cotton,  fruit  and  live  stock  interests  and 
contains  flour  mills,  rolling  mills,  foundries, 
cottonseed-oil  mills,  machine  shops,  fertilizer 
works,  broom  factories,  brick  and  marble 
yards.  The  city  owns  the  waterworks.  Pop. 
3,297-  " 

CARROLLTON,  111.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Greene  County,  55  miles  southwest  of 
Springfieli  on  the  Chicago  &  Alton  Railroad 
It  has  a  large  trade  in  the  products  of  the 
region,  has  flour  mills,  a  public  library  and  a 
county  courthouse.  The  ciQ'  operates  the 
water  supply  system.  It  was  settled  in  1819 
and  laid  out  in  1821.    Pop.  ^323. 

CARROLLTON,  Mo.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Carroll  County,  65  miles  northeast  of  Kansas 
aty.  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  ft  SanU  Fi, 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Kansas  Ci^  and^ 


id^ 

CiOOglC 


B74 


CAftROLLTON  —  CASRUTH 


Wabash  railroads.  It  has  flour  mills,  wa^n 
and  harness  factories,  foundry  tuid  rnachuie 
shops,  agricultural  implement  works,  furniture 
works  and  a  creamery.  It  has  in  addition  a 
poultry- feeding  station  and  is  the  commercial 
centre  for  a  thriving  agricultural  region.  It 
was  settled  in  1819  and  incorporated  in  1830. 
It  contains  a  monument  erected  by  the  govern- 
ment to  Gen.  James  Shields.    Pop.  3,453. 

CARROLLTON,  Ohio,  village  and  county- 
seat  of  Carroll  County,  25  miles  southeast  of 
Canton,  on  the  Wheeling  &  Lake  Erie  Railroad. 
It  is  located  in  an  agricultural  region  which 
also  has  deposits  of  clay,  coal  and  natural  gas. 
It  has  manufactories  of  pottery,  rubber,  toys, 
granite  and  paving  brick.  The  village  owns  toe 
waterworks.     Pop.  1,730. 

CARROH  OIL,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  linseed  oil  and  lime  water,  much  used  as  a 
dressing  for  burns.  It  has  no  particular  advan- 
tages over  other  simpler  and  neater  dressings, 
notahlj;  vaseline  or  oxide  of  zinc  ointment.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  its  use  in  the  Carron 
Foundry,  Scotland. 

CARRONADE,  an  iron  gun  introduced  in 
1779  by  the  director  of  the  Carron  Foundry  in 
Scotland,  from  which  it  took  its  name,  saia  to 
have  been  invented  in  1752  by  General  Melville, 
and  first  used  in  the  American  Revolutionary 
War.     See  Okbnance. 

CARROT,  a  biennial  plant  (.Daueus  carota) 
of  the  family  Apiacea.  It  ii  a  native  of  Europe, 
introduced  into  America,  and  is  known  as  a 
troublesome  weed  upon  poor  land,  especially  in 
the  eastern  United  States.  It  is  more  favorably 
known  by  its  cultivated  varieties  which  are  said  to 
have  been  derived  ori^nally  from  Holland  prior 
to  the  16th  century,  since  when  it  has  become  de- 
servedly popular  in  all  temperate  climates.  Cer- 
tain large-rooted  varieties  are  raised  for  stock 
feeding.  The  most  popular  culinaiy  varieties 
are  small,  rapidly  growing  plants  with  diversely 
formed  roots.  Since  they  are  most  used  as  a 
flavoring  in  soups,  stews  and  other  dishes 
which  have  not  become  specially  popular  in 
America,  they  are  less  cultivated  here  than  in 
Europe.  The  plants  succeed  best  in  a  warm, 
friable,  rich  soil,  well  supplied  with  moisture, 
free  from  stones,  weeds,  etc.,  and  in  the  best 
physical  condition.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in 
drdls  one-half  foot  apart  as  soon  as  the  ground 
has  become  waim,  smce  they  are  alow  to  ger- 
minate and  since  the  seedlings  are  very  tiny. 
A  few  radish  seeds  of  an  early  maturing 
variety  are  usually  planted  with  them  to  break 
the  soil  and  indicate  the  positions  of  the  rows, 
so  that  cultivation  may  be  commenced  early. 
The  radishes  are  pulled  when  they  reach  edible 
size  and  the  carrots  given  clean  cultivation,  the 
plants  being  thinned  to  stand  two  or  uree 
inches  apart.  When  they  reach  edible  Mze  they 
are  bunched  and  marketed.  The  larger  growing 
kinds  are  planted  in  rows  24  to  30  inches  apart 
and  the  plants  thinned  to  three  or  four  incnes. 
When  mature  they  are  stored  in  pits  or  root 
cellars.  Few  diseases  attack  the  carrot  and 
the  few  harmful  insects  are  usually  controlled 
by  their  parasites. 

The  average  percentage  composition  of  car- 
rots is:  Water,  88.6;  nitrogen-free  extract,  7.6; 
carbohydrate,  1.3;  protein,  1.1;  fat,  a  trace; 
ash,  about  1  per  cent.  They  resemble  other 
root  and  tuber  vegetables  in  their  succulence 


-        -    value.     They  are  greatly  relbhed 

by  stock,  especially  horses,  but  are  usually  re- 
placed in  American  rations  by  cheaper  foods. 
CARROUSEL,  ka-roo-s«',  formerly  an 
exhibition  of  various  knightly  exercises,  as 
riding  at  the  ring,  dirowing  the  spear,  etc, 
which  were  celebrated  at  the  courts  of  princes 
on  festival  occasions  with  ^rcat  pomp  and 
splendor.  They  are  very  anaent,  but  are  first 
mentioned  in  historv  in  842,  on  occasion  of  the 
meeting  held  ^  Charles  the  Bald  and  Louis 
the  German.  Tliey  were  superseded  by  tourna- 
ments, but  when  these  had  fallen  were  again 
revived.  Their  introduction  or  revival  in 
France  took  place  after  tournaments  had  fallen 
out'of  fashion  in  consequence  of  the  accident 
which  ended  in  the  death  of  Henw  II.  Similar 
fetes  had  already  long  existed  among  the 
Uoors,  Spaniards  and  Italians.  These  exhibi- 
tions were  common  during  the  continuance  of 
the  old  French  monarchy.  The  Place  du 
Carrousel  in  Paris  was  so  called  from  one  of 
these  fetes  given  there  in  1662,  in  honor  of 
Uademoiselle  de  la  Valliere.  The  greatest  ex- 
travagances were  enacted  at  these  displays. 
Recitations  accompanied  them,  some  verse  in 
outrageous  taste  and  full  of  absurd  all^^rical 
personages,  being  usually  recited  in  honor  of 
the    heroine    of    the    fete,    although    genuine 


by  professional  actors.  A  revival  of  the 
carrousel  was  attempted  in  Berlin  to  1750.  In 
the  United  States  the  name  carrousel  is  ap- 
plied to  a  merry-go-round,  a  machine  with  a 
revolving  circular  platform  and  fixed  wooden 
horses,  etc.,  upon  which  both  children  and 
grown  people  nde  for  amusement 

CARRUTH.  (Fred)  HsTden,  American 
journalist :  b.  near  Lake  City,  Mian.,  31  Oct 
1862.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota 1881-82,  and  began  his  journalistic  labors 
at  Minneapolis  and  afterward  had  a  country 
newspaper  in  Dakota  1883-%.  He  was  on  the 
editorial  staff  of  the  New  York  TrilMUie  1888- 
92;  had  charge  of  the  Editor's  Drawer  depart- 
ment of  Harper's  Magantte  1899-1901.  Since 
190S  he  has  been  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
Woman's  Home  Companion;  is  a  freQuent  con- 
tributor to  many  magazines,  sudi  as  Voulh'i 
Companion,  Saturday  Evening  Post,  Collier's, 
Century  etc.  He  has  published  'The  Adven- 
tures of  Jones'  (1895);  'The  Voyage  of  the 
Rattletrap*  (1697)  ;  <Mr.  Milo  Bush  and  Other 
Worthies'    (1899);   'Tracks'  End'   (1911). 

CARRUTH,  Wmiun  Herbert,  American 
scholar  and  author :  b.  Osawalomie,  Kan.,  5 
April  1859.  He  was  educated  in  the  University 
of  Kansas  and  at  Harvard,  and  was  professor 
of  German  in  the  former  institution  from  1887 
to  1913.  Since  1913  he  has  been  professor  of 
comparative  literature  and  head  of  the  English 
department  at  Stanford  University.  He  has 
published  'Schiller's  Wallenstein  with  Intro- 
duction and  Notes'  (1894);  'SchefTel's  Ekke- 
hard'  (1895);  'Schiller's  Wilhelm  Tell' 
(1898)  ;  'Auswahl  aus  Luther's  Deuischen 
Schriften'  (1899);  'Schiller's  Die  Braut  von 
Messina>  (1901);  <Otis'  Elementary  Gennan 
Grammar'  (I9(M) ;  'German  Reader*  (1904); 
'Letters  to  American  Boys'  (1907)  ;  "Each  m 
His  Own  Tongue  and  Other  Poems"  (1909); 
translator  of  Comill's  'History  of  the  People 
of  Israel*    <1S)8)   and  GuokeVs   'Legends  of 


,Go 


CARRYIN&TRADB— CARSON  CITY 


676 


Genesis* ;  and  ie  a  contributor  to  philological 
journals  and  litei-ary  magazines. 

CAiURYING-TSADB,  a  phrase  uMd  in 
political  economy  and  also  in  commercial  , 
transactions.  It  usually  refers  to  the  com< 
merce  of  ditlerent  countries  with  each  other, 
and  is  most  frequently  applied  to  carriage  by 
sea.  In  a  purely  commercial  sense  the  carrying- 
trade  is  simply  the  carriage  of  commodities 
from  one  place  or  country  to  another,  irre- 
spective of  the  mode  of  conve^nce.  In  poKt- 
tcal  economy  the  term  is  used  in  a  special  and 
restricted  sense.  In  considering  the  entire 
commerce  of  a  country  it  may  be  found  that  a 
part  of  that  commerce  is  not  directly  with  any 
one  foreign  country,  but  consists  in  supplying 
facilities  tor  the  conveyance  of  mods  from  one 
foreign  country  to  another.  The  ships  of  the 
United  States,  for  example,  may  be  employed 
in  carrying  goods  between  India  and  Chma. 
This  is  called  a  carrying-trade.  The  carrying- 
trade  does  not  consist  merely  in  the  occasional 
charter  of  vessels  to  foreign  merchants  for  a 
foreign  voyage-  Though  this  may  be  included 
in  it,  its  re^ar  organization  imphes  more  than 
this.  A  ship-owner,  instead  of  fending  his  ves- 
sels incidentally  to  foreign  merchants,  may 
build  or  purchase  them  expressly  tor  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  goods  between  different  for- 
eign ports  at  his  own  risk,  and  may  even  invest 
capital  in  merchandise  to  be  so  conveyed.  It 
is  to  this  abnormal  development  of  commerce 
that  (be  term  carrying-trade  in  its  restricted 
sense  b  applied.  It  is  an  investment  of  capital 
common  in  the  case  of  commercial  communities 
which  have  acquired  great  surplus  wealth,  or 
from  the  limited  range  of  their  territory  have 
few  home  investments.  From  the  earliest  time 
the  principal  commercial  communities,  espe- 
cially the  great  trading  cities  of  antiquity  and 
those  of  the  Middle  Ages  which  have  formed 
communities  in  themselves,  have  embarked 
largely  in  this  kind  of  commerce. 

CAfiSON,  Christopher,  pc^ularly  known 
as  Kit  Carson,  American  mountaineer,  tracer 
and  guide;  b.  Madison  County,  Ky.,  24  Dec 
1809;  d.  Fort  Lyon,  Colo.,  23  May  1868.  While 
yet  an  infant  his  family  emigrated  to  what  is 
now  Howard  County,  Mo.  At  IS  years  of  age 
he  was  apprenticed  to  a  saddler,  with  whom  he 
continued  two  vears,  when  he  joined  a  hunting 
expedition.  Tne  next  eight  years  of  his  life 
were  [lassed  as  a  trapper,  which  pursuit  he 
relinquished  on  receiving  the  appointment  of  a 
hunter  to  Brent's  fort,  where  he  continued  for 
right  vears  more.  At  the  expiration  of  this 
time,  he  chanced  to  meet  Frtmont,  by  whom 
he  was  engaged  as  guide  in  his  subsequent  eX' 
plorations.  In  1847  Carson  was  sent  to  Wash- 
ington as  bearer  of  dispatches,  and  received  an 
appointment  as  lieutenant  in  the  rifle  corps  of 
the  United  Stales  army.  In  1853  he  drove 
6,500  sheep  to  California,  a  difficult  but  suc- 
cessful undertaldne.  and  on  his  return  to  Taos 
was  appointed  Indian  ag^mt  in  New  Mexico. 
He  served  in  the  Federal  army  during  the  Civil 
War,   attaining   the   rank   of   brevet   brigadier- 

teneral.  Consult  Bradley,  'Winning  the 
outhwest>  (New  York  1912)  ;  Sabin,  'With 
Carson   and  Fremont'    (Philadelphia   1912). 

CARSON,  Sir  Kdward  Henrr.  Irish 
Unionist  leader:  b.  Dublin,  9  Feb.  1854.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublia,  was 


,  and  became. 


put  an  end,  for  : 


called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  18 

solici tor-gene rel   for  Ireland  J 

called  to  the   English   bar  in   1894;   and  was 

sotidtor- general  for  England  in  the  Unionist 

administrations    1900-06.        He    became    verv 

Kominent  during  the  passage  of  the  Irish 
ome  Rule  Bill  in  1912;  organized  the  resist- 
ance of  Ulster  to  that  measure ;  inaugurated 
and  was  the  first  to  sign  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  which  pledged  the  Ulster  Protes- 
tants to  resist,  by  force  of  arms  if  necessary, 
submission  to  a  Dublin  Parliament;  and  be 
was  the  head  of  the  provisional  government 
nominated  in  1913  to  administer  the  province  in 
that  event.  This  work  of  organization  and 
the  ensuing  political  campaign  entailed  enor- 
mous inroad;  on  his  time  and  strength,  and  in 
order  to  carry  it  through  he  surrendered  a 
great  practice  at  the  bar  that  was  yielding  him 
of  $100,000  a  year.  For  a  time  it 
'  "  '  c  the  issue; 
.  _  _.itervened  to 
time   at   least,   to   factional 

.--   -    —    ,    _nd    Sir    Edward's    energies 

became  devoted  to  stimulating  the  government 
to  stronger  measures  with  a  view  to  winning 
the  war.  He  became  Attorney- General  in  the 
Asquith  Coalition  Government  in  June  191S, 
but  resigned  on  18  October  following, 
otving  to  divergencies  of  view,  miunly  on  the 
Balkan  question.  He  negotiated  with  Mr. 
Lloyd-George  and  Mr.  Redmond  the  provi- 
sional agreement  on  the  Irish  question, 
which,  as  modified  by  the  Cabinet,  was  repudi- 
ated by  the  Nationalist  members,  and  subse* 
quently  withdrawn.  On  the  occasion  of  that 
withdrawal,  on  24  July,  he  made  in  the  House 
of  Commons  what  was  perhaps  the  greatest 
speech  of  his  life,  and  one  which  showed  that 
the  European  War  had  sensibly  altered  his 
horizon  when  he  declared  that  it  would  be  a 
good  thins  for  Ireland  if  he  and  Mr.  Redmond 
could  shaKe  hands  on  the  floor  of  the  House, 
and  gave  a  contingent  hint  that  Ulster  might 
become  reconciled  to  Home  Rule  and  desire 
inclusion  if  she  saw  the  rest  of  Ireland  well 
governed  by  a  Dublin  Parliament. 

CARSON,  Hampton  Lawreoce,  American 

Subliciat:  b.  PhiUdelphia,  Pa.,  21  Feb.  1852. 
[e  was  ^duated  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1871,  and  became  a  lawyer,  risine 
speedily  to  prominence  by  speeches  and 
addresses  on  topics  of  the  time.  He  has  writ- 
ten 'History  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States';  'The  Law  of  Criminal  Con- 
spiracies as  Found  in  American  Cases';  'His- 
tory of  the  One  Hundredth  Anniversary  of  the 
Promulgation  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States' ;  also  many  papers  in  law  joumab  and 
addresses.  He  is  a  lecturer  on  law  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania. 

CARSON  CITY,  Nev.,  dty,  capital  of  the 
State  and  county-seat  of  Orrastw  County,  on 
the  Virginia  &  Truckee  railroad,  32  miles  south- 
east of  Reno.  The  city  is  in  a  mining  and  agri- 
cultural district,  and  is  the  location  of  a  branch 
mint,  a  Federal  building.  State  capitol,  State 
prison,  an  orphans'  home  and  an  Indian  school. 
The  business  is  mainly  connected  with  mining, 
agriculture  and  lumbering.  Here  are  railroad 
and  machine  shops,  etc,  Carson  City  is  only  12 
miles  from  Lake  "Tahoe,  and  an  account  of  its 
beautiful   scenery   at  the  base  of   the   Siern 


)glc 


670 


CARSON  RIVER— CAKTAOEHA 


.Nevada  is  a  populv  lummer  resort.  The 
State  prison  is  two  miles  southeast  of  the  city, 
and  a  United  States  government  Indian  school 
is  three  miles  to  the  south.  Founded  in  1858, 
it  became  the  capital  of  Nevada  in  1861  and 
was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1875.    Pop.  2,500. 

CARSON  RIVER,  a  river  of  Nevada,  ris- 
ing in  fte  Sierra  Nevada  and  flowing  north- 
east for  about  150  miles.  It  then  divides,  and 
^e  main  branch  flows  into  Carson  Lak<^  a 
small  lake  with  no  apparent  outlet.  The  other 
branch  flows  in  the  opposite  direction  and  is 
lost  in  Carson  Sink. 

CARSTAIRS,  or  CARSTASBS,  WHUun, 
Scottish  clergyman  of  political  eminence:  b. 
Cathcart,  near  Glasgow,  1649;  d  17l5.  Hepur- 
sued  his  studies  at  the  universities  of  Edtn- 
bui^  and  Utrecht.  He  relumed  to  Scotland 
with  the  view  of  entering  the  ministry,  but 
after  receiving  a  license  to  preach  resolved  to 
return  to  Holland.  As  he  was  to  pass  throui^ 
London,  he  was  employed  by  Argyle  and  ms 
party  to  treat  with  the  English  exclusionists 
and  became  privy  to  the  Rye-house  plot.  On 
the  discovery  of  that  conspiracy  he  was  appre- 
hended. After  a  rigorous  confinement  in  irons 
he  was  subjected  to  the  torture  and  endured 
this  trial  with  great  firmness;  but  being  after- 
ward  deluded  with  the  hopes  of  a  full  pardon, 
and  assured  that  his  answers  should  never  be 
made   evidence    against    anyone,    he    submitted 


and  procured  bis  election  to  the  office  of  min- 
ister of  the  English  congre^tion  at  Leyden. 
He  accompanied  the  Prince  in  his  expedition 
and  always  remained  about  his  person,  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  During  this  reign  he  was  the 
chief  agent  between  the  Church  of  Scotland 
and  the  court,  and  was  very  instrumental  in 
the  establishment  of  Presbyterianism,  to  which 
William  was  averse.  On  the  death  of  William 
he  was  no  longer  emjiloyed  on  public  business- 
but  Anne  retained  him  as  her  chap  Iain- royal 
and  made  him  principal  of  the  Universit>;  of 
Edinburgh.  When  the  union  of  the  two  king- 
doms was  agitated  he  took  a  decided  part  in  its 
favor.  The  memory  of  Carstairs  is  for  the 
most  part  revered  by  his  countrymen  as  that 
of  an  enlightened  patriot ;  and  few  men  of 
active  power  and  influence  have  steered  between 

Srties  more  ably  and  beneficially.  Consult 
cCormick,  'Life  of  Carstairs,*  prefixed  to 
'State  Papers  and  Letters  Addressed  to  Wil- 
liam Carstairs'  (London  1774)  ;  and  Story, 
'C^racter  and  Career  of  William  Carstairs.* 
CARSTBNS,  Auniu  Jakob,  Danish 
painter :  b.  Saint  Jiirgen,  near  Scfaleswig,  10 
May  1754;  d.  26  May  1798.  He  was  a  miller's 
son,  but  received  a  superior  education  from  his 
mother.  He  had  a  youthful  passion  for  paint- 
ing, but  after  his  mother's  death  was  placed  in 
a  mercantile  house.  After  quitting  his  master, 
he  went  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  struggled  on 
for  seven  years,  supporting  himself  by  portrait 
painting,  at  the  same  time  working  on  a  large 
historical  picture  on  the  'Death  of  .Sschylus.' 
He  went  to  Italy  after  finishing  this  work, 
dten  lived  at  Liibcck  for  five  years,  toiling  on 
in  obscurity,  when  he  was  introduced  by  the 
poet  Overbeck  to  a  wealthy  patron,  by  whose 


aid  h«  went  to  Berlin,  where  the  merit  of  his 
'Fall  of  the  Angels,'  a  colossal  picture,  con- 
taining over  200  figures,  gained  him  a  profes- 
sorship in  the  Academy  of  Fme  Arts.  Two 
years'  labor  in  Berlin  enabled  him  to  accom- 
plish his  cherished  wish  to  go  to  Rome  and 
study  the  works  of  Michelangelo  and  Ra- 
phael. His  best  works  were  designs  in  aqua- 
relle and  painting  in  fresco ;  he  rarely  painted 
in  oil.  His  cartoons  at  Weimar  have  been  en- 
graved by  Muller.  Homer,  Pindar,  Aristo- 
phanes and  Dante  supplied  him  with  his  best 
subjects  j  and  among  the  painters  who  endeav- 
ored to  infuse  a  classic  spirit  into  the  fine  arts 
of  the  18th  century,  he  holds  a  prominent  posi- 
tion. His  woriis  are  distinguished  by  correct- 
ness of  form  and  outline,  gracefulness  of  atti- 
tude and  loftiness  and  vigor  of  ezpressioo; 
but  they  frequently  exhibit  a  certain  harslueis, 
arising  from  too  close  imitation.  He  was  oftoi 
defective  in  anatomy  and  perspective  and,  hav- 
ing; begun  late  to  paint  in  oil,  was  unacquainted 
with  the  secrets  of  coloring^  Consult  Pr. 
Pauli,  'A  Carstens'  (Berlin  1876}  and  Fernow, 
'Carstens  Leben  und  Werke>  (new  ed.  by  Rie- 
gel,  Hanover  1867). 

CART  (A.  S.  crael,  Gaelic  cairt:  connected 
with  *caf'),  a  carriage  with  two  wneels,  fitted 
to  be  drawn  by  one  horse  or  other  animal  and 
used  in  husbandry  or  commerce  for  carrying 
many  sorts  of  goods.  There  are  various  de- 
scriptions of  carts  used  in  agriculture,  and  for 
many  kinds   of   agricultural   work   the   cart  is 

Preferable  to  the  wagon.  The  ordinary  cart 
or  heavy  goods  has  no  spring  but  there  are 
many  carts  provided  with  springs.  In  France 
and  Germany,  the  carrier's  cart  is  built  to  cany 
heavy  loads.  Other  varieties  of  cart  are  the 
dump  cart,  constructed  so  that  it  can  be  emp- 
tied Dy  tilting  the  body;  the  dogcart,  originally 
used   for  conveyance  of  sporting  dogs; 


;    gad- 


th  a  single  seat ;  the  Canadian  calash,  \  . .  . 
low  seat  for  the  driver;  the  trotting  sulky, 
used  with  race-horses;  and  numerous  road 
carts. 

CARTAGBNA,  kar-t«-jc'n&,  C:olomlH^ 
capital  of  the  department  of  Bolivar,  founded 
21  Jan.  1533,  by  Pedro  de  Heredia.  Early  in 
the  17th  centuiy  it  ranked  next  below  Mexico 
among  the  cities  of  the  Western  world,  and  was 
callea 'Queen  of  the  Indies.*  At  that  time  its 
inhabitants  numbered  about  20,000,  of  whom 
3,000  were  Spaniards ;  it  was  strongly  fortified, 
and  one  of  the  main  entrepots  of  commerce 
between  the  hemispheres  —  a  distinction  du^ 
in  part,  to  its  proximity  to  the  Isthmian  route, 
but  even  more  to  the  excellence  of  its  harbor, 
which  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  northern  coast 
of  South  America.  As  the  principal  strong- 
hold of  Spanish  America,  it  was  repeatedly 
attacked:  by  a  French  fleet  in  1544;  by  the 
English  under  Drake  in  15S5;  again  by  the 
French  in  1697;  and  by  the  English  under  Ver- 
non in  1741.  "The  town  remained  Spanish  until 
1815,  when  Bolivar  took  it;  but  the  same  year 
it  was  surrendered  to  the  royalists,  after  a 
memorably  heroic  defense ;  and  finally  it  was 
taken  by  Republican  forces  25  Sept.  1821.  lis 
population  at  present  t!  little  more  than  one- 
half  the  number  accredited  to  it  three  centuries 
ago.    Cartagena  is  situated  in  lat.  10*  25'  4^ 


C  AKTAGKKA  —  CAKTB 


87T 


N.,  long.  75*  34'  W.  Its  temperature  averages 
82'  F.,  and  its  location  is  unhealtbful.  The 
dty  is  surrounded  by  the  old  fortilications  and 
pouesses  a  cathedral,  two  fine  chun±es,  a 
gDvemment  building,  a  college,  seminary  and 
a  theatre.  The  town  manufactures  chocolate 
and  candles,  and  exports  cattle,  hides,  fine 
woods,  precious  stones  and  tobacco.  Pop. 
14,000. 

CARTAGENA,  Spain,  a  dty  and  fortified 
seaport  and  naval  arsenal  in  the  province  of 
Utircia,  and  27  miles  south-southeast  of  the 
dty  of  Murda.  Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  larg- 
est and  safest  in  the  Uediterranean.  The  dtf, 
located  at  the  northern  end  of  the  harbor,  is 
surrounded  by  a  lofty  wall,  flanked  with  bas- 
tions. The  principal  buildine:s  are  the  cathe- 
dral dating  -from  the  13th  century,  now  con- 
verted into  a  simple  parish  church;  the  old 
castle,  supposed  to  date  from  the  foimdatiou 
of  the  dty  by  the  Carthaginians;  the  barracks, 
arsenal,  presidio  or  convict  establishment,  the 
military  hospital,  the  Hospital  de  Caridad,  the 
artillery  parley  the  observatory,  the  convents  of 
Saint  Augustine  and  Monjas,  and  several  oUier 
convents  and  churches.  Great  improvements 
have  been  made  recently  in  the  accommodatioa 
for  shipping  by  the  construction  of  moles, 
wharves,  breakwaters  and  a  floating  dodc 
Lead  smelting  is  laigely  carried  on;  and  there 
are  also  in  the  neighborhood  rich  mines  of 
excellent  iron,  which  are  connected  with  the 
harbor  bv  means  of  a  tramway  about  dght 
miles  in  length.    Esparto  grass,  compressed  by 


coal  and  codfish  are  the  prindpid  imports. 
Cartaeena  (andent  Carthago  Nova)  was 
founded  by  the  Carthaginians  about  2S8  B.C, 
and  it  was  it^  Carthaginians  who  first  woritea 
the  copper  mmes.  It  was  taken  by  Sdpio  Afri- 
canus  210  B.C.,  and  afterward  became  a  Roman 
colony.  In  425  a.d.  the  Vandals  largely  de- 
stroyed it;  and  in  711,  after  having  been  in 
possession  of  the  Visigoths,  it  again  suffered 
destruction  at  the  hands  of  the  Saracens.  Un- 
der them  it  became  an  independent  prindpaltty, 
vrfiich  was  conquered  finally  by  James  I  of 
Aragon  in  1276.  In  1585  it  was  sacked  by  the 
English  fleet  under  Sir  Frauds  Drake.  When 
Spain  possessed  her  colonies  and  was  in  a 
fiourishmg  condition,  Cartagena  was  one  of 
ber  most  important  naval  stations  and  carried 
on  a  very  extensive  commerce.  In  1873  a 
body  of  communists  obtained  possession  of  the 
city  and  fortifications,  but  they  were  compelled 
to  surrender  in  the  following  year.  Pop.  (1911) 
102,542.    In  1870  the  population  was  26^000. 

CARTAQO,  kar-ta'gfi,  Colombia,  town  in 
the  valley  of  the  Cauca,  150  miles  west  of 
Bogota  on  the  Vie^,  a  tributary  of  that  river. 
Its  trade  is  principally  in  dned  beef,  pigs, 
fruits,  coffee,  cacao  and  tobacco.  The  sugar- 
cane thrives  well  here.  Cartago  is  the  entrepot 
for  the  trade  of  Santa- Fi-de-Bogoti.  The  cli- 
mate is  hot,  but  dry  and  healthful.  Pop.  about 
10,000. 

CARTAOO,  Coats  Rica,  dty,  formerly 
capital  of  Costa  Rica,  now  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Cartago,  on  the  right  bank  of  a  river 
of  its  own  name,  14  miles  east- southeast  of 
San  Jos*.  It  was  once  a  place  of  considerable 
commerdal  importance,  and  had  a  population 


of  about  37,O0O.  It  was  so  mined  by  an  earth- 
quake 2  Sept.  1841,  that  only  lOO  bouses  and  a 
diurch  were  left  standing.  It  had  already  been 
superseded  both  as  a  capital  and  a  seat  of  com- 
merce by  San  Jost  The  railroad  from  San 
Josi  to  limon  passes  through  it.  Near  the 
town  are  the  spruigs  of  Aguacaliente,  and  also 
Mount  Cartago  or  Irazu,  an  active  volcano, 
rising  11,480  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The 
town  has  a  considerable  coffee  trade,  and  de- 
rives much  importance  from  its  position  on  the 
inter-oceanic  railway.    Pop.  about  4,536. 

CASTAS  OF  FKIj6o.  The  <Cartas> 
f  Letters)  and  'Teatro  critico  universal* 
(Treasury  of  Universal  Critidsni)  of  the  Ben- 
edictine monk  Benito  Ger6nimo  Feij6o  y  Mon- 
tenegro, constitute  collectively  one  of  the  most 
important  contributions  made  to  Spanidi 
thou^t  during  the  17th  centuiy,  the  period  of 
its  awakening  from  the  political  and  intellectual 
stagnation  consequent  upon  the  collapse  of  the 
Hapsburg  dream  of  world  dominion.  They  are 
assodated  with  the  earlier  days  of  Spanish 
journalism,  when  miscellanies  of  encyclopaedic 
character  had  not  yet  given  way  before  the 
periodical  press.  The  'Letters,'  as  well  as  the 
essays  of  the  'Teatro  critico,>  a  prior  and  more 
vigorously  written  work  cover  a  wide  range  of 
topics,  from  natural  histoty  and  the  then 
known  sdences.  education,  history,  religion, 
literature,  philolo^,  philosophy  and  medidne, 
down  to  superstitions,  wonders  and  salient 
points  of  conteroporaty  journalistic  interest  all 
m  a  spirit  of  candor  and  cool  judgment,  which 
proved  to  be  of  decisive  influence  in  the  assault 
imon  18th  century  Peninsular  scbolastidsm. 
llie  stvle,  espedally  in  the  letters,  is  encum- 
bered by  the  prolixity  of  formal  eloquence, 
while  philologists  have  questioned  its  puri^. 
Nevertheless,  Feij6o's  was  a  comprehensive, 
catholic  mind,  familiar  with  the  European 
thought  of  his  day  to  an  extent  unprecedented 
among  his  countr^en.  In  temper  and  content 
Feij6o  is  suggestive  of  the  inchoateness  oi 
Montaigne,  with  his  mixture  of  the  rational 
and  the  fabulous,  rather  than  of  the  polished 
sophistication  of  Addison  and  Steele.  His 
fame  spread  quickly  throughout  Europe,  but  in 
the  advancement  of  learning,  his  writings  have 
been  relegated  to  a  place  of  mere  historical 
interest  It  has  been  commonly  said  that  a 
moimment  should  be  erected  to  Fdj6o,  at  the 
foot  of  which  all  his  works  should  be  burned. 
The  'Teatro'  was  first  published  at  Madrid 
(1726-41)  the  'Cartas'  at  the  same  dty 
(1742-60).  In  the  edition  of  1777  they  oc- 
cupy nine  aud  five  volumes  respectively,  to 
which  three  supplementary  volumes  must  be 
added.  A  modem  reprint  occurs  in  volume  56  of 
the  'Biblioteca  de  Autores  Es^noles,'  with  an 
introduction  b^  Vicente  de  U  Fuente.  Consult 
also  Bazin,  Emilia  Pardo,  'Feii6o.' 

John  Gakrbtt  Undebhill. 


1686;  d.  near  Abingdon,  2  April  1754.  He  ..„ 
educated  at  University  College.  Oxford,  and 
Cambridge,  where  he  received  his  M.A.  in 
1706.  He  took  holy  orders  in  1707  and  was 
appointed  reader  at  Abbey  Church,  Bath ;  on 
account  of  his  allegiance  to  the  Stuarts  he  re- 
sided. His  first  publication  was  entitled  'The 
Irish  Massacre  Set  in  a  Qear  Li^bt,  etc.,'  ia 


d=,  Google 


6TS 


CAKTE  BLAHCBX— CARTER 


whicli  be  defended  Charles  I.  from  the  common 
charge  of  secretly  instigating  the  rebellion  and 
massacre  in  Irebnd  in  1641.  During  the  rebel' 
lion  of  1715,  a  warrant  was  issued  for  his 
apprehension,  which  he  eluded  by  concealment; 
and  later  ^en  it  was  supposed  that  be  was 
concerned  in  a  conspiracy,  and  a  reward  at 
il.OOO  was  offered  for  his  capture,  he  escaped 
to  France.  Here  he  coUectea  material  for  an 
English  edition  of  the  'History  of  Thuanns' 
(de  Thou).  At  length  Queen  Caroline  'pro- 
cured leave  for  l^s  return  to  England.  His 
important  work,  the  'Life  of  Tames,  Duke  of 
Ormonde,)  was  published  in  1735-36,  and  gained 
him  great  reputation,  especially  wiih  the  Tory 
party.  In  1744  he  was  arrested  on  a  suspicion 
of  being  employed  by  the  Pretender,  but  was 
discharged.  His  other  works  include  illustra- 
tions for  the  'History  of  Thuanus*  (edited  by 
.  S.  Buckley,  7,  vols  1733).  He  published  three 
volumes  of  his  'History  of  England'  between 
1747  and  1752,  the  fourth,  which  brought  down 
the  history  to  1654,  not  appearing  until  after 
his  death.  The  character  of  this  work  is  de- 
servedly high  for  research.  Numbers  of  his 
manuscripts  are  preserved  in  the  Bodleian 
Library,  Oxford.  Hume  and  other  historians 
have  b«en  indebted  to  it,  but  the  prejudices  of 
the  author  are  everywhere  conspicuous.  Con- 
sult Nichols,  'Literarv  Anecdotes'  (Vol.  II, 
London  1812-15),  and  his  'Literary  Illustra- 
tions of  Literary  History*  (London  1817-58, 
Vol.  V.  pp.  152-56). 

CARTB  BLANCHE,  kart  blanch^  a  bUnk 
sfaeet  of  paper  with  an  authoritative  signature 
to  be  filled  up  with  such  conditions  as  the  per- 
son to  whom  it  is  given  may  think  proper; 
hence  absolute  freedom  of  action. 

CARTE  DE  VISITE,  kilrt  dc  ve-rft, 
literally  a  visiting  card,  a  phott^raphic  likeness 
executed  on  a  card  somewhat  lar^r  than-  a 
visiting  card,  and  usually  inserted  in  a  photo- 
graph album.  For  an  historical  account  of 
these  •Cartes,'  consult  'La  Grande  Encyclo- 
pedic'   (Vol  IX,  pp.  568-69). 

CARTEL,  an  agreement  for  the  delivery  of 
prisoner!  or  deserters ;  also,  a  written  dial- 
lenge  to  a  duel.  A  cartel-ship  is  a  ship  com- 
missioned in  time  of  war  to  exchange  pris- 
oners; also  to  carry  proposals  between  hostile 
powers,  and  is  not  permitted  to  carry  instru> 

CARTER,  EUzKbeth,  EnglUb  poet  and 
linguist:  b.  Deal,  16  Dec.  1717;  d.  London,  19 
Feb.  1806.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Dr:  Nich- 
olas Carter,  a  clergyman  of  Kent,  and  was 
educated  by  her  father,  soon  becoming  master 
of  Latin,  Greek,  French  and  German ;  to  which 
she  afterward  added  Italian,  Spanish,  Portu- 
guese, Hebrew  and  AraWc.  She  was  for  SO 
years  the  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson  to  whose 
Rambler  she  contribtilcd  two  papers.  Several 
of  her  poetical  attempts  appeared  in  the 
'Gentleman's'  Magazine'  before  she  attained 
her  17th  year,  and  these  procured  her  much 
celebrity.  In  1739  she  translated  the  critique  of 
Crousaz  on  'Pope's  Essay  on  Man,'  and  in  the 
same  year  gave  a  translation  of  Algarotti's 
explanation  of  the  Newtonian  philosophy.  She 
published  a  translation  of  'Epictetus,'  in  1758. 

CARTER,  Franklin,  American  educator  r 
b.  Waterbuiy,  Cotm.,  30  Sept  1837.     He  was 


educated  at  Yal^  at  lAlllianis  and  at  the  llni- 
versity  of  Beiiin,  and  received  many  honorary 
decrees.  He  began  his  professional  career  at 
Williams,  where  be  was  professor  of  French 
and  Latin  1865-66  and  of  Latin  1868-72.  In 
1872  he  became  professor  of  German  at  Yale, 
and  durii^  this  period  studied  theology  ana 
was  licensed  to  preach.  In  1881  he  was  chosen 
president  of  Williams  Collie  and  administered 
the  affairs  of  this  office  with  signal  abiUbr  until 
1901,  when  he  resigned.  He  lectured  on  Theism 
in  Williams  College  1904-101  and  is  president 
at  the  Clarke  School  for  the  Deaf  since  1896; 
fellow  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences.  He  published  'Life  of  Mark  Hop- 
kins' (1892)  ;  and  a  translation  of  Goetbes 
'Iphigenia  in  Tauris'   (1870). 

CARTER,  SiB  Frederic  Bowker  TcrrinK- 
ton,  Newfoundland  jurist ;  b.  Saint  John  s, 
Newfoundland,  12  Feb.  1819;  d.  Saint  J(An's 
28  Feb.  190a  He  was  called  to  the  Newfound- 
land bar  in  1842,  served  in  the  Newfoundland 
assembly  from  1BS5  to  1878,  and  two  years 
later  became  chief  justice  of  NewfouncUand. 
He  was  created  K.C.M.G.  in  187a 

CARTER,  George  Robert,  American  poli- 
tician: b.  Honolulu,  Hawaii,  28  Dec.  1866;  was 
educated  at  Phillips  Andover  College  and  Yale 
University.  In  189]  he  was  appointed  Hawaiian 
consul  at  Seattle,  Wash.  He  returned  to  Hono- 
lulu in  1896  and  was  governor  of  Hawaii  by 
appointment  of  President  Roosevelt   1903-07. 

CARTER,  Henry.    Sec  Leslie,  Frank: 

CARTER,  Jiisea  Coolidce,  American 
lawyer:  b,  Lancaster,  Mass.,  14  Oct  1827;  d 
New  York,  14  Feb.  1905.  He  was  educated  at 
Harvard,  and  his  admission  to  the  bar  took 

8 lace  in  New  Yoric  in  18S3.  He  was  counsel 
or  the  dty  of  New  Yoric  in  the  famous  case 
of  the  people  against  Wilbam  Tweed,  and  in 
1875  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  commis- 
sion to  devise  a  system  of  municipal  rule  for 
the  cities  of  the  State  of  New  Yoik.  In  1892, 
he  shared  as  counsel  in  representing  the  claims 
of  the  United  Slates  to  the  Bering  Sea  tribunal 
He  published  'The  Proposed  Codification  of 
Our  Common  Law'  (1883);  'The  Provinces 
of  tise  Written  and  the  Unwritten  Law' 
(1889);  'The  Ideal  and  Actual  Law>  (1890); 
'Law '.  Its  Origin,  Growth  and  Function' 
(1907). 

CARTER,  Jamea  Hadison  Oora,  Ameri- 
can author,  teacher,  lecturer :  b.  Johnson 
County,  Itl.,  15  April  1843.  He  was  educated 
at  the  State  Normal  University,  Saint  John's 
College  and  Northwestern  University  Medical 
School.  He  served  in  an  Illinois  regiment  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  being  captured  and  taken 
to  Libby  Prison.  Was  professor  of  pathology 
and  hy^cne  1891-95;  clinical  and  preventive 
medicine  1895-99;  professor  emeritus  since 
190ft  at  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, Chicago.  Among  his  works  are  'Out- 
lines of  Medical  Botany  of  the  United  States' 
(1888);  'Catarrhal  Diseases  of  the  Respiratory 
Organs'  (1895) ;  and  'Diseases  of  the  Stomach' 
(1902);  and  various  monographs  on  medical 
and  literary  topics. 

CARTER,  Jeeae  Benedict,  American 
classicist :  b.  New  York  city,  16  June  1872.  He 
studied  at  New  York  and  Princeton  univer- 
sities, at  Berlin,  Lei|«ig,  (jottingen  and  Halle. 


d=,  Google 


CASTER — C  ARTBRST 


679 


From  Latin  instructor  in  1895  and 
professor  in  189^  he  became  professor  in  1902 
at  Princeton  University.  He  had  lectured  on 
Roman  reli^on  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
in  1900,  and  in  1904  was  appointed  professor 
of  Latin  at  the  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  in  Rome,  three  years  later  (1907}  be- 
ing made  director.  His  published  wntioKS 
include  'De  Deorum  Cognominibus'  (1898); 
'The  Roman  Elepac  Poets'  (1900) ;  'Epitheta 
Deorum*  (1902);  Virgil's  <.;Eneid'  (190J); 
'The  Reli^on  of  Numa'  (1906) ;  'The  Re- 
ligious Life  of  Ancient  Rome'  (1911),  etc.  He 
also  translated  Huelson's  'Foram'  (1906),  and 
wrote  a  'Memorial  Service  to  J.  Pierpont  Mor- 
gan'   (1913)-. 

CARTER,  LoniM  Leslie,  American 
actress:  b.  Lexington,  Ky.,  1862.  Her  stage 
career  began  10  Nov.  189(X  when  she  appeared 
in  the  'Ugly  Duckling'  in  New  YorlL  Her 
other  roles  nave  been  the  Quakeress  in  'Miss 
Helyett';  Maryland  Calvert  in  'The  Heart  of 
Maryland> ;  Zaia  in  <2aw' :  Madame  Du 
Barry  in  'Du  Barry';  and  Adrca  in  'Adrea.' 
She  was  married  to  William  L.  Payne  13  July 
1906.    Consult  Strang,  'Famous  Actresses.' 

CARTER,  Samuel  Powhatu^  American 
naval  and  military  officer;  b.  ElizabethtowiL 
Tenn,  6  Aug.  1819;  d.  Washington,  D.  C,  26 
May  1891.  After  attending  Princeton  for  a 
short  time  he  became  a  nudshipman  in  1S40, 
fou^t  in  the  Mexican  War  in  coast  attack,  and 
in  1856  took  part  in  the  capture  of  the  barrier 
forts.  Canton,  China.  In  186)  he  was  detailed 
to  go  to  Tennessee,  where  he  started  the  Ten- 
nessee brigade.  All  throutdi  the  Civil  War  he 
was  of  great  service  to  the  government,  and 
for  his  gallantry  was  breveCted  major-general 
of  volunteers.  He  returned  to  the  navy  and 
from  1869-72  was  commandant  of  the  Naval 
Academy  at  Annapolis.  In  1882  he  was  pro- 
moted rear-admiral  on  the  retired  list. 

CASTER,  ThonuB  Heniy,  American 
politician:  b.  Scioto  County,  Ohio,  30  Oct. 
1854;  d.  1911.  He  was  bnd  to  fanning,  bnt 
later  became  a  lawyer,  removing  to  Montana 
in  1882.  He  was  Montana's  first  representative 
in  Congress  (1891),  United  States  senator  from 
that  Stale  from  189S  to  1901,  chairman  of  the 
Natimial  Republican  Committee  in  18^-96,  and 
was  appointed  in  1900  United  States  commis- 
sioner to  the  Saint  Louis  Exposition.  He 
served  a  second  time  as  United  States  Senator 
in  1905-U,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  appcnnted 
a  member  of  the  international  boundary  com- 
mission of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In 
1901  he  spoke  for  16  hours  against  the  river 
and  harbor  bill  with  appropriations  for 
$50,000,000. 

CARTER,  William  Hardine,  American 
army  officer  and  author :  b,  Nasnville,  Tenn., 
19  Nov.  I8S1.  He  is  a  graduate  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y.; 
was  on  duty  on  the  Western  frontier,  1873-97; 
promoted  from  captain  of  cavalry,  by  selection, 
to  major  and  assistant  adjutant- general,  and  to 
duty  at  War  Department,  1897-1902;  promoted 
from  colonel  to  brigadier-general  and  duty  on 
the  War  College  Board  1902-03.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  General  Staff  to  31  Dec,  1903; 
was  sent  to  England  and  Europe  to  investigate 
remount  systems  1903.  He  has  held  the  fol- 
lowing commands:     Department    of  ^^sayas, 


Philippine  Islands  190M)5 ;  Department  of 
Lakes  1906-08;  provisional  division,  manceuvers, 
regulars  and  national  guard,  1906-08;  Depart- 
ment of  Missouri,  190tH}9.  He  was  promoted 
to  major-general,  13  Nov.  1909;  Department  of 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands  1909-10;  to  the  Gen- 
eral Staff,  1910-12;  Manceuvre  Division,  Texas, 
1911;  Central  Division,  1912-13;  Central  De- 
partment, 1913-14;  Second  Division  (Mobile 
Army)  Texas,  1913 ;  Hawaiian  Department, 
1914-15*  retired  from  active  service,  19  Nov, 
1915.  He  received  medal  of  honor  "for  dis- 
linBuishcd  bravery  in  action^"  and  is  author  of 
'The  American  Array';  'From  Yorktown  to 
Santiago  with  the  Sixth  Cavalry';  'Old-Army 
Sketches' J  'Horses,  Saddles  and  Bridles' : 
'Giles      (-arter     of     Vjrpnia'      (genealogical 

CAHTER-COTTON,  Fraadi  L.,  Cana- 
dian editor  and  statesman :  b.  Yorkshire,  Ens- 
land,  1847.  After  early  education  in  Englana, 
be  emigrated  to  Canada,  and  settled  at 
Vancouver,  B,  C,  where  be  founded  the 
Daily  News- Advertiser  in  1886  and  became 
its  editor.  A  Conservative,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  British  Columbia  legislature  in 
1890,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  finance 
1898-1900;  a  position  to  which  his  writings  and 
speeches  on  financial  and  economic  questions 
added  considerable  weight  He  was  chief 
commissioner  of  lands  and  works  (1906-10), 
and  subsequently  president  of  the  council.  He 
was  elected  first  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  British  Columbia  in  1902,  and  in  1906  en- 
dowed a  professorship  of  pure  and  applied 
mathematics  in  the  Mc(nll  University  College 
of  British  Columbia. 


he  made  a  name  with  pleasing  'Fables'  (1873), 
and  a  novd,  'Two  Fnends'  (1872),  descriptive 
of  Genevese  customs.  For  the  history  of  his 
political  career  see  'La  Grande  Encydopidie' 
(Vol.  9). 

CARTERET,  kar'te-r«L  Sir  George,  £i^- 
Usb  provincial  proprietor :  b.  Saint  Ouen,  Jer- 
sey, between  1609>17;  d.  14  Jan.  1680.  He  had 
a  distinguished  career  in  the  British  navy,  was 
an  active  supporter  of  the  royalist  caus^  was 
made  tieutenant-govemor  of  the  island  oi  Jer- 
sey and  vice-admiral.  He  manifested  an  inter- 
est in  coloniiation  and  received  a  royal  grant, 
'in  perpetual  inheritance,"  of  certain  lands  iti 
America  'to  be  called  New  Jersey,"  the  name 
being  taken  from  the  island  of  which  he  bad 
been  governor.  In  1651  he  surrendered  to  the 
Commonwealth  and  served  for  a  time  in  the 
French  navy,  returning  to  England  at  the  Resto- 
ration. He  was  made  treasurer  of  the  navy  in 
1661  and  suspended  in  1669  for  mismanagement 
of  funds.  Nevertheless  he  was  appointed 
deputy  treasurer  of  Ireland  in  1667  and  con- 
tinued in  royal  favor.  In  1664  he  was  made 
joint  proprietor  with  Lord  Berkeley  of  the 
province  of  New  Jersey  under  a  grant  from 
the  Duke  of  York,  and  in  1676,  when  the  prov- 
ince was  divided.  East  Jersey  fell  to  his  share. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  proprietors  of  Carolina. 

CARTERET,  John,  Earl  Granville,  Brit- 
ish statesman :  b.  22  April  1690;  d.  Bath,  2  Tan, 
1763.     He   received  his    education    at    West-  i 

Coogic 


CARTBKBT — CABIVSU1II8H 


plunged  into  the  political  and  social  excite- 
inents  of  the  period,  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Swift  and  in  1710  married  I^dy  France* 
Worsley,  Entering  the  House  of  Lords  on  25 
May  l/ll,  as  second  Baron   Carteret,  he  cs- 

Eomed  the  side  of  the  WhiKS,^  then  led  by  Stan- 
ope  and  Sunderland,  and  in  1714  made  hi* 
first  speech  in  the  House  of  I^rds  in  support 
of  the  Protestant  Succession.  On  the  accession 
of  George  I  Carteret  became  a  lord  of  the 
bedchamber.  In  1719  he  was  appointed  by 
Stanhope  Ambassador  Extraordinary  to 
Sweden,  and  succeeded  in  arranging  two 
treaties  of  peace;  the  first  between  Sweden, 
Hanover  ana  Prussia,  and  the  second  between 
Denmark  and  Sweden.  In  1721  be  was  ap- 
pointed to  one  of  the  two  foreign  secretary- 
ships, diat  for  the  'Southern  Departtnent*  of 
Europe,  and  as  such,  attended,  in  1723,  the  con- 
gress of  Cambria,  which  attempted  the  settle- 
ment of  differences  between  Germany  and 
Spain,  and  accompanied  Geoive  I  to  Berlin. 
In  1724  Carteret  was  appoin tea  lord  lieutenant 
of  Ireland.  Though  he  came  into  collision  with 
Swift  over  the  Drapier  prosecution,  the  two 
ultimately  became  warm  friends.  Between  1730 
and  1742  Carteret  took  the  lead  in  the  House 
of  Lords  of  the  party  opposed  to  Sir  Robert 
Walpole.  When  this  opposition  succeeded  in 
ovetihrowing  Waljwlc,  Carteret  became  the  real 
head  of  the  administration,  but  was  driven 
from  power  by  the  Felhams  in  1744.  In  the 
same  year  he  became  Earl  Granville  on  the 
death  of  his  mother,  who  had  been  created 
Countess  Granville  in  her  own  right.  In  1749 
he  became  Knight  of  the  Garter,  and  from 
17S1  to  his  death  was  lord  president  of  the 
council  under  Henry  Pelham.  Consult  Bal- 
lantyne,  'Lord  Carteret :  A  Political  Biography* 
(London  1887) ;  Lecky,  'History  of  England 
in  the  18th  Centnry*  (New  York  1878-JJl) ; 
and  Mahon,  'History  of  England'  (Vols.  II- 
IV,  London  1836-54). 


about  30  settlers,  and  settled  at  Eliiabethtc 
He  avoided  trouble  with  the  Indians  by  adopt- 
ing the  wise  policy  of  buying  the  land  from 
them  or  requiring  the  colonists  to  do  so.  In 
1672  he  went  to  England  for  a  time,  bat  re- 
tnmed  in  1674,  and  during  his  absence  New 
Jersey  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Dutch  for 
a  year,  1673-74.  In  1676  when  the  division  of 
the  province  into  East  and  West  Jersey  was 
completed  he  became  governor  of  East  Jersey, 
holding  the  position  till  his  death,  althougli  the 
office  was  contested  by  Sir  Edmund  Andros, 
governor  of  New  Yorl^  who  demanded  control 
of  New  Jersey  as  well. 

CAHTKRVILLE,  111.,  city  in  Williamson 
County,  100  miles  southeast  of  Saint  Louis,  on 
the  Illinois  Central  and  the  Saint  Louis,  Iron 
Mountain  and  Southern  railroads.  Coa!  mining 
is  the  principal  industry.    Pop.  2,971. 

CAHTKRVILLE.  Mo.,  city  of  Jasper 
County,  on  the  Frisco  and  the  Missouri  Pacific 
railroads,  10  miles  southwest  of  Carthage,  the 


coanty-seaL  Carterville  wu  founded  in  1875 
in  a  rich  kwl-aiining  and  noc  sihcate-bcaiiog 
region  and  has  inMlters,  foundiy  and  nucfainc 
shops,  iron  works,  batter  works  and  stone  quar- 
ries.   Pop.   (igiO)  4,559. 

CABTERSVILLE,  Ga.,  dty  and  county- 
seat  of  Bartow  County,  45  miles  northwest  of 
Atlanta,  on  die  Seaboard  Air  Line,  the  Western 
and  Atlantic  and  the  Nashville,  Chattanoiwa 
and  Saint  Louis  railroads.  The  dty  is  the 
centre  of  a  reraon  producing  cottoii,  fruit  and 
grain  in  abundance  and  of  a  mining  district 
with  rich  deposits  of  gold,  graphite,  iron,  man- 
ganese, ochre  and  other  minerals.  The  indus- 
trial establishments  comprise  cottonseed-oil 
mills,  fertilizer  works  and  cotton  mills.  The 
city  has  a  county  cotirthouse  and  a  public 
liln^ry.  The  electric-lighting  plant  and  water- 
works are  the  property  of  the  municipality. 
The  commission  form  of  government  was 
adopted  in  1911.    Pop.  4,067. 

CARTBSIANISM,  the  philosophy  of 
Reni  Descartes  (q.v.)  and  his  school,  among 
whom  mav  be  reckoned  Geulincx,  Malebranche, 
Arnauld,  Nicole,  and  even  many  who  stood  out- 
side the  circle  of  professional  philosophers  like 
Bossuet  and  Pini\oa.  Spinoza  and  Leibnitz 
have  much  in  common  with  Descartes  in  stand- 
point and  method,  but  the  divergencies  of  their 
systems  from  his  are  too  great  to  justify  us  in 
classifying  them  as  Cartesians.  Among  the 
many  noteworthy  points  in  Descartes'  system 
we  may  mention  Oie  deliberate  determination 
to  doubt  everything  that  could  intelligibly  be 
called  in  question.  TUs  was  not  scepticism, 
but  a  principle  of  method  that  he  employed  to 
enable  him  to  reach  something  absolutely  cer- 
tain. This  basal  fact  he  found  in  the  famous 
proposition,  *I  think,  therefore  I  am*  (Cogito 
ergo  sum,  je  pentr  done  je  titit).  No  doubt 
conld  shake  the  certainty  the  e^  possesses  of 
its  own  existence.  Moreover,  Descartes  finds 
in  consciousness  certain  ideas  that  are  not  due 
to  expeiiettce  and  not  the  product  of  the  imag- 
ination. These  ideas  he  pronounces  connate, 
ariginal  possesions  of  the  mind.  Among  them 
the  chief  is  that  of  the  conception  of  God  as 
an  infinite  and  all- per  feet  being.  Now  the 
presence  of  this  idea,  Descartes  argues,  proves 
the  actual  existence  of  God  as  its  cause,  for 
no  finite  bein^  can  be  the  author  of  the  idea  of 
infinity.  Having  thus  established  the  existence 
of  God,  Descartes  maintains  that  the  veracity 
of  God  warrants  us  in  believing  that  whatever 
we  perceive  through  the  medium  of  dear  and 
distinct  ideas  must  be  true.  Adapting  the 
traditional  notion  of  substance  he  holds  that 
besides  the  infinite  substance,  (jod,  there  are 
two  finite  created  substances,  namely,  matter 
or  extended  substance,  and  mind  or  thinking 
substance.  These  have  no  attributes  in  com- 
mon, and  are  absolutely  opposed  to  each  other. 
Thus  his  philoso^y  is  a  Dualism  (q.v,).  In 
the  human  organism  these  two  substances  are 
united.  The  soul  has  its  seat  in  the  pineal 
gland,  and  at  this  point  receives  inJBueiices  from 
the  body,  and  in  turn  controls  and  governs  the 
direction  of  bodily  movements.  Descartes'  ac- 
count of  the  physical  world  is  given  in  terms 
o£  the  mechanical  theory,  the  principles  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  thinkers  to 
formulate  dearly.  All  bodies  are  extended, 
figured,  substances,  wi^ut  any  internal  prop- 


.Google 


crties  ot  differences.  EveiTthiiig  that  take* 
place  in  the  physical  world  consists  in  the 
movement  of  an  extended  body.  Thus  the 
sciences  of  physical  nature  can  be  compre- 
hended in  a  mauiematical  physics  whidi  has  for 
its  data  the  OM,  shape,  velocity  (amount  of 
motion)  and  diiectioc  of  the  various  bodies  of 
which  the  physical  world  is  composed.  God 
at  the  beginning  created  bo<lies  with  a  fixed 
quantity  of  motion  and  rest;  and  since  God  is 
unchaRging,  this  amount  is  subject  to  no  in- 
crease or  diminution.  From  uiis  statement, 
which  is  couched  in  scholastic  language,  has 
come,  throi^  a  closer  analysis  of  conceptions, 
the  modem  principle  of  the  conservation  ot 
energy.  Descartes'  view  of  the  relation  of  body 
and  mind  was  not  satisfactory  even  to  the 
members  of  his  own  school,  and  led  to  the 
doctrine  of  Occasionalism  aud  with  Spinoza  to 
a  thorough-going  ParalleUsm  (q.v.).  He  also 
left  to  bis  successors  ^e  furttier  elaboration  of 
the  problem  regarding  the  relation  of  the  one 
infimte  substance,  Go^  to  the  two  created  sub- 
stances. In  the  ^Passions  de  I'amc'  he  made 
an  important  contribution  to  the  psycholo^  of 
the  emotions,  deriving  all  forms  of  emotional 
experience  from  the  six  primary  emotions, 
wonder,  love,  hate,  desire,  joy  and  grief. 


Descartes,  'Discours  de  la  m^thode* ;  'Medita- 
tions on  the  First  Philoso^Ay,'  and  'Principles 
of  Philosgihyi  (in  Veitch'a  or  Torrey's  trans- 
lation) ;  Pisner,  Kuno,  'Descartes  and  His 
School*  (English  translation  by  J.  Gordy) : 
Mahaify,  J.  P.,  'Descartes>  (in  'Blackwood 
Philosophical  Gassics');  Smith,  Norman, 
'Studies  in  the  Cartesian  Philosophy.' 

James  E.  Cbbighton, 
Professor  of  Logic  and  MelafhysUs,  Comtll 
University. 

CARTHAGB  (conjectural  native  name. 
die  Phcenician  Keretk-hadeskoth,  new  city, 
from  which  the  Greek  Karchldon,  and  the 
Roman  Carthago  are  supposed  to  have  been 
derived),  the  most  famous  city  of  Africa  in 
antiquity,  caoital  of  a  rich  and  powerful  com- 
mercial repuhlic.  It  was  situated  on  the  north 
coast,  not  far  from  the  modem  Tunis.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition.  Dido,  fleeing  from  Tyre, 
came  to  this  country,  wnere  the  inhabitants 
agreed  to  give  her  as  much  land  as  could  be 
compassed  dv  an  ox-hide.  Dido  cut  the  hide 
into  small  thongs,  with  which  she  enclosed  a 
:   of   land.      Garthage   was   founded. 


large  piece  < 


colony  or  factory,  in  the  Anglo-Indian 
of  TVre  and  Utica.  The  actual  date  of  its 
foundation  is  much  contested.  Tlie  date  com- 
monly given  is  878  B.C  The  history  of  Car- 
thage is  usually  divided  into  three  penods.  The 
first  is  the  epoch  of  its  gradual  rise;  the  second 
that  of  the  struggles  with  other  states  occa- 
sioned by  its  extended  power;  the  third  that 
of  its  decline  and  fall.  These  epochs  inter- 
lock each  other,  and  it  is  only  as  a  matter  of 
convenience  that  we  can  interpose  exact  divid* 
ing  dates  between  them.  The  first  epoch  has 
been  extended  as  far  as  to  410  a.c;  the  sec- 
ond limited  to  the  period  chiefly  distingiiished 
by  wars  with  Greece,  401-265;  the  third  is  the 
period  occupied  with  the  Roman  wars,  and  end- 
ing with  the  fall  oi  Carthage. 


OAGX  esi 

Ortfaase  appears  early  to  have  been  inde- 
pendent ot  Tyre.  There  existed,  however,  a 
close  relationsnip  between  them,  due  to  afiinily 
of  race-  and  religion.  This  appears  from  various 
incidents  in  their  history,  as  when  the  Tyrians 
refused  to  follow  Cambyses  in  a  contemplated 
attadc  on  Carthage,  and  when  Alexander,  hav- 
ing attacked  Tyre,  the  women  and  children 
were  sent  to  Carthage.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  the  government  of  Carthage  was  ever  mon- 
archical. She  appears  soon  to  have  acquired  an 
ascendency  over  the  earlier  Tyrian  colonies, 
Utica,  Tunis,  Hippo,  Leptis  and  Hadrumetum. 
This  was  probably  gained  without  any  eSort 
as  the  result  of  her  material  prosperity.  The 
rise  of  Carthage,  then,  may  be  attributed  to 
the  superiority  of  her  site  for  commercial 
purposes,  and  the  enterprise  of  her  inhabitants. 
Her  relations  with  the  native  populations,  as 
is  evident  from  her  subsequent  history,  would 
always  be  those  of  a  superior  with  inferior 
races.  Some  of.  them  were  directly  subject 
to  Cartha^,  others  contributed  to  her  strength 
by  recruiting  her  armies,  ahhouj^  frequently 
in  hostility  with  her.  She  established  colonies 
for  commercial  purposes  along  the  whole  north- 
em  coast  of  Africa,  west  of  Cyrenaica,  and 
these  colonies  enabled  her  to  maintain  and  ex- 
tend her  influence  over  the  native  tribes.  These 
colonies,  together  with  most  of  the  earlier 
Phcenician  colonies  subject  to  her,  possessed 
little  stren^  in  themselves,  and  easily  fell  a 
prey  to  an  invader;  hence  they  were  in  the  end 
a  source  of  weakness,  althou;^  it  is  not  easy 
to  see  how  her  prosperity  could  have  been 
attained  without  them.  It  is  only  after  the  nordi 
of  Africa  has  thus  been  placed  at  her  com- 
mand that  Cartbase  appears  formally  on  the 
stage  of  history.  One  of  her  earliest  recorded 
contests  is  that  with  Cyrene,  when  the  bound- 
aiy  between  the  two  states  was  fixed,  to  the 
advantage  of  Carthage,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Greater  Syrtis,  the  Carthaginian  envoys,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditional  stoiv,  consenting 
to  be  buried  on  the  spot.  The  immediate 
wants  of  the  dty  were  provided  for  by  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  surrounding  territory,  which 
alone  was  directly  dependent  on  her. 

Commerce  naturally  led  Carthage  to  con- 
quest. The  advantages,  both  for  the  promotion 
and  protection  of  her  trade,  of  possessii^ 
islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  led  to  her  first 
enterprises.  Expeditions  to  Sicily  and  Sar- 
dinia appear  to  have  been  undertaken  before 
the  middle  of  the  6th  centuiv.  The  war  was 
carried  on  in  the  latter  half  of  this  century 
by  Uago  and  his  sons  Hasdrubal  and  Hamil- 
car.  At  the  same  time  a  war  arose  with  the 
Africans  on  account  of  the  refusal  of  the 
Carthaginians  to  continue  the  payment  of  a 
E^und-rent  for  their  dty.  In  this  the  Cartha- 
ginians were  unsuccessful,  but  at  a  subsequent 
period  they  achieved  their  object.  Sardinia 
was  their  first  conquest.  They  guarded  It 
with  the  utmost  jealousy.  The  Romans,  by  the 
first  treaty  50Q  a.c.,  were  allowed  to  touch  at 
it;  but'  this  permission  was  withdrawn  in  the 
second.  It  was  the  entrepot  of  their  trade  with 
Europe,  and  lessened  their  dependence  on  thdr 
own  territory  for  com.  They  founded  its  cap- 
ital, (Zaratis,  now  Cagliari.  They  soon  after 
occupied  Corsica,  where  they  umted  vrith  the 
Tyrrhenians,  its  previous  possessors,  against 
the  Greeks.     Sicily  was  already  occupied  by 


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CARTHAOS 


Greek  and  Phcenidan  colonies.  The  Utter,  on 
the  decline  of  Tyre,  seem  to  have  fallen'  under 
the  dominion  of  Oirtbwe,  which  gave  her  a 
fooling  on  the  island.  Tbe  Greeks  were  still 
the  more  powerful  parly,  and  the  Carthaginians 
occupied  themselves  in  promoting  dissensions 
amon^  their  cities.  When  the  Greeks  were 
occupied  with  the  Persian  invasion,  they  organ- 
iced  a  great  expedition  to  take  possession  of 
the  island,  in  which  they  landed  300,000  men. 
contributed  by  all  their  dependencies.  Among 
these  Sardinians,  Corsicans  and  Ligurians,  the 
latter  from  the  gulfs  of  Lyons  and  Genoa,  are 
enumerated.  They  were  totally  defeated  by 
Gelon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  and  their  leader 
slain,  in  the  battle  of  Himera,  480  B.C.  The 
Balearic,  and  many  smaller  islands  in  the  Med- 
iterranean, had  already  been  occupied  by  the 
Carthaginians.  Spain  had  also  been  colonized 
t^  them  with  peaceable  commercial  settlements. 
No  other  great  enterprise  took  place  in  the 
first  period  of  her  history. 

The  war  with  the  Greeks  in  Sicily  wu  re- 
newed in  409.  Hannibal,  the  son  of  Cisco, 
landed  an  army  at  Lilybfeum,  in  the  spring  of 
that  year,  and  reduced  Selinus  and  Himera.  In 
a  subsequent  expedition  Agrigentum  was  sub- 
dued. A  pestilence  seconded  the  efforts  of 
Dionysius  and  saved  Syracuse,  396  B.C.  A  treaty 
put  an  end  to  the  war  in  392.  The  struggle 
between  the  Greeks  and  the  Carthaginians  con- 
tinued with  varying  success  throughout  the 
remainder  of  this  period.  Its  most  remarkable 
event  was  the  invasion  of  Africa  by  Agatbocles, 
310  B.C  Defeated  in  Sicily  by  the  Carthagin- 
ians, to  avert  the  total  ruin  of  his  affairs,  he 
raised  an  army  and  passed  over  to  Africa.  The 
most  extraordinary  success  awaited  him,  show- 
ing at  once  the  wealcness  of  tlie  hold  which 
Carthage  had  of  her  external  possessions  on  the 
continent,  and  the  danger  she  constantly  en- 
countered from  factions  and  dissensions  vrithin 
tbe  city  itself.  Agathodes  was  the  precursor 
of  Scipio.  After  the  death  of  Agathodes  tbe 
Carthaginians  renewed  their  enterprise  in 
Sicily,  and  had  nearly  completed  its  conquest 
when  the  Greeks  called  in  the  aid  of  Pyrrhus, 
who  for  a  time  arrested  their  progress,  277-75 
B.C.  Notwithstanding  numerous  and  disastrous 
defeats  in  their  contests  with  the  Greeks,  the 
Carthaginians  seemed,  after  the  departure  of 
Pyrrhus,  to  have  the  conquest  of  Sicily  at 
length  within  her  power,  A  dissension  with 
the  Mamertines,  their  former  allies,  called  in 
the  Romans,  and  with  their  invasion,  264  B.C., 
the  third  period  of  Cartb^nian  history  begins. 

The  First  Punic  War  in  which  Rome  and 
Carthage  contended  for  the  dominion  of  Sicily, 
was  prolonged  for  23  years,  264  to  241  B.C., 
and  ended,  through  the  exhaustion  of  the  re- 
sources of  Carthage,  in  her  expulsion  from  the 
island.  The  Second  Punic  War,  conducted  on 
the  side  of  the  Carthaginians  by  the  genius  of 
Hannibal,  lasted  17  years,  218  to  201  &c  and 
after  just  missing  the  overthrow  of  Rome, 
ended  in  the  complete  humiliation  of  Cartha^. 
The  policy  of  Rome,  at  the  end  of  this  war,  in 
placing  Carthage,  disarmed,  at  the  mercy  of  her 
African  enemies,  and  raising  her  a  powerful 
opponent  in  Masinissa,  occasioned  the  Third 
Punic  War,  in  which  Rome  was  the  aggressor. 
It  lasted  only  three  years,  hut  served  to  throw 
a  halo  of  kIdiv  round  tbe  fall  of  Carthage,  in 
whose  total  rum  it  ended    This  war,  begun  150 


B.C,  ended,  in  146  B.a,  in  tbe  destruction  of  the 
last  vestige  of  its  power. 

The  repeated  and  not  always  unsuccessful 
strug^es  of  Carth^^  with  her  African  neigh- 
bors, m  the  very  midst  of  her  schemes  of  for- 
eign conquest,  indicate  the  marvelous  tension 
to  which  a  power  inherently  so  weak  was 
wrought  in  those  great  enterprises  which  vir- 
tually grasped  at  the  supremacy  of  the  world 
In  this  matter  the  expenence  of  Carthage  was 
not  unparalleled  by  that  of  Rome;  but  the  great 
difference  between  them  was  that   the   former 


surrounded  by  alien  tribes,  the  latter  b] 
9  kindred  in  language  and  manners,  witt 
whom,   after   conquest,   she   could   easily  unite; 


The  invasion  and  conquest  of  Spain,  begun  by 
Hamilcar  and  carried  on  by  HasdrulHil  and 
Hannibal,  and  which  led  to  the  Second  Punic 
War,  can  only  be  mentioned  in  passing. 

Carthage  perislied  leaving  no  historians  to 
tell  her  tale;  hence  many  mteresting  circum- 
stances in  her  history  can  never  be  kniswn,  andr- 
what  is  preserved  has  the  color  of  partial  and 
often  hostile  authority.  Recent  excavations 
show  that  the  streets  crossed  each  other  regu- 
larly at  right  angles.  The  long  streets  nui 
parallel  to  tbe  qulys  and  were  distant  from 
each  other  about  150  feet.  The  inhatntants 
are  said  to  have  numbered  about  700^000  in 
149  B.C.  No  foreign  traders  were  allowed  at 
any  of  her  western  colonies,  and  only  the  port 
of  Carthage  was  open  to  foreigners.  Traders 
found  elsewhere  were  drowned  The  revenue 
to  cover  her  great  military  and  naval  expendi- 
tures appears  to  have  been  derived  from  tribute 
imposed  on  the  neighboring  subject  races,  from 
mines  in  Spain  and  from  import  duties  on  her 
vast  commerce.  Her  merchant  ships  reached 
to  every  coast  and  island  of  the  MetUterranean, 
and  even  to  Britain  and  the  Baltic  shore.  Her 
caravans  penetrated  far  into  the  Dark  Continent 
to  the  gold  districts  of  the  Niger  and  up  the 
Nile.  Uany  citizens,  however,  were  not  en- 
gaged in  commercial  pursuits,  but  cultivated 
lar^  estates  bv  means  of  slaves.  The  consti- 
tution of  Carthage  has  occupied  much  of  the 
attention  of  scholars,  but  still  remains  in  many 
points  obscure.  The  name  of  king  occurs  in 
the  Greek  accounts  of  it,  and  the  first  Cartha- 
ginian general  who  is  recorded  to  have  invaded 
Sicily  ^id  Sardinia  is  called  Malchus,  the  Phce- 
nidan forking,  but  the  monarchical  constitution, 
as  commonly  understood,  never  appears  to  have 
existed  in  it.  The  officers  called  kings  by  the 
Greeks  were  two  in  number,  tbe  heads  of  an 
oligarchical  republic,  commonly  called  suSetes, 
the  original   name  being  considered  identicaJ 

■      '    ■  ™        ofii- 

idpal 


^r 


families,  and  were  elected  annually.  .._ 
known  if  they  could  be  re-elected  Ther 
a  senate  of  SWt  and  the  dtiaens  were  divided 
into  classes  similar  to  the  Roman  tribes,  curis 
and  gentes.  There  was  a  smaller  body  of  30 
chosen  from  the  Senate  sometimes  another 
smaller  council  of  10.  Various  other  officers 
are  mentioned,  but  tbe  particulars  regarding 
them  are  often  obscure,  and  sometimes  contra- 
dictory. 

After  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  her  terri- 
tory became  the  Roman  province  of  Africa.  A 
curse  was  pronounced  upon  the  site  of  the  city, 
and  any  attempt  to  rebuild  it  prohibited  The 
attempt  was,  however,  made  24  yemts  after  her 


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CARTHAOX 


Julius  Oesar,  and  it  was  accomplished  by  Au- 
gustus. The  new  dt^  became  the  seat  of  the 
proconsul  of  Old  Afnca  in  place  of  Utica,  and 
continued  to  flounsh  till  the  Vapdal  invasion. 
It  became  distinguished  in  the  annals  of  the 
Christian  Church,  Cyprian  was  its  bishop  and 
Tertullian  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of 
it.  Genseric  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Vandal 
kingdom  in  439.  BelisaHus  took  it  in  533,  and 
named  it  Colonia  Justiniana  Carthago.  It  was 
taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Arabs,  under  Has- 
san,  in  647.  A  few  miserable  hamleis  and 
ruins  mark  its  site.  In  recent  times  many  ex- 
cavations have  been  made,  uncovering  parts 
of  the  ancient  .walls  and  remains  of  the  har- 
bors; the  citadel,  the  forum  and  the  amphi- 
theatre have  been  almost  completely  excavated, 
and  have  yielded  many  small  objects  and  in- 
scriptions, principally  those  from  tombs  of 
Punic  and  Roman  times. 

The  religion  of  the  ancient  Carthaginians 
was  essentially  that  of  their  Phcenician  ances- 
tors. They  worsliipped  Moloch  or  Baal,  to 
whom  they  offered  human  sacrifices;  Hercules, 
the  patron  deity  of  Tyre  and  her  colonies;  _As- 
larte,  and  other  deities,  which  were  identified 
with  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  propitiated  by 
cruel  or  lascivious  rites.  Their  religion  was 
considerably  modified  by  their  intercourse  with 
the  Greeks.  After  their  defeat  by  Gelon  he 
made  it  a  condition  of  peace  with  them  that 
they  should  abandon  human  sacrifices.  Some 
of  their  deities  were  identified  with  those  of 
the  Greeks,  and  they  adopted  others  of  that 
people,  and  no  doupt  received  also  some  of 
their  ideas  regarding  them.  Consult  Arnold's 
and  Mommsen's  histories  of  Rome ;  Smith,  R. 
B.,  'Carthage  and  the  Carthaginians'  (London 
1877);, Church,  A.,   'Carthage,  or  the  Empire 


;a'  (N^ 

id  Her 


thage  and  Her  Remains'  (London  1861)  ;  Melt- 
zer,  'Geschichle  der  Karthager*  (Berlin  1913)  ; 
Moore,  'Carthage  of  the  Phcenicians  in  the 
Light  of  Modern  Excavation'  (London  1905); 
de  Sainte-Marie,  E.  de,  'Mission  i  Carthage> 
(Paris  1884)  ;  id.,  'Atlas  archeologique  de  la 
Tunisie'  (Paris  1893)  ;  Audollent.  'Carthage 
romaine'  (Paris  1901)  ;  also  'Compte!  Rendua 
de  I'Academie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Let- 
tres>  (Vol.  XXVIII.  Paris  1901),  and  map 
issued  in  1907  by  the  French  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction. 

CARTHAGE,  III.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Hancock  Coiinly,  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
and  Quincy  and  the  Wahash  railroads,  32  miles 
south  of  Burlington,  Iowa.  It  is  noted  as  the 
place  where  Joseph  Smith,  the  Mormon  prophet, 
was  imprisoned  and  killed  in  1844.  Carthage 
was  settled  in  1837  and  received  a  city  charter 
in  1883.  It  operates  its  owu  waterworks.  Car- 
thage (Lutheran)  College  was  opened  here 
in  1871    Pop.  2,373. 

CARTHAGE,  Mo.,  dtv  and  county-seat  of 
Jasper  C)ounty,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
State,  on  Spring  River,  and  on  the  Saint  Loins 
&  San  F.,  Missouri  Pac.,  Iron  M..  Carthage  and 
Western  and  Southwest  Missotiri  Electric  rail- 
ways, ISO  miles  south  of  Kansas  CiO-.  It  is 
the  centre  of  a  fertile  farming  and  fruit-TBising 
re^on,  and  in  the  vidnity  are  rich  mines  of 
zinc  and  lead  and  extensive  quarries  of  marble 


and  builditiK  stone.  The  dty  «xports  large 
shipments  of  stone,  marble,  grain,  fiour,  straw- 
berries and  other  fruits,  poultry,  live  stock  and 
hides.  It  has  10  large  quarries,  zinc  and  stone 
works,  bed-spring,  shoe,  overall,  broom  and 
dear  factories,  flour  mills  and  machine  shops. 
l%ere  are  five  banks  with  $450,000  capital  and 
an  annual  business  of  $2,000,000;  and  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  Carthage  has  a  county 
courthouse  (cost  $100,000),  government  post- 
ofSce  building  (cost  $90,000),  a  public  hbrary, 
high  school  building  (cost  $110,000),  good  public 
schools,  a  business  college  and  a  piano  school. 
The  following  churches  are  represented;  Pres- 
byterian, Congregational ist.  Baptist,  Methodist 
(North  and  South),  E^tiscopal,  Christian,  Ro- 
man Cathohc,  Christian  Sdentist,  Dunkard  and 
Adventist  The  site  of  the  city  was  first  settled 
in  1833  by  Henry  Piercy.  On  28  March  1842  it 
was  made  the  county-seat  and  named  Carriage. 
The  town  was  practically  destroyed  in  the  Civil 
War  (see  Casthage,  Battle  or)  and  has  been 
almost  entirely  rebuilt  since  1866.  The  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  10  councilmen 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  Pop.  (1910) 
9,483. 

CARTHAGE,  K.  Y.,  village  of  Jefferson 
County,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Black  River 
Canal  and  on  the  New  York  Central  Railroad 
18  miles  <ast  of  Watcrtown.  With  West  Car- 
thage, joined  by  a  bridge  across  the  Black 
River,  It  forms  a  busy  manufacturing  centre 
with  paper  mills,  machine  shops,  foundries,  ice 

Slants,  house  woodwork  and  furniture  factories, 
rick  works,  etc  The  village  operates  its  own 
waterworks  and  maintains  a  public  library.  Pop. 
of  West  Carthage,  a  separately  incorporate 
village,  1,393;  of  Carthage  3,563. 

CARTHAGE,  Battle  of.  On  17  June  1861, 
Gen.  Nathaniel  I^n,  U.  S.  A.,  drove  the  Con- 
federates from  Boonvilie,  Mo.,  and  Claiborne 
P.  Jackson,  the  disloyal  governor  of  Missouri, 
ordered  a  concentration  of  the  State  troops, 
who  adhered  to  him,  in  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  State,  to  unite  with  the  Arkansas  troops, 
under  the  command  of  Gen.  Ben.  McCullocb. 
Anticipating  McCulloch's  movement  into  Mis- 
souri, Lyon  ordered  Gen.  T.  W.  Sweeny,  with 
three  Uaion  regiments,  a  small  detachment  of 
regulars  and  some  artillery,  from  Saint  Louis 
to  Springfield.  These  were  pushed  forward  by 
rail  to  Rolla  and  ihence  by  road,  and  28  June 
Col.  Franz  Si  gel,  with  the  3d  Missouri,  arrived 
at  SarCoxie,  southwest  of  Springfield,  and  15 
miles  southeast  of  Carthage,  Jasper  County. 
Here  Sigel  learned  that  Gen.  Sterling  Price, 
with  about  800  Missourians,  was  near  Neosho, 
22  miles  south,  and  that  Jackson,  with  other 
State  troops,  was  to  die  north,  15  or  20  miles 
beyond  Larnar,  marching  south.  He  concluded 
to  move  first  on  Price  to  disperse  him,  and 
then  turn  north  on  Jackson,  his  object  being 
to  prevent  a  junction  of  the  two  forces,  and 
to  open  commnnicatian  with  Lyon,  who  was 
marching  south  from  Boonvilie;  but  when  he 
started  after  Price,  on  the  morning  of  the  29tli, 
he  heard  that  he  had  retreated  to  join  Mc- 
Culloch,  upon  which  he  turned  his  thoughts 
toward  Jackson,  but  continued  his  march  to 
Neosho,  where  he  was  joined  a  few  days  later 
by  Colonel  Salomon,  with  the  5th  (Union)  Mis- 
souri. Captain  Conrad's  company  of  the  3d  was 
left  to  hold  Neosho,  and  on  the  4th  of  Juty 
Sigel,  with  the  two  regiments  and  two  b^ 


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CAKTHAGS — CASTIER 


where  he  heard  that  jaclcson,  with  over  4,000 
men,  was  but  nine  miles  in  his  front  in  the 
direction  of  Lamar.  On  the  morninK  of  the 
5th,  with  about  1,000  men  and  ci^t  guns,  he 
advanced  slowly,  his  train  three  miles  in  the 
rear,  drivina:  back  the  enemy's  mounted  skir- 
mishers, and  about  nine  miles  beyond  Carthage 
came  upon  Jackson's  troops  in  line  of  battle  on 
elevated  nound,  four  divisions  under  com- 
mand of  Gens.  James  S.  Raines.  John  B,  Clark, 
U.  M.  Parsons  and  W.  Y.  Slacl^  numberinK 
nearly  5,000  men,  1,200  of  whom  were  unarmed. 
About  1,800  were  mounted  men,  armed  with 
shotguns,  and  judiciously  posted  on  the  flanks 
of  the  infantiy.  Jackson  had  eight  guns.  After 
some  skirmishing  Sigel,  at  10  o'clock,  brought 
up  seven  guns  and  opened  fire,  which  was 
promptly  returned,  but  not  effectively,  for,  be- 
ma  in  want  of  proper  ammunition,  the  Con- 
federate guns  were  charged  with  pieces  of 
chain,  iron  spikes,  broken  iron  and  round 
stones  or  pebbles.  After  a  desultory  artillery 
fire  of  three  hours  the  Confederate  horsemen 
advanced  from  both  flanks  and  making  a  wide 
circuit,  to  avoid  Sigel's  artillery,  began  to  close 
in  on  him  and  threaten  his  train,  whereupon, 
disposing  four  guns  in  rear  and  two  on  either 
flank  he  fell  bauc,  harassed  at  every  step,  until 
he  reached  Carthage,  where  be  made  a  stand. 
But,  as  the  enemy  was  stLU  pressing  hard  on 
him,  working  on  both  flanks  and  uireatening 
the  road  to  Springfield,  be  again  fell  back, 
skirmishing  all  the  way,  some  two  or  three 
miles  beyond  Carthage,  where  pursuit  ended, 
and  Sigel  marched  to  Sarcoxie,  and  thence  1^ 
way  of  Mount  Vernon  to  Sprinefield,  where 
Lyon  joined  him  on  the  13th.  The  Union  loss 
was  13  killed  and  31  wounded,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  loss  of  Conrad's  company  of  94 
men  surprised  and  captured  at  Neosho,  on  the 
5th,  by  Churchill's  Adcansas  regiment  of  Mc- 
Culloch's  command.  The  Confederate  loss 
was  about  30  killed  and  125  wounded.  The 
day   after    the    engagement   Jackson     marched 


McCulloch  and  Price 


from  Carthage 

coming   to    loii 

ords.  Vol.  In ;  ^..eiiiiiij,   -"«. 

of  the  Gvil  War>    (Vol.   I). 

R  A.  Carman. 
CARTHAOB,  New.    See  Cartagena. 
CARTHAGENA.    See  Caitacena.' 
CARTHUSIANS,   an   order   of   monks   in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  founded  in  1084  by 
Saint  Bruno   (g.v.),  a  priest  of  the  diocese  of 
Rbeims  and  prmcipal  of  the  theological  school 
there.      Displeased    with    the    impiety     of     his 
bishop,  Bruno  and  several  friends  sought  soli- 
tude in  the  diocese  of  Grenoble,  and  settled  in 
a   bleak   and   rocky  wilderness   near   that   city, 
called  Cartusium  (La  Grand  Chartreuse).   The 
rule   was    at   first    not   written,    the    followers 
imitating;  Bruno.     The  order  was  very  rigid, 

Srescribing  perpetual  silence,  abstinence  from 
esb,  habitual  wearing  of  the  cilicum  or  horse- 
hair shirt,  the  eating  of  meals  only  once  a  day, 
excepting  festival  days.  A  Carthusian  mon- 
astery covered  a  great  deal  of  ground.  It  con- 
sisted usually  ot  the  great  cloister  around 
which  were  separate  houses  or  'cells*  of  the 
monks ;  the  lesser  cloister  with  cells  of  various 
offidals ;    worships    of    lay   brothers,    chapter- 


house; refectory,  etc.  The  time  of  the  monks 
was  spent  in  oral  and  silent  pntyer,  in  manual 
labor  and  in  study  and  a  little  recreation.  The 
oi^anization  was  democratic.  The  prior,  who 
was  elected  by  the  professed  monks  of  the 
commimity,  was  the  general  of  the  order.  The 
visitors  and  priors  formed  the  governing  body, 
and  all  of  these  might  be  removed  or  reinstated 
at  will.  The  officials  assisting  the  prior  were 
the  vicar,  or  vice-prior,  the  procurator,  the 
temporal  administrator,  the  coadjutor,  or  host, 
the  antiquior,  who  takes  the  vicar's  place,  the 
sacristan  and  the  novice  master. 

A  written  rule  was  given  to  the  Carthusians 
in  1129,  by  (luigo,  the  fifth  prior.  It  comprised 
tiie  hitherto  unwritten  laws  of  Saint  Bruno, 
and  additional  rules  for  the  government  of  the 
then  much  larger  establishment.  The  order 
grew  slowly.  In  1300  there  were  but  39 
monasteries.  The  order  extended  to  Spain, 
England  and  even  to  Mexico.  The  original 
house.  La  Grande  Chartreuse,  existed,  the 
troublous  times  of  the  Revolution  excepted, 
down  to  1903,  when  it  was  suppressed.  In  1907, 
there  were  seven  motiasteries  in  Italy;  four  in 
Spain ;  the  largest  of  all  at  Parkminster,  Sus- 
sex, England ;  one  in  Germany,  Switieriand  and 
Austria.  Some  of  thb  distinguished  Carthusians 
were  Saint  Hugh,  Sajnt  Stephen,  Saint  Arthold 
and  the  famous  copyists  ancl  authors,  Ludolf  of 
Saxony,  Tromlw,  Sirius,  Denis  the  Carthusiaii 
and  Henry  of  Kalkar. 

An  order  of  Carthusian  nims  was  formed 
in  the  priorship  of  Saint  Antheltn,  about  1245. 
The  arrangement  of  their  day,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, is  the  same  as  that  of  the  monks. 
Among  the  famous  nuns  have  been  Roseline  of 
Villeneuve  and  Blessed  Beatrix  of  Omacicux. 
(See  CHARTREUaE).  Consult  Heimbucher, 
■■Orden  und  Kongregationen  der  katholischen 
Kirche>  (Paderbom  1907)  ;  'La  Grande  Char- 
treuse par  un  Chartreux>  (Lyons  1898) ;  Le 
Couteuix,  'Annates  Ordinis  Cartusiensis'  (8 
vols  Montreuil  1901).  The  best  description  ot 
Carthusian  life  is  Thorold,  'Six  Months  at  the 
Grande  Chartreuse>  (in  the  Dublin  Reviem, 
April  \^S2). 


family  to  which  Jacques  Cartier  belonged:  

among  the  followers  of  Papineau  in  the  rebcl- 
liou  of  1S37,  distinguishing  himself  for  hb 
courage,  but  ultimately  was  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  the  United  States.  Returning  when 
amnesty  was  decreed,  he  resumed  the  practice 
of  law  and  attained  to  some  eminence  in  his 
profession.  He  entered  the  Canadian  Parlia- 
ment as  a  Conservative  in  1848,  became  a 
Cabinet  Minister  in  1855,  and  from  that  time  till 
his  death  was  closely  associated  with  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking Conservative  leader.  Sir  John  A. 
Macdonald  (q.v.).  Cartier  was  Prime  Minister 
1858-62,  When  Canadian  Federation  vras  set 
on  foot  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  negotia- 
tions, and  it  was  under  his  leadership,  aided  by 
the  Church,  that  French-speaking  Canada  was 
reconciled  to  the  Federal  system.  He  carried 
on  the  negotiations  with  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany which  resulted  in  the  surrender  to  Canada 
of  the  company's  ri^ts  in  the  Northwest,  and 
it  was  he  who  carried  tbrougA  the  Canadian 


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CARTIES  —  CARTOON 


eSB 


Parliasient  the  bill  creatiii^  the  province  cf 
Uwditotw.    This  bill  embodied  elaborate  safe- 

Kards  {or  Roman  Catholic  separate  schools, 
t  its  provisions  were  swept  away  in  the  well- 
known  later  agitation  for  a  uniform  school  sys- 
tem in  Manitoba.  Perhaps  Cartier's  priuci^ 
domestic  achievement  was  the  enactment  in 
1864  of  the  Gvil  Code  for  what  is  now  the 

KDvince  of  Quebec  In  1868  he  was  created  a 
ronet  to  reward  his  services  in  establishing 
the  .new  Dominion.  He  carried  through  the 
Canadian  House  of  Commons  in  1872  the  first 
charter  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 
When  Sir  John  Macdonald's  ^vemment  fell 
in  1873,  Cartier  was  involved  «i  the  discredit 
to  his  chief,  springing  from  what  is  known  in 
Canadian  history  as  the  Pacific  Scandal,  Sir 
John  Macdonald  rdied  greatly  upon  Cartier's 
mUuence  with  the  French  Canadians,  which, 
however,  bad  declined  before  his  death.  See 
De  Celles'  'Cartier'  in  the  <Uakers  of  Canada* 
serica. 

Geobge  M.  Wbokg, 
Profetsor  of  History,  University  of  Toronto. 
CARTIER,  Jacques,  French  navigator:  b. 
Saint  Male,  31  Dec.  1491;  d.  1  SepL  15S7,   After 

elning  some  experience  in  fishing-fleets  off  the 
brador  coast,  be  commanded  an  expedition 
to  North  America  in  1534,  entering  the  Strait 
of  Belle  Isle  and  sailed  down  the  whole  west 
coast  of  Newfoundknd.  He  discovered 
Uagdalen  and  Prince  Edward  Islands  which  be 
took  for  the  main  shore.  He  decided  to  wait 
before  exploring  further,  and  returned  to  Saint 
Ualo.  In  1536,  be  set  sail  again  and,  passing 
through  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  anchored  on 
the  9th  of  August  in  Pillage  Bav.  He  named 
tins  the  Saint  I.awrcnce,  and  tne  name  was 
gradually  given  to  the  entire  river.  In  the 
same  year  he  took  possession  of  the  mainland 
of  Canada  iii  the  name  of  Francis  I.    The  next 


as  captain-general  in  command  of  a  first  detach- 
ment of  ships  to  prepare  the  way  for  Roberval, 
who  had  been  named  viceroy.  Finding  how- 
ever, that  his  chief  did  not  arrive,  after  he  had 
waited  some  time,  he  returned  to  Saint  Malo. 
The  natives  usually  received  him  well,  but  when 
about  to  return  from  his  second  voyage  he 
treacherously  kidnapped  Donnaconna,  one  of 
the  chiefs,  and  some  others,  in  order  to  show 
them  in  his  native  country.  In  1544  he  set  out 
to  bring  Roberval  back.  From  this  time  until 
liis  death  he  gave  technical  advice  in  nautical 
matters  and  acted  as  Portuguese  interpreter. 
His  book,  'Discours  du  voyage  fait  par  le 
capitaine  Jacques  Cartier  aux  terres  nenfvei 
de  (^ada,>  was  published  in  1598.  A  critical 
edition  has  been  published  by  the  University  of 
Toronto  and  the  best  English  version  is  that 
by  James  Phinne  " 
land.  Me.,  1906. 

CARTILAGE,  one  of  the  primary  tissues 
of  animal  structures,  of  the  connective-tissue 
class  (q.v.),  characterized  by  its  peculiar  base- 
ment substance.  The  most  abundant  form  of 
cartilage  is  the  hyaline  variety,  but  there  are 
also  fibrous  and  fibro-elastic  cartilages.  Hya- 
line cartilage,  particularly  abundant  on  the  ends 
of  the  bones,  is  whitish  and  translucent,  fim 
and  elastic.  The  cells  are  imbedded  in  an 
abundant     homogeneous     basement     substance 


which  is  made  up  larvdy  of  cbondrin.  Fibrous 
cartilage  is  less  abundant,  and  its  basement  sub- 
stance is  fibriUated.  It  is  found  about  the  in- 
tervertebral cartilage  masses,  about  the  joints 
and  around  the  tendons  of  some  of  the  larger 
muscles.  The  fibro-elastic  form  is  found  only 
in  certain  structures, — the  epiglottis,  the  larynx, 
the  Eustachian  tube  and  in  the  external  ear. 
Cartilage  tissues  protect  the  ends  of  the  long 
bones  by  reason  of  their  firm  elasticity.  Tbey 
iprovido  strong,  firm  and  yet  moveable  structures, 
where  bon&  by  reason  of  its  rigidity,  would  not 
be  serviceaole,  as  in  the  epiglottis,  larynx,  etc. 
See  Joints. 

CARTON,  Richard  CUnde,  English  actor 
and  plajrwright:  b.  1856.  His  real  name  is 
R.  D.  Critchelt,  and  he  early  appeared  in  plays 
in  Bristol  and  London.  After  being  known  as 
a  collaborator  with  Cecil  Raleigh  on  'The 
Great  Pmk  FearP  (1885):  'The  Pointsman* 
nS87);  and  'The  Treasure>  (1888),  he  pro- 
duced two  original  sentimental  plays,  'Sun- 
lirfit  and  Shadow*  (1890)  ;  and  'Dberty  Hall* 
^1892;  revived  New  Yoric  1913).  Among  his 
light  comedies  are  'The  Home  Secretary' 
(1895);  'The  Tree  of  Knowledge*  (1897) ; 
'Lord  and  Lady  Algy*  (1898);  'The  Ninth 
Walti'  (1900);  'A  Oean  Slate'  (1902)-  'The 
Rich  Mrs.  Repton>  (1904)  ;  'Lorrimer  Salnston, 
Dramatist*  (1909) ;  'The  Bear  Leaders' 
(1911);   'A  Busy  Day'    (1912). 


CARTOON  (It  earlone,  from  Lat  ebarta, 
paper)  a  term  having  various  significations.  In 
painting,  it  denotes  a  sketch  on  thick  paper, 
pasteboard  or  other  material,  used  as  a  model 
for  a  large  picture,  especially  in  fresco,  oil, 
tapestry  and  sometimes  in  glass  and  mosaic.  In 
fresco  painting,  cartoons  are  particularly  use- 
ful, because  in  this  a  quick  process  is  necessary, 
and  a  fault  cannot  easily  be  corrected-  In  ap- 
plying cartoons,  the  artist  commonly  traces 
them  through,  covering  the  back  of  the  design 
with  black-lead  or  red  chalk;  then,  laying  the 

fiicture  on  the  wall  or  other  matter,  he  insses 
ightiy  over  each  stroke  of  the  design  with  a 
poinL  which  leaves  an  impression  of  the  color 
on  the  plate  or  wall;  or  the  outlines  of  the 
figures  are  pricked  with  a  needle,  and  then,  the 
cartoon  being  placed  against  the  wall,  a  bag  of 
coal-dust  is  drawn  over  the  holes,  in  order  to 
transfer  the  outlines  to   the  wall.    In  fresco 

Sainting,  the  figures  were  formerly  cut  out  and 
xed  firralv  on  the  moist  plaster.  The  painter 
then  tracea  their  contour  with  a  pencil  of  wood 
or  iron,  so  that  the  outlines  of  the  figures  ap< 
peared  on  the  fresh  pkister,  with  a  slight  but 
distinct  impression,  when  the  cartoon  was  taken 
away.  In  the  manufacture  of  a  certain  kind  of 
tapestry  the  figures  are  still  cut  out,  and  laid 
benind  or  under  the  woof,  by  which  the  artist 
directs  his  operations.  In  this  case  the  cartoons 
must  be  colored.  In  very  modern  times  the 
term  is  commonly  applied  to  pictures  caricatur* 
ing  notable  characters  or  events  of  the  moment 
See  Caucatubc  axd  Cabicatukists. 

Amtxig  the  most  famous  cartoons  in  exist- 
ence  are  those  executed  by  Raphael  for  the 
celebrated  tapestries  of  the  Vatican,  which  were 
made  at  Arras,  and  hence  called  Arazii.  Two 
sets  of  these  tapestries  were  ordered  by  Leo 
X,  one  for  the  Vatican  and  the  other  for^rei 


Coogic 


CARTOUCHE  —  C  ABTWSIGHT 


entatioD  to  King  Henry  VIII.  The  second 
set,  or  fragments  of  it,  are  still  in  existence  on 
tbe  Continent.  The  cartoons  Uy  for  a  time 
neglected  at  Arras,  and  have  repeatedly  fallen 
into  neglect  again,  so  that  out  of  25,  the  original 
number,  only  seven  remain,  and  these  have  had 
to  be  restored.  They  were  purchased  at  the 
advice  o£  Rubens  by  Charles  I  about  1630.  On 
the  sale  of  his  effects  they  were  purchased  by 
the  order  of  Cromwell  for  the  nation,  but  again 
fell  into  neglect  in  the  lime  of  Charles  IL 
William  III  had  them  restored,  and  built  a  gal- 
lery for  them  at  Hampton  Court,  where  uey 
remained,  until  in  1865  they  were  lent  to  tbe 
South  Kensington  Museiun.  The  subjects  of 
the  seven  are:  (1)  Paul  Preaching  at  Athens; 
(2)  The  Death  of  Ananias;  (3)  Elymas  the 
Sorcerer  Struck  with  Blindness:  (4)  Christ's 
Charge  to  Peter;  (5)  The  Sacrifice  at  Lystra; 
(6)  Peter  and  John  Heahcg  the  Cripple  at  the 
Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple;  (7)  The 
Miraculous  Drat^ght  of  Fishes.  The  cartoons 
have  been  repeatedly  engraved,  among  others 
by  Dorigny,  HoUoway  and  Gribelin.  They 
have  also  been  extensively  made  known  l^ 
^lotographs.  Other  celebrated  surviving  ex- 
amples are  Mantegna'c  nine  cartoons  of  the 
'Triumph  of  Julius  Cxsar,*  now  preserved  at 
Hampton  Court. 

The  cartoon  of  the  School  of  Athens,  car- 
ried to  Paris  bv  the  French,  and  a  fragment  of 
the  battle  of  Maxentius  and  Constantine,  are 
preserved  in  the  Ambrosian  Gallery  at  Milan. 
There  are.  likewise,  cartoons  by  Giulio  Romano 
in  the  Sala  Borgia,  by  Domenichino  and  other 
Italian  masters,  who  caused  their  nicturcs  to  be 
executed,  in  a  great  degree,  by  tncir  scholars, 
after  these  cartoons.  The  value  set  upon  car- 
toons by  the  old  Italian  masters  may  be  seen  by 
Giovanni  Armenini's  'Precetti  della  Pittura* 
(t687).  In  later  times  large  paintings,  particu- 
larly m  fresco,  were  not  executed  so  frequently. 
The  artists  also  labored  with  less  care,  and 
formed  their  great  works  more  from  small 
sketches.  In  modem  times  some  German 
artists  have  prepared  accurate  cartoons.  Among 
them  is  Cornelius,  whose  cartoons  for  his 
fresco  pauitings  in  Munich  have  acquired  much 
celebrity.  He  prepared,  too,  a  cartoon  for  the 
fresco  picture  representing  'Joseph  Interpret- 
ing the  Dream.'  Overbeck  and  Julius  Schnorr 
may  also  be  mentioned  for  thrir  cartoons, 

CARTOUCHE,  kartoosh,  Louis  Domi* 
nlque,  French  robber:  b.  Paris  about  1£93;  d. 
Chatelel,  France,  28  Nov.  1721.  He  was  the 
leader  of  a  noted  company  of  robbers,  and 
beinz  captured  was  broken  alive  on  die  wheel 
in  1721.  His  life  has  formed  the  subject  of  a 
modern  French  drama,  and  was  fonnerlv 
represented  on  the  English  Stage.  Consult 
Maurice,  'Cartouche,  nistoire  authentique' 
(Paris  18S9). 

CAKTOUCHE,  or  CAKTOUCH  (French 
carlouehe).  (1)  A  wooden  case  about  three 
inches  thick  at  bottom,  and  girt  round  with 
marUne,  holding  200,  300  or  400  musket-balls, 
with  8  or  10  iron  balls  weighing  one  pound 
each,  to  be  fired  from  a  mortar,  gun  or  how- 
itrer  for  the  defense  of  a  pass,  retrenchment, 
etc  Such  missiles  have  been  superseded.  In 
French  military  language  cartouche  signifies 
the  entire  charge  of  a  firearm,  (2)  In  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  etc.,  an  ornament  represent- 


ing a  scroll  of  paper,  being  usually  in  the  form 
of  a  table,  or  flat  member,  with  wavings,  where- 
on is  some  inscription  or  device.  (3)  ITie 
name  given  by  tbe  French  literati  to  that  oval 
ring  or  border  which  includes,  in  the  Elgypiian 
hieroglyphics,  the  names  of  persons  of  high 
distinction.  (4)  In  heraldry  a  name  given  to  a 
sort  of  oval  shield,  much  used  by  the  Fopes 
and  secular  princes  in  Italy,  and  others,  both 
clergy  and  laity,  for  painting  or  engraving  thdr 
arms  on. 

CARTRIDGE,  a  case  of  paper,  parchment, 
metal  or  flannel  suited  to  the  bore  of  firearms, 
and  holding  tbe  exact  charge,  including,  in  the 
case  of  small  arras,  both  powder  and  bullet  (or 
^lot).  In  loading  with  tbe  old  style  of  cart- 
ridge for  muzzle-loading  rifles  before  the  Civil 
War,  the  paper  over  the  powder  was  bitten  or 
twisted  oS  and  the  powder  poured  in,  the  bullet 
being  then  inserted  and  rammed  home.  In  the 
first  breech-loaders  similar  cartridges  were 
used  but  trouble  developed  through  the  escape 
of  gas  from  the  breech  to  the  mechanism ,  and 
the  metallic  cartridge  was  developed  to  obviate 
this  ditSculty.  At  first  copper  was  used,  with 
the  priming  in  the  rim,  but  the  danger  of 
accidental  discharge  being  very  great  the  primer 
was  placed  opposite  the  centre  of  the  head  in  a 
small  cap  outside  the  case,  for  which  brass  was 
now  used.  The  cartridges  used  for  breech- 
loading  rifles  contain  the  powder  in  a  case  of 
solid  brass,  and  have  the  percussion-cap  by 
which  they  are  ignited  fixed  in  the  base.  Such 
cases  can  be  refilled  and  used  a  number  of 
limes  in  succession.  Cartridges  for  shot-guns 
are  similar  to  those  for  rifles,  but  are  usually 
of  less  solid  construction,  being  commonly  of 
strong  paper  with  a  base  of  metal.  Those  for 
large  guns  are  usually  made  of  flannel  and  con- 
tain only  the  powder,  the  projectile  being  loaded 
separately.  Machine  guns  became  possible 
after  the  advent  of  metallic  small-arms  am- 
munition, and  in  turn  developed  it.  This  kind 
of  gun  increased  in  calibre  and  fixed  ammuni- 
tion continued  to  be  used  and  many  diiBcuIties  in 
manufacture  were  overcome.  Cartridge  cases 
now  are  generally  drawn  from  one  piece  in 
dies,  whetner  they  are  small  or  large  cases. 
Blank-cartridge  is  a  cartridge  without  ball  or 
shot.  It  is  used  for  practice,  salutes  or  signals. 
A  dummy  cartridge  has  no  powder,  and  is 
used  for  drill  purposes  only,  Cadri^es  for 
blasting  are  filled  with  dynamite  or  other  ex- 
plosive.   See  Ammunition. 

CARTRIDGE-PAPER,  a  thick  paper 
originallv  made  for  the  manufacture  of  cart- 
ridges, but  extensively  used  in  the  arts,  its 
rou^  surface  giving  it  an  advantage  for 
drawing  upon,  as  a  wall  paper  and  for  other 
purposes. 

CAHTWRIGHT,  Edmund,  English  cler- 
gyman and  inventor :  b.  Mamham,  Notting- 
hamshire, 24  April  1743;  d.  Hasting^  Sussex, 
30  Oct,  1823,  He  was  educated  at  University 
College,  Oxford,  and  having  taken  orders  in 
the  Church,  obtained  first  the  living  of  Bramp- 
ton, near  Chesterfield,  and  afterward  that  of 
Goadby-Marwood,  in  Leicestershire.  It  was, 
however,  only  after  he  had  reached  40  years 
of  age  that  his  attention  was  first  turned  to  the 
subject  on  which  his  daim  to  remembrance  is 
founded.  In  the  Slimmer  of  1784  he  began  to 
investigate  the  robiect  of  mednnica]  -weaving, 


Digitized 


6,  Got 


CASTWRIQHT 


and  experiment  regarding  improvanents.  His 
efforts  were  crowned  witG  success,  and  in  April 
of  the  following  year  he  brought  his  first 
power-loom  into  action.  It  was  not,  in  (act, 
in  respect  of  economy  of  labor,  any  advance 
upon  the  ordinary  hand-loom;  but  the  idea 
which  subsequent  improvements  have  ca.rried  SO 
far  in  advance  of  hand-loom  weaving  was 
there.  The  introduction  of  Cartwright's  loom 
was  opposed  both  by  manufacturers  and  wotlc' 
men;  and  the  first  mill  erected  for  them,  con- 
taining 500  looms,  was  burned  down.  His  at- 
tention once  turned  in  the  direction  of  mechan- 
ical improvement,  he  continued  to  make  prog- 
ress in  discovery.  He  not  only  perfected  his 
power-loom,  but  took  out  10  patents  for  dif- 
ferent inventions,  among  which  was  one  (or 
combing  wool.  He  also  assisted  Robert  Fulton 
in  his  steamboat  experiments.  He  expended 
much  of  his  means  in  these  investigations,  and 
in  1809  he  received  as  an  acknowledgment  of 
their  value  a  grant  from  Parliament  of  £10,000, 
which  relieved  him  from  straitened  circum- 
stances, although,  it  is  said,  it  did  not  cover 
his  ejqjenditure.  He  also  received  premiums 
for  various  improvements  from  the  Society  of 
Arts  and  the  Board  of  Agriculture.  His  life 
was  published  by  his  daughter  (London  1843). 
CASTWRIGHT,  John,  English  reformer, 
brother  of  Edmund  Cartwrignt  (q.v.) :  b. 
Mamharo,  Nottinghamshire,  17  Sept  1740;  d. 
London,  23  Sept.  1824.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  1758^  and  became  a  first  lieutenant  in  1766. 
In  1774  bis  attention  was  turned  to  politics.  In 
his  'Letters  on  American  ludependence'  (In- 
dependence.of  America  considered  as  supremely 
useful  and  glorious  to  Great  Britain),  written 
in  this  year,  he  advocated  a  union  between  the 
colonies  and  the  mother  stale,  under  separate 
legislatures,  and  argued  this  great  question  on 
the  foundation  of  natural,  inherent  r^t;  main- 
taining 'that  the  liberty  of  man  is  not  derived 
from  charters,  but  from  God,  and  that  it  is 
ori^nal  in  every  one."  In  1775  he  was  jqipointed 
major  of  the  Nottinghamshire  militia,  and  after 
several  ineffectual  attempts  on  the  part  of 
Eovenunent  to  remove  him  (rom  that  post,  bis 
dismissal  was  finally  accomplished  in  1792,  in 
cotuetjuence  of  an  act  of  Parhament.  In  the 
Amencan  war  Lord  Howe  was  desirous  of 
having  him  with  him  in  America;  but  Major 
Cartwri^hC,  although  always  eager  for  pro- 
motion m  the  navy,  refused  the  proposal,  alleg- 
ing that  he  could  not  light  in  a  cause  which  he 
disapproved.  From  this  time  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  favorite  objects  of  annual  parlia- 
ments and  universal  suffrage.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  Declaration  of  Rights,  distributed 
by  the  Society  for  Constitutional  Information. 
"The  French  Revolution  was  warmly  welcomed 
b^  Cartwright.  In  the  trials  of  Tooke,  Hardy, 
Thelwall  and  other  reformers,  Cartwnght  was 
present  as  a  witness,  and  displayed  much  firm- 
ness and  fearlessness.  By  his  writings,  public 
addresses,  etc.,  he  continued  to  promote  the 
work  of  reform  and  constitutional  liberty;  and 
as  late  as  1820  was  tried  for  conspiracy  and 
sedition,  for  advising  the  inhabitants  of  Birm- 
ingham, which  had  then  no  parliamenta^ 
representative,  to  send  what  he  called  tlieir 
'legislatorial  attorney*  to  the  house;  but  he 
escaped  with  a  tine  of  £100.  Major  Cartwright 
was  not  a  political  reformer  only.  The  plan 
of  making  the  slave-trade  piracy  is  said  to  have 


been  first  developed  in  his  ^Letters  on  the  Slave- 
Trade.'  A  statue  has  been  erected  in  London 
to  his  memory.  A  list  of  his  writings  has  been 
edited  by  his  niece,  F.  D.  Cartwright,  'The 
Life  and  Correspondence  of  Major  Cartwright' 
(2  vols.,  London  1826). 

CARTWRIGHT,  Peter,  American  Metho- 
dist clergyman :  b.  Virginia,  1  SepL  1785 ;  d.  near 
Pleasant  Plains,  III.,  25  Sept.  1872.  He  was 
ordained  in  Kentucky  in  1806,  and  in  1823 
removed  to  Illinois,  where  he  labored  for  neariy 
half  a  century.  He  also  sat  in  the  State  legis- 
lature there,  and  in  1846  was  defeated  by  Abra- 
ham Lincoln  in  an  election  for  congressman. 
Admired  (or  his  eloquence  and  stron^f  common 
sense,  he  was  also  loved  for  his  quaint  eccen- 
tricity of  manner,  and  possessed  great  influence 
in  his  own  denomination.  He  published  man^ 
pamphlets,  among  which  the  Dest  known  is 
'Controversy  with  the  Devil'  (1SS3).  Many 
of  the  stories  of  his  adventures  with  the  back- 
wDodsmen  are  found  in   'Fifty  YearsaPresid- 


_  Dr.  Cartwright  and  the  Back- 
woods Preacher'    (London  iSfff}. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Sn  Richard  John,  Cana- 
dian statesman:  b.  Kingston,  Ontario,  4  Dec 
I83S;  d.  24  Sept.  191^  He  was  educated  at 
Trim^  Coll^^e,  Dublin,  and  entered  the  Cana- 
dian Parliament  in  1863  as  a  Conservative,  but  on 
account  of  a  disagreement  with  Sir  John  A.  Mac^ 
donald  joined  the  Liberal  party.  He  was 
Minister  of  Finance  from  1873  until  1878 ;  and 
Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce,  1896-1911. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Joint  High  Commis- 
sion of  1897  .appointed  to  settle  outstanding 
questions  with  the  United  States,  and  was  in 
favor  of  the  establishment  of  freer  trade  rela- 
tions with  that  country.  He  was  created 
G.C.M.G.  in  1879. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Thomas,  English  Pu- 
ritan divine:  b.  Hertfordshire  1535;  dl  War- 
wick 27  Dec.  1603.  He  studied  theolo^  at 
Cambridge  and  was  elected  to  a  scholarship  at 
Saint  John's  College  there  in  1550.  He  was 
active  in  defending:  the  new  religious  opinions 
then  current  at  Cambridge.  He  withdrew  in 
Mary's  reign  from  the  university  and  was  a 
law  clerk  for  a  time.  He  suffered  imprisonment 
and  exile  more  than  once  for  his  nonconformist 
opinions.  He  was  a  learned  man,  and  at  one 
time  professor  of  diviniw  at  Cambridge.  He 
made  a  visit  to  Geneva,  where  he  met  Theodore 
Beza.  In  1572  he  returned  to  England  just  at 
when    intense    excitement    was    being 


Cartwright  espoused  the  cause  of  the  authors, 
^ho  were  imprisoned,  and  defended  the  book  in 
a  second  'Admonition  to  the  Parliament.'  This 
was  answered  by  Whitgift  and  was  followed  t^ 
another  paper  from  Cartwright.  The  con- 
troversy led  Hooker  to  publish  his  'Ecclesias- 
tical Polity.'  In  1573  Cartwright,  learning  of 
a  warrant  being  issued  for  his  arrest,  fled  to 
the  Continent.  His  chief  books  are  'A  Confu- 
tation of  the  Rhenish  Translation' ;  'Har^ 
monia  Evangelica' ;  and  a  criticism  o(  Hooker's 
'Ecclesiastical  Polity.*    Consult  Dexter,  'Con- 


d=,  Google 


CAKUC  ATE  —  CAKVAJAL 


CARUCATE,  kir'u-kat,  in  medueval  times, 
M  much  land  as  one  team  could  plow  in  the 
year  The  size  varied  according  to  the  nalure 
of  the  soil  and  practice  of  husbandry  in  dif- 
ferent districts. 

CARUPANO,  kii-roo'pa-n6,  Venezuela, 
seaport  of  the  state  of  Bermudez,  on  the  north 
coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Paria,  with  a  Ught- 
house  and  good  roadstead.  The  surroimoing 
district  is  fertile,  and  has  mines  of  copper,  sul- 
phur, silver,  lead  and  lignite.  The  city  exports 
cotton,  dyewoods,  cocoa,  cofCee,  fish,  etc.,  and 
manufactures  hats,  ropes,  soap,  brandy,  sugar 
and  earthenware.     Pop.  about  9,000. 

CASUS,  kii-ri^s,  Jolitis  Victor,  Gennan 
zoologist:  h.  Leipzig.  25  Aug.  1823;  d.  1903. 
After  studying  at  Leipzig,  Wiirzburg  and  Frei- 
burg, he  became  at  the  age  of  26  keeper  of  the 
Oxford  museum  of  comparative  anatomy.  In 
1853,  two  years  after  -his  return  to  his  native 
city,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  comparative 
anitomy  and  director  of  the  Zoological   Insti- 

■  there   where   subsequently  he  was   made 


ischen  Morphologie*  ^1853) ;  'Handbuch  der 
Zoologic' ;  and  'Geschichte  der  Zoologic'  He 
has  translated  most  of  Darwin's  woria  into 
German  and  in  1878  became  editor  of  the 
Zoologitcher  Anttigtr. 

CASUS,  Karl  OuataT.^  German  phj^ician 
and  physio  1  oeis t :  b,  Leipzig;  3  Jan.  Vnfi;  d. 
Dresden,  28  July  1869.  He  became  professor 
of  obstetrics  at  the  Medical  Academy  of  Dres~ 
den,  and  then  royal  physician,  bemg  subse- 
quently a  privy  councillor.  He  published  a 
great  number  of  writings  covering  a  wide  field 
of  science,  including  medicine,  physiology, 
anatomy,  psychology,  physics,  painting,  besides 
s  of  his  life.    Among  these  are  'System 


gen  und  Denkwiirdigkeiten'  (1865-66)  ;  *Lehr- 
buch  der  Zootomie>  (1818);  <t}ber  den  Blut- 
kreislauf  der  Insekten'  (1827);  'Psyche' 
(1851). 

CASUS,  Harcus  AureliuB,  Roman  Em- 
peror: b.  Nerona,  Dalmatia,  about  222  a.d.  ; 
d.  near  Ctesiphon,  Mesopotamia,  283.  His 
father  was  an  African  and  his  mother  a  noble 
Roman  lady.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
the  lemons,  on  the  assassination  of  Probus,  282. 
He  caused  justice  to  be  executed  upon  the  as- 
sassin. He  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Sarmatians,  and'prosecuted  the  war  against  the 
Persians.  Undertaking  the  campaign  in  mid- 
winter, and  malting  a  rapid  march  through 
Thrace  and  Asia  Minor,  he  ravaged  Mesopota- 
mia made  himself  master  of  Seleucia  and  car- 
riea  his  arms  beyond  the  Tigris. 

CASUS,  Paul,  American  philosophical 
writer:  b.  Ilsenburg,  Germany,  18  July  1852. 
He  was  educated  in  the  universities  of  Strass- 
burg  and  Tiibingen,  and  has  been  a  resident  of 
Chicago  for  several  years,  where  he  is  editor 
of  The  0pm  Court  and  The  Monisl.  Under 
his  direction  the  Open  Conn  Publishing  Com- 
pany has  done  fine  service  in  putting  before 
the   public   valuable   works   on   philosophy   and 


Gospel  of  Buddha';  'Kanna'; 
Nirvana';  'Homilies  of  Science';  'Chinese 
Philosophy' ;  'The  Idea  of  a  God>  j  'Buddhism 
and  Its  Christian  Critics';  'The  Dawn  of  a 
New  Era';  'Kant  and  Spencer';  'The  Nature 
of  the  State';  'The  ITistory  of  the  Devil' 
(1900);  'Whence  and  Whither?';  'Eros  and 
Psyche' ;  'God:  an  Inquiry  into  Man's  Highest 
Ideals>  (1908);  'The  Mechanistic  Theory,  and 
the  non-Mechanical'  (1913) ;  "The  Principle  of 
Relativity'  (1913)  ;  'Truth  on  Trial:  a  cntique 
on  Pragmatism';  'Philosophy  as  a  Science'; 
'(loethe:  the  man  and  his  woiic';  'Nietzsche; 
and  other  Exponents  of  Individualism'  (1914)  ; 
'Venus  and  Woman  as  the  Cosmic  Principle.' 

CARUSO,  Eoiico,  Italian  operatic  tenor: 
b.  Naples,  25  Feb.  1873.  At  the  age  of  II  he 
began  to  stng  in  the  churches  of  his  native  dty. 
He  studied  under  Guglielmo  Vergine  for  three 
years,  and  was  also  a  pupi\  of  Lamperti  and 
Concone.  He  made  his  d6but  in  'L'Amico 
Francesco,*  at  the  Nuovo  "Teatro,  Naples,  in 
1894;  and  later  toured  Italy  and  Sicily  and  was 
engaged  for  four  seasons  at  La  Scala,  Milan. 
He  attracted  general  attention  in  1896  in 
'Traviata'  at  the  Teatro  del  Fondo,  Naples. 
Engagements  followed  at  Petrograd,  Moscow, 
Warsaw,  Rome,  Paris,  Lisbon  and  Buenos 
Aires.  He  was  everywhere  hailed  as  one  of 
the  most  promising  young  tenors  Italy  had  pro- 
duced. He  came  to  the  United  States  in  19Q3 
and  was  received  with  great  acclaim.  His 
repertoire  includes  more  than  40  operas  (chiefly 
Italian).  He  created  roles  in  Giordano's 
'Fedora';  Masca^i's  'Le  Maschere* ;  Fran- 
chetti's  'CJermania';  Puccini's  'Bohfane' ; 
'Madame  Butterfly''  and  'The  Girl  of  the 
Golden  West.'  Since  his  first  appearance  in 
1903  he  has  become  the  chief  attraction  of  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House  Company  in  New 
York;  his  voice  being  one  of  extiaordinaiy 
beau^  and  power,  thoi%h  lacking  the  hi^Kst 
artistic  refinement  and  expression,  while  his 
acting  does  not  rise  abo4e  the  conventional 
Consult  Wagenmann,  J.  H.,  'Enrico  Carvso 
und  das  Problem  de/  Stimmbildung'  (Alten- 
burg  1911). 

CARUTTI  DI  CANTOGNO,  ka-rnfti  d£ 
kan-ton'yo,  Domenico,  Baron,  Italian  historian 
and  publicist:  b.  Cumiana,  26  Nov.  1821;  d. 
Turin,  1909.  As  a  young  man  he  took  to 
romance  writing,  bu;  was  speedily  absorbed  in 
politics  and  rose  to  great  distinction.  When  he 
resumed  the  pen,  it  was  to  compile  such  solid 
works  as  'History  of  the  Reign  of  Victor 
Amadeus  W  (1856)  and  'History  of  the  Reign 
of  Charles  Emmanuel  IIP  (1859),  whicharem- 
teresting  and  scholarly.  In  1884  he  became 
president  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  the 
Study  of  National  History  at  Turin  and  in 
1889  was  made  senator  of  the  kin^om. 
Other  works,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned 
above,  are  'History  of  the  Diplomacy  of  the 
House  of  Savoy'  (Turin  1876) ;  "Count  Um- 
berlo  P  (Florence  1878);  'Poems'  (Rome 
1872)   and  an  essay  on  Propertius. 

CARVAJAL,  kar-va-hal',  Oaspar  de, 
Spanish  missionary:  b.  Spain,  early  in  the  16th 
ccnturjf;  d.  Lima,  Peru,  1S84.  He  entered  the 
Dominican  order  and  went  to  Peru  in   1533. 


[ig 


v  Google 


CARVAJAI._  CARVER 


In  1538  he  accurapaakd  the  espcdilititl  o£ 
Gonzalo  PizarrO  to  the  countries  cast  oE  tbte 
-Quito  33  chaplain-  He  viaa  appointed  sub-prior 
of  the  convent  of  San  Rosano  at  Line;  after 
the  pacificatioii  of  Peru  he  w^s  sent  to  the 
mission  of  Tucuman  and  &£ter  working  among 
the  Indians  there  was  made  vicar- national  of 
the  province  of  Tucuman.  With  the  aid  of  the 
Dominicans,  whom  he  brougbl.  into  the  country, 
he  established  several  Indian  towns  and  Span- 
ish ccJonies.  He  wrote  '  Descuoritniento  del 
Rio  de  las  Amazonas*  unedited  until  1894. 

CARVAJAL,  Tomu  Josi  Gonnln, 
Spanish  statesman  and  author:  b.  Seville,  21 
Dec  1753;  d.  9  Nov.  1834.  He  was  educated 
in  Seville,  where  he  studied  theology  and  juris- 
prudence, becoming  also  famed  as  a  Latinist, 
He  was  appointed  in  1793  governor  of  the  new 
colonies  in  Sierra  Morena  and  Andalusia,  and 

Sroteated  against  the  French  invasion  of  Spain 
I  180a  From  1809  to  1811  he  served  as  com- 
missary in  the  Spanish  army  against  Bonaparte; 
in  1813  became  Minister  of  Finance;  relin- 
quished these  offices  to  assume  the  directorship 
of  the  Royal  University  of  Isi'dro,  where  he  be- 
came involved  in  difficulties  by  establishing  a 
professorship  of  constitutional  law.  He  was 
arrested  and  detained  in  prison  from  1815  to 
1820,  when  the  revolution  reinstated  him  at 
San  Isidro.  A  counter  revolulion  brought  his 
opponents  into  power,  and  he  was  exiled  from 
1823  to  1827.  However,  at  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  member  of  the  supreme  council 
of  war,  of  the  military  department  of  the  Span- 
ish and  Indian  boards  and  a  grandee  of  Spain. 
He  learned  Hebrew  at  the  a^  of  57  in  order 
to  translate  the  Psalms.  This  translation  has 
gained  for  him  a  high  reputation  £or  poetical 
power.  He  also  wrote  metrical  translations  of 
the  other  poetical  books  of  the  Bible  and  other 
works  in  prose  and  verse,  gf  which  the  high 
Quatily  brought  him  membership  in  the  Real 
Academia  Espafiola  and  in  the  Real  Acaderaia 
de  la  Historia,  The  Spanish  Academy  included 
his  name  in  the  'Catalogo  de  autoridades  de  la 
lengua  caste  liana.' 

CARVALHO,  kar-val'yo,  Jos«  da  Silva. 
Portuguese  statesman;  b,  Beira  1782;  d,  3  Feb. 
1845.  He  studied  law  at  the  University  of 
Coimbra,  and  became  a  judge  in  1810.  His 
prominent  part  in  the  revtmition  of  1620  caused 
him  to  become  a  member  of  the  provisional 
government.  He  was  a  member  of  the  regency 
and  appointed  Minister  of  Justice  until  1823, 
when,  on  the  downfall,  of  the  conStituticMiBl 
govertmicnt,  of  which  he  was  a  foremoii  cham- 
pion, he  was  obliged  10  resort  to  flight  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  remained  until  1826,  when  he 
returned  to  Lisbon,  but  Dom  Mitfoel's  success 
again  compelled  him  to  leave.  Eventually  he 
was  named  a  member  of  the  council  of  guard- 
ianship instituted  by  Dom  Pedro  for  the  young 
Queen,  Donna  Maria,  and  succeeded  in  nego- 
tiating the  first  English  loan  for  Portugal. 
Having  accom^nied  Dom  Pedro  to  the  Azores, 
he  filled,  on  bis  return  to  Portugal,  important 
offices,  and  became  Finance  Minister  in  1B32.  In 
1835  he  retired  with  the  Palmella  admimitra- 


general  amnesty-  was  proclaimed.  He  returned 
in  1842.  When  the  constitution  of  Dom  Pedro 
was  re-established,  he  became  coimcillor  of 
state. 

VOL.  S~44 


CARVALHO,  P«es  tie  Andnde,  Huioal 
de,  Brazilian  politician:  b.  about  1795;  d.  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  18  June  1855.  Elected  temporary 
PreUdeat  of  Pemarobuco  in  December  1823,  he 
led  a  revolt  the  next  year  against  Pedro  I,  the 
Emperor,  and  on  2  July  1824  annotinced  a  re- 
public entitled  ' Coafeaera;ao  do  Equador.' 
On  the  suppression  of  the  revolt  in  October, 
Carvalho  fled  to  England,  but  subsequently 
returned  to  Brazil  and  was  a  senator  from 
1835. 

CARVELL,  Fiank  Broidstreet,  Canadian 
legislator ;  b.  Bloomfield,  County  (^leton. 
New  Brtmswick,  14  Aug,  1862.  He  was 
graduated  LL.B.  at  Boston  University  in  1890, 
and  called  to  the  bar  of  his  native  province  in 
the  same  year.  He  represented  Carleton  in  the 
provincial  assembly  as  a  Liberal,  1899-190Q; 
resigned  his  seat  in  the  latter  year  to  contest 
(unsuccessfully)  the  same  county  for  the 
Dominion  House  of  Commons,  hut  was  elected 
in  1904  and  has  since  retained  the  seat.  He 
made  his  mark  in  the  House  in  the  debates  on 
the  administration  of  the  Militia  Department 
under  the  Borden  government  during  the 
Great  War,  and  his  searchii^  criticisms  on  the 
subject  were  followed  by  investigation  by  a 
commission  appointed  by  Parliament  bnt  he 
siMorted  (1917)  the  prmdple  of  compulsory 
military  service  with  which  that  government 
identified  itself,  and  on  that  question  voted 
against  his  leader.  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier.  In 
October  1917  he  became  Minister  of  Public 
Works  in  the  Union  government  of  Sir  Robert 
Borden. 

CARVER,  John,  first  governor  of  the  Ply- 
mouth colony:  b.  England,  about  1575;  d  Ply- 
mouth, Mass.,  April  1621.  He  joined  the 
Leyden  colony  of  English  exiles  about  1608^ 
and  as  their  agent  assisted  in  securing  a  char- 
ter from  the  Virginia  Company  and  in  select- 
ing and  equipping  the  Mayflower.  He  was 
elected  governor,  probably  II  Nov.  1620,  after 
the  Mayflo-wer  reached  Provincetown,  showed 
great  ability  and  judgment  in  governing  the 
infant  colony  after  the  landing  at  Plymouth, 
and  established  by  a  treaty  with  the  Indians 
peaceful  relations  that  remamed  for  many  years 
undisturbed.  He  was  re-elected  in  March  1621, 
but  died  a  few  days  afterward.  His  chair  ana 
sword  are  still  preserved  as  Pilgrim  relics. 

CARVER,  Jonathan,  American  traveler: 
b.  Stillwater,  N.  Y.  (the  universal  ascription  to 
Connecticut  is  an  error),  1732;  d  London  1780. 
He  embraced  a  military  career,  and  in  the 
French  War  of  1756  commanded  a  company  of 
provincials,  in  the  expedition  across  the  lakes 
against  Canada.  When  peace  was  concluded  in 
1763,  Carver  undertook  to  exjdore  the  vast  ter- 
ritory which  Great  Britain  had  gained.  His 
object  was  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the 
manners,  customs,  languages,  soil  and  natural 
'  productions  of  the  nations  and  region  beyond 
the  MisaiMippi,  and  to  ascertain  the  breadth 
of  the  continent  by  penetrating  to  the  Pacific 
ov«r  its  widest  part,  between  lat.  43°  and  46° 
N.  He  accordinf^  set  out  from  Boston  in 
1766,  and  having  reached  Michilimackinac,  the 
remotest  English  post,  applied  to  Mr,  Rogers, 
the  governor,  for  an  assortment  of  goods  as 
presents  for  the  Indians  dwelling  in  the  parts 
through  which  his  course  was  to  be  directed. 
Receiving  a  portion  of  the  snppljr  v^iich  be 


=,  Google 


690 


CASVER-CAST 


desired,  and  a  promise  that  the  residue  should 
be  sent  to  him  at  the  falls  of  Saint  Anthony, 
he  continued  his  journey.  But  not  obtaining 
the  goods  at  the  appointed  place,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  having  been  disposed  of  else- 
where by  those  to  whom  the  governor  had  en- 
trusted them,  he  found  it  necessary  to  retnm 
to  La  Prairie  du  Chien.  He  then,  in  the  be^n- 
ning  of  the  year  1767,  directed  his  steps  north- 
ward, with  a  view  of  finding  a  communication 
from  the  heads  of  the  Mississippi  into  Lake 
Superior,  in  order  to  meet,  at  the  grand  port- 
age on  the  northwest  side  of  that  lake,  the 
traders  that  usually  came  about  this  season  from 
Michilimackinac,  from  whom  he  intended  to 
purchase  goods,  and  then  to  pursue  his  journey. 
He  reached  Lake  Superior  in  good  time;  but 
unfortunately  the  traders  whom  he  met  there 
could  not  furnish  him  with  any  goods,  as  th^ 
had  barely  enough  for  their  own  purposes,  ana, 
in  consequence,  he  vas  obliged  to  return  to  the 
place  whence  he  first  departed,  which  he  did 
in  OctolKr  1768,  after  remaining  some  months 
on  the  north  and  east  borders  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  exploring  the  bays  and  rivers  that  empty 
themselves  into  that  body  of  water.  He  soon 
after  repaired  to  England  with  the  view  of 
publishing  his  journal  and  charts,  and  oi  ob- 
taining reimbursement  for  the  expenses  which 
he  had  incurred.  Having  undergone  a  long  ex- 
amination before  the  lords  commissioners  of 
trade  and  plantations,  he  received  permission  to 
publish  his  papers;  but  when  they  were  nearly 
ready  for  the  press  an  order  was  issued  frotn 
the  council-board,  requiring  him  to  deliver  im- 
mediately into  the  plantation  office  all  his  charts 
and  journals.  He  was,  consequently,  obliged  to 
repurchase  them  at  a  great  expense  from  the 
bookseller  to  whom  he  had  disposed  of  them  — 
a  loss  for  which  he  received  no  indemnification, 
but  was  forced  to  be  satisfied  with  that  obtained 
for  his  other  expenses.  He  had  fortunately 
kept  copies  of  his  papers,  and  he  published  them 
10  years  afterward  in  Boston,  while  in  the 
situation  of  a  clerk  of  a  lattery.  His  works 
are  'Travels  Through  the  Interior  Paris  of 
North  America'  (1778);  'Treatise  on  the 
Cuhure  of  the  Tobacco  Plant'  (1779)  :  /The 
New  Universal  Traveler';  'Literary  History 
of  the  American  Revolution.'  Consult  'The 
Carver  Centenary'  (1867  published  by  the 
Minnesota  Histoncal  Society)  ;  Bourne,  E,  G. 
(in  the  American  Hisforicid  Review,  January 
1906). 

CARVER,  Thomas  Nixon,  American 
economist:  b.  Kirkville,  Iowa,  25  March  1865. 
He  studied  at  Iowa  Wesleyan  University,  the 


kins  and  Cornell ;  was  prof e 
at  Obertin  College  from  1894  to  1900,  when  he 
became  assistant  professor  of  political  economy 
at  Harvard  University  and  full  professor  in 
1902.  In  1913  he  was  given  diarge  of  the  rural 
organization  service  of  the  Department  of 
Agricukure  to  investigate  the  marketing  and 
distribution  of  farm  products.  A  frequent  con- 
tributor to  economic  reviews,  his  published 
works  include  'The  Theory  of  Wages  adjusted 
to  Recent  Theories  of  Value'  (1894)  ;  'The 
Distribution  of  Wealth'  (1904);  Sodology  and 
Social  Progress*  (1905) ;  'Principles  of  Rural 
Economics'  (1911);  'The  Religion  Worth 
Having>    (1911-12). 


CARVING,  as  a  branch  of  sculpture,  die 
art  of  cutting  a  hard  materia)  by  means  of  a 
shall)  instrument:  but  there  are  extended  uses 
of  the  term,  as  shown  below. 

The  term  is  generally  employed  for  work 
which  is  strictly  decoratfve  as  distinguished 
from  grand  sculpture;  thus  the  wrought  stone 
leafage,  scroll  work  and  even  animal  forms  in 
a  Goniic  porch,  are  carving  in  common  parlance, 
and  so  are  the  human  figures  of  the  porch  if 
they  are  conventional  or  stiff,  as  often  happens 
in  medixval  work.  In  a  Roman  temple  or  a 
neo-classtc  edifice  the  leafage  of  Corinthian 
capitals  or  of  any  panel  or  string-course  would 
be  called  caning,  while  the  statues  and  even  the 
reKefs  of  human  subjects  would  be  spoken  of 
as  sculpture  (q.V.).  Small  pieces,  even  of 
human  subjects,  such  as  decorative  statuettes 
and  groups,  are  spoken  of  as  carving,  and  these 
may  be  wrought  in  wood,  ivoty,  bone,  marble, 
and  other  stones,  and  even  in  hard  and  semi- 
precious stones,  such  as  agate  and  jade.  The 
carving  of  die  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  espe- 
cially tn  demand  in  Western  lands,  because  of 
their  picturesque  beauty.  When  they  are  of 
wood  they  are  often  p3inted,^lded  or  lacquered 
with  a  rich  polychromatic  effect. 

Throughout  the  middle  ages  of  Europe,  ivory 
statuettes,  backs  of  mirrors  and  purely  orna- 
mental objects  were  treated  in  the  same  way, 
the  carving  being  helped  out  by  color  and  gold 
with  extraordinary  results. 

Carving,  when  done  in  very  hSrd  material, 
such  as  rock  crystal  and  jade,  requires  much 
use  of  the  drill,  in  which  case  the  meaning  of 
the  term  must  be  extended  to  include  the  result 
produced  by  a  rapidly  revolving  pin  with  emery 
powder  or  the  like.  One  of  the  most  ingenious 
and  useful  purposes  to  which  carving  has  been 
converted  in  more  modern  times  is  that  of  en- 
graving wood-cuts  or  blocks  for  printing.  (See 
Wood-Encbaving).  Carving  has  been  applied 
to  almost  innumerable  uses  in  manufactures  as 
well  as  in  art.  Some  of  these  applications  have 
given  way  to  the  art  of  engraving  in  metal  and 
other  processes,  but  new  ones  are  continually 
arising.  The  first  carving- machine  was  in- 
vented about  1800,  and  many  others  have  since 
been  patented. 

CARY,  Alice,  American  poet:  b.  near  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  26  April  1820;  d.  New  York,  12 
Feb.  1671.  When  quite  young  she  began  writing 
sketches  and  poems  for  the  press,  and  in  1852 
she,  with  her  sister,  Phabe  (q.v.),  removed  to 
New  Yoik,  where  they  lived  during  the  rest 
of  their  lives.  In  1850  the  sisters  published  a 
volume  entitled  'Poems  1^  Alice  and  Pbcebe 
Cary.*  Alice  soon  after  published  'Clovemook, 
or  Recollections  of  Our  Neighborhood  in  the 
West'  (1851-53);  'Lyra,  and  Other  Poems* 
(1853) ;  'Hagar,  a  Story  of  To-day'  (1852)  ; 
'Married,  not  Mated,'  a  novel  (1856);  'Lyrics 
and  Hymns* ;  'The  Bishop's  Son* ;  'The 
Lover's  Diary*  (1867);  and  'Snow  Ber- 
ries: A  Book  for  Young  Folks'  (1869). 
The  verse  of  the  Gary  sisters  still  retains  a 
hold  upon  the  affections  of  readers  and  not  a 
few  lines  of  theirs  have  become  famiUarized 
by  frequent  quotation.  While  living  in  New 
York  they  attracted  about  them  a  circle  of  liter- 
ary people,  and  for  15  years  their  Sunday  even- 
ing receptions  were  a  feature  in  the  literaiy 
life    of    the    city.     Consult    Ames,    Mary    C, 


Digitized 


6,  Google 


GARY— CAKY  RBBELLIOM 


■Uemorial  of  Alice  and  Phoebe  Caiy'    (New 
York  1873). 

CASY,  Annie  LoQise,  American  singer:  b. 
Wayne,  Me.,  22  Oct.  1842.  She  stuified  in 
Milan,  made  her  operatic  dibut  in  Copenhagen 
in  1868,  had  a  successful  European  career  for 
three  years,  and  returned  in  1870  to  the  United 
Slates,  vrfiere  she  won  great  popularity  and  re- 
mained, with  the  exception  of  one  brilliant 
European  tour,  until  18S2,  when  she  married 
Charles  M,  Raymond,  and  retired  from  the 
stage  while  her  voice  was  still  unimpaired. 
Since  then  she  has  sung 'only  in  private  or  for 
charity.  She  created,  in  New  York,  the  part  ol 
Amneris  in  "Aids'   (1873). 

CARY,  Archibald,  American  statesman :  b. 
Virginia,  about  1730;  d.  Chesterfield,  Va.,  Svp- 
tember  1786.  He  early  became  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses,  and  in  1764  served  on 
the  committee  which  reported  the  address  to  the 
King,  Lords  and  Commons,  on  the  principles  of 
taxation;  and  in  1770  was  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  "Mercantile  Association,"  which  pledged 
its  membera  to  use  no  British  fabrics  thereafter, 
the  design  being  to  resist  by  practical  measures 
die  encroachments  of  the  govemmenL  In  1773 
he  was  one  of  the  celebrated  committee  of  cor- 
respondence by  which  the  colonies  were  united 
into  one  great  league  against  Parliament.  When 
the  Slate  government  was  organized  he  was  re- 
turned to  the  senate^  where  he  presided  with 
great  digijity  and  efficiencj[.  At  tWs  time  oc- 
curred the  incident  with  which  his  name  is  most 
generally  connected.  The  scheme  of  a  dicta- 
torship had  been  broached,  and  without  his 
knowledge  or  consent  Patrick  Henry  was 
spoken  of  for  the  post.  In  the  midst  of  the 
general  agitation  Cary  met  Henry's  half-brother 
in  the  lobby  of  the  assembly,  and  said  to  him: 
■Sir.  I  am  told  that  your  brother  wishes  to  be 
dictator.  Tell  him  from  me,  that  the  day  of  his 
appointment  shall  be  the  day  of  his  death,  for 
he  shall  find  my  dagger  in  his  heart  before  the 
sunset  of  that  day.*  The  project  was  s^dily 
ahandoned.  He  was  a  good  representative  of 
the  former  race  of  Virginia  planters,  deligfattnc 
in  agricultural  pursuits,  in  blooded  horses  and 
improved  breeds  of  cattle,  which  he  imported 
from  England,  and  attended  to  with  great  care. 

CARY,  Henry  Francis,  English  clergy- 
man, translator- of  Dante:  b.  Gibraltar,  Spam, 
6  Dec.  1772;  d  London,  14  Aug.  1844.  In  1790 
he  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  he  took 
orders  in  1796.  In  1796  he  was  presented  to  the 
vicarage  of  Abbot's  Bromley,  Staffordshire, 
and  in  1800  he  removed  to  Kingsbury,  in  War- 
wickshire, another  living  to  which  he  had  been 
E resented.  His  studies  while  at  college  had  em- 
raced  a  wide  range  of  Italian,  French  and 
English  literature,  and  in  1805  he  gave  proof  of  ' 
his  Italian  scholarship,  as  well  as  of  his  poetic 
powers,  by  the  publication  of  the  'Inferno*  of 
Dante  in  English  blank-verse,  accompanied  by 
the  Italian  text.  The  entire  translation  of  the 
'Divina  Commedia'  was  accomplished  in  1814, 
and  the  work  was  now  published  complete,  but 
it  lay  unnoticed  for  several  years,  till  Sanuel 
Taylor  Coleridge  drew  attention  to  its  merits. 
It  has  since  been  recopnized  as  a  standard  Eng- 
lish work.  Cary  subsequently  translated  the 
'Birds'  of  Aristophanes  (1824),  and  the  'Odes> 
of  Pindar,  and  wrote  a  continuation  of  John' 
son's  'Lives  of  the  English  Poets,'  and  a  series 


of  'Lives  of  Early  French  Poets.'  He  was  for 
some  time  curate  of  the  Savoy,  London,  and 
in  1826  was  appointed  assistant  keeper  of 
printed  booki  in  the  British  Museum,  which 
office  he  resigned  in  consequence  of  his  bein^ 
pa&sed  by  on  the  appointment  of  Mr.  Panizzi 
m  1837  to  the  office  of  keeper  of  ihe  printed 
books,  The  government  in  1841  granted  bim  a 
{tension  of  £200  a  year  as  a  recognition  of  bb 
literary  abilities,  and  he  devoted  himself  hence- 
forth to  the  annotation  of  a  new  edition  of  his 
translation  of  Danle,  and  to  editions  of  the 
English  poets,  Po^  Covrper,  Milton,  Young, 
etc.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
His  son,  Henry  Cary,  has  written  a  'Memoir' 
(London  1847). 

CARY,  Lott,  American  negro  slave:  b.  Vir- 
ginia 1780;  d.  Africa  1828.  He  educated  him- 
self, became  a  Baptist  minister,  purchased  the 
freedom  of  himself  and  his  two  children  for 
$850,  and  joined  the  colony  sent  in  1822  to 
Liberia,  where  he  performed  inestimable  serv- 
ices in  behalf  of  the  new  republic.  He  was  act- 
ing as  vice-agent  with  full  power  when  he  was 
accidentally  killed  while  making  cartridges  for 
defense  against  the  slave  traders. 

CARY,  Lncias.    See  Falkland: 

CARY,  Phoebe,  American  poet  and  orose- 
writer,  sister  of  Alice  Cary   (q.v.)  :  b.  Oncin- 

"  1,  4  Sept.  ISZ4;  d.  Newport,  R.  I.,  31 


July  1871.  She  contributed  numerous  sketches 
to  various  periodicals;  and  with  her  sister  pub- 
lished several  books,  among  which  are  'Poems 
and  Parodies'  (1854)  ;  and  'Poems  of  Faith, 
Hope  and  Love.'  She  will  be  longest  remem- 
bered as  the  author  of  the  popular  hymn  be- 
■       "  ■  Thought.' 

_.      . t,  'A  History 

ture'    (New   York   1903). 

CARY  REBELLION,  in  North  Carolina, 
an  outcome  of  the  religious  and  political  dis- 
turbances set  going  by  the  constitution  of  Locke 
and  Shaftesbury,  whose  laws  and  discrimina- 
tions survived  itself.  (See  Cahouna,  Oiiginal 
CoMSTTTunoH  of).  One  of  these,  requiring  an 
oath  to  support  the  constitution  and  laws,  de- 
barred the  Quakers  (who  were  among  the  most 
inflnential  of  the  early  settlers,  and  by  no 
means  inclined  to  submit  peaceably  to  oppres- 
sion) from  voting  or  holding  office,  or  being 
witnesses  in  criminal  suits.  The  establishment 
of  and  taxation  for  the  Church  of  England  was 
a  common  grievance  to  all  the  colony,  nearly 
all  its  population  being  dissenters;  and  there 
were  other  obnoxious  ordinances.  At  this  time 
Albemarle  County  (North  CaroKna)  had  ili 
separate  deputy  governor,  appointed  by  the 
governor  of  the  entire  colony;  and  in  1704  Sir 
Nathaniel  Johnson  so  appointed  Robert  Danid, 
a  churctanan,  and  'landgrave"  or  hereditary 
noble  and  councillor.  He  tried  to  enforce  the 
laws;  and  one  John  Porter,  an  influential 
Quaker,  shortly  went  to  England  to  complain 
of  him  and  of  vexatious  legislation  against  his 
sect.  One  of  the  proprietors,  John  Archdale 
(q.v.),  ex-governor,  was  himself  a  Quaker,  and 
induced  the  other  proprietors  to  remove  Daniel; 
and  Johnson  appointed  Thomas  Caiy,  a  Car- 
olina merdtant.  said  to  have  been  Archdale's 
son-in-law,  in  his  place.  Cary,  however, 
felt  bound  to  enforce  the  laws,  and  again  the 
Quakers  complained-    Cary  was  removed  (the 


d  by  Google 


CASYATIDBS— CASA  OBAimB 


accepted  account  says  he  was  in  ill  odor  with 
the  proprietors  for  having  been  short  in  his 
accounts  as  collector  of  revenue  for  them) ; 
and  this  time  the  appointment  of  a  deputy  for 
Albemarle  was  taken  from  the  Eovernor,  and 
a.  new  proprietary  council  formed,  with  Porter 
and  several  other  Quakers  on  it.  On  Porter'e 
return  to  America  in  1707,  he  convened  the 
council,  which  elected  William  Glover,  a 
churchman,  president.  Glover  insisted  on  en- 
forcement of  the  laws  as  before,  and  Porter's 
party  turned  against  him,  declared  bis  election 
illegal,  struck  a  bargain  with  Cary  and  elected 
him  president  in  Glover's  place.  Glover  and 
fais  section  refused  to  recognize  the  validity  of 
the  new  election,  and  held  their  meetings  in  one 
room  of  the  executive  mansion,  while  Gary  and 
his  councillors  met  in  the  other.  Daniel,  as  a 
landgrave,  was  ipso  facto  a  councillor,  and  sat 
alternately  in  both.  Each  party  issued  writs 
for  election  to  the  assembly,  and  it  seems  to 
have  held  without  formal  recognition  of  cither; 
but  Gary's  parly  held  the  majority.  In  1710 
Edward  Hyde,  a  relative  of  Clarendon's,  was 
appointed  deputy  governor  by  the  proprietors, 
and  came  out  in  August  1710  to  assume  oihce. 
His  commission  was  to  be  taken  from  Tynte, 
who  had  succeeded  Johnson;  but  Tynte  had 
died,  and  Hyde  had  only  his  letters  from  the 
proprietors  to  show.  "The  Cary  party,  how- 
ever, was  glad  to  acknowledge  him  so  long  as 
it  held  the  power  and  he  confirmed  it;  but  the 
next  assembly  was  held  by  its  enemies;  Hyde 
apparently  aided  it  in  enforcing  the  laws  in 
favor  of  the  Church,  and  Gary's  party  promptly 
refused  to  acknowledge  his  authority  and  made 
open  war  on  him.  Cary  attacked  Edenton  with 
two  armed  vessels,  but  was  repulsed,  and  Hyde 
called  on  Governor  Spotswood  of  Virginia  for 
help.  Spotswood  admitted  that  the  revolters 
were  'dangerous  incendiaries,'  but  said  the 
country  was  almost  inaccessible,  and  he  bad 
only  militia ;  but  finally  sent  some  of  his 
marines  from  the  guard-ships  at  Hampton 
Roads.  Cary,  with  his  chief  men.  Levy,  Truitt, 
etc.,  thereupon  went  to  Virginia,  apparently  for 
temporary  refuge,  declaring  that  they  would  go 
to  England  and  appeal  to  the  proprietors. 
Spotswood  took  them  at  their  word,  and  sent 
them,  seemingly  against  their  will,  to  England; 
and  they  disappear  from  history.  That  they 
were  discharged,  however,  is  apparent  from  a 
circular  letter  of  Lord  Dartmouth  to  the  colo- 
nies, at  this  juncture,  to  send  no  more  prisoners 
to  England  for  trial  without  proof  of  their 
guilt.  At  home,  the  burgesses  refused  to  pro- 
vide for  tfae  defense  of  the  colony  unless  they 
could  have  share  in  the  government  and  what 
they  held  to  be  tbeir  rights;  and  the  result  was 
a  fearful  desolation  in  a  war  which  soon  broke 
out  with  the  Tuscaroras. 

CARYATIDES,  or  CARYATIDS,  kar-f- 
St^-d€i,  in  architecture,  a  name  used  to  desig- 
nate female  figures  made  to  support  a  roof, 
cornice,  etc.,  instead  of  columns.  The  goddess 
Artemis  (Diana),  who  had  a  temple  in  Caryse, 
a  Peloponnesian  city,  was  for  this  reason  called 
Karyalis.  In  honor  of  her,  virgins  danced  in  a 
festive  procession  during  an  annual  feasl^  which 
suggested  to  architects  the  idea  of  adopting  the 
imaRC!  of  virgins  to  serve  as  columns.  iThus 
I.essing  and  other?  explain  the  name  and  form 
of  the  caryatides.  Another  explanation  of  their 
origin    is   the    following:     The    inhatntants   of 


Caryie  allied  thenselvM  with  the  Persians  in 
their  war  with  the  Greeks.  The  Greeks,  on  the 
successful  termination  of  that  struggle,  exter- 
minated the  males  of  Caryse,  and  reduced  all 
the  women  to  slavery.  As  a  mark  of  infamy, 
and  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  transaction, 
the  architects  of  the  time  made  statues  repre- 
senting these  women  in  the  servile  otSce  of  sup- 
porting entablatures.  The  figures  are  distin- 
guished by  gracefulness  and  quiet  dignity 
of  pose:  There  are  fine  examples  In  the 
Erectheum  at  Athens  and  British  Muse- 
um. Consult  Homdls,  in  BuUetin  de  Cor- 
reipoHdance  heUhtUme  (Vols.  XXIII.  XXIV, 
Paris  1899). 

CARYOCAS,  ki-rr»-kir,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  family  Caryocaraces, 
consisting  ol  lofty  trees,  natives  of  tiopjcal 
America,  which  produce  good  timber.  They 
have  evergreen,  temate  or  pinnate  leaves,  and 
flowers  in  racemes.  C.  mtciferum,  a  species 
abundant  in  British  Guiana,  yields  the  kidney- 
shaped  souari-nuts,  or  butternuts.  ()ther  spe- 
cies are  C.  glabmtn  and  C.  amygdaiifervm. 

CARYOPSIS,  the  small,  peculiar,  one- 
seeded,  dry  indehiscent  fruit  of  the  grasses,  as 
wheat,  barley,  etc 

CARYOTA,  a  genus  of  palms,  with  doubly 
pinnate  leaves,  the  best-known  species  of  which 
(C.  urciu)  is  a  native  of  most  of  tropical  Asia. 
It  supplies  an  inferior  kind  of  sago,  and  from 
■--  juice  ij  made  toddy  i~  — '~     '""      "" 

' fibr. 


reet  near  toe  southern  extrefluty  of  rlonda, 
Ul  25°  13'  N.,  long.  80°  13'  W,  lying  about 
five  miles  east  of  Key  Largo,  on  which  is 
erected  a  lighthouse  of  the  first  order,  106  feet 
high. 

CASA,  ka'za,  Giovanni  '  deUa.  Italian 
writer :  b.  Mugeltc^  near  Florence  1S03 ;  d. 
Rome,  14  Nov.  1566.  He  studied  in  Bolt^na, 
Florence  and  Rome,  and  entered  as  an  eccle- 
siatic  into  the  service  of  the  two  cardinals 
Alessaodro  Famese,  the  first  of  whom  in  IS34 
ascended  the  papal  chair,  under  the  name  of 
Paul  III.  He  rose  through  various  offices  in 
the  Church,  including  the  archbishopric  of 
Bcnevenlo,  tilt  Paul  IV  made  him  his  private 
secretary.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  'Ga- 
lateo,  ov\'cro  de'  Costumi'  (1560),  a  manual  of 
good-breeding,  to  which  another  book,  'Degli 
Uffizi  communi  tra  gli  Amici  SLmeriori  e  In- 
ferior!,' forms  a  supplement.  Tnis  last  is  i 
translation  of  his  Latin  treatise,  "De  Officiis 
Inter  Potcniiores  et  Tcnuiores  Amicos.'  The 
best  and  most  complete  edition  of  his  works  ap- 
peared at  Venice   (17S2). 

CASA    BRACCIO,    brach'&     Italian 


better. 


t  half  o£  ihe  novel  is  much  the 


CASA  GRANDE,  grSn'dft,  or  the  Casa 
Grande  Ruin  (see  National  Parks  and 
Monuments),  the  Spanish  name  (signifying 
"large  honse")  of  the  ruins  of  a  prehistoric 
building  in  Arizona,  near  the  Gila  River,  about 
12  miles  from  Florence,  Ariz.,  and  somewhat 
farther  from  the  Casa  Grande  station.  It  ts 
the  best-preserved  structure  of  a  type  which 
was  widely  distributed.    Hie  space  enclosed  by 


=,  Google 


Ci^ABIANCA — CA&ALS 


the  walls  now  standii^  meauires  about  43  by 
59  feet;  and  the  -walla,  wtHch  are  high,  show 
that  there  were  three  haUtabIc  stories.  A  large 
area  suiToundiDg  thi)  buildini;;  is  covered  with 
mounds  and  debris  of  other  buildings,  indicat- 
ing ttiat  there  was  originally  a  considerable 
settlement  on  the  site.  It  wai  set  aside,  4b  the 
most  interesting  object  in  a  small  reservation, 
by  executive  order  dated  22' June  1892,  under 
the  act  approved  2  Mardi  1889.  By  presidential 
proclamation  of  10  Dec  1909  the  boundaries 
of  the  reservBtiaQ  were  changed  by  the  elinrina- 
tion  of  120  acres  on  which  diere  were  no  pre- 
historic ruins  antl  the  inclusion  of  a  tract  of 
equal  size  adjoining  the  reservation  on  the 
east,  on  which  are  located  mounds  of  historic 
and  scientific  interest.  Casa  Giande  was  a  ruin 
when  discovered.  Since  that  time  the  identity 
of  its  builders  has  furnished  a  theme  for  spec- 
ulation ;  and  although  it  has  been  ascribed  to 
the  Aztec,  the  better  opinion  seems  to  be  that 
the  ancient  people  who  inhabited  this  building 
were  not  closely  related  to  any  tribes  of  the 
Mexican  plateau,  whose  culture  was  different 
from  that  of  the  sedentary  tribes  of  Arizona. 
The  waifs  are  of  a  fawn  color  slightly  tinged 
with  red.  They  are  constructed  of  a  cement 
called  caiiche,  composed  of  lime,  earth  and 
pebbles ;  this  was  made  into  blocks,  which  were 
laid  in  courses.  Consult  Fewkes.  J.  W.,  de- 
tailed report  in  Twenty-eighth  Annual  Report 
Bureau  American  Ethnology. 

CASABIANCA,  ka-za-be-anlca,  Lonis. 
French  naval  o&icer:  h  Bastia,  Corsica,  1755;  d. 
1  Aug.  1798.  With  the  Comte  de  Grasse,  he 
took  pan  in  the  American  Revolution.  He  sat 
in  the  National  Convention  of  1792;  and  in 
1798  was  captain  of  the  flagship  L'Orient  in  the 
expedition  to  Egypt.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  1  Aug.  179S; 
the  ship  caught  fire;  his  10-year-oId  son  would 
not  leave  him,  and  both,  were  killed  by  the  ex- 
ploding of  the  ship.  The  story  of  their  death  il 
the  subject  of  Mrs.  Honans'  well-known  poem. 

CASAL,  ka-sal',  Juli&n  del,  Cuban  poet :  b. 
1863;  d.  1893.  He  was  a  half  morbid  strive r 
after  the  super-xsAetic  and  a  pronounced  lover 
of  the  luxury  and  elegance  of  the  Orient  and  of 
Paris.  Endowed  with  a  fervid  imagination  and 
a  strongly  poetic  touch  he  found  followers  not 
onlv  in  Cuba,  but  throughout  Latin  America, 
and  later  in  Spain  itselL  None  of  the  countries 
•that  he  loved  and  whose  manners  and  customs 
and  modes  of  thought  he  imitated,  had  he  ever 
visited.  Highly  colored  were  his  mental  pictures 
of  them,  by  wonderful  visions  from  the  land  of 
imagination  and  of  dreams  in  which  he  lived. 
Yet,  with  all  his  love  of  beauty,  luxury  and 
elegance,  he  was  very  much  a  pessimist  and  his 
discontent  with  life  £nds  constant  expression 
in  his. writings.  He  handled  the  sonnet  with  a 
master-hand  and  made  it  do  dnty  in  ^ctnring 
the  many  phases  of  life  into  wUch  his  active 
imagination  constantly  kd  him.  His  work 
covers  a  wide  variety  of  subjects,  ranging  from 
clear-cut  pictures  of  heroic  characters  of  classi- 
cal Greece,  to  sketches  of  native  life  in  Havana, 
in  prose  and  poetry,  and  side-stepping  at  times 
into  politicB,  society  and  biography.  Casal  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Rub^  Dari6,  the  Nicara- 
guan  pc«t  and  leader  of  poetic  thoui^t  through- 
out Latin  America  from  1895  to  1915;  and  the 
latter    borrowed    a    nnnd>er    of    bis    reactory 


ideas  from  the  young  Cuban  poet,  whose  writ- 
ings in  La  Hobana  Elepanle  and  other  periodi- 
cals had  early  made  hun  the  leading  figure  of 
his   day   in   Cuban   literature.     Among   Casal's 

fuUished  work  are  'Hojas  al  Viento'  (1890); 
Nieve'  (1891 J  :  'Bustos  y  Rimas*  (prose, 
1893).  In  a  study  of  Jaris  Kari  Huysmans,  be 
displays  his  critical  ability  and  his  love  of  the 
exotic  and  sensuous.  Consult  Meza,  Ramon, 
'JuliSn  del  Case!'   (Havana  1910). 

CASAL,  or  CAZAL,  Manoel  Ayres  de. 
See  Cazai. 

CASALE,  ka-sa-le,  or  CASALE  DE 
MONFERRATO,  Italy,  city  in  the  province 
of  Alessandria,  on  the  nght  bank  of  the  Fo,  18 
miles  north-northwest  of  Alessandria.  The 
citadel,  founded  by  Duke  Vicenzo  in  1590,  was 
one  of  the  stron^st  in  Italy,  and  within  recent 
years  the  fortifications  have  been  greatly 
strenf^ened  and  extended.  In  1640  the 
Spaniards  were  defeated  here  by  the  Due 
dHarcourt,  and  the  possession  of  the  town  was 
repeatedly  contested  by  the  Austrians  and 
French  during  the  wars  of  Napoleon.  Casale 
was  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Montferrat  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  of  a  district  court  of 

estice,  and  has  a  cathedral  which  is  said  to 
ve  been  founded  in  the  8th  century.  Its 
church  of  San  Domenico,  containing  a  tomb 
in  memory  of  the  Princess  Palceologi,  is  re- 
markable for  the  elegance  of  its  design,  and 
several  fine  works  of  art  are  found  in  other 
of  its  churches.  The  mediaeval  history  of 
Casale  goes  back  to  its  settlement  in  730  by 
Lintprand,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Roman 
city  Bodincomagrus.  The  church  of  San  Ilario 
replaced  the  former  pagan  temple  of  Worship 
which  stood  here.  In  1215  Casale  was  almost 
totally  destroyed  by  its  neighbors,  but  in  1220 
was  rebuilt  and  in  1292  became  the  property  of 
the  marquises  of  Montferrat.  Modem  Casale 
has  tramway  communication  with  the  neighbor- 
hood and  nearby  is  the  famous  Sacro  Monte  di 
Crea  with  its  18  chapels.  Cement,  liqueurs,  silk, 
fertilizers,  tools  and  machineiy  constitute  the 
chief  industries.     Pop.  about  34,000. 

CASALE  PUSTBRLBNGO,  pus-t£r-lea'- 
go,  Italy,  town  in  the  province  of  Milan,  south- 
east of  Lodi,  beautifully  situated  in  a  fine  plain 
between  the  Po  and  the  Adda.  It  has  a  trade 
in  Faraiesaa  cheese.  In  1796  the  Austrians- 
were  attacked  here  by  the  French,  and  driven 
back  to  Lodi.    Pop.  7,00a 

CASALMAGGIORK,        ka-sal-mad-jo'rS, 

Italy,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Cremona,  IS 
miles  north  of  Parma,  and  22  miles  southeast 
of  the  city  of  Cremona  (with  which  there  is 
railway  connection),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Po. 
There  are  a  cathedral  and  other  churches, 
theatre,  etc.  The  manufactures  include  pottery 
and  ^lass-warcj  leather  and  chemicals ;  and 
there  IS  a  trade  in  wine,  grain,  hemp  and  cheese. 
In  1448  the  Venetians  were  defeated  here  by 
Francesco  Sforza.    Pop.  17,5CK). 

CASALS,  Pablo,  Spanish  violoncellist:  b. 
Vendrell,  Catalonia,  1876.  He  studied  at 
Barcelona  with  Garcia  and  Rodereda,  and  in 
1894  in  Madrid  with  Breton.  He  made  his 
debut  in  1898  at  one  of  the  Concerts  Ldjnourenx 
in  Paris.  His  success  was  immediate  and  he 
devoted  himsdf  to  the  concert  stage.    He,J)M 


Coogic 


CASAHICCIOLA — CASAS 


toured  Europe  and  both  North  and  South 
America  where  h;  has  been  met  with  much 
acclaim.  His  interpretation  is  excellent  and 
his  technique  perfect.  As  a  composer,  he  has 
won  recognition  with  two  symphonic  poems, 
several  smaller  works  for  orchestra  and  numer- 
ous pieces  for  piano  and  'cello  and  for  piano 
and  violin. 

CASAMICCIOLA,  ka-sa-me'cho-la,  Italy, 
favorite  watering-place  on  the  island  of 
Ischia,  beautifully  situated  in  a  valley  on  the 
north  side  of  Monte  Epomeo,  with  hot  springfs 
(158°  F.),  baths,  hotels,  etc.  The  season  ex- 
tends from  June  to  September.  By  the  earth- 
quake of  28  July  1883,  the  place  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed,  and  even  at  present,  al- 
though the  government  has  ^ded  in  its  rebuild- 
ing, a  considerable  part  of  the  town  is  in  ruins. 
Pop.  (1911)  3,490. 

CASANAEB,  ki-za-ni'r?,  a  river  of  the 
Republic  of  Colombia,  which  rises  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Chita,  flows  through  a  region  called 
by  the  same  name,  and  after  an  easterly  course 
of  180  miles  empties  into  the  Mela,  lal.  5*  58* 
N.    It  is  navigable  for  small  craft. 

CASANOVA,  ka-sa-n5'va,  PranceKo, 
Italian  painter:  b.  London  l?2?Ld,  Bruhl,  near 
Vienna.  1805.  He  studied  in  Florence  under 
Simonini.  He  went  to  Venice  with  his  parents, 
was  in  Paris  in  1751,  but  after  a  brief  stay 
went  to  Dresden,  where  he  remained  from 
1752-56.    Here  be  studied  and  copied  the  paint- 


the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1763.  Catherine 
II  of  Russia  employed  him  to  paint  her  vie- 
tories  over  the  Turks.  He  settled  in  Vienna  in 
1785,  and  the  gallery  there  contains  several  of 
his  paintings.  At  Paris  he  was  painter  to  the 
King  Among  his  pictures  are  'The  Battle 
of  Frcibure,'  'Hannibal  Crossing  the  Alps* 
and  *The  Battle  of  Lyons.' 

CASANOVA  DE  SEINGALT,  ki-sa- 
no'va  de  saii-gat,  Giovanni  Giacomo,  Italian 
adventurer:  b.  Venice,  2  March  1725;  d.  Diix, 
Bohemia,  4  June  1798.  The  year  of  his  death 
is  uncertain,  some  maintaining  that  he  lived 
until  1803.  He  was  the  son  of  an  actor  and 
actress ;  he  studied  law  at  Padua,  but  gave  this 
up  to  study  for  the  priesthood.  He  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  Seminary  of  Saint  Cyprian  for 
a  scandalous  intrigue,  and  was  also  imprisoned 
for  a  short  time.    The  influence  of  his  mother 

Sjcured  him  a  place  in  the  establishment  of 
rdiiial  Acquaviva,  but  he  did  not  retain  it 
long;  and  after  visiting  Rome,  Naples,  Corfu 
and  Constantinople,  in  the  characters  of  diplo- 
matist, preacher,  abbot,  lawyer  and  charlatan, 
he  was  imprisoned  at  Venice  in  1755,  but  es- 
caped owing  to  his  wonderful  keenness  acid 
skill.  In  his  travels  throughout  Europe  he 
formed  associations  with  many  distinguished 
characters.  Louis  XV,  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  Suv- 
aroff,  Frederick  the  Great  and  Catherine  11. 
His  most  celebrated  work  is  his  'Memoirs' 
(1828->38).  in  which  he  relates  with  a  cynical 
freedom  the  whole  of  his  extraordinary  adven- 
tures, and  presents  a  picture  of  society  without 
conventional  disguise.  Amoi^  his  dupes  were 
Mme.  de  Pompadour,  Frederick  the  Great,  and 
even  that  other  prince  of  charlatans,  Cagliostro. 


Besides  his  'Memoirs,'  Casanova  was  the 
author  of  several  works  of  history  or  imagina- 
tion in  French  and  Italian,  which  show  the  v 


___   verse   of   the  Iliad.     His    'Memoirs' 

are  npw  recogniied  as  of  important  historical 
value  as  a  portrayal  of  private  life  in  the  18th 
century.  A  cotmilete  critical  edition  is  in 
preparation  by  Brockhaus  of  Lemri^  from 
the  original  text.  The  general  reliabdity  of 
the  'Memoirs'  is  attested  by  'Lettre  di  donne 
a  G.  CasanoTO,'  edited  by  Ravi  (Milan  1912). 
Consult  Ravi,  'Contributo  alia  bibliographia 
di  G.  Casanova'  (Turin  1910) ;  Maynial, 
'Casanova  et  son  tenyis'  (Paris  1911);  Sy- 
monds,  'Casanova  at  Dux'  (m  North  American 
Review,  1902). 

CASASTELLI,  Lonis  Charles,  EngUsh 
Roman  Catholic  prelate  and  writer:  b.  Man- 
chester, England.  14  Nov.  1852.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Salford  Grammar  School,  Ushaw 
College  and  Louvain  University.  He  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1876;  was  pro- 
fessor at  Saint  Bede's  College,  Manchester, 
1877-91,  and  was  rector  there  from  1891-1903. 
He  edited  Ulustrated  Catholic  Missioru  in 
1889-1903  and  from  1900-03  was  professor  of 
Zend  and  Fahlavi  languages  at  Louvain  Uni- 
versity. In  1903  be  was  consecrated  bishop'of 
Salford.  He  has  been  lecturer  on  Iranian  lan- 
guages at  Manchester  University.  In  1908-10 
be  wa«  president  of  the  Dante  Society  of  Man- 
chester and  of  the  Manchester  Eg^tian  Asso- 
ciation. He  represented  the  universities  of 
London  and  Manchester  at  the  jubilee  of  Lou- 
vain University.  He  is  president  of  the  Man- 
chester Oriental  Society  and  member  of  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Societjr,  He  has  published 
'Lectures  on  Commercial  Geography'  (1884); 
'La  j^ikxopbie  rcligieuse  du  Mazdeisme  sous 
les  Sassanides'  (1884);  'Traite  de  medicine 
Mazdienne'  (translated  from  Pahlavi  1886) : 
'Sketches  in  History'  (1906).  He  contributed 
to  the  'Catholic  Encyclopedia';  was  a  collab- 
orator in  'Encyclopsedia  of  Religion  and 
Ethics.'  He  is  a  frequent  contributor  of 
articles  on  reli^ous  and  Oriental  topics  to 
periodicals. 

CASAS,  ka'sas,  B«rtolom£  de  Us,  Spanish 
prelate,  better  known  as  'the  Apostle  of  the 
Indies:'  b.  Seville  1474;  d.  Madnd,  July  1566. 
In  his  19tb  year  he  accompanied  his  father,  - 
who  sailed  with  Columbus,  to  the  West  Indies. 
Five  years  afterward  he  returned  to  S^in, 
and  pursuing  his  studies  he  entered  the  pnest- 
hood.  He  accomjunied  Columbus  in  his  second 
voyage  to  Hispaniola  (Haiti),  and  on  the  cMi- 
quest  of  Cuba  settled  there,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  htmiane  conduct  toward  the  op- 
pressed natives.  He  set  at  liberty  the  Indians 
who  had  fallen  to  his  diare  in  the  division;  and 
so  much  was  he  interested  for  them,  that  in 
1516  he  went  to  Spain  to  lay  a  statement  of 
their  CEise  before  King  Ferdinand,  whose  death 
at  that  time  prevented  any  measures  for  their 
benefit  The  regent.  Cardinal  Ximenes,  how- 
ever, appointed  a  commission  to  examine  cir- 
cumstances on  the  spot,  and  to  determine  ac- 
cordingly. Las  Casas  was  to  accompany  them, 
with  the  title  of  Protector  of  the  Indians. 
The  commissioners  found  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  liberate  the  Indians,  and  therefore  «n- 


.Google 


CASAS  OKAMDBS  —  CASATI 


deavored  to  secute  their  humaae  treatment ; 
but  Las  Casai,  stilt  dissatisBed,  remonstrated  so 
warmly  that  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
a  convent  from  the  rage  of  the  plaaters.  He 
again  returned  to  Europe;  and  on  the  accession 
of  Charles  V,  in  consequence  of  bis  representa- 
tions, the  council  appointed  a  chief  judge  to 
re-examine  the, points  of  controversy  between 
the  partisans  of  Indian  liberW  and  the  colonists. 
Las  Casas,  in  his  zeal  for  the  Indians,  became 
the  author  (or  the  encourager  at  least)  of  the 
slave-trade,  by  proposing  to  purchase  negroes 
from  the  Portuguese  in  Africa  to  supply 
the  planters  with  laborers,  of  the  want  of  whom 
they  complained;  and  this  was  unfortunately 
put  into  execution.  He  next  applied  (or  a 
grant  of  an  unoccupied  tract,  in  order  to  try 
his  own  plan' with  a  new  colony.  This  he  at 
length  obtained,  and  with  200  persons,  whom 
he  persuaded  to  accompany  him,  landed  at 
Porto  Kico  in  1521,  but  found  that  an  expedi- 
tion was  advancing  to  ravage  this  very  tract, 
and  convey  its  innabitants  to  Hispaniola  as 
slaves.  He  endeavored  in  vain  to  prevent  the 
threatened  danger,  and  with  the  few  who  still 
adhered  to  him  returned  to  Hispaniola  to  solicit 
succor.  During  his  absence  the  natives  at- 
tacked the  colonists  with  such  success  that  in  a 
short  time  not  a  Spaniard  remained  in  that  part 
of  South  America.  Las  Casas,  in  despair  at 
the  failure  of  his  project,  retired  to  the  Domini- 
can convent  at  Saint  Dotningo,  and  assumed 
the  habit  of  the  order.  Notwithstanding  his 
retirement  his  leal  in  the  cause  of  the  Indians 
didnot  abate;  and  bein(( 
'^ — in  by  a  cliapter  of  his 
!,  he  pleaded  their  ca. 

mth,    and    composed    his    famous    .   

'Brevisima  Relacion  de  la  Destrucci6t;  de  las 
Indias,*  in  which  he  exposed  the  cruelties  prac- 
tised by  the  Spaniards.  His  imremitiing  perse- 
verance at  length  obtained  a  new  set  of  laws 
and  regulations,  by  which  the  natives  were 
greatly  relieved.  In  1S44  he  returiKd  to 
America  as  bishop  of  Chiapas,  but  left  it  three 

Siars  later,  and  resigned  his  bishopric  in  1550. 
esides  the  treatise  above  named  he  wrote 
'Historia  de  las  Indias.*  This  was  first  printed 
in  1875-76.  It  is  one  of  the  most  notable  of 
books,  not  only  in  its  contents, —  as  a  history 
of  Spanish  discoveries  from  1492  to  1520,  and 
a  contemporary  Spanish  Catholic  criticism  as 
well  as  story  of  Columbus, —  but  in  the  circum- 
stances which  prevented  its  publication  for 
more  than  300  years,  and  which  still  leave  it  in- 
accessible except  to  readers  of  Spanish.  Con- 
sult Llorentc,  "CEuvres  de  las  Casas'  (1822)  ; 
Suintana,  'Vidas  de  Espaiioles  Celebres' ; 
elps,  'Life  of  Las  Casas  and  Spanish  Con- 
-.»      /til:i_  J..1^1..:„     idao\  .     c.,l.r«      117:^^    ,, 


CASAS  GRANDES,  ka'sis  gran'dis 
(Span,  *great  houses'),  a  town  in  Onfauahna, 
Mexico,  on  the  Casas  Grandes  or  San  Migiiel 
River,  35  miles  south  of  Llanos,  and  130  miles 
southwest  of  El  Paso,  remarkable  for  a  num~ 
ber  of  ruins,  ai)parently  relics  of  an  aboriginal 
race.  These  ruins  are  found  about  half  a  mile 
from  the  small  Uexican  village,  partly  on  the 


declivity  of  a  small  hill,  and  partly  on  the  plain 
at  its  fooL  They  consist  chiefly  of  the  remains 
of  a  large  edifice  of  the  pueblo  type,  built  en- 
tirely of  a  substance  resembling  adobe,  mud 
mixed  with  gravel  and  straw  and  formed  into 
blocks  22  inches  thick  and  about  three  feet 
long.  The  portions  which  must  have  been  con- 
structed of  wood  have  entirely  crumbled  away. 
The  outer  walls  are  almost  all  prostrate,  except 
at  the  comers,  and  were  probably  only  one 
story  hi^;  the  inner  walls  are  better  preserved, 
varying  in  height  from  5  to  SO  feet,  and  being 
in  some  cases  five  feet  thick  at  the  base.  The 
portions  remaining  erect  seem  to  indicate  an 
original  height  of  from  three  to  six  stories. 
The  doorways  have  the  tapering  form  noticed 
in  Che  ancient  structures  of  Central  America 
and  Yucatan,  and  over  them  are  circular  open- 
ings in  the  partition  walls.  The  stairways  were 
probably  of  wood  and  placed  on  the  outside. 
Oavigero,  in  his  ^History  of  Mexico,'  tells  us 
that  the  building,  according  to  popular  tradition, 
was  erected  by  tne  Mexicans  in  their  peregrina- 
tion, and  that  it  consisted  'of  three  floors,  with 
a  terrace  above  them,  and  without  any  entrance 
to  the  tower  floor.  The  door  for  entrance  to 
the  building  is  on  the  second  floor,  so  that  a 
scaling  ladder  is  necessary."  The  main  features 
of  the  edi6ce  seem  to  nave  been  three  large 
structures  connected  by  ranges  of  corridors  or 
low  apartments,  and  enclosing  several  court- 
yards of  various  dimensions.  The  extent  from 
north  to  south  must  have  been  800  feet,  and 
from  east  to  west  about  250  feet.  A  range  of 
narrow  rooms  lighted  by  circular  openings  near 
the  top,  and  having  pens  or  enclosures  three  or 
four  feel  high  in  one  comer,  supposed  to  be 
granaries,  extends  along  one  of  the  main  walls. 
Many  of  the  apartments  are  very  targe,  and 
some   of   the   enclosures  are   too  vast   ever  to 


loose  stones  and  200  feet  west  of  these  are  the 
remains  of  a  building,  one  story  high  and  150 
feet  square,  consisting  of  a  number  of  apart- 
ments ranged  around  a  square  court.  The  in- 
habitants of  this  communal  structure  seem  to 
have  disappeared  long  before  the  Spaniards 
noticed  the  ruins  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century.  Throughout  the  northern  part  of 
Mexico  the  name  Casas  Grandes  is  applied  to 
deserted  buildings  of  a  similar  type. 

For  some  distance  south  the  plain  is  covered 
with  tracts  of  ancient  buildings,  and  for  20 
leagues  along  the  Casas  Grandes  and  Llanos 
rivers  are  found  artificial  mounds  from  which 
have  been  dug  up  stone  axes,  corn-grinders  and 
various  articles  of  pottery,  such  as  pipes,  jars, 
pitchers,  etc.,  of  a  texture  far  superior  to  that 
made  bv  the  Mexicans  of  the  present  day,  and 
ceneraily  ornamented  with  angular  figures  of 
blue,  red,  brown  and  black,  on  a  red  or  white 
ground.  The  best  specimens  command  a  high 
price  in  Chihuahua  and  neighboring  towns.  On 
the  summit  of  a  mountain,  about  10  mjles  from 
the  ruins  above  described,  are  the  remains  of 
an  andent  stone  fortress,  attributed  to  the  same 
people  who  built  the  Casas  Grandes,  and  prob- 
ably intended  as  a  lookout.    See  Pueblos. 

CASATI,  ka-sa'te,  Gaetano,  Italian  ex- 
plorer in  Africa:  b,  Lesmo,  Italy,  1830;  d. 
Como,  7  March  1902.  He  entered  the  army 
.  of  Piedmont  at  21,  and  resigiun^  in  1879  went 


:,  Google 


888 


CASAUBON— CA3CO  SAY 


to  Africa,  commissioned  by  the  Sodeti  d'Es- 
ploragione  Commerciale  d' Africa.  He.  fol- 
lowed the  Welle  River  and  explored  the  basin 
of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal.  He  joined  his  country- 
man, Gcs&i  Pasha,  there,  but  the  schemes  of  the 
Mahdi  in  1883  shut  him  up  in  the  Niam-Niam 
region  with  Etnin  Pasha.  At  the  request  of  the 
latter  he  consented  to  act  as  "President*  in 
King  Kabba  Rega's  country,  but  after  being  at 
first  weli  treated  by  that  monarch  he  was  later 
condemned  to  death.  Escaping  with  great  dif- 
ficulty to  the  Albert  Nyania  Lake,  and  losing 
all  his  notes  and  manuscripts,  he  was  finally 
rescued  by  Emin  Pa:ha  in  1888.  The  expedi- 
tion of  Stanley  came  a  little  later  to  the  relief 
of  botK     On   his   return'  to   Italy  Casati   pub- 


lished a  volume  descriptive  of  his  adventur    , 
entitled  *Dieci  anni  in  Equatoria.' 

CASAUBON,  ka-zo-bon,  Isaac,  Swiss 
classical  scholar  and  theologian :  b.  Geneva 
1559;  d  London  about  July  1614.  In  his  ninth 
year  he  spoke  Latin  fluently.  In  his  19th  year 
he  entered  the  university  at  Geneva,  where  he 
studied  Greclt  theology,  the  Oriental  languages, 
etc.,  and  in  1582  succeeded  Portus  as  professor 
of  the  Greek  language.  In  1586  he  married  the 
daughter  o£  the  famous  printer,  Henry  Stephen^ 
In  1596  he  accepted  a  professorship  of  Greek 
and  bclUf  lettrei  at  Montpcllier,  but  held  it  only 
two  years.  In  1600  Henry  IV  invited  him,  to 
Paris.  His  Protestantism,  the  jealousy  of  other 
scholars,  and  perhaps  his  rather  unyielding 
character,  were  the  occasion  of  many  unpleas- 
ant occurrences,  for  which,  however,  he  was 
indemnified  by  the  oliice  of  royal  librarian. 
After  the  death  of  Henry  IV  in  1610  he  went 
to  England  on  the  invitation  o£  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  where  he  was  received  with 
distinction,  was  presented  with  a  prebend  in 
Canterbury  Cathedral,  and  had  a  pension  con- 
ferred on  hira  by  James  I,  with  whom  he  was 
a  great  favorite.  He  was  buried  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey.  Casaubon  was  a  libcra.l  theologian, 
a  man  of  extensive  learning,  a  good  translator 
and  an  excellent  critic.  As  a  cijitic,  he  com- 
mented on  Diogenes,  Laertius,  Aristotle,  Theov 
phrastus,  Suetonius,  Persius,  Polybius,  Theoc-. 
ritus,  Slrabo,  Dionvsius  of  Halicarnassus, 
Athenaeus,  Pliny  the  Younger,  etc.  Nearly  all 
the  ancient  classics  are  indebted  to  bis  valuable 
researches.  His  profound  dissertation  on  the 
satirical  poetry  of  the  Greeks  and  the  satire  of 
the  Romans  ('De  Satyrica  Graca  Po.sL  et 
Romanorum  Satira' )  deserves  particular  praise. 
His  theological  writings  are  of  less  value.  His 


diary,   which   had   been   preserved   by   1 
Meric,   was   edited   by   Russell    (Oxfori 

r  the  title  of   'Ephemerides.'     Casaubon's 


'Letters'  were  published  at  Rotterdam  (1709). 
A  'Life  of  Casaubon'  was  written  by  Mark 
Pattison  {18?S;  id.  ed.,  ed.  by  Nettleship,  Ox- 
ford 1892/.  Consult  also  Noielle,  'Isaac  Ca- 
saubon, sa  vie  cl  son  temps'  (Pans  1897). 
.ASAUBON.  U 


his  father  to  Enf^land,  and  <itiidied  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  held  successively 
several  livings  in  the  Church,  when  the  revolu- 
tion, which  brought  Charles  I  to  the  scaffold, 
deprived  him  of  his  income.  Still  he  rejected 
the  proposal  of  Cromwell  to  write  the  bistoty 


of  his  time,  as  also  the  invitation  of  Queen 
Christina  to  live  in  Sweden.  On  the  return  of 
the  Sloarts  he  was  rewarded  for  fais  loyalty  bv 
restoration  to  his  offices  in  the  Church,  niuch 
he  held  till  his  dedth.  Besides  various  works 
in  Latin,  he  wrote  several  in  Ejiglisb  on  theo- 
logical a«d  other  subjeets.  Through  the  efforts 
of  Charles  !,  he  became  doctor  of  divinity 
He  also  wrote  some  critical  works  on  the 
classics,  a  treatise,  <De  Verborum  Usu'  (16tf), 
etc. 

CASBIN.    See  Kasbin. 

CASCA,  PubliuB  Sftnilias,  Roman  states- 
man :  d.  42  B.C.  He  assisted  in  the  assassination 
of  Julius  Cesar  in  44  b.c,  audi,  according  to 
Plutarcl^  be  struck  the  first  blow,  in  the  back 
of  the  neck. 

CASCADB  MOUNTAINS,  a  range  in  the 
western  United  States  and  Canada,  the  north- 
ward continuation  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  (q.v,). 
The  range  begins  in  California  near  the  OregiMi 
boundary  and  extendi  across  Oregon  and 
Washin^on  into  British  Columbia.  It  parallels 
the  Pacific  coast  at  a  distance  of  from  100  to 
150  miles.  The  Columbia  .  River  and  the 
Klamath  have  cut  their  way  across  the  south- 
cm  portion  of  the  range  and  the  Eraser  River 
passes  across  the  nortnern  end.  The  range  is 
extremely  rugged  in  outline.  The  greater  part 
of  its  mass  is  composed  of  igneous  and  vol- 
— -c  rocks.    Firs,  pine  and  hard  wood  cover  a 


Hood,  11,225  feet;  Mount  Jefferson,  10,200  feet; 
Mount  Rainier  (Tacoma),  14,363  feet;  Mount 
Baker,  10.500  feet;  Mount  Adatns,  12,470  feet. 
Some  9ummit$  are  recently  extinct  volcanoes 
and  there  are  large  snowfields,  which  feed 
several  glaciers.  The  range  was  first  folded 
about  the  dose  of  the  Jurassic.  During 
Tertiary  time  it  was  re-elevaicd,  with  the  out- 
pouring of  great  lava  sheets. 
"CASCAPEDIAC  RIVER,  Great,  a  river 
of  Canada,  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  flowing 
southeast  into  Chaleur  Bay.     Its  length  is   150 

CASCAPBDIAC  RIVER,  UtUe,  a  river 
of  Canada,  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  east  of 
dte  Great  Cascapediac.  and  with  an  almost 
parallel  but  shorter  course. 

CASCARA  SAGRADA,  the  bark  of  a 
northwestern  tree  (RAamnar  Purshiana,  or 
California  buckthorn),  of  the  natural  order 
Rhamnacea,  The  composition  of  cascara  is 
extremely  complex,  but  its  main  action  is  due 
to  the  volatile  oils,  the  anthracene  resins,  at 
least  three,  the  atnaroids  and  the  tannin,  malic 
and  oxalic  acids.  It  stimulates  peristalsis,  in- 
creases the  intestinal  juices  and  has  marked 
effects  on  general  excretion.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent laxative  and  one  of  the  very  best  cathar- 
tics for  habitual  and  chronic  constipation.  It 
is  best  used  in  the  form  of  a  fluid  extract.    Be- 


ftustcd  on  the  public.  These  mostly  contain 
other  and  more  powerful  and  pernicious  ca- 
thartic*.    See  Buckthorn. 

CASCO  BAY,  a  bay  on  the  southwest  coast 
of  Maine.  It  is  about  20  miles  wide  and  so 
deep  as  to  constitute  one  of  the  best  harbors 


687 


CASE,  AusaBtus  Lndlow,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  Newburg.  N.  Y.,  3  Feb.  1813;  d. 
Washinglon,  D.  C,  17  Feb.  1893,  He  entered 
the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1828.  In  the  Mex- 
ican War  he  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Vera 
Cruz  and  Tabasco,  and  during  the  Civil  War 
served  as  fleet  captain  o£  the  North  Atlantic 
blockading  squadron.  He  took  part  m  the  cap- 
ture of  Forts  Hattcras  and  Qark,  and  cut  out 
the  blockade- runner  Kate,  under  the  fire  of  the 
forts  at  New  Inlet,  N.  C.  He  was  a  lighthouse 
inspector  in  1867;  chief  of  bureau  of  ordnance, 
1869;  commander  of  the  European  squadron  in 
1873 ;  was  placed  in  command  of  the  fleet  at  Key 
West  at  the  time  of  the  Virginius  affair ;  and  was 
retired  in  1S75,  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 

CASK,  Leonard,  American  philanthropist: 
b.  Cleveland,  27  Jane  1820;  d.  6  Jan.  1880.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1842,  and 
continued  to  pursue  literary  and  scientific 
studies,  contributing  to  the  best  magaaines. 
Inheriting  from  his  father  a  large  estate  in  the 
city  of  Cleveland,  he  deeded  a  certain  part  of 
it  for  the  founding  and  maintenance  of  an  edu- 
cational institution,  which  wm  incorporated 
after  his  death  as  the  Case  School  of  Apptied 
Science  (q.v.)' 

CABB,  Theodore  Spencer,  American  phy- 
sician: b.  Jackson,  Ga.,  26  Jan.  1832;  d.  Kansas 
aty,  Mo.,  16  Feh.  1900.  He  was  graduated  at 
Marietta  College  in  1852  and  at  the  Starling 
Medical  College,  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  1856.  In 
1883  he  receired  the  honorary  degree  of  Ph.D. 
from  the  University  of  Kansas.  Subsequent 
to  the  receipt  of  his  medical  degree  he  settled 
in  Kansas  City,  and  from  1860  to  1861  edited 
the  Medical  Revieta  there,  also  holding  the 
office  of  alderman  In  1860.  He  became  second 
lieutenant  of  the  25th  Missouri  infantry  in 
June  1861,  and  later  captain  and  assistant 
quartermaster.  In  Fcbniary  1865,  he  was  made 
colonel  and  quartermasier-generai  of  Missouri, 
and  in  1866-68  was  curator  of  the  University  of 
Missouri.  From  1873  to  1885  he  was  postmas- 
ter of  Kansas  City  and  in  1885  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  Kansas  City  Medical 
College.  He  edited  the  Kansas  City  Review 
of  Science  and  Industry  from  1877  to  1885,  and 
in  1886  became  president  of  the  Kansas  City 
real  estate  and  stock  exchange. 

CASE,  Thotnai,  English  philosophical 
scholar.  He  was  educated  at  Ru^y  and  BaU 
liol  College,  Oxford,  was  Waynflete  pro- 
fessor of  moral  and  metaphysical  philosophy 
at  Oxford  from  1889  to  1910,  and  was  appointed 

E resident  of  Corpus  Christi  College  in  1904.  He 
as  published  'Materials  for  History  of  Athenian 
Democracy  from  Solon  to  Pericles'  (1874) ; 
'Realism  in  Morals'  (1877);  (Physical  Real- 
i»in>  (1B88);  <Siunl  Mary's  Qusters*  <1893). 

CASE,  in  grammar,  a  form,  modification 
or  inflection  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  indicating 
or  corresponding  to  its  relationship  to  some 
other  word  or  words  in  a  phrase  or  sentence, 
as,  John  (nominative  case)  speaks;  John's 
(possessive)  dog  barics;  John  beats  his  dog 
(ohjeetive).  In  adjectives,  case  is  merely  sym- 
pathetic, the  adjective  agreeing  in  case  with 
die  noun  which  it  qualifies.    !n  English,  nouns 


undergo  only  one  inflection  representing  a  dif- 
ferent case  from  the  nominative  or  general 
form  of  the  noun ;  all  other  cases  are  repre- 
sented either  by  pnrepositions  or  by  the  posi- 
tion of  the  noun  in  the  sentence,  the  nominative 
case  usually  preceding  the  verb,  the  objective 
or  aecujative  following  it.  The  single  in- 
flected case  in  English  is  the  possessive  or  geni- 
tive (John's^.  English  pronouns  have  three 
cases  —  nominative,  genitive  and  accusative,  as 
he,  his^  kim.  The  last  often  serves  as  a  dative. 
Adjectives  undergo  no  modifications  in  Eng- 
Ush.  In  Sanskrit  there  are  eight  cases  —  nomi- 
native, accusative,  instrumental,  dative,  geni- 
tive, abbtive,  locative  and  vocative.  In  Latin 
there  are  six  cases  —  nominative,  genitive. 
dative,  accusative,  vocative,  ablative.  In  Greek 
there  are  five,  the  ablative  not  being  used.  In 
^both  Latin  and  Greek  diere  are  traces  of  a 
'  locative  case.  In  French,  Italian,  Spanish  and 
Portuguese,  the  nouns  have  no  case-inflections. 
In  German  both  nouns  apd  adjectives  are  in- 
flected for  case.  There  are  four  cases  in  Ger- 
man—  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative, 
In  law,  the  word  has  various  meanings.  An 
'action  upon  the  case"  is  one  in  which  damaRes 
are  sued  for,  for  some  cause  of  complaint  where 
the  injury  done  is  not  direct,  as  in 'trespass, 
but  consequential.  A  "case  stated"  is  a  state- 
ment prepared  by  one  court  for  the  decision  of 
a  point  of  law  by  a  superior  court.  A  'special 
case"  is  a  written  statement  of  facts  agreed  on 
by  two  or  more  litigants  in  an  action,  in  order 
that  a  court  may  decide  their  legal  etfecL  In 
the  United  Slates  the  term  is  used  in  brief  for 
•case  on  appeal,*  meaning  the  statement  laid 
before  a  couri  of  appeal  Dy  an  appellant  and 
presenting  the  complete  record  of  the  original 
trial  in  Uic  lower  court.  Thus  the  appellate 
court  is  allowed  to  review  the  findings  as  well 
as  the  poitits  of  law  involved  ^nd  here  case 
differs  from  a  "hill  of  exceptions"  in  which 
points  of  law  only  arc  submitted  for  the  con- 
sideration of  the  appeal  court  *Case  reserved* 
is  3  statement  drawn  by  counsel  and  certified 
by  the  jud^,  to  be  used  as  a  basis  for  argu- 
ment on  points  of  law  before  a  full  bench  of  the 

In  leller-press  printing,  a  case  is  a  receptacle 
.  .  _._    .. — ^fj     made  of  wood,  34  inches 

,,.     ._      ,yide  and  1J4  inches  deep,  and 

divided  into  compartments  or  "boxes,'  each  of 
which  contains  tyijes  of  one  class  or  letter.  A 
pair  of  cases  consists  of  an  upper  and  a  lower 
case;  the  upper  one  has  98  boxes,  and  contains 
the  capitals,  small  capitals  and  some  other 
signs  that  are  only  occasionally  required  in  com- 
position ;  the  lower  one  has  54  boxes,  and  holds 
the  letters  of  the  small  characters,  figures, 
spaces  and  most  of  the  points.  Thus  the  small 
tjiaracters  are  haUtiially  spoken  of  by  printers 
as  •lower-case'  letters,  and  the  capitals,  etc.,  as 
■upper-case"  letters.  The  places  assigned  to  the 
several  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  boxes  of 
the  case  are  not  precfselv  the  same  in  all 
printing-oflices,  but  the  differences  are  few. 
The  different  sizes  of  die  boxes  in  the  lower 


position,  and  the  position  in  the  case  allotted  to 
each  letter  is  such  as  to  afford  the  greatest  fa- 
cility in  composing.  The  letter  e,  which  is 
most  rvR  upon  in  the  English  language,  has  a 
box  much  larger  than  apy  of  the  other  cmt^ 


for  types, 


oogic 


C  ASB-H  ARDBNIHG  —  CASEIN 


ments,  and  b  placed  directly  in  front  of  the 
compositor.  In  the  upper  case  the  boxes  are  of 
uniform  size,  and  the  letters  are  placed  in  nearly 
alphabetical  order,  the  comparatively  rare  oc-  ■ 
currence  of  capitals  rendering  it  less  important 
which  letter  is  nearest  the  compositor's  hand. 
Cases  are  mounted  in  a  slaating  position  upon  a 
frame  of  convenient  height 

Cases  are  named  from  their  use  or  construc- 
tion, as  'Italic  case,"  a  two-third  case  for  hold' 
ing  Italic  type ;  "two-third  case,*  a  single  case 
in  which  two-thirds  of  the  space  is  equivalent 
to  the  ordinary  lower  case,  and  the  remaining 
third  is  occupied  by  the  capitals,  etc.;  "job 
case,*   a  single  case  suited  to  holding  a  smalt 

f'  ob  font  of  type ;  'rule  case,'  a  case  for  holding 
rass  rule;  'sort-case,"  a  case  for  containing 
'sorts.*  The  manufacture  of  cases  has  re- 
ceived a  serious  set-back  since  the  introduction 
of  type-composing  machines.     Sec  PsiNTiHa     - 

CASE-HARDENING,  the  process  of  con- 
verting the  surface  of  certain  kinds  of  mal- 
leable-iron goods  into  steel,  thereby  making 
them  harder,  less  liable  to  rust  and  capable  of 
taking  on  a  better  polish.  Hre-irons,  gun- 
locks,  keys  and  other  articles  of  limited  siie, 
are  very  xommonljr  so  treated,  but  the  process 
is  sometimes  applied  to  large  objects,  such  as 
iron  railway-bars.  The  articles  are  first  formed, 
and  heated  to  redness  with  jwwdered  charcoal 
or  cast-iron,  the  malleable  iron  taking  carbon 
from  either  of  these  to  form  a  skin  of  steel 
Upon  it ;  the  heated  objects  are  then  cooled  in 
cold  water,  or  in  oil  when  they  are  of  a  deli- 
cate nature.  Yellow  pnissiate  or  potash  or 
parings  of  leather  have  also  been  a  good  deal 
used  for  coating  iron  articles  with  steel  by 
healing  them  together.  Some  dtemists  con- 
sider that  in  this  case  nitrogen  combines  with 
the  iron  and  effects  the  hardening.  The  coat- 
ing of  steel  is  very  thin,  seldom  exceeding  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch.  Where  a  thicker  coating 
is  needed  the  articles  are  treated  several  times. 
The  so-called  "Ha rveji zing*  process  of  harden- 
ing steel  armor  plate  is  similar  to  case-harden- 
ing in  that  the  surface  is  made  very  resistant 
to  the  entrance  of  projectiles  by  heat  treatment 
in  carbon,  while  the  back  is  softer  and  tough 
in  order  to  resist  the  smashing  effect  of  the 
projectile  after  il  has  penetrated  the  hardened 
surface.  A  Swedish  ironmaster  has  found 
that  a  very  excellent  case-hardening  is  ob- 
tained by  treating  Iron  or  steel  objects  with  a 
mixture  of  animal  matter,  such  as  rasped 
leather  or  horn,  and  arsenious  add  dissolved 
in-  hydrochloric  acid,  and  heating  as  usual. 
Charcoal  alone  is  also  used  with  success. 

CASE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCI- 
BHCB,  The,  at  Gcveland,  Ohio,  founded  by 
Leonard  Case  (q.v.)  of  that  cit^.  In  18?7  a 
deed  of  trust  was  executed  settmg  apart  cer- 
tain real  estate  for  the  support  of  the  institu- 
tion, the  deed  to  take  effect  upon  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  1880.  The  Case  School  was 
incorporated  29  March  1880.  Instruction  be- 
gan in  1881,  with  a  class  of  16  students,  the 
school  being  carried  on  from  that  time  until 
the  summer  of  1885  in  the  old  Case  homestead. 
A  commodious  building  having  been  erected 
for  the  use  of  the  school,  it  was  occupied  at 
the  beginning  of  the  term  in  September  1885. 
A  year  later  the  building  with  all  that  it  con- 
tained was  destroyed  by_  fire.    It  was  promptly 


rebuilt  and  occupied  in  1888.  Sinoe  that  time 
several  additional  buildings  have  been  erected, 
with  superior  apparatus  and  appliances.  The 
Case  School  of  Applied  Science  offers  six  reg- 
ular courses  of  instruction,  each  requiring  four 
years.  They  are  civil  engineering,  mechanical 
engineering,  electrical  engineenng,  mining 
engineering,  physics  and  chemistry.  There  are 
S3  professors  and  instructors  and  557  students. 
The  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  Is  granted  to 
all  who  complete  one  of  the  regular  courses. 
That  of  master  of  science  may  be  conferred 
upon  graduates  who  have  devoted  at  least  one 
year  exclusively  to  graduate  study.  Profes- 
sional degrees,  namely,  civil  engineer,  me- 
chanical engineer,  electrical  engineer  and  en- 
^neer  of  mines  may  also  be  conferred  after 
one  year  of  graduate  stu(^  or  after  profes- 
sional work  in  positions  of  responsibility,  for 
three  years  after  graduation.  The  property 
left  by  Mr.  Case  as  an  endowment  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  school  is  valued  at  about  $2,5OO,O0a 
and  the  amount  invested  in  buildings  and  equip- 
ment is  about  $1,000,000.  The  school  derives  lU 
support  in  irart  also  from  tuition  fees.  Its 
government  rests  with  a  corporation  consisting 
of  20  men,  from  whom  six,  ktwwn  as  trustees, 

CASE-SHOT,  a  projectile  formed  by  pot- 
ting a  quantity  of  bullets  into  a  cylindrical  tin 
box  called  a  'canister,*  that  just  fits  the  bore 
of  the  giu).  In  case  of  necessity,  the  canister 
is  filled  with  broken  pieces  of  iron,  nails,  stones, 
eta  The  case  is  closed  at  both  ends  by  a  disc 
of  wood  or  iron.  Shot  of  this  sort  is  thrown 
from  cannons  and  howitzers,  and  is  very  in- 
jurious to  the  enemy,  because  the  balls  con- 
tained in  the  canister  spread,  diverging  in  pro- 
portion to  the  distance.  The  balls  vary  in 
weif^t,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
ordnance,  from  one  or  two  pounds  to  half  an 
ounce  each.  The  range  within  whidi  case-shot 
are  used  sometimes  extends  to  500,  but  seldom 
exceeds  200  to  300,  yards.  It  is  also  called 
"canister-shot.*  The  shrapnel-shell,  in  its  pres- 
ent cylindrical  shape,  may  be  considered  a 
variety  of  case-shot.    See  Obdnance. 

CASE-WORM.    Se«  CADDi8-n.Y. 

CASEIN,  ka*se-in  (Lat.  casetu,  •cheese*) 
a  colloidal  substance  resembling  albiunen  in  its 
general  constitution,  and  obtained  from  milk. 
The  older  chemists  gave  the  name  "casein* 
both  to  the  precipitated  substance  that  is  now 
known  by  that  name,  and  to  the  corresponding 
substance  as  it  exists  in  solution  in  the  milk; 
but  it  is  the  scientific  practice  at  the  present 
time  to  distinguish  the  latter  as  'caseinogen.* 
Caseinogen  is  the  principal  nitrogenous  con- 
stituent of  milk,  in  which  it  occurs  to  the  extent 
of  about  3  per  cent,  forming  80  per  cent  of  the 
proteid  Tontent.  Il  is  precipitated  by  a  curdy 
mass,  when  acetic  acid  or  a  mineral  add  is 
added  to  milk  that  has  been  previously  diluted 
by  the  addition  of  its  own  bulk  of  water.  If 
the  caseinogen  so  prepared  is  made  into  a  paste 
and  then  treated  with  a  small  quantity  of  ren- 
net, the  mass  sets  at  once  into  a  solid  dot, 
consisting  of  true  casein ;  but  Hammarsten  has 
shown  that  if  the  caseinogen  is  first  washed 
entirely  free  from  calcium  phosphate,  rennet  is 
without  action  upon  it.  The  precise  function 
of  the  calcium  phosphate  is  obscure,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  chemical  rdntioiis  of 


=,  Google 


CASBB1ATB8  —  CASBHENT 


t  b  added  to 
fresh  milk  a  buUcy  deposit  of  casein  and  butter 
fat  comes  down  immediately;  but  to  obtain  the 
casein  in  pure  form,  the  oily  tnatten  in  the 
milk  should  be  first  removed  by  the  action  of  a 
centrifuKal  separator.  Caseinogen  is  not  pre- 
dpitateaby  heat,  nor  does  it  (Tike  fibrinogen) 
coagulate  spontaneously.  The  coagulation  o1>- 
served  when  milk  is  boiled. is  due  to  the  albu- 
men present,  and  not  to  the  casein;  and  that 
which  occurs  upon  standing  vaay  be  due  either 
to  the  generation  of  lactic  acid  through  the 
fermentation  of  the  lactose  present,  or  to  the 
rennet-like  action  of  the  ptomaines  Uberated 
b>;  micro-organisms  that  happen  to  fall  into  the 
milk  from  the  air.  According  to  the  analyses 
of  Chittenden  and  Painter,  the  elementary  per- 
centage composition  of  casein  is  as  follows : 
Carbon,  53.30;  hydrogen,  7.07;  nitrogen,  15.91; 
sulphur,  0.82;  phospiiorus,  0.87;  oxygen,  22.03. 
Casein  is  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol  or  ether, 
but  dissolves  easily  in  alkaline  solutions. 
It  also  dissolves  in  very  weak  h^ydrochloric 
acid,  from  which  it  is  agiun  precipitated  upon 
the  addition  of  the  same  reagent  in  more  con- 
centrated form.  Casein  for  commercial  pur- 
poses is  pre^red  almost  wholly  from  cow's 
milk.  The  milk  is  first  put  through  a  centriflu- 
gal  separator  to  remove  the  faL  and  then  from 
4  to  6  per  cent  of  caustic  alkaU  is  added.  The 
milk  is  then  run  into  a  vat,  and  dilute  sulnhuric 
acid  is  added,  the  whole  being  stirrea  con- 
stantly. When  the  curd  has  settled  it  is  washed 
with  cold  water  and  drained  on  cheesecloth 
filters.     It  is  pressed  in  a  cheese  press  as  dry 


I  the  production  of  enameled  papers, 
which  casein  glue  is  used  as  the  binder  for  the 
materials  of  the  enamel  coating.  It  is  also  used 
in  the  making  of  erasable  tablets,  paper 
•slates,"  eta  As  a  binder  for  various  "fillers* 
many  solid  articles  are  produced  in  imitation  of 
ivory  and  tortoise-shell.  A  compound  of  casein 
and  lime  is  made  use  of  in  the  dyeing  industry 
for  'animalizing*  cotton  fabrics  so  that  the 
fibres  wilt  retain  the  colors  applied  to  them.  In 
medicine,  casein  is  being  more  and  more  cm- 
ployed,  its  combination  with  certain  dru^  im- 
mensely enhancing  their  efficacy.  This  is  par- 
ticularly marked  in  the  administration  of  io<une, 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  mercury  and  iron,  as  well 
as  many  alkaloids  and  organic  compounds.  See 
Proteids.  Consult  Hammarsten-Mande),  'Phys- 
iolo^cal  Chemistry*  (Mew  York  1914)  ;  Sherer, 
R.,  'Casein:  Its  Preparation  and  Technical 
Ufiliiation'    (London  1906). 

CASEMATES  (Sp.  ctua,  «a  house,"  and 
tnalare,  "to  kill"),  in  fortification,  vaults  which 
are  proof  against  bombs,  and  which  may  be 
constructed  under  a  parapet  and  provided  with 
embrasures  or  ports  through  which  ^uns  are 
fired.  They  may  serve,  at  the  same  time,  as  a 
place  for  keeping  the  heavy  ordnance  and  vari- 
ous stores,  and  m  case  of  necessity  as  habita- 
tions for  the  garrison  or  shelter  for  sick  or 
wounded. 

CASEMENT,  Sir  Roger,  Irish  revolution- 
ist:  b.  Ireland.  1  Sept.  1864;  executed  in  Lon- 


don, 3  Aug.  1916.  Though  bom  in  Ireland, 
Casement  was  of  English  parentage  and  a 
Protestant  by;  creed.  He  entered  the  British 
consular  service  at  the  age  of  28,  and  served 
in  the  Niger  Coast  Oil  Rivers  Protectorate 
from  1892  to  1895,  when  he  was  appointed  con- 
sul in  the  Portuguese  province  of  Lorenzo 
Marques.  In  1898  he  was  made  consul  for  the 
Portuguese  possessions  in  West  Africa,  south 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  During  the  war  in 
South  Africa  he  was  engaged  on  special  service 
at  Cape  Town  in  1899  and  1900,  and  on  the 
conclusion  of  hostilities  he  was  decorated  with 
tiie  Queen's  mcdai.  In  1900  Casement  was 
transferred  to  the  Belgian  Kongo,  and  in  1901 
was  appointed  to  act  as  consul  also  for  part 
of  the  French  Kongo.  In  1905  he  was  made  a 
C.M.G.  and  in  the  following  year  was  ap- 
pointed consul  for  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo. 
fiis  next  promotion  took  place  in  I90B.  when 
he  was  made  British  consul-general  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  Between  1909  and  1912  he  was  em- 
ployed in  making  inquiries  relative  to  the 
rubber  industry  atrocities,  and  retired  on  a 
pension  in  1913  after  an  honorable  and  useful 
career.  He  received  his  knighthood  in  June 
1911,  on  which  occasion  he  wrote  the  follow- 
ing letter  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  For- 
eign Affairs: 

"I  find  it  v«y  h»rd  to  ohoo«  the  wnrdi  with  which  to 
Toake  acknowlKUmtnt  of  the  honcniT  done  mc  hy  the  King, 
I  Km  much  icovsd  st  the  pimi  ot  confidencs  and  apfncutioa 
of  my  iervkei  on  th«  Putoirutyo.  canvevEd  to  jt  ' 
i_..^._  _!.__: ._.^  jj^  ^j^^  ^j^g  King  had  been 


id  been  gncinuly 
' e  the 


very  deeplj'  sensible  of  the  honour  done  to  me  by  Ci  M»je«t]f . 
I  would  toe  that  my  humble  duty  might  be  presented  to  hu 
Majesty,  when  you  Eoay  do  me  the  honour  of  conveyinfi  to 
him  my  deep  nppreciiitktn  of  tho  honour  he  has  been  so 
oBckjUily  Dieaied  to  confer  upon  ma.     I  am.  dear  Sir  Edward 

In  view  of  his  trapic  end  and  the  circum- 
stances that  brou^l  it  about,  this  expression 
of  Casement's  sentiments  was  strangely  at  vari- 
ance with  his  subsequent  action  during  the 
European  War.  Suspicion  was  first  directed 
toward  him  a  few  months  after  the  war  broke 
out,  when  it  became  known  that  Casement  was 
moving  about  at  lar^e  in  Germany  at  a  time 
when  all  British  subjects  in  that  country  were 
either  interned  or  under  police  supervision. 
Questions  were  asked  in  the  British  Parliament, 
and  Casement's  pension  was  withdrawn  on  30 
Sept.  1914,  up  till  which  time  it  had  been  paid 
to  him.  A  large  number  of  British  prisoners 
of  war  had  fallen  into  German  hands  between 
September  and  December  1914.  In  the  latter 
month  a  great  many. Irish  soldiers  were  col- 
lected in  a  large  camp  at  Limbur^  apparently 
for  a  special  purxiose.  These  prisoners  were 
assembled  on  several  occasions  and  addressed 
collectively  and  individually  by  Casement,  who 
moved  about  the  camp  freely  with  the  full  ap- 
proval of  the  German  authorities.  He  intro- 
duced himself  as  Sir  Roger  Casement,  the 
•organizer  of  the  Irish  volunteers."  Telling 
the  men  that  he  was  forming  an  Irish  brigade, 
he  invited  all  Irish  prisoners  to  join  it.  Those 
who  agreed,  he  said,  would  be  sent  to  Berlin 
as  the  guests  of  the  German  government,  and 
that,  if  Germany  won  a  sea  battle,  the  "Irish 
brifcade"  would  be  landed  in  Ireland  to  fight 
against  England.  In  the  event  of  Germany 
losing  the  war,  each  man  would  receive  from 


Google 


C ASBRT A — CA8ST 


Casement  or  die  German  gOTcrnment  $50  or 
$100  and  a  free  paas^e  to  America.  Those 
who  renounced  their  allegiance  were  given  a 
green  uniform  with  a  harp  worked  on  the 
collar  and  provided  with  Gennan  side  arms. 
About  the  middle  of  April  1916  Casement  and 
an  Irish  soldier  named  Bailey,  together  with  a 
'Mt.  Monteith,'  were  put  on  hoard  the  Gennan 
submarine  U-19  at  Wilbelmshaven.  They 
sailed  round  the  Shellands  and  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland.  Meanwhile,  a  small  Wilson  liner, 
disguised  as  a  timber  ship  and  carrying  10 
machine  guns,  bombs,  20,000  rifles  uid  millions 
of  cartridges,  had  been  sent  from  Germany  to 
a  place  near  Tralee.  When  the  submarine  had 
reached  as  near  land  as  possible  before  dawn. 
Casement,  Monteith  and  Bail^  were  put  into 
a  collapsible  boat,  armed  with  revolvers  and 
ammunition.  The  boat  overturned  and  the  ad- 
venturers had  to  wade  ashore,  where  they 
buried  the  weapons.  Casement  remained  ix- 
hindi  the  other  two  made  their  way  to  Tralee 
by  land.  On  Good  Friday,  21  April  1916,  the 
British  sloop  Bluebeli  was  patrolling  near  Tra- 
lee when  she  sighted  a  suspicious  vessel  ilviog 
the  Norwegian  ensign  and  with  four  of  tnose 
ensigns  painted  forward  and  aft  oa  each  side. 
In  reply  to  signals  she  said  she  was  the  Aude, 
bound  from  Bergen  to  Genoa.  The  ship  was 
ordered  to  follow  the  Bluebell  to  harbor,  but 
when  about  a  mile  and  a.  half  from  the  Daunt 
Rock  lightship  (near  Queenstown),  the  Aude 
suddenly  raised  two  German  naval  ensigns  and 
blew  up,  sinking  immediately.  The  crew,  who 
had  destroyed  the  ship,  clambered  into  two 
boats  and  surrendered  to  the  Bhtebelt,  The 
collapsible  boat  from  (he  submarine  was  found 
by  a  farmer  at  four  in  the  same  morning  on 
which  Casement  had  landed.  A  tin  box  con- 
taining pistol  cartridges  was  exhumed.  The 
police  searched  the  neighborhood  and  discov- 
ered Casement  hiding  in  an  excavation  known 
as  McKenna's  Fort.  He  gave  his  name  as 
Richard  Morton,  of  Denham,  Buckinghamshire, 
and  described  himself  as  an  author.  He  was 
taken  to  Ardfert  Barracks,  and  on  the  way 
dropped  a  paper,  which  was  found  to  be  a 
cipher  code.  Some  of  the  sentences  read, 
■Cannons     with     plenty     of     ammunition     are 

needed.     Send   them   to  * ;   *Send  more 

explosives,*  etc.  Casement  was  taken  to  Eng- 
land the  next  day  and  handed  over  to  the 
metropolitan  police,  when  he  disclosed  his 
identity.  He  was  tried  before  the  lord  chief 
justice  and  a  jury  on  26  June,  found  guilty 
of  high  treason  and  sentenced  to  death.  The 
penalty  was  carried  out  at  Pentonville  Prison, 
at  9  A.M.  on  3  August.  Many  prominent  persons 
both  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
made  strenuous  efforts  to  save  Casement  from 
the  gallows,  but  in  vain.  The  grounds  on 
which  the  British  government  refused  a  re- 
prieve—  after  Casement's  appeal  had  failed  — 
were  thus  suted  by  Lord  Robert  Cecil  in  Par- 
liament: "No  doubt  of  Casement's  guilt  ex- 
ists. .  .  .  The  only  ^ound  for  a  reprieve 
would  be  political  expediency,  a  difficult  ground 
to  put  forward  in  this  country.  This  country 
never  could  strain  the  law  to  punish  a  man  for 
die  same  reason  that  it  could  not  strain  the  law 
to  let  him  off.  ...  The  Irish  rebellion  be- 
gan with  the  murder  of  unarmed  people,  both 
soldiers  and  police.  No  grievance  justified  it . 
and  it  was  purely  a  political  movement  organ- 


ized by  a  small  lectkiD  of  Irish  people  wha 
still  hate  England  and  was  assisted  by  Ger- 
many. .  .  .*  Shortly  before  his  execution 
Casement  was  received  into  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church.  He  was  unmarried.  In  November 
1917  the  yolhsreckt  of  Ztirich,  Switzerland,  the 
official  ot^n  of  the  Swiss  Social  Democrats, 
published  a  number  of  German  official  docu- 
ments rdating  to  Casement's  activities  in  Ger- 
many. One  of  them  gives  the  igttetaait  signed 
between  Casement  and  the  Gennan  Foreign 
Minister,  Herr  von  Zimmermann.  Nine  of 
these  documents  were  reproduced  in  the  New 
York  Times  of  16  Dec  1917.  See  Iulamd— 
RraoLunoM. 

CASERTA  (formerly  Terra  di  Lavoho),  a' 
province  of  Italy,  north  of  Naples,  along  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  chiel  industries  arc 
agriculture  and  cattle  raising;  there  are  also 


CASERTA,  ka-zir'ta,  Italy,  capital  of  die 

S-ovince   of    Caserta,    17    miles     northeast     of 
aples.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  contains 


rich^  decorated  structure  oommenccd  in  1752 
by  Oiarles  III  of  Spain,  and  deseed  by  Vau- 
vitelli.  This  magnificent  edifice  forms  with  its 
four  courts  a  huge  rectangle,  whose  south  side 
is  830  feet  long  and  134  feet  hi^  and  has  37 
windows  in  each  story.  Throng  the  middle 
of  the  rectangle  runs  a  splendid  colonnade  541 
feet  long,  from  the  centre  of  which  rises  the 
beautiful  marble  stairway  with  116  steps.  The 
chapel  of  the  palace  is  richly  decorated  and 
contains  many  noteworthy  works  of  art  The 
theatre  of  the  palace  has  40  boxes  and  12 
Corinthian  columns  of  African  marble  from 
the  jialace  of  Scrapis  at  Pozzuoli.  The  water 
for  its  fountains  is  brought  26  miles  frmn 
Mount  Tabumo  l^'  an  acnteduct  which  crosses 
the  Maddeloni  Valley  on  a  daring^  constructed 
bridge,  1,700  feet  long  and  190  feet  high,  and 
situated  among  gardens  adorned  with  numerous 
ancient  and  modem  statues.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  silk  goods,  carpets,  linen,  etc 
The  district  produces  excellent  fruit  and  wine. 
About  two  and  a  half  miles  to  the  northeast  is 
Caserta  Vecchia  (Old  Caserta),  the  new  town 
being  distinguished  as  Caserta  Nuova.  In  1860 
Caserta  was  the  headquarters  of  Garibaldi  and 
his  army.  The  province  of  Caserta  is  the  an- 
cient Campania  Felii,     Pop.  33,000. 


1826;  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  being 
present  at  the  battles  of  Ontreras,  Cfaurubusco, 
Molino  del  R^  and  the  siege  of  Chapultepec 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  was  given 
charge  of  organiring  the  volunteers  near  Wash- 
ington; later  served  in  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac, and  won  much  distinction  at  Fair  Oaks; 
was  president  of  the  board  to  examine  candi- 
dates for  officers  of  colored  troops  in  1863-6S ; 
brevetted  major- general,  U.  S.  A.,  13  March 
1865 ;  and  retired  in  1868.  His  publications  in- 
clude 'System  of  Infantry  Tactics*  (1862): 
and  'Infantry  Tactics  for  Colored  Troops* 
(1863). 


d=y  Google 


CA8BT— CASH  ttSGISTER 


701 


CASmr.'Tbomu  Uncoln,  American  mili- 
tary engineer:  b.  Sacketf s  Harbor,  N.  Y.,  10 
May  1831;  d.  WashinKton,  D.  C,  26  March 
1896.  He  was  graduated  from  West  Point  in 
18S2,  and  entered  the  engineer  corps  of  the 
anny.  Daring  the  Civil  War  he  was  superin- 
tending engineer  of  defenses  on  the  coast  of 
Maine,  and  on  special  duty  with  die  North  At- 
lantic squadron  in  the  first  expedition  against 
Fort  Fisher,  In  1865  he  was  hrevetted  colonel 
for  gallant  services  during  the  war.  In  1868 
he  was  put  in  charge  of  one  of  the  departments 
in  the  chief  en^neer's  office  at  Washington;  in 
1873  was  sent  abroad  for  professional  service  j 
and  in  1S77  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  slate,  war  and  navy  building, 
and  of  the  Waslui^on  aqueduct,  and  also  oi 
the  Department  of  Public  Buildings  and 
Grounds.  Later  he  built  the  White  House 
conservatory  and  the  Army  Medical  Museum, 
completed  the  Washington  monument  and  took 
charge  of  the  construction  of  the  Congressional 
Library.  He  was  president  of  the  board  of 
engineers  for  fortifications  at  New  York  in 
1886-88;  was  promoted  chief  of  engineers  and 
brigadier-general  in  1888;  and  was  elected  to 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1890. 

CASBY,  Timothy,  Canadian  Roman  Cath- 
olic bishop:  b.  Flumeridge,  County  Qiarlotte, 
New  Brunswick,  20  Feb.  1862.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Saint  Stephen  Grammar  School,  Saint 
Joseph's  College,  Memramcook,  and  Laval 
University.  After  his  ordination  to  the  priest- 
hood in  1886,  he  became  successively  curate  at 
Fredericton,  rector  of  the  cathedral  of  Saint 
John,  chancellor  of  the  diocese,  and  rector  of 
Saint  Dun  Stan's  Church,  Fredericton.  In  1899 
be  was  appointed  bishop  of  Utica  and  coadjutor 
to  Bishop  Sweeny  of  Saint  John,  being  con- 
secrated H  Feb.  1900,  and  he  succeeded  to  the 
bishopric  ZS  Mar.  1901.  He  was  appointed 
archbishop  of  Vancouver  2  Aug.  1912.  He  at- 
tended the  Eucharistic  Congress  at  Montreal  in 
lillO,  and  is  known  as  an  ardent  temperance 
reformer. 

CASGRAIN,  k3s-griiri',  Henri  Raymand, 
French  Canadian  author :  b.  Riviere  Buelle, 
Quebec,  1831 ;  d.  Quebec  1904.  He  was  educated 
at  College  Sainte  Anne  and  Quebec  Seminary, 
and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1856.  He 
relinquished  the  ministry  in  1872,  owing  to  an 
affection  of  the  eyes,  and  subsequently  devoted 
himself  to  Ktenlnre.  His  works  include 
^L^ndes  Canadiennes>  <1860);  -'Histoire  de 
la  M^re  Marie  de  I'lncamation'  (1864);  'His- 
toire  de  rHotel-Dieu  de  Quebec'  (1878); 
^Pelerinage  au  Pays  d' Evangeline,'  which  was 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy  (1885) ; 
'Biographies  (^nadiennes'  (1885);  'Montcalm 
et  Livis'  (1891);  'Une  Seconde  Acadie> 
(1894)  }'  'Les  Sut^ciens  et  les  pretres  des  Mis- 
sions itrang^res  en  Acadie>  (1897). 


1826.  A  student  of  Saint  Anne's  College,  he 
was  admitted  a  lawyer  in  1850,  and  for  several 
years  was  deputy  prothonotary  of  the  provincial 
Superior  Court,  before  becoming  clerk  of  the 
Circuit  and  Revision  Court.  From  1872  to  1891 
he  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, prominent  in  public  affairs  and  notably 
in  a  program  for  a  Canadian  navy.  He  was 
also   known    for  high   historical  and   literary 


gifts  and  on  three  occasions,  lS98j  1899  and 
1906  was  elected  president  of  the  Literary  and 
Historical  Society  of  Quebec  Besides  numer- 
ous contributions  to  the  TroHsactions  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Canada  and  the  Transactions 


Saint  Just  et  son  temps>  (1885);  <La  fontaine 
de  Champlain  i  Quebec'  (1888);  'L.a  vie  de 
Joseph-Frangois  Perrault'  (1898);  'Les  Plaines 
d'Abraham'  (1900) ;  'Seconde  bataille  des 
Plaines  d'Abraham  et  de  Sainte  Foye'  (19(X)); 
<La  maison  de  Montcalm*  (1902);  'La  maison 
de  Borgia'  n9(H)  ;  "Le  moulin  de  Dumont* 
n90S)  ;  'Cadet,  sa  maison  et  sa  rfisidence  i 
Quebec*  (1906) ;  'A  Few  Remarks  on  Various 
Gallicisms  and  French  Locutions  in  the  Plays 
of  Shakespeare'  (1907);  'La  Chapelle  et  le 
tombeau  de  Champlain'  (1907)  ;  'Notre  syst^c 
judiciaire*  (1911). 

CASGRAIN,  Thomas  Chase,  Canadian 
statesman:  b.  Detroit,  28  July  1852;  d.  29  Dec 
1916.  He  was  educated  at  Quebec  Seminary 
and  Laval  University,  Montreal.  He  was  called 
to  the  bar  of  Quebec  in  1877,  and  was  junior 
council  for  the  Crown  at  the  trial  of  Louis 
Riel  for  high  treason  at  Regina  in  1885.  He 
was  returned  to  the  provincial  assembly  of 
Quebec  b  the  Conservative  interest  1886-90, 
1892-9^  holding  office  as  attorney-general 
1891-96.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission appointed  in  1894  to  revise  and  amend 
the  civil  procedure.  He  represented  Mont- 
morency in  the  House  of  Commons,  1896-1904. 
He  opposed  the  Ta  ft- Fielding;  reciprocity 
agreement  of  1909.  He  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  International  Joint  Commission  in 
1911,  and  was  chairman  of  the  Canadian  sec- 
tion, and  held  the  office  of  Pastmaster-(^neral 
in  the  Borden  administration  from  1914  until 
his  death,  during  which  period  he  represented 
Quebec  (Zounly. 

CASH  REGISTER,  an  antomatic  device 
for  recording  all  transactions  handled  in  retail 
stores.  It  is  probably  the  most  antique,  and 
yet  in  its  improved  form  the  most  modern 
device  known  to  commerce.     More  than  6,(XX) 

Ears  ago  the  ancients  used  a  registering  device 
own  as  the  Abacus  (q.v.)  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  visibly  to  the  buyer  and  seller  the 
amount  purchased. 

The  modem  cash  register  was  invented  by 
Jacob  Ritty,  of  Dayton.  Ohio,  patented  1879,  it 
being  suggested  to  him  by  the  dial  on  a  steam- 
ship which  recorded  the  number  of  revolutions 
of  the  propeller.  The  first  practical  cash  regis- 
ter was  a  crude  device  which  punched  holes  in 
a  strip  of  paper.  By  counting  the  number  of 
holes  the  merchant  could  tell  how  much  money 
he  should  have  in  his  cash  drawer.  The  present 
day  cash  rej^ster  is  a  combination  adding  ma- 
chine and  printing  press,  which,  by  il5  perfect 
mechanism,  provides  a  record  of  all  transac- 
tions handled.  It  tells  instantly  how  much  busi- 
ness each  clerk  has  done;  how  many  customers 
each  clerk  has  waited  on;  who,  if  anyone,  has 
made  a  mistake;  the  total  amount  of  money 
taken  in ;  the  number  of  charge,  received  on 
account  and  paid  out  transactions  handled.    It 


nsaction,  the  initial  of  the 
clerk  who  handled  it,  the  consecutive  number  of 
the  sale,  the  kind  of  sale  and  tbe  date.     In 


d=,  Google 


7oe 


CASHAH-CASHIBO 


addition,  this  receipt  contains  the  merchant's 
name  and  address,  together  with  any  advertis- 
ing he  may  care  to  use.  Some  registers  do  not 
bsue  a  receipt,  but  print  the  same  information 
on  a  sales  slip  inserted  in  the  register.  This 
receipt  or  slip  is  wrapped  in  the  package  with 
the  goods  going  to  the  customer.  Af  the  same 
time  the  receipt  is  issued,  the  miniature  print- 


side  the  register.  This  gives  the  proprietor  full 
information  concerning  every  detail  of  his  busi- 
ness, offering  him  at  a  glance  facts  showing 
the  progress  of  his  store,  as  well  as  the  industry 
of  each  clerk. 

The  object  of  the  cash  re^ster  is  to  stop 
mistakes,  remove  temptation,  eliminate  careless- 
ness, increase  trade  and  increase  profits.  It 
furnishes  information  concerning  a  business 
which  could  be  obtained  in  no  other  way  except 
through  a  large  amount  of  detail  work.  It  pro- 
tects Mie  money  received  by  providing  a  correct 
account  of  all  incoming  cash,  and  accounts  for 
the  money  paid  out,  and  at  the  same  time  pro- 
vides a  record  of  the  amount  of  credit  business 
handled.  It  not  only  indicates  die  amount  of 
each  and  every  transaction,  as  well  as  the  initial 
of  the  clerk  who  handled  it,  but  at  the  same 
time  transmits  the  amount  indicated  to  various 
sets  of  adding  wheels,  and  also  prints  that 
amount  on  the  receipt  gping  to  the  customer.  A 
receipt  going  to  the  customer  bearing  printed 
figures  of  the  transaction  makes  it  necessary  to 
record  the  correct  amount  on  the  repster.  This 
ensures  the  proprietor  that  he  will  get  an  accu- 
rate record  of  every  transaction  handled  in  his 
business.  More  than  2,000,000  of  these  ma- 
chines are  in  use  the  world  over.  See  Calcu- 
lating Machines. 

CASHAN  or  KASHAN  or  KASHIN, 
Persia,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Irak-Ajemee, 
noted  for  its  production  of  shawls,  silk  stuffs 
and  other  goods.  It  is  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing towns  in  Persia,  and  has  a  royal  palace, 
numerous  mosques,  colleges,  bazaars  and  baths. 
The  inhabitants  are  noted  for  their  industry, 
and  besides  shawls  and  silk  sluSs  already  men- 
'       '     ■  '  ■      gold 

.  -  -  -  They 

also  carry  on  an  active  trade  in  agriculturid 
produce,  and  carry  on  commerce  with  all  parts 
of  the  Orient  and  with  Europe  by  way  of 
Ispahan.  The  silk  stufis  produced  at  Cashan 
are  held  in  high  esteem,  and  are  worn  by  the 
Shah  and  his  entourage.  Foreigners  from  the 
West  who  have  visited  the  place  have  found 
the  inhabitants,  who  belong  chiefly  to  the  Shiite 
sect  of  Mohammedans,  more  enlightened  and 
liberal  in  their  treatment  of  strangers  than  most 
Orientals.  Many  of  the  merchants  are  very 
wealthy,  but  arc  cornpelled  by  the  oppressive 
exactions  of  public  omcials  to  hide  their  riches 
as  much  as  po.tsible  from  view.  The  interior 
of  the  homes  of  some  of  them,  which'present 
a  neglected  aspect  on  the  outside,  arc  said  to 
be  palatial  in  splendor.  The  province  of  .Irak- 
Ajemee,  in  which  Cashan  is  situated,  has  nearly 
the  same  boundaries  as  the  country  known  to 
the  ancients  as  Great  Media,  or  Media  Proper. 
It  is  the  most  productive  portion  of  Persia, 
fertile  and  with  a  fhniri^ing  trade.  Cashan 
has  a  population  of  about  30,000.    See  Persia. 

CASHEL,  Ireland,  town  in  Tipperary 
County,   about  49   miles   northeast   of    Cork; 


noted  as  containing  the  most  interesting  ruins 

in  Ireland.    These  consist  of  a  Gothic  cathedral 

founded  in  1169;  a  stone-roofed  chapeL  built 

I   1127;   Hore  Abbey,  founded  in    1272;  the 


fercnce.  They  are  built  on  the  Rock  of  Cashel, 
an  elevation  300  feet  high,  and  form  the  sum- 
mit of  the  slope  which  the  town  occufues.  Here 
was  held  the  great  synod,  in  1172,  when  the 
Irish  priests  first  aclmowledged  the  authoriQf 
of  the  English  Church  and  state.  Cashel  is  a 
Roman  Catholic  archdiocese.  Dean  Swift  was 
a  native.    Pop,  2313. 

CA8HBW  (a  corruption  of  acajou,  the 
French  form  of  the  native  Brazilian  name 
atajaiba),  a  tree  (AmKardiutn  octidfniale)  of 
the  order  Anacaraiaceat,  common  in  the  West 
Indies.  It  is  a  spreading  tree,  from  20  to  40 
feet  high,  and  is  a  native  of  the  tropics.  It 
has  alternate^  obtuse,  ovate  leaves,  and  bears 
bunches  of  red,  scented  flowers.  The  juice  of 
the  stem  is  used  as  a  varnish;  and  an  aromatic 
drug  is  prepared  by  decoction  and  maceratian 
of  several  parts  of  the  tree,  aftervrard  consoli- 
dated by  evaporation.  The  nut  is  small,  kidney- 
shaped,  ash-gray,  about  an  inch  long,  and  is 
seated  on  the  end  of  a  large  fleshy  receptacle 
varjing  in  size  from  that  of  a  cherry  to  a 
medium-sized  pear.  The  shell  consists  of  three 
layers,  the  outer  and  inner  of  which  are  bard 
and  dry,  but  the  intermediate  la^er  contains  a 
quantity  of  black,  extremely  acnd,  caustic  oil, 
which  IS  destrovM  bjr  roastmg  the  nuts  before 
eating  them.  The  ml  is  applied  to  floors  in 
India  and  elsewhere  to  protect  them  from  the 
attacks  of  white  ants.  In  the  West  Indies  it  is 
f>Ut  into  winei  especially  old  Madeira,  to  which. 
It  is  said,  it  imparts  an  especially  agreeable 
flavor.  It  is  also  used  in  chocolate.  A  gum 
with  properties  similar  to  those  of  gum  arabic 
is  obtained  from  the  plant. 

CASHXW-BIRD,  kash'6-bird,  another 
name  for  the  galeate  curassow.  See  Cubas- 
sow. 

CASHGAR,  or  KASHGAR,  TurlKstan, 
the  capital  city  of  the  Chinese  dependency  ot 
eastern  Turkestan,  in  the  province  of  Sin- 
Kiatig  or  Kastearia.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Kizil-Daria  or  .Kashgar  River,  in  a  portion  of 
strategic  importance,  100  miles  northwest  of 
Yarkand,  and  comprises  an  old  and  a  new 
town,  liiey  are  both  surrounded  by  mud  walls 
and  moats,  and  the  new  town  is  also  defended 
by  a  citadel  The  latter  was  built  in  1838,  is 
strongly  garrisoned  and  contains  the  palace  of 
the  Chioese  governor.  There  are  coasideraUe 
manufactures  of  cotton,  gold  and  silver  cloths, 
carpets,  etc.,  and  an  extensive  trade,  its  position 
at  the  junction  of  several  great  routes  makiiig 
it  the  emporium  of  much  of  the  commerce  of 
central  Asia.  It  was  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  till  conquered  by  the  CUnese 
during  the  18th  century.  In  1865  it  revohed 
but  was  again  subdued  in  1876-77.  The  civil 
government  of  the  re^on  Is  in  char^  of  a 
Chinese  ofbcial,  with  the  rank  of  Laotai.  Pop 
about  62,000.  Consult  Lansdell,  'Chinese  Cen- 
tral Asia'  (1894);  Younghusband,  'The  Heart 
of  a  Continent'    (1904). 

CASHIBO,  ka-^he'bo,  or  CACHIBO.  a 
savage  tribe  of  Panoan  stock  living  itear  the 
Ucayale  River,  a  tribntair  of  llie  Anuon,  in 

DigitzedsyGoOgIC 


CASHISK  —  C  A8UIIR 


cBStcm  Peru,  lliev  are  said  to  eat  riieir  old 
people  at  death,  ana  bave  repeatedly  killed  the 
white  missionaries  who  attempted  to  convert 
them.  The  men  are  bearded  and  wear  long 
skirts.  The  women  go  Mitirely  naked  until 
after  marriage. 

CASHIER,  To,  in  a  military  sense  to  dis- 
miss from  (he  service  by  annulling  or  with- 
drawing an  oflliccr's  commission.  It  is  not  an 
ofEcial  term  in  the  United  States,  and  is  com- 
monly construed  aniong[  military  men  as  having 
a  more  disgraceful  significance  than  "dismissal, 
although  there  is  no  analogy  or  precedent  in  the 
use  of  the  word  by  leading  English  authors  to 
support  this  construction.  Macaulay  uses  the 
term  in  the  sense  of  simple  dismissal  or  annul- 
ment of  commission.  Nevertheless  in  ordinary 
military  parlance  it  means  dismissal  in  disgrace. 
and  its  use  in  any  other  sense  is  regarded  as 
unjustiAed. 

CASHMERE,  or  KASHMIR,  a  princi- 
pality in  the  northwest  of  Hindustan,  subject 
to  a  Maharajah  belonging  to  the  Sikh  race,  but 
under  British  protection  and  supervision.  It  is 
a.n  irregularly  shaped  mountainous  region,  noted 
for  its  gorgeous  scenery  and  the  heatthfulness 
of  its  climate.  It  is  composed  of  various  prov- 
inces or  districts,  of  which  Cashmere  proper 
is  the  most  famous  and  interesting.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  state, 
and  largely  consists  of  an  elevated  valley  inter- 
sected by  the  Jhelum.  Besides  Cashmere 
J  roper,  the  state  embraces  the  territory  of 
amoo,  Balti  or  Iskardo,  and  Ladakh  and 
Gilghit.  The  whole  principality  thus  formed  is 
estimated  to  cover  about  84,432  square  miles, 
and  its  popuhttion  in  1911  was  3,156,126.  It 
extends  from  about  lat.  32°  lo  3?"  N.  and  from 
about  long.  73°  to  80°  E.  Srinagar  is  the  capi- 
tal. The  territory  of  Jamoo,  which  forms  the 
most  populous  portion  of  the  principality,  lies 
to  the  north  of  the  Punjab,  between  the  spurs 
of  the  Himalaya  Mountains  leading  up  to  Cash- 
mere and  enclosed  by  the  upper  courses  of  the 
Chenab  and  Ravee.  Its  chief  town  is  of  the 
same  name.  Baiti,  also  called  Little  Tibet,  is 
an  elevated  region  on  the  upper  Indus,  (o  the 
north  of  Kashmir  proper,  lying  to  the  south- 
west of  the  Karakorum  Mountains,  and  having 
for  its  capital  Iskardo  or  Skardo.  Ladakh,  also 
called  Middle  Tibet,  lies  to  the  southeast  of 
Balti,  between  the  Himalaya  and  Karakorum 
Mountains,  and  is  also  traversed  by  the  Indus, 
Its  passes  form  some  of  the  most  important 
media  of  communication  for  central  Asia.  Its 
cajntal  is  Leh  on  the  Indus.  Gilghit  is  a  district 
on  the  northwest  of  Balti.  Sheep  are  largely 
kept  by  the  inhabitants;  and  the  main  crops 
grown  are  maize,  cotton,  saffron,  tobacco,  hops, 
nhea^  bar)^  and  beans.  Butter  is  one  of  the 
exports,  mtbin  recent  years  great  activity  has 
been  shown  in  improving  means  of  communica- 
tion, but  in  many  parts  of  the  country  wheeled 
traffic  is  unknown,  and  there  arc  only  a  few 
miles  of  railway.  Educationally  it  is  the  most 
backward  part  of  India,  with  98  per  cent  of 
illiterates.  An  independent  monarchy  until 
1586,  it  was  thereafter  successively  ruled  by 
MoKuls,  Afghans  and  Sikhs,  and  was  placed 
under  British  protection  in  1846.  The  present 
Maharajah,  Sir  Pertah  Singh,  is  a  distinguished 
soldier,  and  fought  in  Flanders  with  the  British 
army  in  the  Great  European  War. 


The  language  of  the  people  is  called  Ka^- 
miri  and  is  descended  from  the  Middle  Indian 
vernacular^  and  is  thus  ultimately  related  to 
the  Sanskrit,  although  many  AralMC  and  Per- 
sian words  hare  been  adopted  into  it  The  lan- 
guage has  no  written  literature  of  native  origin, 
but  portions  of  the  Bible  have  been  translated 
into  the  vernacular.  The  script  in  which  it  is 
written  is  generally  Persian ;  but  the  older 
Sharada  alphabet,  derived  from  the  Devanagari, 
is  sometimes  used.  Kashmiri  folk  literature  is 
rich  in  tales  and  proverbs,  many  of  which  have 
been  published  m  Knowles'  'Dictionary  of 
Kashmiri  Proverbs  and  Sayings'  (London 
18851 ;  and  'Folk-Tales  from  Kashmir'  (ib. 
1888).  Ethnological  and  anthropological  infor- 
mation of  value  will  be  found  in  the  following 
works:  Duke,  'Kashmir  Handbook'  (Leipzig 
1903);  Pine,  ^Kashmir'  (New  York  1909); 
Bruce,  'Kashmir'  (ib.  1911)  ;  Gricr&on,  "Manual 
of  the  Kashmiri  Language,  comprising  Gram- 
mar, Phrase-Book,  and  vocabularies'  (2  vols., 
Oxford  1911);  Neve,  Arthur,  'Thirty  Years  in 
Kashmir'    (London  1913). 

CASHMERE  GOAT.    See  Goat. 


lelo 


J -^-  „  access  to  the  bay.    The  bay 

Itself  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  long 
and  two  and  a  half  miles  wide.  Its  depth  is 
some  16  to  26  fathoms. 

CASIMIR,  kis-I-mer,  properly  KAZI- 
MIERZ  ('founder  of  peace*),  was  the  name  of 
many  Polish  princes  and  kings.  (I)  CasimirI; 
b.  1015;  d.  1QS8.  During  his  minority  he  was 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother  and  was  driven 
from  (he  kingdom  with  her.  In  10*1  his  power 
was  re-established,  and  through  his  efforts  the 
predominance  of  Christianity  was  decided  in 
Poland.  (2)  Casimik  11,  the  Just:  b.  1145;  d. 
d.  1194.  He  was  a  son  of  Bolcslas  III,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  1179.  He  pushed  his 
armies  into  Volhynia  and  Lithuania  and  re- 
conquered several  places  formerly  belonging  to 
Poland.  He  abolished  tithes  and  other  illegal 
imports  and  in  1180  convened  an  assembly  at 
Lenczyta,  whid)  in  time  became  the  Polish 
Senate.  In  1185  he  repulsed  an  attack  by  the 
Hungarians  and  four  years  later  was  in  con- 
flict with  his  brother  Micistas,  who  aimed  to 
seize  the  throne.  In  1192  he  fought  the  Prus- 
sians. He  renewed  with  the  Hungarians  the 
treaty  fixing  the  Carpathians  as  the  boundary 
between  the  two  nations.  (3)  Casimib  HI: 
b.  1309;  d.  5  Nov.  1370,  called  Casimir  the 
Great,  who  succeeded  his  father,  Vladislav 
Loketek,  as  king  of  Poland  in  1333,  was 
the  most  distinguished  of  this  name.  He 
added  Little  Russia  and  Bed  Russia  to  his  do- 
minions, and  repelled  the  Tartars,  who  then 
threatened  Poland.  He  founded  the  University 
of  Cracow  (1364),  as  well  as  several  schools 
and  hospitals,  and  showed  great  anxiety  for  the 
advancement  of  the  arts  and  of  learning  in  his 
kingdom.  In  1347  he  caused  a  new  code  of 
laws  to  be  compiled,  and  protected  (he  peasants, 
on  which  account  he  was  called  the  peasants' 
king.  He  had  a  Jewish  mistress  who  pro- 
cured for  her  nation  great  liberties  and  protec- 
line  of  t"      ~ 


With  him  the  T 


[  the  Piasti,  which 


d=y  Google 


9M 

had  ruled  in  Poland  fot  nearly  530  years,  be- 
came extinct.  (4)  CA91UIB  IV:  b.  1427;  d. 
1492.  He  wa&  the  second  son  of  Ladislam  11 
Jagiello ;  was  crowned  King  of  Poland  in  1447, 
three  years  after  tlie  death  of  his  elder  brother, 
Ladislaus  III,  at  the  battle  of  Varna.  His 
reign  was  epoch-makins  for  Poland.  The 
kingdom  was  threatened  from  three  sides.  On 
the  south  the  Turks  were  encroaching  and 
aiming  to  capCOre  Constantinople.  On  the  north- 
east the  Uuscovites  were  beginning  to  spread 
and  make  their  weight  felt,  while  on  the  north- 
west the  Teutonic  Knights  were  ever  seeking 
aggrandizement  at  the  expense  of  Poland.  After 
13  years  of  conflict  Casimir  finally  subdued  the 
■  Teutonic  order  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Thorn 
(1466)  compelled  them  to  cede  West  Prussia 
to  Poland.  Casimir  was  one  of  the  great  states- 
men of  his  a^e,  was  possessed  of  profound 
political  sagacity,  great  common  sense  and 
^eat  patience  and  moderation.  His  orUy  sub- 
jects gave  him  more  trouble  than  his  power- 
ful enemies  irom  without.  The  nobles  threat- 
ened to  depose  him  and  from  his  time  onward 
Poland  became  more  and  more  an  aristocracy. 
His  personal  character  wa3  marked  by  extreme 
simplicity  and  sobriety.  Consult  Morfill,  'Po- 
land' (New  York  1893) ;  Sokolowski,  A., 
'Illustrated  History  of  Poland'  (Vienna  1904). 
CASIHIR.P^RIER,  pa'n^  Jean  Paol 
Pierre,  fifth  President  of  the  French  Republic: 
b.  Paris,  8  Nov.  1847;  d,  there,  U  March  1907. 
He  was  the  grandson  of  Casimir  Pierre  Perier, 
famous  Premier  of  Louis  Philippe.    He  entered 

?ubljc  life  as  secrelarj  to  his  father,  A.  V.  C. 
erier,  who  was  Uinisler  of  the  Interior  dur- 
ing the  presidency  oi  Thiers.  In  1871  he  was 
decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor  for 
bravery  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  In  1874 
he  became  general  councillor  of  the  Aubc  and 
two  years  later  was  sent  to  the  Chambre  des 
Deputes  as  representative  of  that  department, 
and  was  always  re-elected  until  he  reached  the 
presidency.  He  also  held  under- secretary  ships 
in  the  departments  of  Public  Instruction  and 
War.  Despite  the  monarchist  traditions  of 
his  family  Casbnir-Perier  sided  with  the  Re- 
publican group  of  the  Left.  He  refused  to 
vote  the  expulsion  of  the  princes  in  1883,  and 
resigned  as  deputy  when  the  law  was  enacted. 
In  1890-92  he  was  vice-president  and  in  1893 
president  of  the  chamber.  On  3  E)ecember  of 
the  latter  year  he  became  Prime  Minister  im- 
der  Camot  and  president  of  the  council.  He 
resigned  in  May  1894  and  was  re-elected  presi- 
dent of  the  chamber.  On  24  June  1894,  after 
the  assassination  of  Camot,  Casimir-Perier 
was  elected,  on  die  first  ballot,  to  the  presi- 
dency of  'te  republic.  He  retained  the  ofRce 
only  six  months,  surprising  the  world  by  re- 
signing on  15  Jan.  1895  and  retiring  to  private 
life.  The  reasons  impelling  him  to  resi|^  were 
stated  by  him  to  be  the  restrictions  imposed 
on  the  President  under  the  constitution.  He 
found  himself  ignored  by  his  ministers  who 
failed  [o  consult  him  or  even  to  keep  him  in- 
formed on  important  questions  and  business 
of  state.  He  remained  strictly  aloof  from 
politics  For  the  remainder  of  his  hfe,  and  en- 
gaged in  mining.  At  the  Dreyfus  trial,  Casi- 
mir-Perier's  evidence,  as  opposed  to  that  of 
Mercier,  greatly  ^ded  the  cause  of  the  accused 


C  ASIXIR'ptfRZKR — CMIRI 


CAUHO,  ki-se'no,  or  IIONTB  CASINO, 

a  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey  In  Italy,  in  the 
Neapolitan  province  of  Coserta,  near  the  small 
town  of  Cassino  and  about  45  miles  from  the 
city  of  Naples,  founded  by  Saint  Benedict  of 
Norcia  in  529  on  the  site  of  a  temjde  of  Apollo. 
It  was  the  ori^nal  home  o£  the  Benedictine 
order.  It  is  situated  on  a  mountain,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name,  near  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient  Casinimi,  and  is  approached  by  a 
well-paved  and  winding  road.  The  abbey,  after 
having  suffered  repeated  reverses,  finally  be- 
came considerable  for  its  privileges  and  its 
wealth,  and  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries  was 
the  seat  of  science,  particularly  of  medicine,  the 
celebrated  school  of  Salerno  having  been 
founded  by  the  monks  of  Monte  Ciasino.  The 
church  is  very  magnificent,  althou^  overloaded 
with  ornament,  and  contains  the  tomb  of  the 
founder.  The  present  buildings  were  erected 
from  1637  to  1727.  The  library  and  archives 
contain  50,000  printed  books  and  30,000  incu- 
nabula. The  monastery  has  served  as  a  place 
of  refuge  to  several  sovereigns  and  pontiffs,  and 
was  formerly  much  visited  bv  pilgrims  and  trav- 
elers, who  were  entertained  free  of  expense. 
It  is  still  visited  by  travelers  or  touristy  but 
it  is  no  longer  a  conventual  institution,  being 
enrolled  as  a  national  monument  in  1866.  The 
railway  from  Rome  now  passes  near  it.  Con- 
sidt  Gausse,  'Les  ongines  benetUctines* 
(Paris  1899);  Rickenbacfa,  'Monte-Cassino  von 
seiner  Griindung  bis  zu  seiner  hochsten  Bliite 
unter  Abt  Desiderius*  (Einsiedeln  1884-85); 
Taeggi,  'Paleografia  artistica  di  Montecassino* 
(Monte  Cassino-  1876  el  sea.)  ;  Tosti,  'Storia 
della  badia  di  Montecassino^  (Rome  1889-4)0). 

CASINO,  a  name  generally  given  to  a  kind 
of  club-house  or  place  of  amusement,  contain- 
ing rooms  for  dancing,  playing  at  billiards,  etc 
The  word  Is  originally  Italian,  bein^  a  diminu- 
tive of  the  Italian  woi4  casa,  signif3nngahouse; 
and  was  at  first  applied'  to  small  houses  which 
the  nobles  of  Florence,  Venice  and  other  Ital- 
ian cities  often  possessed  at  a  distance  from 
their  ordinary  residences,  and  which  were  de- 
voted to  purposes  of  social  enjoyment. 

CASIRI,     ka-se're,     Michael,     orientalist 


the  College  of  Saint  Peter  and  San  1 
cellino;  and  in  1734  entered  the  clerical  pro- 
fession. The  following  year  he  accompanied 
the  learned  Assemanni  to  Syria,  where  he  was 
going,  at  the  command  oi  Uie  Pojie,  to  attenS 
die  synod  of  the  Maronites,  and  in  1738  gave, 
at  Rome,  an  exact  account  of  the  religious 
tenets  of  the  Maronites.  He  afterward  taught 
in  his  monastery  the  Arabic,  Syrian  and  (Thai- 
dee  langu^es,  theology  and  philosophy;  and 
in  the  yezT  1748  was  invited  to  Madrid,  where 
he  was  appointed  to  an  office  in  the  royal 
library.  In  1749  he  devoted  his  attention,  by 
the  King's  orders  to  .the  library  of  the  Escurial, 
of  which  he  subsequently  became  the  superin- 
tendent. Here  he  collected  the  materials  for 
his  celebrated  work,  'Bibliothcca  Arabico-His- 
pana'  (2  vols^  1750-70),  which  enumerates  in 
1,851  articles  the  manuscripts  of  the  Escurial 
library,  perhaps  the  richest  in  Europe  in  Aratuc 
manuscripts.  This  work,  though  not  entirely 
free  from  errors,  contains  very  important  in- 
formation and  valuable  extracts,  and  is  indis- 


:,  Google 


CASKETS— CASS 


70S 


pcDsable  to  every  orienUUEt  In  the  Madrid 
National  Library  are  other  interesting  manu- 
scripts of  Casin,  including  a  copy  and  Latin 
translation  of  an  ancient  Arabic  rersioa  of  the 
canons  of  the  Visigothic  Qiurch. 

CASKETS,  The,  a  ^''oup  of  rocks  in  the 
English  Channel,  Kven  miles  west  of  Aldeme^. 
They  have  often  been  fatal  to  vessels,  and,  m 
1119,  Prince  William,  son  of  Henry  I,  and  his 
suite,  periled  here.  In  1744  the  victory  ship 
of  war,  of  110  guns,  also  was  shipwrecked  upon 
them.  On  the  highest  there  is  a  lighthouse. 
Victor  Ht^o  has  immortalized  &em  in  his 
'Toilers  of  the  Sea.' 

CASLER,  John  Overton,  American  sol- 
dier: b.  Frederick  County,  Va.,  1  Dec.  183&  He 
served  in  the  Confedei^tearmyduringthe  Civil 
War  and  was  a  prisoner  of  war  from  February 
to  May  1865.  He  lived  in  Texas  1877-89,  and 
has  since  been  a  resident  of  Oklahoma  City, 
where  he  is  justice  of  the  peace.  He  is  the 
commander  of  the  Oklahoma  division  of  United 
Confederate  Veterans,  and  has  published  'Four 
Years  in  die  Stonewall  Bngade»  <1853); 
'Lilian  Stuart,  the  Heroine  of  ttie  Rappahan^ 
nock>   (1889). 

CASORIA,  kaso-re'a,  Ital^r,  town  in  the 
province  of  Naples  (Napoli),  six  miles  north- 
northeast  of  Naples.  It  has  four  fine  churches 
and  is  the  residence  of  a  district  judge.  Silk 
and  wine  are  produced  in  the  neighborhood. 
Pietro  Martiro,  the  painter,  was  bom  here. 
Pop.   about   14.000. 

CASPAKI,  kis-pa're,  Karl  Paul,  German 

.    Church  historian:  b.   Dessau,  8  Feb.  1814;  d. 

11  April  1892.    He  was  born  of  Jewish  parents, 

and  studied  in  Lei^zi^  and  Berlin.     He  was 

converted  to  Christiamly  in   1838,  and  subse- 

Siently  became  instructor  of  .theology  in  the 
niversity  of  Christiania,  Norway,  in  1847.  He 
became  full  professor  in  1857.  His  Arabic 
grammar  is  in  high  repute,  and  his  coDtribu- 
tions  to  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament  in- 
clude works  on  Obadiah^  Isaiah,  Micah  and 
Daniel.  He  published  besides  the  'Grammatica 
ArBbica'  (1844-48);  the  'Beitrage  zur  Ein- 
Idtung  in  Jesaga'  (1848);  'AJte  und  neue 
Quellen  zur  Geschichte  des  Taufsymbols  und 
der  GlaubensregeP    (1879). 

CASPB,  kas'pft,  Spain,  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Saragossa,  12  miles  north-northeast  of 
AlcaBiz,  left  hank  of  the  Guadalupe,  near  its 
confluence  with  tbe  Ebro,  on  several  small  hills 
and  in  the  intervening  valleys.  It  has  paved 
streets,  one  principal  and  nine  smaller  squares, 
a  handsome  Gothic  college  and  two  churches, 
several  chapels,  three  schools  a  townhall  ana 
prison  in  a  suppressed  convent,  an  hospital 
and  several  public  fomitains.  Olive  and  mul- 
berry tiees  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  coal 
and  iron  are  mined  in  the  neighborhood.  Manu- 
factures—  wincj  oil  and  soap.  Some  trade  is 
also  carried  on  in  grain  and  cattle.  A  confess 
of  Aragonians,  Cataloaians  and  Valendans 
assembled  here  tn  1412  to  settle  the  royal  suc- 
cession.    Pop.  8,427. 

CASPER,  Wyo.,  town  and  county-scat  of 
Natrona  County,  150  miles  northwest  of  Chey- 
enne, on  the  Platte  River,  the  Chicago,  Burl- 
ington and  Quincy  and  the  Chicago  and  North- 
\  western   rulroads.     It   contains   a   Carnegie  11- 

j         braiy,  the  Wyoming  (jeneral  Hospital,  and  is 


the  site  of  Fort  Casper.    It  has  e 

terests  in  live  stock,  oil  and  wool.    The  town 

owns  the  waterworks.    Pop.  2,700. 

CASPIAN  GATES,  a  name  ^ven  to  the 
Russian  fortress  Dariei,  situated  in  a  narrow 
defile  of  the  Caucasus,  on  the  Terek,  80  miles 
north  of  Ttflis. 

CASPIAN  SEA,  a  larjge  lake  or  inland  sea 
between  Europe  and  Asia,  now  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  Russian  territory  but  having  Persia 
on  the  south;  730  miles  in  length  from  north 
to  south,  and  from  130  to  270  in  breadth;  area 
about  170,000  square  miles;  the  largest  isolated 
sheet  of  water  on  the  globe.  The  water  is  less 
salt  than  that  of  the  ocean,  of  a  bitter  taste 
and  of  an  ochre  color,  without  ebb  or  flow. ' 
In  srane  places  it  is  exceedingly  deep,  yet  it 
abounds  in  shallows,  so  as  to  prevent  the  navi- 
gation of  ships  which  draw  more  than  9 
or  10  feet  of  water.  The  level  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  is  considerably  lower  than  that  of  the 
ocean.  Amoi^  the  rivers  which  flow  into  it  are 
the  Volga,  Ural,  Terek  and  Kur.  In  ancient 
times  the  Oxus  (Amoo  Daria)  also  flowed 
into  it.  It  has  no  outlet.  The  fisheries  here, 
which  are  very  valuable,  occupy  and  train  many 
seamen.  Sturgeons  and  sterlets  are  caught  in 
great  quantities  and  there  are  also  salmon- 
trout,  perch,  Silurvs  giants,  two  kinds  of  carp 
and  porpoises ;  seals  abound  in  the  upper  coasts, 
and  tortoises  between  the  mouths  of  the  Volga 
and  the  Ural,  In  the  northern  region  the  first 
fishing  season,  called  the  caviar  season,  occurs 
between  March  and  May,  when  the  Volga, 
Ural,  etc,  are  getting  cleared  of  ice.  The 
second  season  is  in  July,  when  the  sturgeon 
descend  the  rivers ;  and  the  third  open-sea  fish- 
ing goes  on  from  September  to  November.  The 
only  ports  at  alt  worthy  the  name  on  or  near 
the  Caspian  are  Astrakhan,  Baku,  Derbend  and 
Astrabad  (in  Persia),  The  nav^tion  is  at 
all  times  difficult  and  often  perilous.  Steam 
rackets  are  now  established  on  this  sea.  The 
Russians  have  also  a  fleet  of  war  vessels  in 
the  Caspian,  and  a  new  naval  station  has  been 
established  at  Krasnovodslc,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  sea.  By  means  of  river  and  canal  there 
is  water  communication  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Black  Sea,  Baltic  and  White  Sea. 

CASS,  Lewis,  American  statesman,  dipio-  • 
matist  and  soldier:  b.  Exeter,  N.  H„  9  Oct. 
1782;  d.  Detroit,  Mich.,  17  June  1866.  In  1800 
he  removed  to  Marietta,  Ohio,  where  he  entered 
on  the  study  of  the  law.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  December  I8Q2,  and  soon  after  estab- 
lished himself  at  Zanesville,  where  he  gradually 
acquired  practice.  In  1806  he  was  elected  to 
the  Ohio  legislature.  He  served  in  the  first 
year  of  the  second  war  with  England  and  in 
1813  was  appointed  governor  of  Michigan  Ter- 
ritory, holding  oflice  till  July  1831,  Michigan 
at  tms  time  had  no  territorial  legislature,  and 
the  business  of  selecting  laws  for  it  from  the 
codes  of  the  States  devolved  on  Governor  Cass 
and  the  territorial  judges.  Cjovernor  Cass  was 
also  ex  officio  superintendent  of  Indian  aflairs 
for  the  territory,  which  then  included  what  now 
constitutes  the  two  States  of  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin, and  this  remained  for  several  years  the 
most  important  part  of  his  duties.  Of  all  this 
extensive  territoty,  it  was  only  a  little  tract 
bordering  on  Lake  Erie  and  the  Detroit 
River  to  which  the  Indian  title  had  not  been  e 


[ig 


v  Google 


Toe 


CASS  ABA  —  CA8SANDER 


tinguished  Within  the  bounds  of  his  Indian 
superintendency,  ultimatfly  made  to  embrace 
al]  the  tribes  northwest  of  the  Ohio,  there  were 
reckoned  to  be  4(X0O0  Indians,  mustering  at  least 
9,000  warriors.  The  recent  hostihties,  and  the 
distrust  and  suspicions  of  the  Indians,  occa- 
sioned by  the  constant  calls  upon  them  for  addi- 
tional cessions  of  land,  rendered  this  office  one 
of  great  delicacy  and  difficulty.  But  Governor 
Cass,  while  steadily  caTtyin^  out  the  policy  of 
acquisition,  succeeded  also  in  maintaining  the 
respect,  and  even  in  securing  the  affection  of  the 
Indians.  In  1817  he  obtained,  in  conjunction 
with  Governor  McArthur,  a  cession  of  most  of 
the  remaining  Indian  lands  within  the  State 
of  Ohio,  with  adjoining  tracts  in  Indiana  and 
Michigan,  to  the  extent  of  4,000,000  acres  in 
the  whole.  This  cession  removed  the  Indian 
barrier  hitherto  intervening  between  the  settle- 
ments of  Ohio  and  those  of  Michigan.  In  1819 
he  met  the  Chippewas  at  Saginaw,  and  obtained 
a  cession  of  lands  in  the  peninsula  of  Michigan 
to  the  extent  of  6,000,000  acres.  As  yet  the 
northwestern  regions  were  very  imperfectly 
known.  At  the  suraestion  of  Governor  Cass,  an 
expedition,  in  which  he  himself  bore  a  conspic- 
uous part,  and  of  which  an  account  has  been 
published  by  Schoolcraft,  was  set  on  foot  in 
1820,  for  exploring  the  northern  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  the  course  of  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi. The  next  j^r,  by  a  long,  drcuitous  river 
navigation,  he  visited  CSiicago,  then  nothing  but 
a  military  post,  with  a  wide  wilderness  all  about 
it,  and  there  made  a  treaty  with  the  Chippewas, 
Ottawas  and  Potawatamies,  by  which  a  large 
additional  tract  was  obtained,  completing  the 
extinction  of  the  Indian  title  to  the  peninsula 
of  Michigan  south  of  Grand  River.  In  1328  he 
made  two  treaties,  one  at  Green  Bay,  the  other 


treaties  with  the  indiansL  by  which  cessions  had 
been  acquired  in  Ohio,  Inmana,  Illinois,  Michi- 
gan and  Wisconsin,  to  an  amount  equal  to 
neariy  or  quite  a  fourth  part  of  the  entire  area 
of  those  states.  When  President  Jackson  re- 
constructed his  Cabinet  in  August,  1831,  Cass 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  War.  The  polity 
of  the  removal  of  the  Indians,  especially  the 
southern  tribes,  to  districts  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, had  been  warmly  espoused  by  General 
iadcson.  The  defense  of  this  policy,  which 
ad  elicited  much  criticism  and  a  warm  oppo- 


appoinled  Minister  to  france,  a  post  which  he 
held  till  1842,  He  was  on  excellent  terms  with 
Louis  Philippe,  of  whose  character  he  gave  a 
very  friendly  and  favorable  account  In  his 
'King,  Court  and  Government  of  France,'  pub- 
lished  in   1&40,   originally  as   an  article  in   the 


t  its  close,  in  his  attack  on  the  quintuple 
treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 
He  was  United  Stales  senator  (1845-48),  and 
having  opposed  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  became 
the  Democratic  candidate  for  President  in 
1848,  but  was  defeated.  He  returned  to  the 
Senate  in  1849,  and  was  Secretary  of  State 
(1857-60),  resigning  because  President  Bu- 
chanan  would  not  consent  to   strengthen  the 


Fort  Sumter.  He  wrote  'History, 
Traditions  and  Languages  of  the  Indians' 
(1823)  ;  'France,  Its  King,  Court  and  Govern- 
ment' (1840).  See  'Lives'  by  Sdioolcraft 
(Albany  1848);  Smith,  W.  L.  G.  (New  York 
1856) ;  McLaughlin,  Andrew  C  (Boston 
1891);  Young,  'Life  and  Public  Service  of 
Genera]  Lewis  Cass>   (Detroit  1852). 

CASSABA  or  KASSABA,  kis-sa-bi.  Tur- 
key-in-Asia,  town  of  Manisa  Tanjak,  63  miles 
by  tail  east  of  Smyrna.  It  is  noted  for  the 
'melons  of  Cassat»>  which  are  widely  ex- 
ported, along  widi  cotton,  silk  and  other  prod- 
uce.    Pop.  23.000. 

CASSAGNAC,  kis'san'yac',  Berruird 
Adolphe  Granier  de.  French  journalist  and 
Bonapartist:  b.  Averon-Bergelle,  U  Aug.  1806; 
d.  Chateau  de  Coulomm4  31  Jan.  1880.  He 
studied  at  Toulouse  and  then  began  his  career 
at  Paris  as  contributor  of  literary  criticisms  to 
the  Journal  det  Dibats.  He  embraced  the 
cause  of  Romanticism  and  his  attacks  on  the 
conservatism  of  Racine  were  the  talk  of  Paris. 
In  1840  he  was  Knt  by  the  government  on  a 
mission  to  Antilles^  where  he  married  a  Creole. 
On  returning  to  France  he  devoted  himself  to 
politics  and  published  a  'Histoire  des  classes 
6uvrieres  et  des  classes  bourgeoises' ;  a  'His- 
toire des  classes  nobles  et  des  classes  anobiles,' 
a  'Monographic  de  I'iglise  de  la  Madeleine*; 
and  a  romance  entitlea  'Danae.'  During  the 
revolution  of  1848  he  left  Paris,  but  returned 
in  1850  as  a  BonaMrtist.  He  became  editor  of 
the  Pouvoir,  Le  Rlveil,  Le  Pays.  His  entire 
career  was  filled  with  duels,  lawsuits,  arrests 
and  other  sensational  indiscretions.  After  the 
revolution  of  4  September,  he  left  France 
and  published  Lt  Drafteau  which  was 
sent  gratuitously  to  the  prisoners  interned  in 
German;/.  In  1876  he  was  chosen  depuU  ^ 
the  Anli- Republican  partv.  He  defended  the 
Jesuit  cause  and  opposed  the  creation  of  de- 
parimental  normal  schools.    In  addition  to  tbe 

rks  mentioned  above  he  wrote  'Histoire  de 


dins';  'Histoire  popujaire  de  Napolion  TIL' 
His  works  are  not  authentic.  They  are  highly 
colored,  superiScial  but  rich  in  a  vigorous  jour- 
nalistic style. 

CASSAONAC,  Panl-Adolphe  Haric  Pros- 
per Griuiier  de,  son  of  Adolpne;  had  a  career 
and  a  reputation  not  dissimilar  to  those  of  his 
father.  He  was  bom  2  Dec.  1842;  d.  at  Saint 
Loir-et-cher,  4  Nov.  1904.  He  was  taken  pris- 
oner at  Sedan  in  1871,  and  underwent  eight 
months'  confinement  in  Silesia.  His  violent 
advocacy  of  Bonapartisra  led  him  into  innu- 
merable duels,  and  he  was  on  several  occasions 
summoned  for  libelous  articles  in  the  Payt  aud 
other  newspapers.  He  was  also  a  vigorous  sup- 
porter of  General  Boulanger.  After  the  death 
of  the  Prince  Imperial  de  Cassagnae  supported 
Prince  Victor  Napoleon.  After  1884  he  edited 
a  journal  known  as  L'Avtoriti.  He  wrote  a 
'Histoire  de  la  troisiime  Hipublique'  (1875); 
'Empire  et  royaut^' ;  'Memoires  de  Chlsle- 
hurst' :  and  in  collaboration  with  his  father, 
'Histoire  populaire  abr^ee  de  Napoleon  IIP 
(1874-75). 

CA6SANDER,  King  of  Macedon,  son  of 
Antipater:  b.  about  354  B.C;  d.  297  B.C  He 
disputed  the  soverei^ty  of  Macedon  with  Poly- 
sperchon,  whom  Antipater  had  a|9oiitted  regent 


d  by  Google 


CASSANDRA  —  CASSATION 


at  his  death  In  319  B.C.  Allying  himself  witb 
Ptolemy  and  Antigonus,  he  conquered  Athens; 
captured  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  put  her  to  death;  and  connected 
himself  with  the  royal  family  by  marrying 
Thessalonica,  half-sister  to  Alexander.  He 
joined,  in  315  B.C.,  the  coalition  against  the 
growing  power  of  AnligODUs;  murdered  the 
rightful  heir  to  the  tihrone,  Alexander  J£gus. 
and  his  mother  Roxana;  and  took  the  title  ot 
]dng  in  306  B.C.,  which  was  confirmed  to  him 
W  the  decisive  battle  of  Ipsu3  in  301  b.c  In 
297  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Philip. 

CASSANDRA,  also  called  ALEXANDRA, 
daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  twin-sis- 
ter of  Helenus.  Both  children,  according  to 
tradition,  were  playing  in  the  vestibule  of  the 
temple  of  the  Thymbrxan  Apollo,  not  far  from 
Ilium;  and  having  stayed  there  too  late  to  be 
carried  home,  a  couch  of  laurel  twigs  was  pre- 
pared for  them  in  the  temple.  When  the  nurses 
went  to  them  the  next  morning  they  found  two 
serpents  at  the  side  of  the  children,  which,  in- 
stead of  injuring  them,  harmlessly  licked  their 
ears.  This  miracle  produced  a  still  greater  one : 
the  bearing  of  the  children  was  rendered  so 
acute  that  they  could  distinguish  the  voices 
of  the  gods.  Cassandra  subsequently  spent 
much  of  ner  time  in  the  temple  of  Apollo,  who, 
becoming  enamored  of  her  charms,  disclosed  to 
her  all  the  secrets  of  the  prophetic  art,  and  in 
rclum  demanded  her  love.  But  Cassandra, 
when  her  curiosity  was  satisfied,  refused  the 
dishonorable  reward.  Apollo,  incensed  at  thi^ 
solemnly  decreed  that  hei  prophecies  should 
never  find  belief.  She  frequently  and  contin- 
ually foretold  the  destruction  of  Troy,  and 
warned  her  countrymen  in  vain  against  the  de- 
ceitful horse.  When  Troy  was  conquered,  and 
Cassandra,  with  the  other  maidens,  fled  to  the 
temple  of  Minerva,  Ajax,  son  of  Oileus,  tore 
her  from  the  altar,  deflowered  the  virgin  in  the 
sacred  place,  and  aragged  her  away  to  the  other 
female  slaves,  with  her  hands  tied.  On  the 
division  of  the-  booty  she  fell  to  Agamemnon, 
who  carried  her  as  his  slave  and  mistress  to 
Uycenas.  Clytzmnestra  murdered- them  both. 
Agamemnon  had'  twins  by  her  —  Teledamus 
and  Pelops,  who  were  put  to  death  by  .£^s- 
thus.  The  ancients  resarded  this  rape  of  Cas- 
sandra as  a  most  in^imous  atroclnr.  It  has 
often  afforded  a  subject  to  poets  and  sculptors. 
The  Locrians,  the  countrymen  of  Ajax,  were 
afflicted  on  this  account  for  many  years  with 
storms,  and  their  country  was  desolated  with 
the  plague.  .Sscli^lus  tells  her  story  in  the 
'Agamemnon.' 

CASSANDRA,  the  most  westerly  of  the 
three  tongues  of  the  Chalcidic  peninsula,  be- 
tween the  gulfs  of  Salonica  and  Cassandra.  Its 
ancient  name  was  Pailene.  The  Gulf  of  Cas- 
sandra was  anciently  Toronaicus  Sinus. 

CASSANO  D'ADDA,  kas-sa'nd  dad'dk 
Italy,  town  in  the  province  of  Milan,  and  16 
miles  north- northeast  of  the  town  of  Milan, 
ideasantly  situated  on  a  hill  on  the  rig^t  bank 
of  die  Adda.  It  is  verv  old,  and  built  mostly 
of  bricks.  A  bridge  ot  800  paces  connects  it 
with  die  op^site  rank  of  the  river.  There  are 
numerous  silk-miDs,  Its  military  position  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Adda  has  caused  it  to  be 
the  scene  of  several  battles.  Here  Ezielino  da 
Romano,  the  leader  of  the  Gbibellincs  in  Italy, 


in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  11,  was 
defeated  in  1259;  here  also  Prince  Eugene  was 
defeated  in  1705,  by  the  Due  de  Vendome,  and 
the  French  under  Moreau,  by  SuvarofE  in  1799, 
Pop.  of  commune  9,150. 

CASSAREEP,  kis's4-rep,  CASSIRBBPB, 
or  CASSIRIPE,  the  concentrated  juice  of  the 
roots  of  the  common  or  bitter  cassava  (Manthot 
ulitissima},  flavored  by  aromatics.  and  deprived 
of  its  poisonous  properties  by  tailing.  It  is 
used  to  give  a  relish  to  soups  and  other  dtshesv 
and  forms  the  basis  of  the  West  Indian 
*pepperpoL» 

CASSAS,  kSs-sa,  Louis  Fraagois,  French 
landscape-painter  and  architect ;  b.  Azay-le- 
F^ron^  3  April  1756;  d.  Versailles,  2  Nov.  1827. 
A  pupil  of  Jean-Jacques  Lagrenie,  he  journeyed 
in  Italy  and  in  the  Levant.  On  his  return  he 
was  appointed  inspector  and  professor  of  design 
at  the  Gobelins  in  Paris.  From  the  materials 
collected  in  his  travels  have  been  compiled 
'Voyage  pittoresque  dc  la  Syrie,  de  la  Phiride 
de  la  Palestine,  et  de  la  Basse  Egypte'  (30  vols., 
Paris  1799),  and  'Voyage  historique  et  pit- 
toresque de  rlstrie  et  de  la  Dalmatie'  (1802,  with 
69  copper  plates).  The  original  drawings  for 
both  works  were  oil  paintings,  and  they  were 
deposited  in  the  Blblioth&que  Royale.  His 
'Galerie  d'archi lecture  des  diffirentes  peuples,* 
a  collection  of  models  of  restorations  of 
ancient  architecture,  has  been  placed  in  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris. 

CASSATION,  a  terra  used  in  the  courts  ■ 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Ii  is  derived  from 
the  Middle  Age^  and  signifies  the  annulling  of 
any  act  or  decision  if  the  forms  prescribed  by 
law  have  been  neglected,  or  if  anything  is  con- 
tained in  it  contrary  to  law. 

CASSATION,  Court  of  (Comt  de  Ctusa- 
tion),  one  of  the  most  important  institutions  of 
modem  France,  which  gives  to  the  whole  juris- 
diction of  that  country;  coherency  and  uniform- 
ity without  endangering  the  necessary  inde- 
pendence of  the  courts.  It  was  established  by 
the  first  National  Assembly,  and  has  been  pre- 
served in  every  essential  respect,  under  all 
the  changes  of  the  Revolution  and  Restoration. 
It  has  been  maintained  even  in  those  districts 
which,  by  their  -union  with  France  became 
subjected  to  French  laws,  but  by  the  Peace  of 
Paris  again  became  part  of  the  Prussian  mon- 
archy. In  France,  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
Loms  IX  (1226-70),  though  a  separate  court 
of  justice  had  come  into  being,  petitions  were 

5 resented  to  the  Kit%  by  appellants  from  the 
ecisions  of  the  courts.  In  later  dmes  appeals 
to  the  parliaments,  as  the  highest  courts  of  the 
kingdom,  came  into  use,  and  their  dedsioni 
were  not  liable  to  be  set  aside  by  the  ordinary 
forms  of  law.  Yet  the  parties  were  allowed  to 
dispute  even  these  decisions  if  diey  were 
founded  upon  errors  of  fact  or  violated  undis- 
puted prindples  of  law;  and  by  an  ordinance 
of  1302  it  was  provided  that  the  parties  should 
be  allowed  royal  letters  for  the  defense  of  their 
rights  against  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme 
Courts  (Uttrei  de  gr&ee  de  dire  centre  lei 
arrets),  which  should  be  issued  from  the 
chancery  (by  the  chancellor  of  France).  The 
case  was  then  sent  back  to  the  Parliament  for 
further  investigation,  but  was  examined  and 
decided  in  the  presence  of  the  b 


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of  a  special  cominissioner.  An  abuse,  however 
crept  in  of  transferring  these  cases  to  the  royal 
council,  where  they  were  decided  by  ofiicers 
called  moitres  dcs  requites.  These  letters  re- 
ceived the  name  of  lettres  de  proposition  d'ef 
reur,  and  during  the  civil  commotions  at  the  end 
of  the  14th  century  b^n  to  be  more  frequently 
presented  to  the  council,  which,  as  soon  as  one 
party  complained  of  the  partiahty  of  the  parlia- 
ments, transferred  the  case  to  its  own  bar,  and 
obstructed  the  course  of  justice  by  lettres  d'itat, 
suspensions  of  the  process,  on  the  uretext  of  the 
absence  of  one  of  the  parties  in  the  service  of 
the     king.       Under    the     Chancellor     Poyet 


Hopiul  (1560-68),  the  two  great  reformers  of 
French  jurisprudence,  limited  the  use  of  these 
lettres  till,  by  the  Ordinance  of  Blois  (1576), 
all  the  provisions  against  the  decisions  of  the 
parliaments  were  reduced  to  these  three: — the 
proposition  d'erreur,  for  an  error  of  fact;  re- 
i^ete  ckHle_,  to  restore  the  parties  to  their  for- 
mer condition  on  account  of  the  fraud  of  one 
of  the  parties  or  the  mistakes  of  the  attorney; 
and  cassation  (petition  for  abro^tion),  forvio- 
lation  of  forms  or  settled  prinaples  of  law.  By 
the  famous  Order  of  Procedure  of  1667  the 
first  of  these  provisions  was  abolished,  but  the 
province  of  the  requite  civile  and  cassation  was 
enlarged  and  more  precisely  defined.  The 
former  was  always  brought  before  the  court 
itself  and  decided  there,  the  latter  before  the 
council.  For  this  purpose,  in  the  conseil  privf, 
'  or  conseil  des  parties,  a  particular  committee 
was  formed,  consisting  of  the  chancellor,  the 
four  Secretaries  of  State  (Ministers  of  the  De- 
partments), the  Council  of  State,  and  all  the 
meutres  des  requites  (in  1789,  78  in  number). 
The  decisions  of  this  committee  were  too  much 
influenced  by  the  will  of  the  king  and  the 
ministers,  and  by  various  other  circttuistances, 
so  that  they  did  not  enjoy  great  respect, 
though  they  often  exposed  acts  of  great  in- 
justice on  the  part  of  the  Parliament  and  other 
high  courts.  It  was  therefore  abolished  in  the 
first  National  Assembly,  and  its  place  supplied 
by  an  independent  court  —  the  tribunal  de  eas- 
tation  (decrees  of  27  Nov.  and  1  Dec  1790), 
which  was  retained  in  all  the  constitutions  and 
received  under  the  Imperial  government  ^1804) 
the  name  cour  de  cassation,  which  it  still  re- 
tains. It  consisted,  according  to  the  oi^anua- 
tion  of  1800,  of  48  members,  chosen  from  the 
Senate,  on  the  nomination  of  the  consuls,  who 
elected  their  own  president  from  among  them- 
selves.  The  appointment  of  president  was 
afterward  vested  in  the  emperor.  In  the 
Charte  ConstiltttionelU  of  1814  the  number  of 
members  of  the  Cour  de  Cassation  was  fixed 
at  49,  at  which  it  still  remains.  The  members 
are  app^nted  for  life  by  the  President  of  the 
Kepubhc,  and  consist  of  a  first  president,  three 
presidents  of  sections,  and  45  councillors,  a 
public  prosecutor,  the  procureur-geniral  and  6 
substitutes,  the  avocats-generaux.  The  Minister 
of  Justice,  or  Keeper  of  the  Seals  (garde  des 
sceaux)  has  the  nght  of  presiding  on  certain 
occasions.    This  court  never  decides  on  the  main 


decisions  reviewed  or  annulled,  and  assigns  the 
question  to  another  court  if  a  decision  is  to  be 
set  aside  for  an  evident  violation  of  the  forms 


or  the  principles  of  the  law.  For  tiiis  purpose 
it  is  divided  into  three  sections  or  chambers : — 
the  chambre  des  requitet,  which  decides  on  the 
admissibility  of  the  petitions  in  civil  cases;  the 
chambre  de  cassation  civile'  and  the  ehambrt 
de  cassation  criminelle.  After  a  decision  has 
id,   if   a  second  court   decides   the 


request  an  auUientic  explanation  of  the  law  from 
the  government,  or  at  least  all  the  three  sec- 
tions must  unite,  to  pronounce  a  second  reversal 
or  cassation;  and  if  a  third  decision  is  the  same 
as  the  preceding,  the  court  before  which  the 
case  is  again  brought  must  submit  to  the  doc- 
trine of  tne  Court  of  Cassation  on  the  point  of 
law  in  dispute.  This  system,  which  dates  from 
2  April  1837,  gives  great  authority  to  this  court 
in  matters  of  jurisprudence.  According  to  the 
law  in  force  before  183?,  the  court  before  which 
a  case  was  brought  for  decision  a  third  time 
was  not  required  to  adopt  the  views  of  the  Court 
of  (Cassation,  but  after  the  third  decision  there 
was  no  further  appeal.  The  eovernment,  how- 
ever, in  that  case  gave  an  authentic  interpreta- 
tion of  the  law  if  there  was  any  occasion  for  so 
doin^.  Until  the  end  of  1852  there  was  a  simi- 
lar Court  of  Cassation  for  the  Prussian  province 
of  the  Rhine,  but  in  1853  its  jurisdiction  was 
transferred  to  the  supreme  Prussian  tribunal  sit- 
ting at  Berlin.  The  sentences  of  the  Court  of 
Cassation  are  not  only  recorded  in  the  journals 
of  the  courts,  the  decisions  of  which  are  re- 
versed, but  published  likewise  in  an  official 
bulletin,  by  which  consistency  and  uniformity 
are  preserved.  The  tribunal  of  cassation  has 
enjoyed  from  its  commencement  the  respect 
and  confidence  of  France,  and  has  numbered 
among  its  members  several  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished lawyers;  as  the  President  Henrion 
dc  Fansey,  the  councillors,  Chabot,  Merlin  and 
Carnot.  The  court  possesses  disciplinary 
powers  over  the  judges  of  other  courts,  and 
the  procureur-giniral  over  other  procureur- 
giniraux.    See  Appeal;  Cxjurt. 

CASSATT,  Alexuider  T<dmBton,  Ameri- 
can railway  president:  b.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  8 
Dec.  1839;  d.  PhiUdelphia,  Pa.,  28  Dec  1906. 
He  was  educated  in  the  University  of  Heidel- 
berg, and  the  Rensselaer  Institute,  Troy,  N.  Y., 
and  in  1859  was  employed  as  dvil  engineer  tn 
surveying  a  railroad  route  in  Georgia,  He 
entered  the  service  of  the  Painsylvania  Rail- 
road as  rodman  in  1861,  became  general  super- 
intendent of  the  Pennsylvania  system  and  gen- 
eral manager  of  the  lines  east  of  Pittsburt^ 
1871-74;  third  vice-president,  1874;  and  first 
vice-president,  1880.  He  resKued  this  last- 
named  post  in  1882,  but  was  elected  a  director 
in  1883,  and  in  June  1S99  was  elected  president 
of  the  Pennsylvania  system  and  was  the  suc- 
cessful procurer  of  the  terminal  for  this  rail- 
road in  New  York  city.  He  was  preadent  of 
seven  companies,  and  a  director  in  23,  including 
transportation,  banks  and  trust  companies. 

CASSATT,  Haiy,  American  artist:  b. 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  about  1855.  In  1875  she  went  to 
Europe  to  study  art,  and  lived  for  some  years 
m  Spain,  where  she  gave  particular  attention  to 
the  worics  of  VelsLsquei,  Removing  lo  Paris, 
she  was  influenced  b^  the  work  of  Manet  and 
Legas,  and  exhibited  in  the  Impressionist  Expo- 
sition about  188Dl    In  1898  she  exhibited  aomc 


vGooglc 


CASSAVA — CA5SEL 


709 


of  her  works  in  New  York  dty.  Returning  to 
Europe,  she  established  a  studio  in  Paris,  where 
she  lus  since  lived.  She  has  gained  consider- 
able fame  as  an  etcher,  ranking  among  the  first 
of  the  modern  artists  in  this  medium.  Her 
subjects  are  almost  invariably  women  and  chil- 
dren, particularly  mother  and  child,  in  the 
.  environment  of  home.  The  children,  especially, 
are  depicted  with  truth,  originality  and  a  re- 
markable power  of  observation,  but  without 
prettiness.  Among  her  best-known  paintings 
are  'The  Bath' :  'Breakfast  in  Bed' ;  "Mother's 
Caress';  'In  the  Garden';  'At  the  Mirror'; 
•Maternity';  'Child  Playing  with  a  Dog'; 
'Child's  Toilet';  <In  the  Box.'  Miss  Cassatt 
is  represented  in  the  Luxenibourg  by  'The 
Young  Mother,'  a  pastel;  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York,  by  'Mother  and  Child,' 
and  in  the  museums  of  Boston  and  Worcester 
by  similar  subjects.  She  is  also  known  for 
her  tinted  etchmgs,  the  best  known  of  which 
is  a  series  of  10  entitled  Maternity. 

CASSAVA,  kis-u'v^,  MANIOC,  m&nTdk, 
or  MANDIOC,  a  South  American  shrub 
(Manihol  utiliisinta)  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Euphorbiacia,  sub-order  Crotone^. 
There  are  two  forms,  popularly  known  as  bitter 
and  sweet,  both  of  whico  are  widely  cultivated 
in  tropical  America  for  their  fleshy,  cylindrical, 
starchy  rnots,  whjch  form  a  targe  part  of  the 
food  of  the  natives,  and  from  which  tapioca  is 
made.  They  have  also  been  introduced  into 
other  warm  countries,  _  especially  Africa,  and 
have  qtiickly  gained  important  positions  as 
food  crops. 

The  plant,  which  attains  a  height  and 
breadth  of  four  feet  or  more;  is  rather  buahy, 
since  its  numerous  knotty,  brittle,  pithy  stems 
have  many  palmate  leaves.  The  flowers,  which 
appear  in  midsummer,  are  green  or  yellowish 
and  inconspicuous  and  are  succeeded  by  wing- 
angled  capsules.  The  best  results  are  obtained 
on  light,  sandy,  well-drained  soils.  The  land 
is  prepared  as  for  corn,  but  instead  of  plant- 
ing seed,  stem  cuttings  arc  covered  by  the 
plow,  and  when  the  plants  appear  tfaey  are 
caltivated  with  the  same  implements  used  in 
corn-growing.  In  about  seven  months  the  white 
soft  roots,  which  occasionally  weigh  30  pounds, 
and  are  sometimes  three  feet  long  and  three 
inches  thick,  are  dug  by  band,  washed,  grated 
or   ground   to   pulp.     The   juice,    or' poisonous 


a  v.),  much  esteemed  by  epicures.  The  flour 
t  remains  after  pressure  is  formed  into  thin, 
round  cakes  and  bak-d.  To  a  European  accus- 
tomed to  eat  bread,  these,  though  sweetish  and 
not  unpalatable,  have  an  insipid  taste.  If 
placed  on  close  vessels,  and  preserved  from  the 
attacks  of  insects,  cassava  bread  may  be  kept 
for  several  months  without  injury. 

Poisoning  by  the  bitter  cassava  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  minute  quantities  of  hydrocyanic 
acid  (q.v.)-  This  is  a  very  common  ingredi- 
ent of  many  fruits  and  seeds,  but  usually  is 
modified  as  the  fruit  ripens,  "nte  general 
process  of  manufacture  of  cassava  destroys  or 
drives  off  the  free  hydrocyanic  acid. 

The  natives  of  South  America  throw  a  num- 
ber of  cakes  of  cassava  together  to  heat,  after 
which  they  soak  them  in  water,  -which  causes  a 
rapid  fermentation  to  take  place;  and  from  the 


liquor  thus  obtained  they  make  a  very  sharp 
and  disagreeable,  but  into^dcating,  beverage, 
which  will  not  keep  longer  than  24  hours  with- 
out spoiling. 

From  the  pure  flour  of  cassava  is  formed 
the  substance  called  tapioca,  which  is  frequently 
used  forjell^,  puddings  and  other  culinary  pur- 
poses. This  is  separated  from  the  fibrous  parts 
of  the  roots  by  taking  a  small  quantity  of  the 
pulp  after  the  juice  is  extracted  and  working 
It  in  the  hand  till  a  thick,  white  cream  appears 
on  the  surface,  Thii,  being  scraped  off  and 
washed  in  water,  gradually  subsides  to  the  bot- 
tom. After  the  water  is  poured  off  the  remain- 
ing moisture  is  dissipated  by  a  slow  fire,  the 
substance  being  constantly  stirred,  until  at 
length  it  forms  into  grains  about  the  size  of 
sago.  These  become  hard  by  keeping,  and  are 
the  purest  and  most  wholesome  part  of  the 
cassava.  The  starch  of  cassava,  separated 
from  the  fibre  by  the  usual  processes,  is  known 
as  Brazilian  arrowroot. 

The  roots  of  another  species  of  this  shrub, 
called  sweet  cassava  (Manikol  oipi),  the  juice 
of  which  is  not  poisonous,  are  usually  eaten 
with  butter,  after  being  roasted  in  hot  ashes. 
They  have  much  the  navor  of  chestnuts,  and 
are  an  agreeable  and  nutritive  food,  containing 
about  30  per  cent  of  carbohydrate  materials. 
The  roots  of  the  sweet  cassava  are  also  used 
as  stock-food  and  to  make  glucose  and  starch. 
Florida  is  the  only  State  in  which  sweet  cassava 
has  attracted  much  attention,  but  it  seems  to 
be  not  very  profitable  there  on  account  of  the 
hi^  price  of  labor  and  fertilizers.  Consult 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletins  44  (1894),  106 
(1907),  and  Fanner's  Bulletin  167  (1903). 

CASSEGRAINIAN  TELESCOPE,  a 
form  of  the  reflecting- telescope  in  which  the 
great  speculum  is  perforated  like  the  Gregorian, 
but  the  rays  converginB;  from  the  surface  of  the 
mirror  are  reflected  back  by  a  small  convex 
mirror  in  the  axis  of  the  tdescope,  and  come 
to  a  focus  at  a  point  near  the  aperture  in  the 
Speculum,  where  they  form  an  inverted  image, 
which  is  ^ewed  by  the  eyepiece  screwed  into 
the  tube  behind  the  speculum.  In  use  this  tele- 
scope thus  possesses  the  convenience  that  the 
observer  looks  directly  through  the  tube  at  the 
object  to  be  examined,  exactly  as  in  using  the 
more  usnal  refracting  telescope.  Moreover,  as 
in  all  reflecting  telescopes,  the  li^t,  as  it  is 
merely  reflected,  is  not  separated  into  its  com- 
ponent colors,  as  is  the  case  when  it  passes 
through  a  lens.  For  this  reason  reflecting  tele- 
scopes are  widely  used  in  certain  branches  of 
astnmomy.  especially  in  spectroscopic  and 
photographic  work.  In  particular,  an  enor- 
mous Cassegrainian  telescope  has  been  com- 
pleted (1916),  for  use  in  the  new  Dominion 
Astronomical  Observatory  at  Victoria,  Canada. 
The  mounting  of  this  instrument  is  by  Warner 
and  Swasey  of  Qeveland,  Ohio;  the  great  72- 
iuch  mirror  was  figured  by  the  John  A. 
Brashear  Company  of  Pittsburgh. 

CASSEL,  kasVI,  or  KASSEL,  formerly 

the  residence  of  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel, 
and  now  the  chief  town  in  the  Pnjssian  prov- 
ince of  Hesse-Nissau  lies  on  the  Fulda,  35 
miles  southwest  of  Gottingen  and  91  miles 
north-northeast  of  Frank fort-on-lhe-Main.  It 
is  divided  into  the  Altstadt.  or  Old  Town;  the 


[ig 


v  Google 


710 


C  ASSBLS  —  C  ASSIAHtIS 


Ober  Neusladt,  or  U^ier  New  Town;  the 
Unter  Neustadi,  or  Lower  New  Town;  and  the 
new  West  Quarter;  all  but  the  third  being  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Cassel  has  several 
fine  squares,  or  open  areas,  od  the  principal  of 
which,  the  Friedrichsplatz,  stands  the  electoral 
palace,  an  indiSerent  structure ;  and  next  to  it 
the  museum,  a  handsome  building,  containing 
a  library  of  235,000  volumes,  and  many  valuable 
MSS,  including  the  Hildebrandslied  dating 
from  the  8th  century.  The  brothers  Grimm 
were  librarians  here  from  1814  to  1830.  The 
Murhard  Public  Library  contains  155,000 
volumes.  At  one  end  of  this  area  is  a  hand- 
some triumphal  arch  and  war  monument  over- 
looking the  Fulda  Valley,  in  which  is  the  Karl- 
saue,  finely  laid  out,  and  forming  a  favorite 
promenade.  On  this  side  of  the  city  are  also 
the  building  for  the  courts  and  government 
oAicers,  the  Bellevue  palace  containing  the 
academy  of  arts,  and  the  handsome  picture 
gallery  containing  some  fine  examples  of  the 
old  masters,  especially  the  Flemish  and  Dutch. 
The  other  more  noticeable  public  areas  are  the 
Konigsplatz,  in  the  form  of  a  circle;  the  Fried- 
rich- Wilhelmsplatz,  with  an  ornamental  foun- 
tain; the  Standeplatz,  a  broad  tree-planted  ave- 
nue, etc.  The  most  noteworthy  church  is  the 
Protestant  church  of  Saint  Martin,  with  a 
nave  of  the  14th  and  a  choir  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. An  observatory  is  likewise  situated 
here.  Cassel  is  the  seat  of  the  provincial  and 
district  government  and  of  the  supreme  provin- 
cial couri.  The  town's  affairs  are  administered 
by  a  municipal  council  of  48  and  an  executive 
board  of  21  members.  There  is  a  modem 
sewage  system  and  a  copious  water  supply,  and 
the  town  owns  and  operates  gasworks,  an 
electric- light  plant  and  a  slaughterhouse. 
There  are  numerous  educational  institutions,  in- 
cluding two  gymnasia,  three  municipal  h^h 
schools  and  a  score  of  technical  schools.  There 
are  mamr  hospitals  and  other  charitable  institu- 
tions. Cassel  has  excellent  railway  facilities, 
and  two  alectric  street-railway  lines  accommo- 
date the  city  traffic.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  consulate.  Cassel  has  iron-foundries 
and  machine-shops,  works  for  railway-carriages, 
mathematical  instruments,  pianos,  gloves,  jute 
works,  etc.  The  town  dates  from  the  year  913, 
when,  under  the  name  of  Chassala,  it  was  the 
residence  of  King  Conrad  L  It  receivedi  its 
first  mtmicipal  ri^ts  in  the  t3lh  century  from 
the  landgraves  of  Tiiuringia,  In  the  Seven 
Years'  War  it  was  several  times  captured  by 
the  French.  Landgrave  Frederick  II  sent  12,000 
Hessians  to  aid  the  British  in  the  American 
Revolution  and  was  paid  $22,000,000.  In  1807 
it  was  made  the  capital  of  die  newly-fonned 
kin^om  of  Westpl^lia.  In  1866  it  was  oc- 
cupied by  Prussian  troops  and  became  a  pari  of 
Prussia.  In  the  vicinih-  is  Wilhelmshohe,  the 
ex-elector's  summer  palace  the  temporary  resi- 
dence of  Napoleon  III  after  Sedan.  Pop. 
about  107,000, 

CASSELS,  Sm  Walter  (Gibson  Princle), 
Canadian  judge;  b.  Quebec  city,  14  Aug.  1845. 
He  was  educated  at  the  high  school,  Quebec, 
and  Toronto  University,  ana  graduated  B,A,  in 
1865,  He  was  admitted  a  barrister  in  1869, 
became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Ontario  bar, 
and  held  briefs  in  many  important  causes.  He 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  Exchequer  Court 
of  Canada  in  1908,  ami  was  knighted  in  1917. 


CASSIA,  a  genus  of  leguminous  plants,  of 
the  family  Cataipiniacea,  inhabiting  the  tropi- 
cal pans  of  the  world,  consisting  of  trees, 
shrubs  or  herbs,  the  leaflets  of  several  species 
of  which  constitute  the  well-loiown  drug  called 
senna.  That  imported  from  Alexandria  is  ob- 
tained from  C.  acutifolia.  C,  fistula  is  found 
wild  in  India,  Its  legumes  contain  a  quantity 
of  thick  pulp,  which  is  a  mild  laxative  and 
cathartic,  and  enters  into  the  composition  of 
the  confection  of  cassia  and  the  confection  of 
senna.  It  belongs  to  the  sugar  class  of  laxa- 
tives its  properties  being  due  for  the  most  part 
to  the  water-attracting  properties  of  sugar 
while  in  the  intestinal  canal.  The  leaves  and 
flowers  are  also  purgative.  The  bark  and  roots 
of  several  of  the  Indian  species  are  much  used 
in  medicine.  'Cassia  bark*  is  a  common  name 
for  the  bark  of  an  entirely  different  plant 
CiimamotHum  eastia,  betongmg  to  the  laurel 
family.  It  is  much  importecT  into  Europe, 
mostly  from  China,  and  is  also  called  'Ciutia 
ligneiy*  Its  flavor  somewhat  resembles  that  of 
cinnamon,  and  as  it  is  cheaper  it  is  often  sub- 
stituted for  it,  but  more  particularly  for  the 
preparation  of  what  is  called  oil  of  cinnamon. 
The  cassia  of  the  Bible  was  probabjy  cas»a 
bark.  Cassia  buds,  which  are  smiilar  in  flavor, 
are  the  unripened  fruits  of  this  tree. 

CASSIANUS,  odierwise  called  Joannes 
Massiliensis  and  Joannes  EaEMrrA,  eariy 
dieological  writer  and  e^ous  advocate  of  the 
monastic  system :  b.  about  360,  probably  in 
Provence;  d,  Marseilles  about  435.  It  is  cer- 
tain however,  that  he  traveled  extensively  b 
the  East,  spent  a  few  years  in  Bethlehera, 
traveled  to  tgypt  and  Kerns  to  have  visited  the 
hermits  in  the  desert.  He  was  deeply  attached 
to  Saint  Chrysostom  and  when  Uie  tatter, 
through  the  intrigues  of  his  opponents,  was  re- 
moved from  the  episcopal  chair,  Cassianus  was 
sent  with  Gcrmanus  to  Rome  to  present  a 
memorial  from  the  clci^  who  adhered  to 
Chiysostom.  Here  he  became  personally  ac- 
quainted  with  Pelagius.  About  415  he  went  to 
Marseilles,  where  he  continued  a  course  of  rest- 
less activity  as  a  presbyter  till  his  deadi.  He 
founded  a  monastery  and  a  convent  on  the 
principles  laid  down  by  him  in  his  works  'De 
Institutis  Cccnobiomm'  and  'CoUationes  Patrum 
SceticoTum'  (that  is,  'Conferences  of  the 
Fathers  in  the  Desert  of  Sketis')-  The  views 
advanced  in  these  works,  and  still  more  the 
strong  leaning  which  he  showed  to  the  d<^- 
mas  of  Pcl^us,  involved  him  in  a  controversy 
with  Augustine.  He  ultimately  modified  his 
opinions  so  far  as  to  adopt  the  system  to  whidi 
theologians  have  given  the  name  of  Semi- 
pelagianism,  holding  that  man,  since  the  fall,  b 
not  absolutely  incapable  of  good,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  both  derives  from  nature  the  seeds  of 
virtue,  and  b  able  of  himself  to  commence  their 
primary  development,  though  he  requires  the 
aid  of  divine  grace  to  bring  them  to  maturity. 
These  views  found  great  favor  with  the  monks 


friend  Prosper  of  Aquitania,  At  the  desire  of 
Leo,  then  Pop^  he  wrote  against  Nestorius 
his  <De  incamatione  Domini'  in  seven  volumes. 
The  best  edition  of  the  works  of  Cassia- 
nus is  that  of  Frankfort  ( 1 72%  fol.). 
Thnr  are  found  in  the  English  Iran^tion  by 
E.  C  S.  Gibson  tn  volume  IX  of  <Ntcaie  and 


[I  git  zed 


V  Google 


CASSIN  —  CASSINIAH 


71X 


Po»t-Niccn«  Fathers*  {2d  senes,  London  and 
New  York  1884).  Consult  Hamack,  A,  'His- 
tory of  Dogma>  (Vol.  V,  pp,  246ff.,  2S3flf.) ; 
Uoeller,  W.,  'History  of  the  Christian  Church' 
(VoL  1,  pp,  368-70). 

CASSIN,  John,  American  ornitbolonst :  b. 
near  Chester,  Pa.,  6  Sept.  1813;  d.  PhiladeljAia, 
10  Jan.  1869.  He  resided  in  Philadelphia  from 
1834,  and  excepting  a  few  years  partnlly  given 
to  mercantile  pursuits,  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  omitholi^.  He  contributed  descrip- 
tions of  new  species  and  synoptical  reviews  of 
various  families  to  the  'Proceedings*  and  the 
'Journal'  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of 
Natural  Science:  and  his  more  elaborate  pub- 
lications are  'Birds  of  California  and  Texas' 
(1862),  containing  descriptions  and  colored  en- 


'Mammalogy  and  Omitholow  of  the  Wilkes 
Eicploring  Expedition'  (1858);  'Ornithology 
of  the  Japan  Expedition' ;  'Ornithology  of 
Gilliss's  Astronomical  Expedition  to  Chile'; 
and  the  chapters  on  rapacious  and  wading  birds 
in  the  'Ornithology  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  Ex- 

florations  and  Surveys'  (Washington  1858) ; 
The  Birds  of  North  America'  {I860).  His 
works  are  the  result  of  careful  research,  and 
are   especially  valuable  for  their   descriptions 


Accor^ng  to  Coues  he  was  the  oid^  American 
omiihoUwst  as  familiar  with  the  birds  of  the 
Old  World  as  with  those  of  America. 

CASSINI,  kas-se'nS,  Arthur  Pavlovitch, 
Russian  diplomat :  b.  1835.  He  began  his  pub- 
lic career  in  1855,  being  attached  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Foreign  Affairs.  He  held  various 
minor  diplomatic  offices  in  Europe  and  in 
le   Mil"  ■ 


■  at    Peking,   during  the  ■ 


ington  in  1897  and  later  the  first  Russian  Am- 
bassador to  the  United  States.  In  1905  he  went 
as  ambassador  to  Madrid  and  represented 
Russia  at  the  Algeciras  conference. 

CASSINI,  Giovanni  Domenico,  Italian 
astronomer :  b.  Pcrinaldo,  near  Nice,  8  June 
1625;  d.  Paris,  14  Sept.  1712.  He  studied  at 
Genoa  with  the  Jesuits.  Chance  turned  his  at- 
tention to  astronomy,  in  which  he  made  such 
rapid  progress  that  in  1650  the  senate  of 
Bologna  bestowed  on  him  the  first  firofessor- 
ship  of  astronomy  at  the  university.  .  He 
worked  out  more  correct  tables  of  the  sun 
and  a  more  precise  determination  of  its  paral- 
lax. By  an  observation  at  Gttii  della  Piave  he 
discovered  the  shadows  cast  by  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter  on  the  disc  of  that  planet  when  they 
are  between  it  and  the  sun.  By  means  of  these 
he  corrected  his  theory  of  the  motion  of  the 
satellites ;  he  also  determined  the  period  of 
Jupiter's  revolution.  In  1668  he  published  his 
'Ephemerides  of  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter.'  In 
I67l  he  became  director  of  the  observatory  at 
Paris  and  in  1673  became  naturalized  as  a 
French  subject.  He  discovered  four  new  satel- 
lites of  Saturn  and  the  zodiacal  light;  proved 
that  the  axis  of  the  moon  is  not  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and  showed  the 
causes  of  her  libra ti on.  The  laws  of  this 
motion  are  one  of  his  finest  discoveries.  He 
also  wrote  observations  on  die  Indian  calendar. 


He  believed  that  the  planetary  orbits  were  not 
ellipses,  but  members  of  a  family  of  curves 
called,  after  him  Cassinian  ovals  (q.v.).  The 
meridian  commenced  hrf  Picard  and  Lahire  was 
continued  by  Cassini  in  1700  to  the  extreme 
limits  of  Roussillon,  and  when  measured  100 
years  later  showed  a  difference  of  only  21  toises 
(about  134  feet).  His  'Opera  Astronomica* 
was  published  at  Rome  in  1666. 


Oise,  16  April  1756.  He  was  the  son  of  Gio- 
vanni Domenico  Cassini  and  succeeded  him  in 
his  post  at  the  Paris  observatory.  In  1694 
he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
His  labors  to  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth 
are  well  known.  The  first  measurement  of  1718 
made  the  degrees  of  die  meridian  shorter 
toward  the  north  than  toward  the  south,  whence 
it  was  concluded  that  the  earth  was  an  oblate 
si^roid.  Cassmi  continued  the  measurement, 
and  maintained  this  opinion  in  his  work  'De  la 
grandeur  et  de  la  figure  de  la  terre-'  In 
order  to  settle  the  question  the  Academy  was 
commissioned  in  1733  to  measure  the  whole 
length  of  France  from  Brest  to  Strassburg. 
Cassini  directed  this  undertaking,  but  was  led 
into  some  errors  by  the  defective  instruments 
of  farmer  observers.  The  astronomical  tables 
which  he  compiled  were  published  at  Paris  in 
1740.  He  compiled  the  first  tables  on  the  in- 
clinati<}ua  of  the  orbits  of  Saturn's  satellites 
and  nng.  In  addition  to  his  astronomical 
works,  he  wrote  several  essays  on  subjects  in 
natural  philosophy,  etc. 

CASSINI,  Jacques  Dominique,  Coute  de, 
French  astronomer:  b.  Paris,  30  June  1748;  d. 
Paris  (?),  18  Oct  1845.  He  was  the  son  of 
Cassini  de  Thury  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
1784  as  director  of  the  Paris  observatory.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy,  and  a  states- 
man of  ability  as  well  as  a  mathematician.  In 
1789  he  completed  the  topographical  work 
which  was  begun  by  his  father.  The  'Atlas 
National'  was  a  reduction  of  it  qn  a  scale  of 
one-third.  Cassini  was  arrested  by  order  of 
the  revoludonary  tribunal.  He  es(^>ed  with 
life,  but  lost  the  copper-plates  of  the  'C^rte  de 
France,'  which  had  cost  500,000  francs. 
Napoleon  made  him  a  count  of  the  empire. 

CASSINI  DE  THURY,  tu-re,  Cisar 
PruiG<>i9,  French  astronomer:  b.  Paris,  17  June 
1714;  d.  4  Sept  1784;  son  of  Jacques  Cassini. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  from  his  22d 
year,  and  director  of  the  observatory  in  1756. 
He  undertook  a  geometrical  survey  of  the 
whole  of  France  in  1744.  When  the  support  of 
the  government  was  withdrawn  in  1756,  Cassini 
formed  a  society  for  advancing  the  requisite 
sums,  which  were  to  be  repaid  by  the  sale  of 
the  maps  constructed  from  the  survey.  The 
work  was  almost  entirely  finished  when  he 
died 

CASSINIAN,  or  CASSIAN  OVAL,  the 
locus  of  a  jpoint  the  product  of  whose  distances 
from  two  fixed  points  is  constant.  It  varies  in 
shape  as  the  constant  product  and  the  distance 
between  the  fixed  points  are  differently  chosen, 
and  may  break  up  into  two  separate  but  sym- 
metrical figures.  A  special  form  is  that  of 
Bemouilll's  lemniscate.    Its  general  Cartesian 


d=,  Google 


71S 


CA88IHO  —  CASSITBRTTE 


equation  referred  to  its  axes  of  symmetry  is 

(*»  +  /  + <^'-4<i*V  +  o'=m', 
and     the    corresponding     polar     equation     u 

See  Briot  et  Bouquet,  'Gfemetrie  analytique* 
(4th  cd.,  Paris  1890;  tr.  Chicago  1896>. 

CASSINO,  Italy,  until  1871  known  as  San 
Gbiuano,  ci^  ol  Caserta  province,  on  the 
Rapido,  85  miles  southeast  of  Rame.  Of  great 
historic  interest,  and  the  seat  of  the  celebrated 
monastciy  of  Monte  Cassino,  nearby  arc  in- 
teresting ruins  of  the  village  of  M.  Terentius 
Varro  where,  according  to  Cicero,  Antony  led 
a  dissipated  life^  also  a  ruined  amphitheatre 
built  by  Ummidia  Quadratilla,  a  Roman  lady 
of  whom  Pliny  wntes  in  his  letters.  Popes 
and  emperors  resided  at  San  Geimano  and 
here  Frederick  II  and  Gregory  IX  effected  a 
peace  in  1230.  It  was  the  scene  of  an  Austrian 
victory  over  Uurat  16  March  1815.  Pop. 
14,220. 

CASSINO,  a  K»ne  at  cards  usually  played 
by  four  persons  (although  more  can  enter  the 
game),  two  on  each  side.  In  it  the  ten  of 
diamonds,  technically  called  big  cassino,  counts 
two;  and  little  cassino,  tbe  two  of  spade^ 
counts  one.  The  points  possible  to  be  scored 
in  one  deal  (exclusive  of  sweeps)  number  9. 
Tbev  are:  Big  cassino,  2;  little  cassino,  1; 
cards,  1 ;  spades,  1 ;  each  ace,  1=4.  A  sweep  is 
counted  when  a  player  takes  up  all  the  cards 
on  the  table.  The  object  sought  in  the  ^ame 
(besides  the  points  already  enumerated)  is  to 
arrange  the  cards  on  tbe  board  in  comlHnation 
so  that  the  sum  of  the  spots  on  the  cards  thus 
combined  may  equal  those  on  one  card  in  the 
hai^d  of  the  player,  who  has  tbe  right  to  take 
as  many  cards  from  the  board  as  he  can  thus 
combine ;  or  he  may  capture  any  card  from  tbe 
board  the  counterpart  of  which  he  has  in  hand. 
This  can  be  done  also  by  playing  cards  from  the 
band  in  such  a  manner  that  the  sum  of  tbe 
spots  on  these  cards  and  on  cards  on  the  board 
equals  that  on  a  card  in  tbe  player's  hand. 

CASSIODORUS,  FUvitM  Hagntu  Atii^ 
'  lllU,  Roman  historian  and  statesman,  who 
lived  from  about  468  to  568.     He  entered  the 


under  bun  and  hi.s  successor,  Theodoric,  . 
treasurer  of  the  Idngdom  and  councillor,  ad- 
ministering his  office  with  extraordinary 
prudence  in  a  most  difficult  time.  As  states- 
man, scholar  and  historian  he  kept  alive  the 
lamp  of  the  Gnco-Roman  learning  after  the 
overwhelming  of  the  ancient  civilization  by  the 
barbarians.  After  a  term  of  50  years  in  public 
station  he  withdrew  to  a  monastic  institution 
founded  by  himself  in  his  native  prownce, 
Bruttium,  and  there  Spent  the  remaining  30 
years  of  his  useful  life,  imbuing  his  monks  with 
a  love  of  the  ancient  learning  and  employing 
them  in  copying  the  ancient  texts  of  profane 
no  less  than  of  religious  writings.  He  may  be 
regarded  as  the  father  of  the  monastic  Scrip- 
lorium  to  which  modem  learning  is  indebted 
for  a  great  );art  of  what  has  come  down  to 
us  of  me  ancient  literature  and  of  the  history 
of  the  West  in  those  troublous  times.  He  com- 
posed manuals  of  rhetoric  and  grammar  which 
were  used  as  textbooks  !□  the  schools  of  the 
Middle  Ages  till   the   revival   of    the   ancient 


learning  «4uch  insured  men  with  a  longing 
for  the  ancient  knowledge.  Of  great  service 
also  were  his  works  'De  Artibus  ac  Disciplinis 
Liberalium  Litterarum*  (of  the  liberal  arts 
and  courses  of  study),  and  his  'De  Institntione 
Divinarum  Litterarunt*  (instruction  in  scrip- 
tural knowledge)  ;  but  above  all  his  12  books 
of  'Epistolz  Varix'  (various  letters),  contain- 
ing  decrees  of  the  Ostrogothic  Idngs,  upon 
which  is  based  the  whole  history  of  ItaJy  under 
the  rule  of  those  barbarian  potentues.  This 
collection  was  first  printed  at  Augsburg  1533^ 
With  one  Epiphanius  he  made  a  compendious 
Latin  version,  entitled  'Tripartita  Historia' 
(tripartite  history)  of  the  history  of  the  Church 
as  written  by  tbe  three  Greek  historians^ 
Socrates,  Sozomen  and  Theodoret,  and  con- 
tinued Socrates'  history  to  the  year  518.  An 
edhion  of  his  complete  works  was  printed  at 
Rouen  in  1679  and  at  Venice  in  1729.  Hit 
*Life'  was  written  by  the  eminent  Benedictine, 
Sainte  Marlhe,  and  published  in  Paris  in  1694. 
His  works  are  published  in  Mignc,  'Patrolagia 


especially  pp.  25S-270t  Cambridge  1906). 

CA8SIOPSIA,  kis-I-o-pe'ya,  in  GrtA  my- 
thology, daughter  of  Arabns  and  wife  of 
Opheu^  King  of  Ethiopia,  to  whom  she  bore 
Andromeda.  She  dared  to  compare  her  own 
beauty  to  that  of  the  Nereids,  who,  enr^ed 
thereat,  besou^  Poseidon  for  vengeance.  The 
god,  in  compliance  with  the  request  of  the 
water-nymphs,  laid  waste  the  dominions  of 
Cepbeus  by  means  of  a  deluge  and  a  dreadful 


In  astronomy  Cassiopeia  is   _   , 

constellation  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  sit- 
uated next  to  Cepheus.  In  1572  a  new  and 
brilliant  star  appeared  in  it,  which,  tiowever, 
after  a  short  time,  gradually  diminished,  ana 
has  been  identiiied  by  Hinal  and  PI  urn  me  r  with 
a  reddish,  1  Ith-magnitude  variable  which 
is  still  visible.  The  five  bri^tcst  stars  in  tbe 
constellation  of  Cassiopeia  arc  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  straggling  W,  which  is  easily  recog- 
nized. 

CA8SIQUIARI,  kis-se-ke-a're,  or  CA5- 
SIQUIARB,  a  deep  rapid  river  of  South 
America,  in  Venezuela,  branching  off  from  the 
Orinoco,  and  forming  a  water-wajy  by  which 
that  river  has  navigable  communication  with 
the  Rio  Negro.  It  leaves  the  Orinoco  in 
lat.  3'  Iff  N. ;  long.  66°  20"  W.,  about  20  miles 
west  of  Esmeralda,  and,  after  a  southwest 
course  of  128  miles  falls  into  the  Rio  Negro 
near  San  Ca^lo^  in  lat.  2°  S'  N. ;  long.  67°  40' 
W.  It  is  estimated  to  carry  off  about  a  third 
of  the  water  of  the  Orinoco,  being  100  yards 
broad  where  it  leaves  that  river,  and  at^out  600 
yards  at  its  junction  with  the  Rio  Negro.  By 
means  of  this  river,  the  Rio  Negro,  the  Amaion 
and  its  tributaries,  it  is  practicable  to  °ail  from 
the  interior  of  Brazil  to  the  mouth  of  tbe 
Orinoco. 

CASSITERIDES,  kas-si-ter'i-dez,  a  name 
derived  from  the  Greek  kostiteros,  tin,  and  an- 
cjently  applied,  but  with  no  uniformity  or  pre- 
cision, to  the  tin  district  of  Cornwall,  to  the 
Scilly  Isles  or  to  small  islands  o£E  the  north- 
west coast  of  Spain. 

CASSITERITE,  native  dioxide  of  tin, 
SnOi,  crystallizing  in  the  tetragonal  system,  and 


:,  Google 


C  A8BIUS  —  CASSOWARY 


also  occurring  uniform  and  in  rolled  Rrains. 
The  crystals  are  usually  brown  or  blade,  orittle 
wift  an  uneven  fracture,  and  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  from  6^  to  7.1,  and  a  hardness  of 
from  6  to  7.  Ordinarr  massive  or  crystallised 
cassiterite  is  often  called  "tinstone,"  especially 
in  England;  °^wood  tin*  is  a  botryoidal  form, 
'stream  tin'  is  the  mineral  in  small  rollea 
pebbles  found  in  the  streams  or  placer  deposits 
and  is  formed  W  the  disint^ration  of  stan- 
niferous rocks.  Cassiterite  is  die  most  import- 
ant ore  of  tin.  It  occurs  in  Cornwall  (Eng- 
land), Saxony,  Bohemia,  Galida,  Greenland, 
Sweden  and  in  Australia,  the  Ualay  Peninsula. 
Banca,  Bolivia  and  Mexico.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  found  in  small  amounts  in  various 
States,  and  it  has  been  mined  to  some  extent 
in  Virginia,  in  South  Dakota  and  in  San  Ber- 
nardino County,  Cal. 

CASSIUS,  ka&h'us,  Andreas,  German  phy- 
sician who  was  born  in  the  first  half  of  the 
17th  century  at  Schlcswig;  d.  Hamburg  1673. 
He  was  graduated  at  Leyden  in  1632,  was.  phy- 
sician lo  the  Duke  of  Holstein  and  bishop  of 
Liibeek,  and  practised  at  Hamburg.  His  name 
is  best  known  in  connection  with  a  purple  color 
olrtatned  from  gold,  which  was  briefly  described 
in  a  treatise  published  by  his  son  in  1685. 


CASSIUS  LOffGINUS,  Oaiaa,  the  friend 
of  Brutus,  was  the  quxstor  of  Crassus,  and  pre- 
served the  few  troops  of  that  general  who 
escaped  from  the  bloody  battle  with  the  Par- 
tbians.  With  these  he  defended  Syria  against 
the  Parthians  till  the  arrival  of  Bibulus.  In 
the  famous  civil  war  that  broke  out  between 
Pompey  and  Ctesar- he  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  former,  and,  as  commander  of  his  naval 
forces,  rendered  him  important  services.    When 


vessels,  while  crossing  the  Hellespont,  against 
a  fleet  of  70  sail  commanded  by  Cassius,  and 
called  upon  him  to  surrender.  The  latter, 
astonished  by  his  daring  courage,  surrendered 
at  his  summons.  Qesar  pardoned  him,  and 
afterward  bestowed  various  honors  on  him ; 
but  Cassius,  who  had  always  cherished  feelincs 
of  bitter  hatred  toward  Cxsar,  joined  in  the 
conspiracy  against  him,  and,  with  the  aid  of 
several  fellow-conspirators,  assassinated  him, 
44  B.c  He  then,  together  with  Brutus,  raisea 
an  army  to  maintain  die  cause  of  their  faction. 
They  were  met  by  Octavianus  and  Antony,  who 

frofessed  themselves  the  avengers  of  Oesar,  at 
hilippi.  The  wing  which  Cassius  commanded 
being  defeated,  he  imagined  that  all  was  lost, 
and  Killed  himself,  42  B.c, 

The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  Roman  jurist 
who  flourished  about  3-75  a.d.,  consul  in  30, 
proconsul  of  Asia  (4S-S0).  After  serving  as 
governor  of  Syria,  he  was  banished  for  his 
loyalty  to  the  memory^  of  Cassius,  the  murderer 
of  Caesar.  In  the  reign  of  Vespasian  he  was 
recalled.  His  book,  'Libri  Juns  Civilis'  was 
used  by  Justinian  in  his  codification.  See 
Bkurus;  Cmsab. 

CASSIVBLLAUNUS,  k3s-I-v<<-I6'niis  (in 
Shakespeare's  'Cymbeline,'  Caseibelah),  a 
nohle  and  wariike  British  chief  of  the  Catuvd' 
launi,   who,   when   Ca»ar   invaded   Britain   in 


Britons   under   Cassivellaunus   posted    •,..    

north  bank  of  the  river  prepared  to  dispute  his 
passa^.  He  crossed,  however,  without  much 
difficolly,  but  the  British  charioteers  persist- 
ently harassed  his  line  of  march.  The  Trin- 
obantes,  a  tribe  of  Essex  and  Middlesex,  soon 
sent'in  their  submission  to  Cxsar,  and  as  their 


found  himself  unable  I 
die  Romans.  His  stronghold,  which  contained 
many  cattle,  was  captured  by  Czsar;  and  an 
attempt  made  to.  storm  CEcsar's  naval  camp 
proving  unsuccessful,  Cassivellaunus  sued  for 
peace,  gave  hostages  and  promised  an  annual 
tribute.    Consult  Cieear,  'Gallic  War»  (bk.  V), 

CASSOCK,  a  name  formerly  applied  to  a 
long  loose  gown  worn  over  the  other  garments, 
in  which  sense  the  word  is  found  in  Shaltes- 
peare.  It  is  now  applied  to  a  long,  close-fitting 
garment  worn  by  priests  and  clerics  and  in 
Catholic  countries  forming  the  ordinary  dress 
of  the  priest.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
priests  wear  a  black  cassock;  bishops  and  other 
prelates,  purple ;  cardinals,  red ;  and  the  Pope, 
white.  In  the  Anglican  Church,  black  is  worn 
by  all  three  orders  of  clergy,  but  bishops  on 
state  occasions  often  wear  purple. 

CASSOWARY,  a  corruption  of  the  Ma- 
layan name  for  ratite  birds  of  the  family 
Casuariida,  inhabitants  of  the  Papuan  Islands 
and  Australasia,  and  foiming,  with  their  near 
allies  the  emus,  the  group  Megistanes.  They 
are  large  birds,  the  females  standing  five  or  six 
feet  high  (males  are  less  in  stature),  and  are 
clothed  in  hair-like  feathers,  which  appear 
double,  as  the  aftershaft  is  as  large  as  the 
feather  proper;  these  may  reach  a  length  of  12 
inches  or  more  on  the  rump,  where  they  drape 
over  the  invisible  tail.  This  coat  is  glossy 
black  in  both  sexes  and  all  species,  whose  dis- 
tinguishing marics  are  found  in  the  varying 
colors  about  the  head.  Like  other  ratite,  or 
"wingless'  birds,  the  wings  are  so  reduced  as 
to  be  bidden  beneath  the  drooping  plumage, 
except  the  ends  of  five  stiff  quills ;  these  wings 
are  (juite  useless  for  either  fliglit,  or  aid  in 
running,  but  are  of  some  service  as  we^ons. 
The  legs  are  extremely  stout,  and  are  actuated 
by  powerful  muscles;  and  the  three  toes  are 
armed  with  strong  scratching-claws.  The 
special  feature  of  this  family  of  birds,  however, 
is  the  head,  which  is  almost  naked  of  feathers, 
and  carries  a  crest,  'helmet,"  or  *ca5que*  of 
spcmgy  bone  which  in  some  is  flattened,  and  in 
others  rises  into  a  triangular  or  a  pyramidal 
boss.  The  beak  is  stout,  and  keeled  on  top. 
The  neck  is  naked,  and  in  most  cases  adorned 
with  one  or  more  pendent  wattles.  These 
naked  parts,  and  the  head  and  helmet  are  bril- 
liantly colored,  differing  In  the  various  species 
of  whtcb  10  have  been  described.  Thus  the 
Casuaritis  papuantu  of  New  Guinea  is  de> 
scribed  as  having  'a  dusky-black  casque,  blue 
head,  throat  and  fore-neck,  grajr-green  occiput 
and  auricular  region,  and  orange  hind-neck, 
chan^ng  into  rosy  flesh-color  toward  the  sides,' 
All  Ine  others  are  nearly  as  gandy. 

The  cassowaries  are  forest-keeping  birds, 
and    have    become    very    waiy    nnce    thdr 


.Google 


CAST— CAST  IRON 


jungles  were  invaded,  by  hunters.  They  are 
swilt  ninneis,  hurling  themselves  forward  with 
a  peculiar  striding  gait,  and  bounding  over 
obstacles.  They  arc  almost  otnnivorus,  but 
feed  mainly  on  berries  fallen  fruit  bulbs  and 
insects  scratched  out  of  the  forest  floor.  They 
defend  themselves  vigorously  when  at  bay, 
kicking  powerfully  in  any  direction,  and  strik- 
ing with  wings  and  beat.  Vet  they  are  tam- 
aUe,  and  are  kept  like  fowls  by  the  natives  of 
some  districts.  They  are  hunted  in  Australia 
for  the  sake  of  their  skins  from  which  are  made 
mats,  rugs,  feathered  ornaments,  etc.  The 
nest  is  a  rough  structure  on  the  ground  in  a 
thicket.  The  three  to  six  eggs  are  green,  and 
incubation  is  done  mainly  if  not  exclusively  by 
the  cock-bird.  Consult  Salvatori,  'Ornitologia 
della  Papuasia>  (Turin  1882) :  Rothschild. 
•Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  of  London'  (1901)  ;  Evans, 
'Birds'  (New  York  1900). 

Ehnest  Inceksoli. 
CAST,  in  the  fine  arjts,  is  an  imfiression 
taken  by  means  of  wax  or  plaster  of  Paris  from 
a  statue,  bust,  bas-relief  or  any  other  model, 
animate  or  inanimate.  In  taking  a  cast  from 
a  living  person's  face,  it  is  necessary,  first,  to 
anoint  the  eyebrows  and  eyelashes,  and  any 
hairs  about  the  cheeks  and  temples,  with  a  little 
sweet-oil;  then  to  insert  two  tubes  (oiled  also) 
of  pasteboard  into  the  nfistrils,  so  that  breath- 
ing may  be  performed  through  them;  a  hand- 
Inrchief  is  then  to  be  tied  loosely  over  the 
face,  and  the  head  sloped  backward  m  an  elbow 
chair  or  sofa.  Powdered  and  calcined  plaster 
of  Paris  is  then  mixed  with  spring  water  to 
tfie  consistence  of  cream,  and  poured  in  between 
the  face  and  handerkerchief  to  the  depth  of 
half  an  inch.  On  becoming  fixed  or  hard,  it  is 
removed  and  left  to  dry.  When  dried  thor- 
ou^ly  it  is  well  soaked  with  linseed  oil,  and 
an  impression  may  then  be  taken  from  it,  in 
plaster  of  Paris  or  soft  clay;  the  hollow  cast 
being  first  split  longitudinally  down  the  nose, 
so  that  the  object  cast  may  be  more  easily  re- 
moved. 

It  ought  to  be  observed  that  all  models 
should  be  lUvided  into  several  pieces  or  joints; 
thus,  in  that  covering  any  round  body,  one 
side  must  be  covered  first  with  the  plaster,  and 
the  sides  pared  with  a  knife,  and  smeared  with 
clay  and  water,  then  the  remaining  part  of  the 
■  object  covered  with  plaster,  and  a  joint  will 
thus  be  formed  between  the  two  parts;  for, 
wherever  the  mixture  of  clay  and  water  has 
been  applied  with  a  hair  brush,  the  cast  will  not 
adhere,  and  therefore  will  be  easily  separated 
with  the  blunt  edge  of  a  knife.  It  is  usual 
also  to  make  small  pits  or  depressions  of  the 
size  of  small  buttons,  on  the  edges  of  the  joints 
of  molds  so  that  they  may  lock  together  well 
when  added,  and  thus  fit  closely. 

Plaster  casts  are  varnished  by  a  mixture  of 
soap  and  white  wax  in  boiling  water.  A  quar- 
ter of  an  ounce  of  soap  is  dissolved  in  a  pint 
of  water,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  wax  after- 
ward incorporated  The  cast  is  dipped  in  this 
liquid,  and  after  drying  a  week  is  polished  by 
rubbing  with  soft  linen.  The  surface  produced 
approaches  to   the   polish  of 


used  made  of  Unseed  ml  and  soda,  colored  by 
the  sulphates  of  copper  and  iron.  Walls  and 
ceilings  are  rendered  waterproof  in  the  same 
way. 

CAST,  or  CASTINQ-LINE,  a  gut  line 
used  in  angling,  from  two  to  four  yards  in 
length,  having  artificial  flies  attached  to  it_  at 
intervals  of  about  two  feet.  For  trout  fishing 
the  line  is  generally  made  of  braided  water- 
proof silk,  and  a  leader  of  silkworm  gut  at- 
tached to  die  end  of  the  line. 

CAST  IRON,  MaUeable.  Malleable  cast 
iron  is  a  grade  of  metal  which  has  a  special 
composition,  such  that  when  annealed  for  a 
continued  period  of  time  it  becomes  malleable, 
can  be  bent  and  twisted.  The  castings,  when 
taken  from  the  sand  of  the  foundry,  are  very- 
hard  and  brittle.  The  fracture  is  dead  white 
(the  orxlinary  iron  casting  appearing  gray  to 
black  when  freshly  broken). 

The  tensile  strength  of  a  good  malleable 
casting  should  run  between  42000  and  48,000 
poun<M  per  square  inch,  though  for  ordinary 
purposes  35,000  pounds  is  quite  good  enou^ 
Castings  have  been  made  running  up  to  63,000 

Eunds  per  square  inch,  but  these  would  not 
soft  enou^  for  general  Use,  being  better 
adapted  for  conveyor  chains  and  castings 
which  must  not  stretch.  The  elongation  of  a 
malleable  casting  runs  between  2.5  to  7  per  cent 
measured    in    two    inches.      The 


marble.  When  plaster  casts  are  to  be  exjposed 
to  the  weather,  their  durability  is  greatly  in- 
creased  by   saturating  them  with   linseed  oil. 


[th  measured  by  a  1   inch  square  bar, 

_      .  .,.    .     ..  -  chcs  apar^  and  load 

applied   at   the    centre,    should   be    from   3,000 


I   supports   12  inches 


to  5,000  pounds  for  high  quality  material,  and 
at  least  2,500  for  the  ordinary  product.  The 
resilience  of  a  malleable  casting  may_  be  taken 
as  eight  times  as  bi^  as  a  gray-iron  one. 
Hence  Uie  great  advantage,  of  using  malleable 
castings  to  resist  shock.  In  fact  where  the 
shocks  are  light  and  often  repeated,  this  cast- 
ing will  stand  up  better  than,  a  sted  one. 

The  malleablixation  of  cast  iron  has  been 
known  since  the  early  part  of  the  ISlh  century. 
The  first  record  we  have  is  by  Riaumur  in  1722. 
He  states  that  a  hard  casting,  by  being  embed- 
ded in  ore  and  kept  at  a  high  temperature 
for  a  number  of  days,  changed  its  structure 
and  became  soft  and  malleable.  The  process 
as  then  pracUsed  is  still  in  vogue,  and  all 
attempts  to  hasten  or  otherwise  modify  it  have 
not  given  continuously  good  results.  The 
fundamental  principle  upon  which  the  whole 
bined  carbon  in  a  white  casting  of  a  suitable 
process  rests  is  the  conversion  of  the  corn- 
composition  to  an  amorphous  form  of  carbon, 
whi^  remains  in  the  casting  as  a  mechanical 
admixture.  It  is  not  crystalline  like  graphite, 
but  in  other  respects  behaves  like  it,  and- is 
determined  chemically  in  the  same  manner. 

To  understand  this,  let  us  consider  the  two 
great  (^visions  of  cast  iron  —  the  Gray  and  the 
White,  In  the  former  we  h^ve  nearly  all  the 
carbon  present  in  a  mechanical  admixture,  as 
graphite  flakes  situate  between  the  crystals  of 
me  iron  proper.  But  little  carbon  is  present  in 
the  combined  state,  and  if  less  than  0.20  per 
cent,  the  casting  is  dead  soft.  If  the  combined 
carbon  is  as  high  as  0.8O  per  cent,  the  rest  of 
about  3  per  cent  being  in  the  form  of  (graph- 
ite, the  casting  will  be  a  hard  one.  Now  in  the 
case  of  the  white  irons,  the  carbon  is  nearly  all 
combined,  and  almost  no  graphite  in  mechanical 
admixture  is  present.     Hence  an  exceedii«ly 


d=v  Google 


hard  materia]  is  tbe  result  It  is  th«  object  of 
tb«  malleablizing  process  to  convert  this  chem- 
icallv  combined  carbon  in  a  white  iron,  or  in  a 
hard  gray  one  for  thai  maiter,  lo  an  amorphous 
form,  lo  which  the  name  'temper  carbon*  has 
been  given  (from  'Temperguss,*  German  for 
malleaDle  casting).  Any  graphite  present  in  the 
original  casting  is  not  changed,  but  with  long- 
continued  heat  gives  an  opportunity  for  the 
entrance  of  oxygen,  with  nunous  results  to  the 
casting.  Hence  the  short  annealing  of  gray 
castings  to  benefit  them,  while  the  white  cast- 
ing can  be  annealed  for  six  days,  and  then  re- 
annealed  again,  without  seriously  hurting  its 
strength. 

There  are  two  tendencies  in  the  malleable 
casting  industry,  which  result  in  different  grades 
of  metal.  In  Europe,  from  whence  the  process 
came,  and  where  the  irons  used  are  not  as  pure, 
the  annealing  process  is  carried  out  longer  than 
here,  and  hence  much  of  the  carbon  present  is 
removed  from  the  casting  by  oxidizing  it  out 
The  result  is  a  very  ductile  casting,  but  with 
a  gray  to  white  fracture  (the  fracture  of  a  steel 
however,  not  of  a  hard  white  iron).  The  cast- 
ings, moreover,  are  nearly  all  very  light  In 
this  country,  with  better  irons,  we  have  short- 
ened the  anneal  to  get  just  the  conversion  of 


shrinkage  is  allowed  for  in  maldng  the 
patterns.  For  special  work,  however,  it  will 
pay  to  watch  the  action  of  the  metal  in  the  sand 
mold,  and  due  allowances  should  be  made  in  the 
pattern  for  abnormal  contractions  on  the  part 
of  the  casting,  so  that  the  dimensions  of  the 
annealed  castmg  may  come  out  all  right. 

As  the  metal  when  ready  to  pour  may  not 
always  be  of  the  desired  temperature  (in  fact 
the  temperature  changes  during  tapping,  going 
up  steadily),  it  is  best  to  pour  the  thin  casting 
first,  provided  the  iron  be  hot  enough  for  this, 
then  the  medium  weight  castings,  and  finally  tbe 
thick  ones.  By  this  time  tbe  metal  will  be  very 
hot  and  the  danger  from  excessive  mottling 
avoided.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  to 
see  that  patterns  are  so  pro^rtioncd  that  no 
shrinkage  occurs  in  the  interior  of  the  metal. 
This  is  certain  to  take  place  at  abrupt  changes 
of  section,  at  sharp  angles  and  in  heavy  parts. 
Hence  all  sharp  jtmctions  on  patterns  should 
have  fillets,  and  where  great  changes  of  section 
cannot  be  avoided,  chills  should  be  placed 
against  the  work.  This  will  send  the  shrmka^e 
into  the  interior  of  the  casting  where  it  will 
not  matter  so  much. 


F;g.  1 


il  Section  of  A 


the  carbon,  without  attempting  to  bum  it  out  by 
prolonged  annealing,  and  hence  we  have  a  black 
heart  in  the  casting.  This  is  especially  notice- 
able as  we  make  very  heavy  work,  compar- 
atively speaking.  Sections  of  one  inch  are 
common,  and  even  heavier  work  is  done,  but 
with  the  use  of  chills  in  casting  them,  so  that 


Otherwise,  if  more  than  a  slight  moltlii  ., 
present  in  the  fracture,  the  casting  is  sure  lo 
come  out  "rotten*  in  strength  (as  it  is  called) 
when  leaving  tbe  anneal.  The  temperature  of 
the  bath  of  molten  metal  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  this,  for  with  a  very  hot  metal,  heavy 
sections  can  be  cast  and  still  have  their  fracture 
white,  while  the  same  castings  would  be  gray 
were  the  bath  of  melted  metal  colder. 

Recent  developments  have  brought  about 
a  division  of  the  American  "black-head'  malle- 
able process  into  the  making  of  very  low  car- 
bon, soft,  but  weak  castings  on  the  one  hand, 
and  medium  carbon,  strong^  but  stiff  castings 
on  the  other.  Tbe  former  is  for  general  use, 
and  the  latter  for  specification  work  of  very 
high  grade. 

The  contraction  of  a  white  casting,  as  made 
for  malleable  purposes  is  3/16  inch  to  5/16  inch 


ii  Funum  for  Mslkable  Cutioaa 

In  general  three  things  affect  the  state  of  a 
hard  casting  which  will  allow  it  to  anneal  prop- 
erly or  not.  First  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  metal  itself.  Second  the  thickness  of  the 
sections  of  the  casting,  and  third  the  pouring 
temperature.  The  last  two  items  have  been 
gone  over  above.  It  remains  lo  give  specifica- 
tions for  the  first  The  most  powerful  a^ent 
aiTecting  the  stale  of  the  carbon  present  m  a 
casting  is  the  silicon.  As  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  casting  white  in  fracture  as  it  leaves  the 
sand,  the  silicon  must  be  very  low.  Then  with 
the  proper  pouring  temperature,  and  when 
poured  into  sections  suitable  for  the  composi- 
tion employed,  the  results  will  be  good.  Natu- 
rally this  will  principally  depend  upon  the  thick- 
of    the   work  made,    as   this   cannot   f 


The  thinner  the  castings,  the  higher  the  silicon 
the  mixture  can  stand.  Thus  for  pipe  fittings, 
the  silicon  may  run  up  to  1  per  cent  in  Om 
casting.  For  exceptionally  heavy  sectioned 
castings  the  silicon  may  have  to  run  down  as 
low  as  0.4S  per  cent  in  order  to  get  the  best 
results.  When  charcoal  irons  were  used  exclu- 
sively (these  standing  more  punishment  in 
melting  than  the  coke  irons  of  the  present  day), 


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CAST  IRON 


die  silicon  oftentimes  ran  as  low  as  0.28  per 
cent  in  a  castii%  and  still  this  was  first-rate. 
The  general  average,  however,  for  ail  around 
mediiim  and  fairly^  heavy  work  is  0,65  per  cent 
silicon  in  the  casting,  which  means  about  0.85 
per  cent  to  O.M  per  cent  in  the  mixture ;  0,45 

fer  cent  may  be  considered  the  lowest  range 
or  heavy  work,  and  1.25  per  cent  the  highest 
for  ihe  lightest  of  castings. 

The  phosphorus  should  not  exceed  0^5  per 
cent,  the  manganese  not  over  0,30,  the  sulphur 
as  low  as  possiole,  preferably  not  over  0,05  in  the 
casting,  tliough  in  Europe,  where  the  Jong 
anneal  counteracts  this  evil,  the  sulphur  goes 
very  high,  sometimes  even  up  to  0.40  per  cent. 

The  lower  the  total  carbon,  down  to  2,75  be- 
low when  trouble  arises,  the  stronger  will  be 
the  casting.  (The  total  carbon  may  be  run  as 
low  as  2,25,  but  onl^  with  the  best  of  melting 
and  annealmg  practice).  Hence  steel  scrap  is 
added  to  make  the  metal  low  in  its  carbon  con- 
tent. This  is  a  much  better  plan  than  to  refine 
the  iron  in  the  process  to  get  the  carbon  low. 
In  general  it  is  best  to  simply  melt  a  mrxture, 
an<r then  get  it  out  of  the  furnace  as  quickly  as 
possible,  in  order  to  get  it  away  from  oxidizing 


influences  as  quickly  as  may  be.  Five  to  10  per 
cent  of  steel  may  be  added,  also  malleable  scrap, 
if  necessary.  In  a  10-ton  heat  the  best  propor- 
tion of  the  mixture  is  five  tons  of  pig  iron,  one 
ton  malleable  scrap,  500  pounds  steclscrap  and 
the  balance  the  sprues  of  the  previous  work. 
The  practical  effect  of  these  steel  and  other 
additions  is  about  as  follows ;  100  pounds, 
wrought  iron  scrap  equal  250  pounds  steel, 
equal  2,000  pounds  malleable  scrap.  Mixtures 
thus  arranged  come  out  about  the  same  in 
strength,  all  other  things  being  equal. 

Charcoal  iron  is  now  being  used  only  where 
the  source  of  supply  is  close,  and  its  cost  is 
but  a  dollar  or  two  over  the  best  *Coke  Mal- 
leable" or  "Bessemer  Malleable,*  as  coke  irons 
made  specially  for  the  malleable  foundry  are 
called  (the  last  named  being  a  Bessemer  iron 
with  the  phosphorus  a  little  higher  than  is 
allowed  tor  steel).  It  is  best  to  use  these 
classes  of  ■malleable^  instead  of  the  so-called 
■off"  pig  irons,  for  they  are  made  with  an  extra 
amount  of  coke,  and  are  much  less  oxidized 
than  the  irons  blown  under  poor  furnace  con- 
ditions. 

The  mixtures  used  in  the  malleable  foundry 
are  as  follows:    Where  die  cupola  is  used  for 


malleable  castings  in  addition  to  making  pots 
for  annealing,  the  regular  mixture  as  used  for 
the  air  furnace  or  open  hearth  furnace  must 
be  reduced  slightly  in  silicon,  as  the  cupola 
bums  out  less  of  this  element.  Hence  about 
0,25  per  cent  is  to  be  added  to  the  amount  of 
silicon  required  in  the  casting.  In  the  case  of 
the  furnaces,  about  0,30  per  cent  to  0.35  per 
cent  must  be  added.  For  pots  it  is  advisatile 
to  use  good  pig  irons  and  to  utilize  salamanders 
and  the  large  scrap  pieces  that  are  unsafe  to 
put  into  the  furnact  The  silicon  in  the  pots 
as  cast  should  be  about  0.60  per  cent  and  hence 
about  0.85  per  cent  should  go  into  the  cupola. 

The  mixtures  for  air  furnace  and  the  open 
hearth  furnace  are  about  the  same.  Possibly 
the  air  furnace  should  have  a  Uttle  more  sili- 
con, as  it  is  under  the  influence  of  the  gases 
from  combustion  longer.  There  is  also 
necessary  an  occasional  use  of  ferrosilicon, 
especially  in  the  open  hearth,  as  through  acci- 
dent the  metal  may  be  badly  burnt  and  the 
addition  of  ferrosilicon  brings  about  the  proper 
composition,  though  the  metal  ^ould  not  be 
put  into  castings,  but  cast  into  pigs,  to  be  fed 
subsequently  into  the  regular  mixtures  in  small 

Juantities  at  a  time.  About  250  to  500  pounds 
errosilicon  is  usually  all  that  is  necessary  for 
this  purpose.  The  actual  amount  can  be  calcu- 
latea  at  the  time  from  the  supposed  loss  of 
sihcon  in  the  bath. 

Malleable  castings  are  made  in  the  cupola, 
the  air  furnace,  the  open  hearth  furnace,  the 
electric  furnace  and  in  the  crucible.  The  last 
named  process  is  now  only  practised  in  Europe, 
bein|;  too  expensive  in  this  country,  though 
tummg  out  a  most  excellent  product.  The 
cupola  process  makes  the  poorest  castings,  as 
the  metal  is  in  contact  with  the  fuel  in  this 
method.  Hence  the  absorption  of  sulphur  and 
oxidizing  influences   which   are   partly  avoided 


i  peculiar 
nakes   it 


of  the  metal  as  cast  makes  it  necessary  t  _ 
anneal  it  at  a  temperature  some  200  degrees  F. 
higher  than  ordinary  air-furnace  iron,  which 
means  a  greater  expense  for  wear  and  tear  on 
the  ovens  and  annealing  pots.  This  class  of 
castings  is  therefore  only  used  for  the  cheaper 
grades  of  malleable  casting,  such  as  pipe  fit- 
tings and  hardware  castings,  where  ^cat 
strength  is  not  essential,  and  enough  ductility  is 
bad  to  satisfy  the  demands  made  on  Ihe  work. 
The  selling  price  is  also  about  half  a  cent  a 
pound  less  than  the  high  grade  metal. 

The  bulk  of  the  malleable  castings  made  in 
this  country  comes  from  the  air  furnace.  This 
is  an  excellent  melting  process,  can  be  manipu- 
lated easily,  is  not  too  expensive,  and  will  prob- 
ably continue  to  be  the  method  used  in  most 
of  our  malleable  works.  The  air  furnace,  as 
used  for  malleable  purposes  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent than  that  used  for  making  rolls  and  gun 
castings.    It  is  illustrated  herewith. 

The  entire  root  can  be  taken  oPE  in  sections, 
called  'bungs,"  so  that  the  sand  bottom  can  he 
made,  and  the  charge  put  in.  Where  more 
than  one  heat  is  made  without  remaking  the 
bottom,  only  a  tew  bungs  are  lifted  away  after 
the  first  heat  and  the  furnace  is  charged  quickly, 
so  as  to  keep  it  hot  as  long  as  possible.  Fir- 
ing is  done  at  one  end,  and  the  charge  when 
ready  Is  tapped  at  one  side,  or  both  if  two 
spouts  arc  provided.  It  is  very  important  to 
get  a  heat  out  quickly,  as  the  metal  is  contintt- 


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CAST  IRON 


717 


ousty  oxidizing  while  in  the  furnace,  after  it 
has  reached  the  proper  composition.  A  10-ton 
beat,  when  poured  into  small  castings  often 
takes  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  tap,  and 
hence  the  first  iron  and  the  very  last  may  be 
two  different  things.  Hence  the  dividing  up 
of  the  work  to  get  the  class  of  metal  best  suited 
to  the  castings  to  be  made.  The  amount  of 
coal  used  to  melt  in  a  well-constTUCted  air 
furnace  is  four  pounds  iron  to  one  pound  coaL 
In  the  case  of  the  cupola,  while  ordinary  gray 
iron  practice  requires  one  pound  coal  to  every 
eight  pounds  iron,  in  malleable  work,  it  takes 
one  pound  coke  to  only  four  pounds  iron,  or 
just  the  same  as  good  air  furnace  practice.  Jt 
is  but  just  to  say,  however,  that  in  many 
foundries  of  the  country  the  air  furnaces  are 
so  poorly  constructed,  kept  in  repair  and 
operated  that  oftentimes  one  pound  coal  melts 
only  two  pounds  iron. 

Bottom  is  made  placing  layers  of  fire  sand, 
that  is,  sand  with  about  W  per  cent  silica,  and 
very  free  from  fluxing  impurities,  on  the  brick- 
wotlt  and  burning  or  partly^  fusing  it  together. 
The  layers  are  about  one  inch  thicl^  and  are 


heat  still  has  to  run  until  ready  to  tap.  After 
the  iron  has  melted,  the  slag  is  skimmed  off, 
and  this  gives  a  good  chance  for  refining 
action,  which  means  the  burning  out  of  silicon. 
The  test  plug  is  always  taken  after  skimming, 
which  is  often  dcAie  for  the  second  time.  When 
the  heat  is  tapped,  the  men  take  it  off  in  hand 
ladles,  and  pour  the  molds,  throwing  the  iron 
into  them  as  quickly  as  possible  so  that  the 
necessarily  small  gates  do  not  prevent  the  metal 
from  filling  the  molds  by  chilling  and  resulting 
in  "short  pours." 

The  open  hearth  process  ( see  Steel  — 
Crucible  Process)  is  by  far  the  best  one  in 
general  use,  but  is  confined  to  those  works 
where  great  quantities  are  made  year  in  and 
year  out.  Thus  there  are  several  works  where 
about  80  Ions  of  castings  are  made  daily,  and 
in  which  the  use  of  the  open  hearth  is  a  pay- 
ing proposition,  especially  as  the  same  furnace 
can  be  used  for  making  acid  sleel  heats  in 
place  of  malleable  cast  iron,  as  desired.  The 
fuel  consumption  for  the  open  hearth  corre- 
sponds to  one  pound  coal  for  six  pounds  iron 
melted;  showing  a  considerable  economy  over 


Fio.  3.—  Longitudinal  Section  Tllrough  Pire-Boi 

>e   is  made.     It 

J  meh  a  10-ton 
heat  after  this  is  charged,  depending  upon  the 
qualitj;  of  the  bituminous  coa!  used,  and  the 
condition  of  the  furnace.  From  6  to  10  heats 
can  be  made  on  the  same  bottom,  with  but 
little  repairing,  but  the  usual  run  is  from  two 
to  four.  In  order  to  know  when  the  heat  is 
ready,  a  test  plug,  so  called,  is  cast.  This  plug 
is  about  of  a  diameter  equal  to  the  heaviest 
section  of  the  castings  to  be  made.  If  is  about 
eight  inches  long,  and  the  mold  for  it  is  made 
by  simply  pushing  the  pattern  into  the  sand  in 
a  box.  The  metal  is  taken  from  the  bath  by  a 
small  ladle  dipped  into  it  as  deeply  as  possible. 
After  pouring,  as  soon  as  the  iron  is  set,  the 
plug  is  grasped  with  a  tongs,  is  dipped  into 
water  to  cool  it  and  then  broken  across.  The 
fracture  is  observed,  and  if  properly  crystalline, 
and  with  but  little  or  no  mottling,  the  heat  is 
ready  to  tap.  If  there  is  too  much  mottling, 
that  is,  too  much  graphite  left,  the  process  is 
continued  to  bum  out  more  silicon,  and  also 
gel  the  metal  hotter,  and  another  test  plug 
taken.    Experience  will  tell  just  bow  long  » 


8  Oven  for  Mdlulile  Castin«9 

all  other  methods.  The  use  of  a  gas  producer 
system,  however,  where  natural  gas  is  not, 
available,  makes  the  installation  an  elaborate 
one,  and  not  desirable  where  the  proper  cWik^^ 
help  is  not  available. 

In  the  case  of  the  open  hearth,  the  furnace 
is  always  hot,  and  hence  a  heat  is  finished  about 
an  hour  sooner  than  in  the  air  furnace.  The 
iron  gets  hotter,  and  can  be  taken  out  in  five- 
ton  ladles  to  be  distributed  afterward  and  as 
the  metal  is  not  as  long  in  contact  with  the 
gases  as  in  the  air  furnace  process,  it  is  of 
better  qualify.  The  most  economical  size  of 
furnace  is  the  20-ton,  with  the  crane  ladle  to 
take_  off  the  metal  in  large  quantities,  so  that 
tapping  is  not  so  long  continued  a  matter  as  in 
the  air  furnace.  The  latest  patented  invention 
to  assist  in  this  is  the  application  of  two  or 
more  spouts  to  the  furnace,  so  that  metal  may 
be  taken  out  at  different  levels.  In  this  way 
the  surface  of  the  bath,  which  is  punished  most 
by  the  pases,  may  be  taken  off  first.  Then 
while  this  is  being  poured  off,  the  next  part  of 
the  heat,  now  the  top,  is  again  taken  off,  and 
finally  if  three  spouts  are  used,  th«  bottom  may 


[ig 


v  Google 


T18 


be  taken  out  as  lonf;  as  half  an  hour  afterward 
without   any    deterioration  or   change    in    the 

From  the  foundry  the  castings,  after  shaking 
out  the  fflolds,  go  to  the  hard  tumbling  roam, 
where  they  are  freed  from  tbe  adhering  sand. 
This  is  done  by  means  of  tumbling  barrels  into 
which  the  castings,  and  a  supp^'  of  "stars' 
made  of  the  same  hard  iron,  are  placed.  Where 
castings  are  liable  to  crack  by  this  tumbling 
about,  sticks  of  wood  are  introduced  so  that  as 
they  strike  ihem,  no  damage  is  done.  Where 
delicate  castings  are  made,  these  are  pickled  in 
dilute  sulphuric  or  in  hydrofluoric  acid. 

After  cleaning  the  hard  castings,  they  are 


has  been  allowed  to  get  too  low  in  silicon,  or 
■high'  OS  it  is  called,  in  contradtsttnction  to 
'low'  iron,  where  the  siiicon  is  too  high,  and 
the  metal  mottled  or  even  gray,  the  sand  b 
apt  to  bum  on  so  hard  that  the  tumbling  all  day 
does  not  remove  it  all.  Here  the  sand  blast  is 
excellent. 

From  the  sorting  room  the  castings  go  to 
the  annealing  room,  or  rather  to  a  part  of  it  in 
which  the  packing  is  done.  To  anneal  the  hard 
castings  they  are  placed  into  so-called  'saggers* 
or  annealing  pots.  These  are  simple,  box-like 
shells,  with  no  bottom,  about  one  in^  thick, 
and  say  18  inches  x  24  inches  x  15  inches 
"  '      Three  -  - 


high.    Three    or    four 


these    are    placed 


Pig.  4. —  Pkn  of  Annealiag  Oven  for  Matkable  O 


carefully  sorted  out,  the  cracked  or  otherwise 
defective  pieces  thrown  out,  to  go  back  into  the 
furnace  again,  and  the  good  ones  are  sent  into 
the  annealing  room.  Where  castings  are  made 
which  crack  as  soon  as  they  cool,  on  account 
of  their  shape,  such  as  the  hand  wheels  of 
freight  cars  for  braking  purposes,  these  while 
still  red  hot  in  the  sand,  are  taken  into  small 
ovens  where  they  are  kept  quite  hot  for  a  time, 
and  are  then  allowed  to  cool  very  slowly  with 
the  oven.  In  this  way  they  will  not  be  cracked 
before  going  into  the  annealing  ovens.  The 
modem  tendency  is  to  introduce  the  sand  blast 
for  cleaning,  as  this  removes  every  particle  of 
sand  from  the  hard  castings.    Where  the  iron 


over  each  other,  and  on  a  "stool*  hi^ 
enough  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of 
the  gases  under  it.  The  castings  are  care- 
fully placed  in  these  pots  and  packed  vrith 
"scale*  in  such  a  way  that  when  red  hot  die 
whole  may  not  settle  and  warp  the  work.  This 
scale  is  puddle  scale,  hammer  scale,  or  even 
iron  ore.  For  that  matter,  as  the  process  is 
more  of  a  conversion  of  the  combined  carbon 
into  the  'temper  carbon'  the  castings  can  be 
packed  in  lire  clay  or  sand  and  good  results 
obtained.  But  tbe  puddle  scale  seems  to  g)v« 
the  best  results,  wt&  greatest  cheapness.  The 
flakes  that  fall  from  the  annealing  pots,  these 
lasting  only  for  7  to  14  heus,  can  be  cnubed 


:,  Google 


CAST  IROHIPIPBS-^CASTAIGHE 


718 


and  make  the  finesi  kind  erf  packing  material, 
being  pure  oxide-of  iron,  and  no  further  scale 
than  the  initial  lot  need  be  purchased. 

The  pots,  properly  filled,  are  covered  with  a 
•mud"  made  of  the  sand  rolled  off  the  hard 
castings  mixed  with  water.  The  joints  of  the 
pots  are  also  carefully  daubed  up  with  this 
mud ;  the  yots  are  introduced  into  the  oven- 
cither  run  m  by  a  special  carriage  in  the  old 
style  ovens,  or  lowered  in  from  the  crane  in 
the  new  ovens,  the  tops  qf  which  can  be  re- 
moved. The  ovens  are  now  fired  and  within 
36  to  48  hours  the  full  temperature  of  1,350  de- 
^ees  F,  in  the  coldest  portion  of  the  coldest 
pot  is  reached.  This  temperature  is  kept  up 
preferably  60  hours,  and  the  oven  then  allowed 
to  Cflol  slowly  before  the  pots  are  withdrawn. 
The  ovens  are  so  constructed  that  they  are 
heated  inside  and  under  the  whole  bottom,  lo 
that  a  difference  of  not  more  than  100  degrees 
F.  throughout  the  portion  filled  with  work  may 


leather,  such  as  old  shoes,  etc.,  so  that  the 
adhering  scale  is  removed,  and  a  fine  coat  of 
graphite  is  given  them.  They  come  out  shinitle 
black,  and  can  be  shipped  direct,  or  else  coated 
with  asphalt,  as  required.  Sometimes  the  cast- 
ings must  be  straightened  which  should  always 
be  done  cold  either  by  drop  hanuoer  or  hydrau- 
lic press.  Test  plugs  are  usually  cast  on  the 
important  work,  so  that  breaking  these  off  on 
inspection  the  quality  of  the  metal  in  the  par- 
ticular casting  is  revealed  at  a  glance.  Test 
bars  for  physical  test  should  also  be  taken  off 
with  the  first  and  last  portion  of  every  heat,  so 
that  all  work  from  that  heat  can  be  traced  and 
its  quality  known.  The  test  bar  has  the  further 
advantage  of  showing  up  the  condition  of  the 
furnace,  poor  working  on  the  part  of  which  is 
immediately  detected  by  a  white  rim  on  the 

The  production  of  malleable  castings  in  this 
country  runs  up  to  the  enormous  figure  of  1,- 
000,000  tons  annually.  In  Europe  about  75,000 
tons  are  made  in  the  same  time.  Moat  of  the 
Urge  companies  now  make  steel  castings  in  ad- 
dition, as  malleabk  cast  iron,  though  most  ex- 
cellent for  shock,  is  not  strong  enough  to  stand 
under  the  terrific  strains  that  are  now  put  on 
the  structures  where  this  work  is  used.  Thus 
the  100,000-pound  cars  now  require  steel 
couplers,  as  the  malleable  ones  tear  apart,  yet 
the  latter  will  stand  all  the  bumping  that  comes 
along  while  steel  will  not.  The  principal  use 
for  malleable  castings  is  for  railroad  work. 
Next  comes  agricultural  machinery.  After  that 
a  great  variety  of  worl^  such  as  pipe  fittings, 
hardware,  machine  parts,  chain  links,  toots,  etc. 
The  demand  is  constantly  growing,  and  while 
steel  was  supposed  to  be  replacing  the  malleable 
casting,  this  has  not  turned  out  to  be  the  case. 
Rich  ASS  Moldenke, 
Specialist  on  Metallurgy  of  Cast  Iron  and  Ex- 
pert in  Malleable  Castings. 

CAST  IRON  PIPES.    See  Pipes. 

CAST  STEEL,  blister  steel  which  has  been 
broken  up.  fused  in  a  crucible,  cast  into  ingots 
and  rolled.    The  process  of  making  cast  steel 


was  invented  by  Benjamin  Huntsman,  of  Atter- 
cliff.  near  Sheffield  in  1770.  See  Steel  — 
Oper  Hearth  Manufactuhe  ;  Steel  —  The 
Besseuek  Process;  Steel  —  Electrical  Proc- 
esses OF  Manofacturb  ;  Steel  —  Mamufac- 
TURE  OF  Cruqble;  Steel  —  Special  or  Aux>y 
Steels. 

CASTAONO,  kas-tan'yd,  Andro  del, 
Italian  painter:  b.  Castagno,  Tuscany,  about 
the  end  of  the  14th  or  beginning  of  the  tSth 
century;  d.  Florence,  9  Aug.  14S7.  Being  early 
deprived  of  his  parents,  who  were  extremely 
poor,  he  was  employed  by  his  uncle  to  tend 
cattle  in  the  fields,  and  in  that  situation,  by  his 
surprising  and  untutored  essays  in  the  art,  at- 
tracted tne  notice  of  Bemardetto  de  Medici, 
who  placed  him  under  the  tuition  of  one  of  the 
beat  masters  Florence  then  afforded.  He  was 
greatly  influenced  by  the  works  of  Donatetlo. 
At  first  he  painted  only  in  distemper  and  fresco. 
His  drawing  is  bold  but  his  color  is  crude.  On 
the  return  of  Cosimo  de  Medici  he  was  com- 
missioned to  paint  portraits  of  his  opponents. 
These  he  portrayeo  hanging  by  their  feet  on 
the  walls  of  the  Palauo  de'  Medici,  which 
won  him  the  nickname  of  "Andrcino  degli 
Impiccati.*  He  is  the  author  of  a  series  of 
'Hiros'  and  'Sibylles'  at  Legnaia;  where  are 
also  hfe-size  figures  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boc- 
caccio, Niccolo  Cecdanote,  founder  of  the 
Chartreuse  at  Florence;  Farinata  degli  Uberti, 
liberator  of  his  country;  Pippo  Spano,  the 
conquerer  of  the  Turks,  and  Uie  fine  eques- 
trian statue  of  Niccolo  da  Tolentino.  In  the 
monastery  Degli  Angel i  are  several  reli^oiis 
worl^  including  a  crucifixion.  Another  is  at 
the  Santa  Maria  Novello,  Vasarie's  Story 
concerning  the  murder  of  Domenico  Vene- 
ziano  in  order  to  procure  his  art  of  coloring  in 
oils  has  been  discredited,  since  it  has  been 
proved  that  Domenico  survived  him  by  several 
years  and  finished  his  paintings  at  the  Santa 
Maria  before  Andrea  was  called  there.  Con- 
sult the  monograph  by  Waldschmidt  (Berlin 
1900);  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  'History  of 
Painting  in  Italy>  (Vol.  II) ;  Muntz.  E.,  'His- 
toire  de  I'art  pendant  la  Renaissance'   (Vol.  I, 


CASTAIGNB,  Andri,  a^-dri  kas-tin. 
French  artist:  b.  Angouleme  1861.  He  studied 
at  the  Suisse  Academy  and  at  the  ficole  des 
Beaux  Arts  in  Paris;  he  exhibited  at  the  Paris 
Salon  in  1884  and  several  times  in  later  years. 
Among  his  pictures  are  'Dante  and  Beatrice'; 
'The  Deluge'  ;  'Portrait  of  Vicomte  de  E^m- 
pierre' ;  and  'After  the  Combat'  (in  the  Pea- 
body  Gallery  at  Baltimore).  In  1890  he  came 
to  the  United  Slates  and  remained  here  until 
1895.  He  was  director  of  an  art  school  in 
Baltimore  and  in  1891  began  the  illustrating 
work  by  which  he  is  best  loiown  to  (he  Amer- 
ican public  His  first  work  of  this  character 
was  'The  Forty  Niners'  Ball'  in  the  Cenlury 
Magasine  for  May  I89t ;  since  then  he  has  il- 
lustrated for  several  of  the  leading  magazines; 
his  designs  include  the  pictures  of  the  Texas 
cowboys  in  Scribner's  Magazine  and  the 
Worl<rs  Fair  drawings  and  illustrations  for 
'Polly'  in  the  C^tidiry.  He  illustrated  B.  I. 
Wheeler's  'Life  of  Alexander  the  Great' 
(1900).  On  his  return  to  France  he  became 
instructor  in  the  Colarosst  Academy  and 
opened  a  studio  in  Paris.    He  published  'Fata 


d  by  Google 


7B0 

Morgana,'  a  novel  dealing  with  the  art  Ufe  ol 
Paris  and  illustrated  by  himself  (1904),  His 
work  is  characterized  by  spirilea  movement 
and  dramatic  feeling.  Consult  The  Critic  (VoL 
XXIII,  57)  ;  The  Bookbuyer  (XII,  506). 

CASTALIA,  a  celebrated  fountain  in 
Greece,  the  sacred  spring  of  the  Delphic  oracle, 
at  which  all  the  pilgrims  to  Apollo's  shrine 
were  obliged  to  purify  themselves.  It  issues 
from  a  fissure  between  two  peaked  cliSs, 
which  form  the  summit  of  a  semi -circular 
range  of  rocks,  anciently  called  the  Ph^ri- 
ades.  These  immediately  adjoin  Mount  Par- 
nassus, and  rise  to  the  height  of  2,000  feet. 
The  Castalian  spring  was  said  to  imparl  poetic 
inspiration  to  those  who  drank  of  it,  but  it 
was  only  latterly  t^  the  Roman  poets  that  it 
was  invested  with  this  attribute.  It  is  now  called 
the  Fountain  of  Saint  John,  from  a  small 
chapel  dedicated  to  Saint  John  which  stands 

CASTALIDSS,  kas-till-dez,  the  Muses,  so 
called  from  the  fountain  Castalia  (q.v.),  at  the 
foot  of  Parnassus  (q.v.). 


:  b.  Dauphiny  1515;  d.  Basel,  20  Dec.  1563. 
His  original  name  was  Chateillon.  Through 
the  influence  of  Calvin  he  was  made  professor 
of  classical  literature  at  Geneva.  Having 
quarreled  with  the  reformer,  who  caused  his 
banishment  in  1544,  he  repaired  to  Basel,  where 
he  taught  the  Greek  language;   but  as  his  sli- 

Snd  (Gd  not  suffice  to  support  his  numerous 
tnil^,  he  was  compelled  to  employ  part  of 
his  time  in  agricultural  labors.  His  writings 
include  'De  H*reticis,'  a  treatise  opposing  the 
punishment  of  heresy  by  civil  authority,  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  Bible,  the  best  edition  of 
which  is  in  folio,  Basel  1573,  and  a  French 
translation  of  the  Bible,  dedicated  to  Henry  II 
of  France.  Consult  Buisson,  'Life  of  Castalio' 
Paris  1892).  He  defended  the  right  of  free 
discussion  in  a  collection  of  maxims  compiled 
from  various  sources. 

CASTAKEA,  a  trade  name  for  the  Brazil- 
nut  and  a  genuine  name  for  the  cfaestnnt 
(qq.v.). 

CASTANETS,  small  wooden  rattles,  made 
in  the  shape  of  two  bowls  or  cups,  fitted  to- 
gether and  tied  by  a  string,  and  then  fastened 


CASTAI4A — CASTAifOS 


to  the  thumbs.  The  fingers  being  rapidly  strudt 
upon  them,  a  tremulous  sound  is  produced, 
which  marks  exactly  the  measure  of  the  dance. 
Something  similar  to  this  was  the  krolalon  of 
the  ancients,  who  also  made  use  of  small 
cymbals  in  their  dances  and  festivals  in  honor 
of  Bacchus.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  they 
had  their  origin  in  the  East,  and  were  brought 
by  the  Moors  into  Spain.  Here,  too,  they  re- 
ceived their  name  eastaiuelas,  from  beine  com- 
monly made  of  the  wood  of  the  chestnut 
(eoJiaSo)  or  from  Iheir  color.  They  are  still 
in  use  in  Spain,  and  here  and  there  in  the  south 
of  France.  The  chann  of  varied  has  also  pro- 
cured for  them  a  place  in  ballets  and  operas. 

CASTANHBDA,  kas-tan-ya'da,  Feiaao 
Lopes  de,  Portuguese  historian :  b.  Santarem 
about  1500;  d.  Coimbra,  23  March  1559.  His 
father  having  been  appointed  to  an  important 
post  in  India,  he  waj  taken  thither  in  youth, 
and  was  thus  led  to  make  the  careful  and  un- 
remitting researches  embodied  in  the  'Historia 
do  descobrijnento  e  conquista  da  India  pelos 
Ponugezes*  ( 1551~61 ),  a  work  upon  whidi 
Camoens  drew  largely  m  the  course  of  his  epic 
activity.  It  has  been  translated  into  French, 
Spanish,  Italian  and  English. 

CASTASfOS,  kas-ta'nss,  DoD  FnmciKo 
Xavier  de,  Duke  of  Bail^n,  Spanish  military 
officer:  b.  Madrid,  22  April  1756;  d.  Madri<i 
24  Sept.  1S52.  Educated  in  military  science  in 
Germany,  at  the  age  of  16  he  became  captain  of 
Grenadiers,  of  the  Savoy  Regiment,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  reconquest  of 
Minorca.  On  the  invasion  of  the  country  by 
Napoleon,  he  received  the  command  of  a 
division  of  the  Spanish  army,  and  in  July  1809 
compelled  18,000  French,  under  General  Dupont 
de  I'Etang,  to  surrender  at  Bail^n,  but  was  in 
turn  defeated  bv  Lannes  in  November  of  the 
same  year  at  Tudela.  Under  Wellington  he 
served  as  general  of  the  4th  Spanish  eorfii 
d'armie,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Al- 
buera,  Salamanca  and  Vittoria.  In  1815  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Spanish  army 
for  the  invasion  of  France,  which  was  ren- 
dered unnecessary  by  the  victory  at  Waterloo. 
In  1825  he  was  called  to  the  State  Council, 
where  he  became  a  decided  opponent  of  the 
Carlist  party.  He  was  made  Diike  of  Bailte 
in  1833  and  in  1843  became  guardian  of  the 
Queen  Isabella. 


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